DNV-OS-J101 Design Offshore Struct

DNV-OS-J101
DESIGN OF OFFSHORE WIND

TURBINE STRUCTURES
DRAFT FEBRUARY 2004
Offshore Standard DNV-OS-J101: 'Design of Offshore Wind Turbine Structures’, Draft, 20040202
Page 2 – Contents
CONTENTS
1. Introduction
A. General
A1 Introduction
A2 Objectives
A3 Scope and application
A4 Non-DNV codes
B. Normative references
C. Informative references
D. Definitions
D1 Verbal forms
D2 Terms
E. Abbreviations and symbols
E1 Abbreviations
E2 Symbols
F. Support structure concepts
F1 Introduction
F2 Gravity-base structures
F3 Piled jackets
F4 Jacket-monopile hybrids
F5 Harvest jackets
F6 Gravity-pile structures
F7 Tripods
F8 Monopiles
F9 Supported monopiles
F10 Tripods with buckets
F11 Guided towers
F12 Suction buckets
F13 Lattice towers
F14 Low-roll floaters
F15 Tension-leg platforms
2. Design principles
A. Introduction
A1 General
A2 Aim of design
B. General Design Conditions
C. Safety Classes and Target Safety Level
C1 Safety Classes
C2 Target safety
D. Limit states
E. Design by the LRFD method
E1 General
E2 The load and resistance factor design format
E3 Characteristic load effect
E4 Characteristic resistance
E5 Load and resistance factors
F. Design by direct simulation of combined load effect of simultaneous load processes
F1 General
F2 Design format
F3 Characteristic load effect
F4 Characteristic resistance
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G. Design assisted by testing
G1 General
G2 Full-scale testing and observation of performance of existing structures
H. Probability-based design
H1 Definition
H2 General
3. Site conditions
A. General
A1 Definition
B. Wind climate
B1 Wind parameters
B2 Wind data
B3 Wind modelling
C. Wave climate
C1 Wave parameters
C2 Wave data
C3 Wave modelling
D. Current
D1 Current parameters
D2 Current data
D3 Current modelling
E. Water level
E1 Water level parameters
E2 Water level data
E3 Water level modelling
F. Ice
F1 Sea ice
F2 Snow and ice accumulation
F3 Ice modelling
G. Soil
G1 Soil investigations
G2 Soil data
G3 Laboratory test program
G4 Laboratory test requirements
G5 Inferences from laboratory test results
H. Other site conditions
H1 Seismicity
H2 Salinity
H3 Temperature
H4 Marine growth
H5 Traffic
H6 Disposed matters
H7 Pipelines and cables
4. Loads and load effects
A. Introduction
B. Basis for selection of characteristic loads
C. Permanent loads
D. Variable functional loads
D1 General
D2 Variable functional loads on deck areas
D3 Tank pressures
D4 Miscellaneous loads
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E. Environmental loads
E1 General
E2 Wind loads
E3 Definition of characteristic hydrodynamic loads
E4 Wave loads
E5 Ice loads
E6 Water level loads
E7 Earthquake loads
E8 Marine growth
E9 Scour
E10 Ship impacts and ship collisions
E11 Transportation loads and installation loads
F. Combination of environmental loads
F1 General
F2 Environmental states
F3 Environmental contours
F4 Combined load effect due to wind load and wave load
F5 Basic load cases
F6 Transient load cases
F7 Load combination for the fatigue limit state
G. Load effect analysis
G1 General
G2 Global motion analysis
G3 Load effects in structures and foundation soils
H. Accidental loads
I. Deformation loads
I1 General
I2 Temperature loads
I3 Settlements
5. Load and Resistance Factors
A. Load factors
A1 Load factors for the ULS and the ALS
A2 Load factor for the FLS
A3 Load factor for the SLS
B. Resistance factors
B1 Resistance factors for the ULS
B2 Resistance factors for the FLS
B3 Resistance factor for the ALS
6. Materials
A. Selection of steel materials and inspection principles
B. Selection of concrete materials
C. Grout materials and material testing
7. Design of steel structures
A. Ultimate limit states – general
A1 General
A2 Structural analysis
A3 Ductility
A4 Yield check
A5 Buckling check
B. Ultimate limit states – flat-plated structures and stiffened panels
B1 General
B2 Yield check
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B3 Buckling check
B4 Capacity checks according to other codes
C. Ultimate limit states – shell
Structures
D. Ultimate limit states – tubular members, tubular joints and conical transitions
E. Ultimate limit states – non-tubular beams, columns and frames
F. Ultimate limit states – special provisions for plating and stiffeners
F1 Scope
F2 Minimum thickness
F3 Bending of plating
F4 Stiffeners
G. Ultimate limit states – Special provisions for Girders and Girder Systems
G1 Scope
G2 Minimum thickness
G3 Bending and shear
G4 Effective flange
G5 Effective web
G6 Strength requirements for simple girders
G7 Complex girder system
H. Ultimate limit states – slip-resistant bolt connections
I. Ultimate limit states – welded connections
I1 General
I2 Types of welded steel joints
I3 Weld size
J. Serviceability limit states
J1 General
J2 Deflection criteria
J3 Out-of-plane deflections of local plates
K. Fatigue limit states
K1 Fatigue limit state
K2 Characteristic S-N curves
K3 Characteristic stress range distribution
K4 Characteristic cumulative damage
K5 Design fatigue factors
K6 Design requirement
K7 Improved fatigue performance of welded structures by grinding
8. Detailed design of offshore concrete structures
A. General
A1 Introduction
A2 Material
A3 Load effects
A4 Effective flange width
A5 Composite structures
A6 Yield line theory
B. Design principles
B1 General
B2 Limit states
B3 Design load effects
B4 Design material strength
C. Basis for design by calculation
C1 Concrete grades and in-situ strength of concrete
C2 Reinforcement steel
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C3 Concrete stress-strain curves for strength design
C4 Geometrical dimensions in the calculation of sectional capacities
C5 Tension in structural members
C6 Fatigue strength relationships
C7 Deformation-induced loads, prestressing and creep
C8 Effect of water pressure
D. Bending moment and axial force
E. Fatigue limit state
E1 General
E2 S-N curves
E3 Further details
F. Accidental limit state
G. Serviceability limit state
G1 General
G2 Durability
G3 Crack widths
G4 Other serviceability limit states
H. Design by testing
I. Detailing of reinforcement
I1 Positioning
I2 Concrete cover
I3 Minimum area of reinforcement
J. Structural detailing
K. Corrosion control
9. Design and construction of grouted connections
A. Introduction
A1 General
A2 Design principles
B. Ultimate limit states
B1 Connections subjected to axial load and torque
B2 Connections subjected to bending moment and shear loading
C. Fatigue limit states
C1 General
C2 Connections subjected to axial load and torque
C3 Connections subjected to bending moment and shear loading
D. Requirements to verification and material factors
D1 Experimental verification
D2 Material factors for grouted connections
E. Grouting operations
E1 General
E2 Operations prior to grouting
E3 Monitoring
10. Foundation design
A. General
A1 Introduction
A2 Soil investigations
A3 Characteristic properties of soil
A4 Effects of cyclic loading
B. Stability of sea bottom
B1 Slope stability
B2 Hydraulic stability
B3 Scour and scour prevention
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C. Pile foundations
C1 General
C2 Design criteria for monopile foundations
C3 Design criteria for jacket pile foundations
C4 Design of piles subject to scour
D. Gravity base foundations
D1 General
D2 Stability of foundations
D3 Settlements and displacements
D4 Soil reactions on foundation structure
D5 Soil modelling for dynamic analysis
D6 Filling of voids
11. Inspections during Manufacturing
A. General
A1 Scope
B. Records and documentation
B1 General
B2 Reporting
C. Manufacturing survey
C1 General
C2 Contractor’s quality system
C3 Structural survey
C4 Non-destructive testing (NDT)
C5 Corrosion protection
C6 Coating
C7 Survey of impressed current system
C8 Survey of sacrificial anodes
D. Special requirements
12. Corrosion protection
A. General
B. Acceptable corrosion protection
B1 Atmospheric zone
B2 Splash zone
B3 Submerged zone
C. Cathodic protection
D. Coating
13. Transport and Installation
A. Marine Operations
A1 Warranty surveys
A2 Planning of operations
A3 Design loads
A4 Structural design
A5 Load transfer operations
A6 Towing
A7 Offshore installation
A8 Lifting
A9 Subsea operations
14. In-service Inspection, Maintenance and Monitoring
A. General
B. Periodical inspections
B1 General
B2 Preparation for periodical inspections
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B3 Interval between inspections
B4 Inspection results
B5 Reporting
C. Periodical inspection of wind turbines
C1 Interval between inspections
C2 Scope for inspection
D. Periodical inspection of structural and electrical systems above water
D1 Interval between inspections
D2 Scope for inspection
E. Periodical inspection of structures below water
E1 Interval between inspections
E2 Scope for inspection
F. Periodical inspection of sea cables
F1 Interval between inspections
F2 Scope for inspection
G. Deviations
Appendix A: Stress concentration factors for tubular joints
Appendix B: Local joint flexibilities for tubular joints
Appendix C: Stress concentration factors for girth welds
Appendix D: Stress extrapolation for welds
Appendix E: Ice loads for conical structures
Appendix F: Pile resistance and load-displacement relationships
Appendix G: Bearing capacity formulas for gravity base foundations
Appendix H: Cross section types
Appendix I: Extreme wind speed events
Appendix J: Scour and scour protection at a vertical pile
Appendix K: Calculations by finite element method
Appendix L: Project certification of offshore wind farms
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SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
A. General
A 100 General
101 An offshore wind farm is typically planned for a 20-year design lifetime. In order to sustain the harsh offshore
environment, adequate inspections and maintenance have to be carried out. This applies to the entire wind farm including
substation and power cables.
102 This offshore standard provides principles, technical requirements and guidance for design, construction and in-service
inspection of offshore wind-turbine structures.
103 DNV-OS-J101 is the DNV standard for design of offshore wind-turbine structures. The standard covers design,
construction, installation and inspection of offshore wind turbine structures. The design principles and overall requirements are
defined in this standard.
104 The standard shall be used for design of support structures and foundations for offshore wind turbines. The standard can
be used as a stand-alone document.
105 The standard does not cover design of type-approved wind-turbine components such as nacelle, rotor, generator and gear
box. For structural design of wind turbine blades, the DNV-OS-J102 applies. For structural design of wind turbine components,
which are subject to type approval and for which no DNV standard exists, the IEC61400-1 standard applies.
106 The tower, which usually extends from somewhere above the water level to just below the nacelle, is considered a part of
the support structure. The structural design of the tower is therefore covered by this standard, regardless of whether a type
approval of the tower exists.
Guidance Note:
It is important to make sure not to change the weight and stiffness distributions over the height of the tower relative to those assumed for the
type approval, if such a change would cause the natural frequencies of the tower to become unfavourable for the rotor and the nacelle.
End-of-guidance-note
107 The standard has been written for general world-wide application. National and governmental regulations may include
requirements in excess of the provisions given by this standard depending on the size, type, location and intended service of the
wind-turbine structure.
108 DNV-OS-J101 is applied as part of the basis for carrying out a DNV project certification of an offshore wind farm.
A 200 Objectives
201 The standard specifies general principles and guidelines for the structural design of offshore wind-turbine structures.
202 The objectives of this standard are to:
- provide an internationally acceptable level of safety by defining minimum requirements for structures and structural
components (in combination with referenced standards, recommended practices, guidelines, etc.)
- serve as a contractual reference document between suppliers and purchasers related to design, construction, installation and
in-service inspection
- serve as a guideline for designers, suppliers, purchasers and regulators
- specify procedures and requirements for offshore structures subject to DNV certification and classification
- serve as a basis for verification of offshore wind turbine structures for which DNV is contracted to perform the verification
A 300 Scope and application

301 The standard is applicable to all types of support structures and foundations for offshore wind turbines.
302 The standard is applicable to the design of complete structures, including substructures and foundations, but excluding
type-approved wind-turbine components such as nacelles and rotors.
303 This standard gives requirements for the following:
- design principles
- selection of material and extent of inspection
- design loads
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- load effect analyses
- load combinations
- structural design
- foundation design
- corrosion protection
A 400 Non-DNV codes

401 In case of conflict between the requirements of this standard and a reference document other than DNV documents, the
requirements of this standard shall prevail.
402 The provision for using non-DNV codes or standards is that the same safety level as the one resulting for designs
according to this standard is obtained.
403 Where reference in this standard is made to codes other than DNV documents, the valid revision of these codes shall be
taken as the revision which was current at the date of issue of this standard, unless otherwise noted.
404 When code checks are performed according to other codes than DNV codes, the resistance and material factors as given
in the respective codes shall be used.
A 500 Project Certification of Offshore Wind Farms
501 The aim of a project certification of an offshore wind farm is to assure an acceptable quality of the wind farm project. This
is achieved by measuring the wind farm project against agreed standards and project specifications and by verifying that the
project complies with these standards and specifications. The project certification is carried out by a third-party certification
body. The successful project certification results in the issue of a project certificate, which allows owners, investors, insurance
companies, authorities and other interested parties to place confidence in the project and trust that the project meets the agreed
standards and specifications.
502 The DNV project certification scheme consists of six phases, each of which refers to a particular period of time during the
development, installation and operation of the wind farm project. The six phases are listed in chronological order in Table A1
together with the respective activities that they cover.
Table A1 Phases of project certification and associated activities
Phase Description of Activities
No. certification phase
Site Wind turbine Support Installation Planning and Evaluation of
conditions design and structure and of wind evaluation of measurement
manufacture foundation turbines, operations and
design and support and monitoring
manufacture structures maintenance program
and
foundations
I Verification of X X X X X
design basis
II Verification of X X X
preliminary design
III Verification of final X X X X X
design
IV Manufacturing X X
surveys
V Installation X
VI In service X X X
503 The three certification phases I through III cover the steps which are necessary to achieve the final design verification.
This verification includes a site-specific approval of the integrated structural system consisting of wind turbine, support structure
and foundation and is conducted according to DNV-OS-J101.
The three certification phases IV through VI involve all follow-up verification and on-site inspections during the implementation
of the project and the following in-service activities.
504 Details of the six certification phases in the DNV certification scheme are given in Appendix L.
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B. Normative references
B 100 General
101 The standards in Table B1 include provisions, which through reference in this text constitute provisions of this standard.
Table B1 DNV Offshore Service Specifications, Offshore

Standards and Rules
Reference Title
DNV-OS-A101 Safety Principles and Arrangement
DNV-OS-B101 Metallic Materials
DNV-OS-C101 Design of Offshore Steel Structures,

General (LRFD Method)
DNV-OS-C401 Fabrication and Testing of Offshore
Structures
DNV-OS-C502 Offshore Concrete Structures
DNV-OS-J102 Design and Fabrication of Wind Turbine
Blades
Rules for Planning and Execution of
Marine Operations
DNV-OSS-xxx Project Certification of Offshore Wind

Farms
C. Informative References
C 100 General
101 The documents in Tables C1, C2 and C3 include acceptable methods for fulfilling the requirements in the standards. See
also current DNV List of Publications. Other recognised codes or standards may be applied provided it is shown that they meet
or exceed the level of safety of the actual standards.
Table C1 DNV Offshore Standards for structural design

Reference Title
Table C2 DNV Recommended Practices and Classification

Notes
Reference Title
DNV/Risø Guidelines for Design of Wind Turbines
DNV-RP-B401 Cathodic Protection Design
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DNV-RP-C202 Buckling Strength of Shells
DNV-RP-C203 Fatigue Strength Analysis of Offshore

Steel Structures
Classification Buckling Strength Analysis
Note 30.1
Classification Foundations
Note 30.4
Classification Environmental Conditions and
Note 30.5 Environmental Loads
Classification Structural Reliability Analysis of Marine
Note 30.6 Structures
Classification Fatigue Assessments of Ship Structures
Note 30.7
Table C3 Other references

Reference Title
AISC LRFD Manual of Steel Construction
API RP 2A Planning, Designing, and Constructing
LRFD Fixed Offshore Platforms - Load and
Resistance Factor Design
BS 7910 Guide on methods for assessing the
acceptability of flaws in fusion welded
structures
BSH 7004 Standard Baugrunderkundung.
Mindestenanforderungen für Gründungen
von Offshore-Windenergieanlagen.
DIN 4020 Geotechnische Untersuchungen für
bautechnische Zwecke
DIN 4021 Baugrund; Aufschluss durch Schürfe und
Bohrungen sowie Entnahme von Proben
prEN50308 Wind Turbines – Labour Safety
Eurocode 3 Design of Steel Structures
IEC61400-1 Wind Turbine Generator Systems – Part 1:
Safety Requirements
ISO 13819-1 Petroleum and natural gas industries –
Offshore structures – Part 1: General
requirements
ISO 14688 Geotechnical investigations and testing –
identification and classification of soil –
Part 1: Identification and description.
NORSOK N-003 Actions and Action Effects
NORSOK N-004 Design of Steel Structures
NORSOK G-CR-001 Marine Soil Investigations
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D. Definitions
D 100 Verbal forms
101 Shall: Indicates a mandatory requirement to be followed for fulfilment or compliance with the present standard.
Deviations are not permitted unless formally and rigorously justified, and accepted by all relevant contracting parties.
102 Should: Indicates a recommendation that a certain course of action is preferred or is particularly suitable. Alternative
courses of action are allowable under the standard where agreed between contracting parties, but shall be justified and
documented.
103 May: Indicates a permission, or an option, which is permitted as part of conformance with the standard.
104 Can: Requirements with can are conditional and indicate a possibility to the user of the standard.
105 Agreement, or by agreement: Unless otherwise indicated, agreed in writing between contractor and purchaser.
D 200 Terms
201 Accidental Limit States (ALS): Ensure that the structure resists accidental loads and maintain integrity and performance of
the structure due to local damage or flooding.
202 Atmospheric zone: The external region exposed to atmospheric conditions.
203 Cathodic protection: A technique to prevent corrosion of a steel surface by making the surface to be the cathode of an
electrochemical cell.
204 Characteristic load: The reference value of a load to be used in the determination of the design load. The characteristic
load is normally based upon a defined quantile in the upper tail of the distribution function for load.
205 Characteristic load effect: The reference value of a load effect to be used in the determination of the design load effect.
The characteristic load effect is normally based upon a defined quantile in the upper tail of the distribution function for load
effect.
206 Characteristic resistance: The reference value of a structural strength to be used in the determination of the design
resistance. The characteristic resistance is normally based upon a 5 % quantile in the lower tail of the distribution function for
resistance.
207 Characteristic material strength: The nominal value of a material strength to be used in the determination of the design
strength. The characteristic material strength is normally based upon a 5 % quantile in the lower tail of the distribution function
for material strength.
208 Characteristic value: A representative value of a load variable or a resistance variable. For a load variable, it is a high but
measurable value with a prescribed probability of not being unfavourably exceeded during some reference period. For a
resistance variable it is a low but measurable value with a prescribed probability of being favourably exceeded.
209 Classification Note: The Classification Notes cover proven technology and solutions which are found to represent good
practice by DNV, and which represent one alternative for satisfying the requirements stipulated in the DNV Rules or other codes
and standards cited by DNV. The classification notes will in the same manner be applicable for fulfilling the requirements in the
DNV offshore standards.
210 Coating: Metallic, inorganic or organic material applied to steel surfaces for prevention of corrosion.
211 Co-directional: Wind and waves acting in the same direction.
212 Contractor: A party contractually appointed by the purchaser to fulfil all, or any of, the activities associated with
fabrication and testing.
213 Corrosion allowance: Extra steel thickness that may rust away during design life time.
214 Current: A flow of water past a fixed point and usually represented by a velocity and a direction.
215 Design brief: An agreed document where owners’ requirements in excess of this standard should be given.
216 Design temperature: The lowest daily mean temperature that the structure may be exposed to during installation and
operation.
217 Design value: The value to be used in the deterministic design procedure, i.e. characteristic value modified by the
resistance factor or the load factor, whichever is applicable.
218 Driving voltage: The difference between closed circuit anode potential and protection potential.
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219 Environmental state: Short term condition of typically 10 minutes, 1 hour or 3 hours duration during which the intensities
of environmental processes such as wave and wind processes can be assumed to be constant, i.e. the processes themselves are
stationary.
220 Expected loads and response history: Expected load and response history for a specified time period, taking into account
the number of load cycles and the resulting load levels and response for each cycle.
221 Expected value: The most probable value of a load during a specified time period.
222 Fatigue: Degradation of the material caused by cyclic loading.
223 Fatigue critical: Structure with predicted fatigue life near the design fatigue life.
224 Fatigue Limit States (FLS): Related to the possibility of failure due to the cumulative damage effect of cyclic loading.
225 Foundation: The foundation of a support structure for a wind turbine is in this document reckoned as a structural or
geotechnical component, or both, extending from the seabed downwards.
226 Guidance note: Information in the standards in order to increase the understanding of the requirements.
227 Highest astronomical tide: Level of high tide when all harmonic components causing the tide are in phase.
228 Hindcast: A method using registered meteorological data to reproduce environmental parameters. Mostly used for
reproduction of wave data and wave parameters.
229 Hub height: Height of centre of swept area of wind turbine rotor, measured from mean sea level.
230 Independent organisations: Accredited or nationally approved certification bodies.
231 Inspection: Activities such as measuring, examination, testing, gauging one or more characteristics of an object or service
and comparing the results with specified requirements to determine conformity.
232 Limit State: A state beyond which the structure no longer satisfies the requirements. The following categories of limit
states are of relevance for structures: ULS = ultimate limit state; FLS = fatigue limit state; ALS = accidental limit state; SLS =
serviceability limit state.
233 Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD): Method for design where uncertainties in loads are represented with a load
factor and uncertainties in resistance are represented with a material factor.
234 Load effect: Effect of a single design load or combination of loads on the equipment or system, such as stress, strain,
deformation, displacement, motion, etc.
235 Lowest astronomical tide (LAT): Level of low tide when all harmonic components causing the tide are in phase.
236 Lowest mean daily temperature: The lowest value on the annual mean daily temperature curve for the area in question.
For seasonally restricted service the lowest value within the time of operation applies.
237 Lowest waterline: Typical light ballast waterline for ships, transit waterline or inspection waterline for other types of
units.
238 Mean: Statistical mean over observation period.
239 Mean water level (MWL): Mean still water level, defined as mean level between highest astronomical tide and lowest
astronomical tide.
240 Mean zero-upcrossing period: Average period between two consecutive zero-upcrossings of ocean waves in a sea state.
241 Metocean: Abbreviation of meteorological and oceanographic.
242 Non-destructive testing (NDT): Structural tests and inspection of welds by visual inspection, radiographic testing,
ultrasonic testing, magnetic particle testing, penetrant testing and other non-destructive methods for revealing defects and
irregularities.
243 Object Standard: The standards listed in Table C1.
244 Offshore Standard: The DNV offshore standards are documents which presents the principles and technical requirements
for design of offshore structures. The standards are offered as DNV’s interpretation of engineering practice for general use by the
offshore industry for achieving safe structures.
245 Offshore wind turbine structure: A structural system consisting of a support structure for an offshore wind turbine and a
foundation for the support structure.
246 Omni-directional: Wind or waves acting in all directions.
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247 Operating conditions: Conditions wherein a unit is on location for purposes of drilling or other similar operations, and
combined environmental and operational loadings are within the appropriate design limits established for such operations. The
unit may be either afloat or supported on the sea bed, as applicable.
248 Pile head: The position along a foundation pile in level with the seabed. This definition applies regardless of whether the
pile extends above the seabed.
249 Pile length: Length along a pile from pile head to pile tip.
250 Pile penetration: Vertical distance from the seabed to the pile tip.
251 Potential: The voltage between a submerged metal surface and a reference electrode.
252 Purchaser: The owner or another party acting on his behalf, who is responsible for procuring materials, components or
services intended for the design, construction or modification of a structure.
253 Qualified welding procedure specification (WPS): A welding procedure specification, which has been qualified by
conforming to one or more qualified WPQRs.
254 Rated power: Quantity of power assigned, generally by a manufacturer, for a specified operating condition of a
component, device or equipment. For a wind turbine, the rated power is the maximum continuous electrical power output which
a wind turbine is designed to achieve under normal operating conditions.
255 Rated wind speed: Minimum wind speed at hub height at which a wind turbine’s rated power is achieved in the case of a
steady wind without turbulence.
256 Recommended Practice (RP): The recommended practice publications cover proven technology and solutions which
have been found by DNV to represent good practice, and which represent one alternative for satisfy the requirements stipulated
in the DNV offshore standards or other codes and standards cited by DNV.
257 Redundancy: The ability of a component or system to maintain or restore its function when a failure of a member or
connection has occurred. Redundancy can be achieved for instance by strengthening or introducing alternative load paths.
258 Reference electrode: Electrode with stable open-circuit potential used as reference for potential measurements.
259 Refraction: Process by which wave energy is redistributed as a result of changes in the wave propagation velocity caused
by variations in the water depth.
260 Reliability: The ability of a component or a system to perform its required function without failure during a specified time
interval.
261 Residual currents: All other components of a current than tidal current.
262 Risk: The qualitative or quantitative likelihood of an accidental or unplanned event occurring considered in conjunction
with the potential consequences of such a failure. In quantitative terms, risk is the quantified probability of a defined failure
mode times its quantified consequence.
263 Serviceability Limit States (SLS): Imply deformations in excess of tolerance without exceeding the load-carrying
capacity, i.e., they correspond to tolerance criteria applicable to normal use or durability.
264 Shakedown: A linear elastic structural behaviour is established after yielding of the material has occurred.
265 Slamming: Impact load on an approximately horizontal member from a rising water surface as a wave passes. The
direction of the impact load is mainly vertical.
266 Specified Minimum Yield Strength (SMYS): The minimum yield strength prescribed by the specification or standard under
which the material is purchased.
267 Specified value: Minimum or maximum value during the period considered. This value may take into account
operational requirements, limitations and measures taken such that the required safety level is obtained.
268 Splash zone: The external region of the unit which is most frequently exposed to wave action.
269 Submerged zone: The part of the installation which is below the splash zone, including buried parts.
270 Support structure: The support structure for an offshore wind turbine is in this document reckoned as the structure
between the seabed and the nacelle of the wind turbine that the structure supports. The foundation of the support structure,
reckoned from the seabed downwards, is not included in this definition, but is treated as a separate component.
271 Survival condition: A condition during which a unit may be subjected to the most severe environmental loadings for
which the unit is designed. Drilling or similar operations may have been discontinued due to the severity of the environmental
loadings. The unit may be either afloat or supported on the sea bed, as applicable.
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272 Target safety level: A nominal acceptable probability of structural failure.
273 Temporary conditions: An operational condition that may be a design condition, for example the mating, transit or
installation phases.
274 Tensile strength: Minimum stress level where strain hardening is at maximum or at rupture.
275 Tidal range: Distance between highest and lowest astronomical tide.
276 Tide: Regular and predictable movements of the sea generated by astronomical forces.
277 Tower: Structural component, which forms a part of the support structure for a wind turbine, usually extending from
somewhere above the still water level to just below the nacelle of the wind turbine.
278 Transit conditions: All unit movements from one geographical location to another.
279 Ultimate Limit States (ULS): Correspond to the limit of the load-carrying capacity, i.e., to the maximum load-carrying
resistance.
280 Unidirectional: Wind and/or waves acting in one single direction.
281 Utilisation factor: The fraction of anode material that can be utilised for design purposes.
282 Verification: Examination to confirm that an activity, a product or a service is in accordance with specified requirements.
283 Welding procedure: A specified course of action to be followed in making a weld, including reference to materials,
welding consumables, preparation, preheating (if necessary), method and control of welding and post-weld heat treatment (if
relevant), and necessary equipment to be used.
284 Welding procedure specification: A document providing in detail the required variables of the welding procedure to
ensure repeatability.
285 Welding procedure test: The making and testing of a standardised test piece, as indicated in the WPS, in order to qualify
a welding procedure specification.
E. Abbreviations and Symbols

E 100 Abbreviations
101
Abbreviations as shown in Table E1 are used in this standard.
Table E1 Abbreviations
Abbreviation In full
AISC American Institute of Steel Construction
ALS accidental limit state
API American Petroleum Institute
BS British Standard (issued by British Standard
Institute)
CN classification note
CTOD crack tip opening displacement
DDF deep draught floaters
DFF design fatigue factor
DNV Det Norske Veritas
EHS extra high strength
FLS fatigue limit state
HAT highest astronomical tide
HISC hydrogen induced stress cracking
HS high strength
ISO international organisation of standardisation
LAT lowest astronomic tide
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LRFD load and resistance factor design
MWL mean water level
NACE National Association of Corrosion Engineers
NDT non-destructive testing
NS normal strength
RP recommended practice
RHS rectangular hollow section
SCE saturated calomel electrode
SCF stress concentration factor
SLS serviceability limit state
SMYS specified minimum yield stress
SRB sulphate reducing bacteria
TLP tension leg platform
ULS ultimate limit state
WSD working stress design
E 200 Symbols
201
Latin characters
α0 connection area
b full breadth of plate flange
be effective plate flange width
c detail shape factor
d bolt diameter
f load distribution factor
fr strength ratio
fu nominal lowest ultimate tensile strength
fub ultimate tensile strength of bolt
fw strength ratio
fy specified minimum yield stress
g acceleration due to gravity
h height
hD dynamic pressure head due to flow through pipes
hpc vertical distance from the load point to the position of
max filling height
hs vertical distance from the load point to the top of the
tank
ka correction factor for aspect ratio of plate field
km bending moment factor
kpp fixation parameter for plate
kps fixation parameter for stiffeners
kr correction factor for curvature perpendicular to the
stiffeners
ks hole clearance factor
kt shear force factor
l stiffener span
lo distance between points of zero bending moments
n number
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p pressure
pd design pressure
p0 valve opening pressure
r root face
rc radius of curvature
s distance between stiffeners
t0 net thickness of plate
tk corrosion addition
tw throat thickness
vr rated wind speed
As net area in the threaded part of the bolt
C weld factor
Ce factor for effective plate flange
D deformation load
E environmental load
Fd design load
Fk characteristic load
Fpd design preloading force in bolt
G permanent load
Hmax maximum wave height
HS significant wave height
M moment
Mp plastic moment resistance
My elastic moment resistance
Np number of supported stiffeners on the girder span
Ns number of stiffeners between considered section and
nearest support
P load
Ppd average design point load from stiffeners
Q variable functional load
R radius
Rd design resistance
Rk characteristic resistance
S girder span as if simply supported
Sd design load effect
Sk characteristic load effect
SZl lower limit of the splash zone
SZu upper limit of the splash zone
U10 10-minute mean wind speed
W steel with improved weldability
Z steel grade with proven through thickness properties
with respect to lamellar tearing.
202
Greek characters
α angle between the stiffener web plane and the plane
perpendicular to the plating
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βw correlation factor
δ deflection
φ resistance factor
γf load factor
γM material factor
γMw material factor for welds
λ reduced slenderness
θ rotation angle
µ friction coefficient
ρ density
σd design stress
σfw characteristic yield stress of weld deposit
σjd equivalent design stress for global in-plane membrane
stress
σpd1 design bending stress
σpd2 design bending stress
τd design shear stress.
203
Subscripts
c characteristic value
d design value
k characteristic value
p plastic
y yield.
F. Support Structure Concepts
F 100 Introduction
101 Bottom-mounted support structures for large offshore wind farm developments fall into a number of generic types which
can be categorised by their nature and configuration, their method of installation, their structural configuration and the selection
of their construction materials. The options for offshore support structures basically consist of:
- piled structures
- gravity-based structures
- skirt and bucket structures
- moored floating structures
The structural configuration of support structures can be categorised into five basic types:
- monopile structures
- tripod structures
- lattice structures
- gravity structures
- floating structures
102 Monopile structures provide the benefit of simplicity in fabrication and installation. However, fully developed lattice
structures offer the the most economical structural solution in terms of steel-weight-to-capacity ratio. In the North Sea, there are
several offshore vessels suitable for installing large monotowers by drilling. Likewise, there are both crane and hammer capacity
available in the North Sea for the case where monopiles have to be installed by driving, although some of the crane barges are
limited to water depth greater than 25 metres.
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103 Tripod and lattice structures are usually piled. Piled foundations by far forms the most common form of offshore
foundation. Piled offshore structures have been installed since the late 1940’es and have been installed in water depth in excess
of 150 metres. The standard method of offshore and near-shore marine installation of piled structures is to lift or float the
structure into position and then drive the piles into the seabed using either steam or hydraulic powered hammers. The handling of
piles and hammers generally requires the use of a crane with sufficient capacity, ideally a floating crane vessel (revolving or
shear leg crane). However, other types of offshore installation units are sometimes used such as drilling jack-ups, specially
constructed installation vessels or flat top barges mounted with a land based crawler crane.
104 Gravity foundations, unlike piled foundations, are designed with the objective of avoiding tensile loads (lifting) between
the bottom of the support structure and the seabed. This is achieved by providing sufficient dead loads such that the structure
maintains its stability in all environmental conditions solely by means of its own gravity. Gravity structures are usually
competitive when the environmental loads are relatively modest and the “natural” dead load is significant or when additional
ballast can relatively easily be provided at a modest cost. The ballast can be pumped-in sand, concrete, rock or iron ore. The
additional ballast can partly be installed in the fabrication yard and partly at the final position; all depending on the capacity of
the construction yard, the available draft during sea transport and the availability of ballast materials. The gravity based structure
is especially suited where the installation of the support structure cannot be performed by a heavy lift vessel or other special
offshore installation vessels, either because of non-availability or prohibitive costs of mobilising the vessels to the site.
105 Floating structures can by their very nature be floating directly in a fully commissioned condition from the fabrication and
out-fitting yard to the site. Floating structures are especially competitive at large water depths where the depth makes the
conventional bottom-supported structures non-competitive.
F 200 Gravity-based structures
201 The gravity type support structure, Figure 1.1, is a simple concrete base structure with small steel skirts. The ballast
required to obtained sufficient gravity consists of sand, iron ore or rock that is filled into the base of the support structure. The
base width can be adjusted to suit the actual soil conditions.
202 The proposed design includes a central steel or concrete shaft for transition to the wind turbine tower. The structure
requires a flat base and will for all locations require some form for scour protection, the extent of which is to be determined
during the detailed design.
203 This type of structure is well suited for sites with water depth ranging from 0 to 25 metres.
F 300 Piled jackets
301 The piled jacked structure, Figure 1.2, is a standard three-legged jacket structure made of cylindrical steel tubes with leg
piles.
302 As an alternative to piling, the jacket could be built with a concrete gravity base. The base width and pile penetration
depth can be adjusted to suit the actual environmental and soil conditions. The shown layout includes a central steel shaft for
transition to the wind turbine tower.
303 This type of structure is well suited for sites with large water depth ranging from 25 to 50 metres.
F 400 Jacket-monopile hybrids
401 The jacket-monopile hybrid structure, Figure 1.3, is a three-legged jacked structure in the lower section, connected to a
monopile in the upper part of the water column, all made of cylindrical steel tubes. The base width and the pile penetration depth
can be adjusted to suit the actual soil conditions.
F 500 Harvest jackets
501 The harvest jacked support structure, Figure 1.4, is a three-legged jacket structure with a wide base and less wide and
uniform top structure all made of cylindrical steel tubes. The base width and the pile penetration depth can be adjusted to suit the
actual soil conditions. The shown layout includes a central steel shaft for transition to the wind turbine tower.
F 600 Gravity-pile structures
601 The gravity-pile support structure, Figure 1.5, is very much like the gravity support structure. The structure can be filled
with iron ore or rock as required. The base width can be adjusted to suit the actual soil conditions.
602 The shown layout includes a central steel or concrete shaft for transition to the wind turbine tower. The structure is
designed such that the variable loads are shared between gravity and pile actions.
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F 700 Tripods
701 The tripod, Figure 1.6, is a standard three-leg structure made of cylindrical steel tubes. The central steel shaft of the tripod
makes the transition to the wind turbine tower.
702 The tripod can have either vertical or inclined pile sleeves. Inclined pile sleeves are used when the structure is to be
installed with a jack-up drilling rig. The base width and pile penetration depth can be adjusted to suit the actual environmental
and soil conditions.
F 800 Monopiles
801 The monopile support structure, Figure 1.7, is a simple design with a transitional section connecting the tower to the
monopile. The monopile continues down into the soil. The structure is made of cylindrical steel tubes.
802 The pile penetration depth can be adjusted to suit the actual environmental and soil conditions. The monopile is
advantageous in areas with movable seabed and scour. A possible disadvantage is a too high flexibility deep waters. The limiting
condition of this type of support structure is the overall deflection and vibration.
F 900 Supported monopiles
901 The supported monopile structure, Figure 1.8, is a standard monopile supported by two beams piled into the soil at a
distance from the monopile. The structure is made of cylindrical steel tubes.
902 The pile penetration of the monopile can be adjusted to suit the actual environmental and soil conditions.
F 1000 Tripods with buckets
1001 The tripod with buckets, Figure 1.9, is a tripod structure equipped with suction bucket anchors instead of piles as for the
conventional tripod structure. The wind turbine support structure can be transported afloat to the site. During installation, each
bucket can be emptied in a controlled manner, thus avoiding the use of heavy lift equipment. Further, the use of the suction
buckets eliminates the need for pile driving of pile as for the conventional tripod support structure.
1002 The support structure shall be installed at locations, which allow for the suction anchor to penetrate the prevalent soils
(sand or clay) and which are not prone to significant scour.
F 1100 Guided towers
1101 The guided tower support structure, Figure 1.10, is a monotower connected to a double hinge near the seabed and allowed
to move freely. The tower is supported in four directions by guide wires extending from the tower (above water level) to anchors
in the seabed.
1102 The support structure installation requires use of small to relatively large offshore vessels. Anchors including mud mats
are installed. Guide wires are installed and secured to floaters. Seabed support is installed and the tower is landed. Guide wires
are connected to tensioning system. Scour protection is installed as required.
F 1200 Suction buckets
1201 The suction bucket steel structure, Figure 1.11, consists of a centre column connected to a steel bucket through
flange-reinforced shear panels, which distribute the loads from the centre column to the edge of the bucket. The wind turbine
tower is connected to the centre tubular above mean sea level. The steel bucket consists of vertical steel skirts extending down
from a horizontal base resting on the soil surface.
1202 The bucket is installed by means of suction and will in the permanent case behave as a gravity foundation, relying on the
weight of the soil encompassed by the steel bucket with a skirt length of approximately the same dimension as the width of the
bucket.
1203 The stability is ensured because there is not enough time for the bucket to be pulled from the bottom during a wave period.
When the bucket is pulled from the soil during the passing of a wave, a cavity will tend to develop between the soil surface and
the top of the bucket at the heel. However, the development of such a cavity depends on water to flow in and fill up the cavity and
thereby allow the bucket to be pulled up, but the typical wave periods are too short to allow this to happen. The concept allows
for a simple decommissioning procedure.
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F 1300 Lattice towers
1301 The three-legged Lattice Tower, Figure 1.12, consists of three corner piles interconnected with bracings. At the seabed
pile sleeves are mounted to the corner piles. The soil piles are driven inside the pile sleeves to the desired depth to gain adequate
stability of the structure.
F 1400 Low-roll floaters
1401 The low-roll floater, Figure 1.13, is basically a floater kept in position by mooring chains and anchors. In addition to
keeping the floater in place, the chains have the advantage that they contribute to dampen the motions of the floater. At the
bottom of the hull of the floater, a stabiliser is placed to further reduce roll.
1402 The installation is simple since the structure can be towed to the site and then be connected by the chains to the anchors.
The anchors can be fluke anchors, drag-in plate anchors and other plate anchors, suction anchors or pile anchors, depending on
the actual seabed conditions. When the anchors have been installed, the chains can be installed and tightened, and hook-up cables
can be installed.
1403 This structure is a feasible solution in large water depths.
F 1500 Tension-leg platforms
1501 The tension leg support platform, Figure 1.14, is a floater submerged by means of tensioned vertical anchor legs. The base
structure helps dampen the motions of the structural system. The installation is simple since the structure can be towed to the site
and then be connected to the anchors. When anchors such as anchor piles have been installed and steel legs have been put in
place, the hook-up cable can be installed. The platform is subsequently lowered by use of ballast tanks and/or tension systems.
1502 The entire structure can be disconnected from the tension legs and floated to shore in case of major maintenance or repair
of the wind turbine.
1503 This structure is a feasible solution in large water depths.
Figure 1.1: Gravity-based structure Figure 1.2: Piled jacket
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Figure 1.3: Jacket-monopile Hybrid Figure 1.4: Harvest jacket
Figure 1.5: Gravity-pile structure Figure 1.6: Tripod
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Figure 1.7: Monopile Figure 1.8: Supported monopile
Figure 1.9: Bucket suction pile Figure 1.10: Guided tower
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Figure 1.11: Suction bucket Figure 1.12: Lattice tower
Figure 1.13: Floater Figure 1.14: Tension leg platform

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SECTION 2
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
A. Introduction
A 100 General
101 This section describes design principles and design methods for structural design, including:
• load and resistance factor design method
• design by direct simulation of combined load effect of simultaneous load processes
• design assisted by testing
• probability-based design
102 General design considerations regardless of design method are also given in B101.
103 This standard is based on the load and resistance factor design method, referred to as the LRFD method, which is based on
separate assessment of the load effect in the structure due to each applied load process. The standard allows for design by direct
simulation of the combined load effect of simultaneously applied load processes, which is useful in cases where it is not feasible
to carry out separate assessments of the different individual process-specific load effects.
104 As an alternative or as a supplement to analytical methods, determination of load effects or resistance may in some cases
be based either on testing or on observation of structural performance of models or full-scale structures.
105 Structural reliability analysis methods for direct probability-based design are mainly considered as applicable to special
case design problems, to calibrate the load and resistance factors to be used in the LRFD method, and to design for conditions
where limited experience exists.
A 200 Aim of the design
201 Structures and structural elements shall be designed to:
• sustain loads liable to occur during all temporary, operating and damaged conditions if required
• ensure acceptable safety of structure during the design life of the structure
• maintain acceptable safety for personnel and environment
• have adequate durability against deterioration during the design life of the structure
B. General Design Conditions

B 100 General
101 The design of a structural system, its components and details shall, as far as possible, satisfy the following requirements:
• resistance against relevant mechanical, physical and chemical deterioration is achieved
• fabrication and construction comply with relevant, recognised techniques and practice
• inspection, maintenance and repair are possible
102 Structures and structural components shall possess ductile resistance unless the specified purpose requires otherwise.
103 Structural connections are, in general, to be designed with the aim to minimise stress concentrations and reduce complex
stress flow patterns.
104 As far as possible, transmission of high tensile stresses through the thickness of plates during welding, block assembly
and operation shall be avoided. In cases where transmission of high tensile stresses through the thickness occurs, structural
material with proven through-thickness properties shall be used. Object standards may give examples where to use plates with
proven through thickness properties.
105 Structural elements may be manufactured according to the requirements given in DNV-OS-C401.
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C. Safety Classes and Target Safety Level

C 100 Safety Classes
101 In this standard, structural safety is ensured by use of a safety class methodology. The structure to be designed is
classified into a safety class based on the failure consequences. The classification is normally determined by the purpose of the
structure. For each safety class, a target safety level is defined in terms of an annual probability of failure.
102 For structures in offshore wind farms, two safety classes are considered. Low safety class is used for structures, whose
failures imply low risk for personal injuries and pollution, low risk for economical consequences and negligible risk to human
life. Normal safety class is used for structures, whose failures imply some risk for personal injuries, fatalities and pollution and
significant economic consequences.
Guidance Note:
Support structures and foundations for wind turbines are usually to be designed to the normal safety class. Support structures and
foundations for transformer stations are usually to be designed to the normal safety class. Support structures and foundations for
meteorological measuring masts are usually to be designed to the low safety class.
C 200 Target Safety

201 The target safety level for structural designs to the normal and low safety classes according to this standard is an annual
probability of failure in the range 10−5-10−4 with 10−5 being the aim for designs to the normal safety class and 10−4 being the aim
for designs to the low safety class. This range of target safety levels is the range aimed at for structures, whose failures are ductile
with no reserve capacity.
Guidance Note:
Structural components and details should be shaped such that the structure as far as possible will behave in the presumed ductile manner.
Connections should be designed with smooth transitions and proper alignment of elements. Stress concentrations should be avoided as far
as possible. A structure or a structural component may behave as brittle, even if it is made of ductile materials, for example when there are
sudden changes in section properties.
202 The target safety level is the same, regardless of which design philosophy is applied.
Guidance Note:
A design of a structural component which is based on an assumption of inspections and possible maintenance and repair throughout its
design life may benefit from a reduced structural dimension, e.g. a reduced cross-sectional area, compared to that of a design without such
an inspection and maintenance plan, in order to arrive at the same safety level for the two designs.
D. Limit States
D 100 General
101 A limit state is a condition beyond which a structure or structural component will no longer satisfy the design
requirements.
102 The following limit states are considered in this standard:
Ultimate limit states (ULS) correspond to the maximum load-carrying resistance

Fatigue limit states (FLS) correspond to failure due to the effect of cyclic loading
Accidental limit state (ALS) correspond to damage to components due to an accidental event or operational failure
Serviceability limit states (SLS) correspond to tolerance criteria applicable to normal use or durability.
103 Examples of limit states within each category:
Ultimate limit states (ULS)

• loss of structural resistance (excessive yielding and buckling )
• failure of components due to brittle fracture
• loss of static equilibrium of the structure, or of a part of the structure, considered as a rigid body, e.g. overturning or
capsizing
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• failure of critical components of the structure caused by exceeding the ultimate resistance (which in some cases is
reduced due to repetitive loading) or the ultimate deformation of the components
• transformation of the structure into a mechanism (collapse or excessive deformation)
Fatigue limit states (FLS)
• cumulative damage due to repeated loads
Accidental limit states (ALS)
• structural damage caused by accidental loads
• ultimate resistance of damaged structures
• maintain structural integrity after local damage or flooding
• loss of station keeping (free drifting)
Serviceability limit states (SLS)
• deflections that may alter the effect of the acting forces
• deformations that may change the distribution of loads between supported rigid objects and the supporting structure
• excessive vibrations producing discomfort or affecting non-structural components
• motion that exceed the limitation of equipment
• differential settlements of foundations soils causing intolerable tilt of the wind turbine
• temperature-induced deformations
E. Design by the LRFD Method

E 100 General
101 The LRFD method is a design method by which the target safety level is obtained as closely as possible by applying load
and resistance factors to characteristic values of the governing variables and subsequently fulfilling a specified design criterion
expressed in terms of these factors and these characteristic values. The governing variables consist of
• loads acting on the structure or load effects in the structure
• resistance of the structure or strength of the materials in the structure.
102 The characteristic values of loads and resistance, or of load effects and material strengths, are chosen as specific quantiles
in their respective probability distributions. The requirements to the load and resistance factors are set such that possible
unfavourable realisations of loads and resistance, as well as their possible simultaneous occurrences, are accounted for to an
extent which ensures that a satisfactory safety level is achieved.
E 200 The load and resistance factor design format
201 The safety level of a structure or a structural component is considered to be satisfactory when the design load effect Sd
does not exceed the design resistance Rd:
S d ≤ Rd
This is the design criterion. The design criterion is also known as the design inequality. The corresponding equation Sd = Rd
forms the design equation.
202 There are two approaches to establish the design load effect Sdi associated with a particular load Fi:
(1) The design load effect Sdi is obtained by multiplication of the characteristic load effect Ski by a specified load factor γfi
S di = γ fi S ki
where the characteristic load effect Ski is determined in a structural analysis for the characteristic load Fki.
(2) The design load Sdi is obtained from a structural analysis for the design load Fdi, where the design load Fdi is obtained by
multiplication of the characteristic load Fki by a specified load factor γfi
Fdi = γ fi Fki
Approach (1) shall be used for design of structures for which there are no geometrical nonlinearities and no nonlinear material
behaviour. Approach (1) can be used regardless of whether the dynamic behaviour of the structure is linear or nonlinear.
Approach (2) shall be used for design of structures whose dynamic behaviour is linear, but which are influenced by geometrical
nonlinearities or nonlinear material behaviour or both. When there is any doubt regarding which of the two approaches shall be
used in design, such as when both the dynamic behaviour and the material behaviour are nonlinear, then the approach shall be
used that produces the most unfavourable design load effect.
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Guidance Note:
For structural design of monopiles supported by nonlinear soil, Approach (2) shall be used to properly account for the influence from the
nonlinearities of the soil.
203 The design load effect Sd is the most unfavourable combined load effect resulting from the simultaneous occurrence of n
loads Fi, i=1,...n. It may be expressed as
S d = f ( S d 1 ,...S dn )
where f denotes a functional relationship.
When there is a linear relationship between the load Fi acting on the structure and its associated load effect Si in the structure, the
design combined load effect Sd resulting from the simultaneous occurrence of n loads Fi, i=1,…n, can be achieved as
n
S d = ∑ γ fi S ki
i =1
Guidance Note:
As an example, the combined load effect could be the bending stress in a vertical foundation pile, resulting from a wind load, a wave load,
and a current that act concurrently on a structure supported by the pile.
When there is a linear relationship between the load Fi and its load effect Si, the characteristic combined load effect Sk resulting
from the simultaneous occurrence of n loads Fi, i=1,…n, can be achieved as
n
S k = ∑ S ki
i =1
204 Characteristic load effect values Ski are obtained as specific quantiles in the distributions of the respective load effects Si.
In the same manner, characteristic load values Fki are obtained as specific quantiles in the distributions of the respective loads Fi.
Guidance Note:
Which quantiles are specified as characteristic values may depend on which limit state is considered. Which quantiles are specified as
characteristic values may also vary from one specified combination of load effects to another among the load combinations that are
specified to be investigated in order to obtain a characteristic combined load effect Sk equal to a particular quantile in the distribution of the
true combined load effect S.
205 In this standard, design in the ULS is either based on a characteristic combined load effect Sk defined as the 99% quantile
in the distribution of the annual maximum combined load effect, or on a characteristic load Fk defined as the 99% quantile in the
distribution of the annual maximum of the combined load. The result is a combined load or a combined load effect whose
recurrence period is 100 years.
Guidance Note:
When n load processes occur simultaneously, the standard specifies more than one set of characteristic load effects (Sk1,...Skn) to be
considered in order for the characteristic combined load effect Sk to come out as close as possible to the 99% quantile. For each specified
set (Sk1,...Skn), the corresponding design combined load effect is determined according to Clause 203. For use in design, the design
combined load effect Sd is selected as the most unfavourable value among the design combined load effects that result for these specified
sets of characteristic load effects.
206 When the structure is subjected to the simultaneous occurrence of n load processes, and the structural behaviour, e.g. the
structural damping, is influenced by the character of at least one of these loads, then it may not always be feasible to determine
the design load effect Sd, resulting from the simultaneous occurrence of the n loads, by a linear combination of separately
determined individual load effects as set forth in Clause 203. Within the framework of the LRFD method, the design combined
load effect Sd, resulting from the simultaneous occurrence of the n loads, may then be established as a characteristic combined
load effect Sk multiplied by a common load factor γf. The characteristic combined load effect Sk will in this case need to be
defined as a quantile in the upper tail of the distribution of the combined load effect that results in the structure from the
simultaneous occurrence of the n loads. In principle, the distribution of this combined load effect comes about from a structural
analysis in which the n respective load processes are applied simultaneously.
Guidance Note:
The structural damping of a wind turbine depends on the wind loading and its direction relative to other loads, such that for example the
wave load effect in the support structure becomes dependent on the characteristics of the wind loading. Unless the wind load characteristics
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can be properly accounted for to produce a correct structural damping and a correct separate wave load effect in a structural analysis for the
wave load, then the structure may need to be analysed for the sought-after combined load effect for a simultaneous application of the wind
load process and the wave load process.
207 The resistance R against a particular load effect S is, in general, a function of parameters such as geometry, material
properties, environment, and load effects themselves, the latter through interaction effects such as degradation.
208 The design resistance Rd is obtained by dividing the characteristic resistance Rk by a specified material factor γm:
Rk
Rd =
γm
209 The characteristic resistance Rk is obtained as a specific quantile in the distribution of the resistance. It may be obtained
by testing, or it may be calculated from the characteristic values of the parameters that govern the resistance. In the latter case,
the functional relationship between the resistance and the governing parameters is applied.
210 Load factors account for:
• possible unfavourable deviations of the loads from their characteristic values
• the limited probability that different loads exceed their respective characteristic values simultaneously
• uncertainties in the model and analysis used for determination of load effects.
211 Material factors account for:

• possible unfavourable deviations in the resistance of materials from the characteristic value
• uncertainties in the model and analysis used for determination of resistance
• a possibly lower characteristic resistance of the materials in the structure, as a whole, as compared with the
characteristic values interpreted from test specimens
E 300 Characteristic load effect

301 For operational design conditions, the characteristic value Sk of the load effect resulting from an applied load combination
is defined as follows, depending on the limit state:
•For load combinations relevant for design against the ULS, the characteristic value of the resulting load effect is defined
as a load effect with an annual probability of exceedance equal to or less than 0.01, i.e. a load effect whose recurrence
period is at least 100 years.
• For load combinations relevant for design against the ALS, the characteristic value of the resulting load effect is defined
as the most probable annual maximum load effect.
• For load combinations relevant for design against the FLS, the characteristic load effect history is defined as the
expected load effect history.
• For load combinations relevant for design against the SLS, the characteristic load effect is a specified value, dependent
on operational requirements.
Load combinations to arrive at the characteristic value Sk of the resulting load effect are given in Section 4.
302 For temporary design conditions, the characteristic value Sk of the load effect resulting from an applied load combination
is a specified value, which shall be selected dependent on the measures taken to achieve the required safety level. The value shall
be specified with due attention to the actual location, the season of the year, the duration of the temporary condition, the weather
forecast, and the consequences of failure.
E 400 Characteristic resistance
401 The characteristic resistance is defined as the 5% quantile in the distribution of the resistance.
E 500 Load and resistance factors
501 Load and resistance factors for the various limit states are given in Section 5.
F. Design by direct simulation of combined load effect of simultaneous load processes

F 100 General
101 Design by direct simulation of the combined load effect of simultaneously acting load processes is similar to design by
the LRFD method, except that it is based on a direct simulation of the characteristic combined load effect from the
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Sec.2 – Page 31
simultaneously applied load processes in stead of being based on a linear combination of individual characteristic load effects
determined separately for each of the applied load processes.
102 For design of wind turbine structures which are subjected to two or more simultaneously acting load processes, design by
direct simulation of the combined load effect may prove an attractive alternative to design by the linear load combination model
of the LRFD method. The linear combination model of the LRFD method may be inadequate in cases where the load effect
associated with one of the applied load processes depends on structural properties which are sensitive to the characteristics of
one or more of the other load processes.
Guidance Note:
The structural damping of a wind turbine depends on whether there is wind or not, whether the turbine is in power production or at
stand-still, and whether the wind is aligned or misaligned with other loads such as wave loads. Unless correct assumptions can be made
about the structural damping of the wind turbine in accordance with the actual status of the wind loading regime, separate determination of
the load effect due to wave load alone to be used with the LRFD design format may not be feasible.
In a structural time domain analysis of the turbine subjected concurrently to both wind and wave loading, the structural damping of the
turbine will come out right since the wind loading is included, and the resulting combined load effect, usually obtained by simulations in
the time domain, form the basis for interpretation of the characteristic combined load effect.
F 200 Design format

201 For design of wind turbine structures which are subjected to two or more simultaneously acting load processes, the design
inequality
S d ≤ Rd
applies. The design combined load effect Sd is obtained by multiplication of the characteristic combined load effect Sk by a
specified load factor γf,
Sd = γ f Sk
F 300 Characteristic load effect
301 The characteristic combined load effect Sk may be established directly from the distribution of the annual maximum
combined load effect that results from a structural analysis, which is based on simultaneous application of the two or more load
processes. In the case of ULS design, the characteristic combined load effect Sk shall be taken as the 99% quantile in the
distribution of the annual maximum combined load effect, i.e. the combined load effect whose recurrence period is 100 years.
Guidance Note:
There may be several ways in which the 99% quantile in the distribution of the annual maximum combined load effect can be determined.
Regardless of the approach, a global structural analysis model must be established, e.g. in the form of a beam-element based frame model,
to which loads from several simultaneously acting load processes can be applied.
A structural analysis in the time domain is usually carried out for a specified environmental state of duration typically 10 minutes or one or
3 hours, during which period of time stationary conditions are assumed with constant intensities of the involved load processes. The input
consists of concurrent time series of the respective load processes, e.g. wind load and wave load, with specified directions. The output
consists of time series of load effects in specified points in the structure.
In principle, determination of the 99% quantile in the distribution of the annual maximum load effect requires structural analyses to be
carried out for a large number of environmental states, viz. all those states that contribute to the upper tail of the distribution of the annual
maximum load effect. Once the upper tail of this distribution has been determined by integration over the results for the various
environmental states, weighted according to their frequencies of occurrence, the 99% quantile in the distribution can be interpreted.
The computational efforts can be considerably reduced when it can be assumed that the 99% quantile in the distribution of the annual
maximum load effect can be estimated by the expected value of the maximum load effect in the environmental state whose recurrence
period is 100 years.
Further guidance on how to determine the 99% quantile in the distribution of the annual maximum load effect is provided in Section 5.
F 400 Characteristic resistance

401 The characteristic resistance is to be calculated as for the LRFD method.
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G. Design assisted by testing
G 100 General
101 Design by testing or observation of performance is in general to be supported by analytical design methods.
102 Load effects, structural resistance and resistance against material degradation may be established by means of testing or
observation of the actual performance of full-scale structures.
G 200 Full-scale testing and observation of performance of existing structures
201 Full-scale tests or monitoring on existing structures may be used to give information on response and load effects to be
utilised in calibration and updating of the safety level of the structure.
H. Probability-based design
H 100 Definition
101 The structural reliability, or the structural safety, is defined as the probability that failure will not occur or that a specified
failure criterion will not be met within a specified period of time.
H 200 General
201 This section gives requirements for structural reliability analysis undertaken in order to document compliance with the
offshore standards.
202 Acceptable procedures for structural reliability analyses are documented in Classification Notes No. 30.6.
203 Reliability analyses shall be based on Level 3 reliability methods. These methods utilise probability of failure as a
measure and require knowledge of the distribution of all governing load and resistance variables.
204 In this standard, Level 3 reliability methods are mainly considered applicable to:
• calibration of a Level 1 method to account for improved knowledge. (Level 1 methods are deterministic analysis
methods that use only one characteristic value to describe each uncertain variable, i.e. the LRFD method applied in the
standards)
• special case design problems
• novel designs for which limited or no experience exists.
205 Reliability analysis may be updated by utilisation of new information. Where such updating indicates that the
assumptions upon which the original analysis was based are not valid, and the result of such non-validation is deemed to be
essential to safety, the subject approval may be revoked.
206 Target reliabilities shall be commensurate with the consequence of failure. The method of establishing such target
reliabilities, and the values of the target reliabilities themselves, should be agreed in each separate case. To the extent possible,
the minimum target reliabilities shall be based on established cases that are known to have adequate safety.
207 Where well established cases do not exist, e.g. in the case of novel and unique design solutions; the minimum target
reliability values shall be based upon one or a combination of the following considerations:
• transferable target reliabilities similar existing design solutions
• internationally recognised codes and standards
• Classification Note 30.6.
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Sec.3 – Page 33
SECTION 3
SITE CONDITIONS
A. General
A 100 Definition
101 Site conditions consist of all site-specific conditions which may influence the design of the wind turbine structure by
governing its loading, its capacity or both.
102 Site conditions cover virtually all environmental conditions on the site, including but not limited to meteorological
conditions, oceanographic conditions, soil conditions, seismicity, biology, and various human activities.
B. Wind climate
B 100 Wind parameters
101 The wind climate is represented by the 10-minute mean wind speed U10 and the standard deviation σU of the wind speed.
In the short term, i.e. over a 10-minute period, stationary wind conditions with constant U10 and constant σU are assumed to
prevail.
Guidance Note:
The 10-minute mean wind speed U10 is a measure of the intensity of the wind. The standard deviation σU is a measure of the variability of
the wind speed about the mean. When special conditions are present, such as when tornados, cyclones and typhoons occur, a representation
of the wind climate in terms of U10 and σU may be insufficient.
102 The arbitrary wind speed under stationary 10-minute conditions in the short term follows a probability distribution whose
mean value is U10 and whose standard deviation is σU.
103 The turbulence intensity is defined as the ratio σU/U10.
104 The short term 10-minute stationary wind climate may be represented by a wind spectrum, i.e. the power spectral density
function of the wind speed process, S(ω). S(ω) is a function of U10 and σU and expresses how the energy of the wind speed is
distributed between various frequencies.
B 200 Wind data
201 Wind speed statistics are to be used as a basis for representation of the long-term and short-term wind conditions.
Empirical statistical data used as a basis for design must cover a sufficiently long period of time.
Guidance Note:
Wind data obtained on site are to be preferred over wind data observed at an adjacent location. Measured wind data are to be preferred over
visually observed wind data. Continuous records of data are to be preferred over records with gaps. Longer periods of observation are to be
preferred over shorter periods.
202 The long-term distributions of U10 and σU should preferably be based on statistical data for the same averaging period for
the wind speed as the averaging period which is used for the determination of loads. If a different averaging period than 10
minutes is used for the determination of loads, the wind data may be converted by application of appropriate gust factors. The
short-term distribution of the arbitrary wind speed itself is conditional on U10 and σU.
203 Wind speed data are height-dependent. The wind speed at the hub height of the wind turbine shall be used as a reference.
When wind speed data for other heights than the reference height are not available, the wind speeds in these heights can be
calculated from the wind speeds in the reference height in conjunction with a wind speed profile above the still water level.
204 Empirical statistical wind data used as a basis for design must cover a sufficiently long period of time.
Guidance Note:
Wind speed data for the long-term determination of the 10-minute mean wind speed U10 are usually available for power output prediction.
Turbulence data are usually more difficult to establish, in particular because of wake effects from adjacent operating wind turbines.
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Page 34 – Sec.3
205 The wind velocity at the location of the structure shall be established on the basis of previous measurements at the actual
location and adjacent locations, hindcast predictions as well as theoretical models and other meteorological information. If the
wind velocity is of significant importance to the design and existing wind data are scarce and uncertain, wind velocity
measurements should be carried out at the location in question.
206 Characteristic values of the wind velocity should be determined with due account of the inherent uncertainties.
207 Characteristic values of the wind velocity shall be determined with due account of wake effects owing to the presence of
other wind turbines upstream, such as in a wind farm.
Guidance Note:
A wind farm generates its own wind climate due to downstream wake effects, and the wind climate in the centre of the wind farm may
therefore be very different from the ambient wind climate. The layout of the wind farm has an impact on the wind at the individual wind
turbines. Wake effects in a wind farm will in general imply a considerably increased turbulence, reflected in an increased standard
deviation σU of the wind speed. This effect may be significant even when the spacing between the wind turbines in the wind farm is as large
as 8-10 rotor diameters. Wake effects in a wind farm may also imply a reduction in the 10-minute mean wind speed U10 relative to that of
the ambient wind climate.
Wake effects in wind farms will often dominate the fatigue loads in offshore wind turbine structures.
Wake effects fade out more slowly and over longer distances offshore than they do over land.
B 300 Wind modelling

301 The spectral density of the wind speed process may be represented by the Kaimal spectrum,
Lk
4
U 10
SU ( f ) = σ U
2
fL
(1 + 6 k ) 5 / 3
U 10
in which f denotes frequency, and the integral scale parameter Lk is to be taken as
 5.67 z for z < 60 m

Lk = 
340.2 m for z ≥ 60 m
where z denotes the height above the sea water level.
302 The long-term probability distributions for the wind climate parameters U10 and σU that are interpreted from available
data can be represented in terms of generic distributions or in terms of scattergrams. A typical generic distribution representation
consists of a Weibull distribution for the 10-minute mean wind speed U10 in conjunction with a lognormal distribution of σU
conditional on U10. A scattergram provides the frequency of occurrence of given pairs (U10, σU) in a given discretisation of the
(U10, σU) space.
303 Unless data indicate otherwise, a Weibull distribution can be assumed for the 10-minute mean wind speed U10 in a given
height H above the sea water level,
u
FU10 (u ) = 1 − exp(−( ) k )
A
in which the scale parameter A and the shape parameter k are site- and height-dependent.
Guidance Note:
In areas where hurricanes occur, the Weibull distribution as determined from available 10-minute wind speed records may not provide an
adequate representation of the upper tail of the true distribution of U10. In such areas, the upper tail of the distribution of U10 needs to be
determined on the basis of hurricane data.
304 The wind speed profile represents the variation of the wind speed with height above the sea water level.
Guidance Note:
A logarithmic wind speed profile may be assumed,
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Sec.3 – Page 35
z
u ( z ) ∝ ln
z0
in which z is the height above the sea water level and z0 is a roughness parameter, which for offshore locations depends on the wind speed,
the upstream distance to land, the water depth and the wave field. The logarithmic wind speed profile implies that the scale parameter A(z)
in height z can be expressed in terms of the scale parameter A(H) in height H as follows
z
ln
z0
A( z ) = A( H )
H
ln
z0
The roughness parameter z0 typically varies between 0.0001 m in open sea without waves and 0.003 m in coastal areas with onshore wind.
The roughness parameter may be solved implicitly from the following equation
2
A  κU 10 
z0 = C  
g  ln( z / z 0 ) 
where g is the acceleration of gravity, κ=0.4 is von Karman’s constant, and AC is Charnock’s constant. AC=0.011 is recommended for open
sea, and AC=0.034 can be used for near-coastal locations.
305 Let FU10(u) denote the long-term distribution of the 10-minute mean wind speed U10. In areas where hurricanes do not
occur, the distribution of the annual maximum 10-minute mean wind speed U10,max can be taken as
FU10 , max ,1 year (u ) = ( FU10 (u )) N

where N=52560 is the number of stationary 10-minute periods in one year.
In areas where hurricanes occur, the distribution of the annual maximum 10-minute mean wind speed U10,max shall be based on
available hurricane data.
306 The 10-minute mean wind speed with recurrence period TR in units of years is defined as the (1−1/TR) quantile in the
distribution of the annual maximum 10-minute mean wind speed, i.e. it is the 10-minute mean wind speed whose probability of
exceedance in one year is 1/TR. It is denoted U10,TR and is expressed as
−1 1
U 10,TR = FU10 , max ,1 year (1 − )
TR
Guidance Note:
The 50-year 10-minute mean wind speed becomes U10,50=FU10,max,1 year−1(0.98) and the 100-year 10-minute mean wind speed becomes
U10,100=FU10,max,1 year−1(0.99). Note that these values, calculated as specified, are to be considered as central estimates of the respective
10-minute wind speeds when the underlying distribution function FU10,max is determined from limited data and is encumbered with
statistical uncertainty.
307 Practical information regarding wind modelling is given in IEC61400-1 and in DNV/Risø Guidelines for Design of Wind
Turbines.
C. Wave climate
C 100 Wave parameters
101 The wave climate is represented by the significant wave height HS and the spectral peak period TP. In the short term, i.e.
over a 3-hour or 6-hour period, stationary wave conditions with constant HS and constant TP are assumed to prevail.
Guidance Note:
The significant wave height HS is defined as four times the standard deviation of the sea elevation process. The significant wave height is a
measure of the intensity of the wave climate as well as of the variability in the arbitrary wave heights. The peak period TP is related to the
mean zero-crossing period TZ of the sea elevation process.
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102 The wave height H of a wave cycle is the difference between the highest crest and the deepest trough between two
successive zero-upcrossings of the sea elevation process. The arbitrary wave height H under stationary 3- or 6-hour conditions in
the short term follows a probability distribution which is a function of the significant wave height HS.
103 The wave period is defined as the time between two successive zero-upcrossings of the sea elevation process. The
arbitrary wave period T under stationary 3- or 6-hour conditions in the short term follows a probability distribution, which is a
function of HS, TP and H.
104 The wave crest height HC is the height of the highest crest between two successive zero-upcrossings of the sea elevation
process. The arbitrary wave height H under stationary 3- or 6-hour conditions in the short term follows a probability distribution
which is a function of the significant wave height HS.
105 The short term 3- or 6-hour sea state may be represented by a wave spectrum, i.e. the power spectral density function of
the sea elevation process, S(ω). S(ω) is a function of HS and TP and expresses how the energy of the sea elevation is distributed
between various frequencies.
C 200 Wave data
201 Wave statistics are to be used as a basis for representation of the long-term and short-term wave conditions. Empirical
statistical data used as a basis for design must cover a sufficiently long period of time.
Guidance Note:
Wave data obtained on site are to be preferred over wave data observed at an adjacent location. Measured wave data are to be preferred
over visually observed wave data. Continuous records of data are to be preferred over records with gaps. Longer periods of observation are
to be preferred over shorter periods.
When no site-specific wave data are available and data from adjacent locations are to be capitalised on in stead, proper transformation of
such other data shall be performed to account for possible differences due to different water depths and different seabed topographies. Such
transformation shall take effects of shoaling and refraction into account.
Hindcast of wave data may be used to extend measured time series, or to interpolate to places where measured data have not been collected.
If hindcast is used, the hindcast model shall be calibrated against measured data to ensure that the hindcast results comply with available
measured data.
202 The long-term distributions of HS and TP should preferably be based on statistical data for the same averaging period for
the waves as the averaging period which is used for the determination of loads. If a different averaging period than 3 or 6 hours
is used for the determination of loads, the wave data may be converted by application of appropriate adjustment factors.
203 Wave climate and wind climate are correlated, because waves are usually wind-generated. The correlation between wave
data and wind data shall be accounted for in design.
Guidance Note:
Simultaneous observations of wave and wind data in terms of simultaneous values of HS and U10 should be obtained. It is recommended
that directionality of wind and waves are recorded. Extreme waves may not always come from the same direction as extreme winds. This
may in particular be so when the fetch in the direction of the extreme winds is short.
C 300 Wave modelling

301 The spectral density of the sea elevation process may be represented by the JONSWAP spectrum,
  ω −ω p  
2
 5 ω 
−4
 exp  −0.5 

σω  
S (ω ) = αg 2ω −5 exp −   γ  


4  ω p 

 
where
ω = angular wave frequency, ω=2π/T
T = wave period
ωp = angular spectral peak frequency, ωp=2π/Tp
Tp = peak period
g = acceleration of gravity
α = generalised Phillips’ constant = (5/16)⋅(HS2ωp4/g2)⋅(1−0.287lnγ)
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Sec.3 – Page 37
σ = spectral width parameter; σ=0.07 for ω≤ωp and σ=0.09 for ω>ωp.
γ = peak-enhancement factor
The zero-upcrossing period TZ depends on the peak period Tp through the following relationship,
5+γ
TZ = T p
11 + γ
The peak-enhancement factor is
 Tp
 5 for ≤ 3.6
 HS
 Tp Tp
γ = exp 5.75 − 1.15 for 3.6 < ≤5
 HS HS
 Tp
 1 for 5<
 HS
where Tp is in seconds and HS is in metres.
302 The long-term probability distributions for the wave climate parameters HS and TP that are interpreted from available data
can be represented in terms of generic distributions or in terms of scattergrams. A typical generic distribution representation
consists of a Weibull distribution for the significant wave height HS in conjunction with a lognormal distribution of TP
conditional on HS. A scattergram gives the frequency of occurrence of given pairs (HS,TP) in a given discretisation of the (HS,TP)
space.
303 Unless data indicate otherwise, a Weibull distribution can be assumed for the significant wave height,
h
FH S (h) = 1 − exp(−( ) β )
α
304 When FHs(h) denotes the distribution of the significant wave height in an arbitrary t-hour sea state, the distribution of the
annual maximum significant wave height HSmax can be taken as
FH S , max ,1 year (h) = ( FH S (h)) N

where N is the number of t-hour sea states in one year. For t=3 hours, N=2920.
305 The significant wave height with recurrence period TR in units of years is defined as the (1−1/TR) quantile in the
distribution of the annual maximum significant wave height, i.e. it is the significant wave height whose probability of
exceedance in one year is 1/TR. It is denoted HS,TR and is expressed as
−1 1
H S ,TR = FH S , max ,1 year (1 − )
TR
Guidance Note:
The 50-year significant wave height becomes HS,50=FHs,max,1 year−1(0.98) and the 100-year significant wave height becomes HS,100=FHs,max,1
−1
year (0.99). Note that these values, calculated as specified, are to be considered as central estimates of the respective significant wave
heights when the underlying distribution function FHs,max is determined from limited data and is encumbered with statistical uncertainty.
In the southern and central parts of the North Sea, experience shows that the ratio between the 100- and 50-year significant wave heights
HS,100/HS,50 attains a value approximately equal to 1.04-1.05. Unless data indicate otherwise, this value of the ratio HS,100/HS,50 may be
applied to achieve the 100-year significant wave height HS,100 in cases where only the 50-year value HS,50 is available, provided the location
in question is a located in the southern or central parts of the North Sea.
306 In deep waters, the short-term probability distribution of the arbitrary wave height H can be assumed to follow a Rayleigh
distribution when HS is given,
2h 2
FH |H S (h) = 1 − exp(− )
(1 − ν 2 ) H S
2
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Page 38 – Sec.3
where ν is a spectral width parameter whose first-order approximation is ν=0.43.
The maximum wave height in a 3-hour sea state characterised by a significant wave height HS can be calculated as
Hmax=1.89⋅HS
In shallow waters, the wave heights will be limited by the water depth. Unless data indicate otherwise, the maximum wave height
can be taken as 78% of the water depth. The Rayleigh distribution of the wave heights will become distorted in the upper tail to
approach this limit asymptotically. Use of the unmodified Rayleigh distribution for representation of the distribution of wave
heights in shallow waters may therefore be on the conservative side.
307 The long-term probability distribution of the arbitrary wave height H can be found by integration over all significant wave
heights
∞
FH (h) = ∫ FH |H S (h) ⋅ f H S (hS )dhS
0
in which fHs(hs)=dFHs(hs)/dhs.
308 When FH(h) denotes the distribution of the arbitrary wave height H, the distribution of the annual maximum wave height
Hmax can be taken as
FH max ,1 year (h) = ( FH (h)) NW

where NW is the number of wave heights in one year.
309 Unless data indicate otherwise, the wave crest height HC can be assumed to be 0.65 times the associated arbitrary wave
height H.
310 The wave height with recurrence period TR in units of years is defined as the (1−1/TR) quantile in the distribution of the
annual maximum wave height, i.e. it is the wave height whose probability of exceedance in one year is 1/TR. It is denoted HTR
and is expressed as
−1 1
H TR = FH max ,1 year (1 − )
TR
Guidance Note:
The 50-year wave height becomes H50=FHmax,1 year−1(0.98) and the 100-year wave height becomes H100=FHs,max,1 year−1(0.99). Note that these
values, calculated as specified, are to be considered as central estimates of the respective wave heights when the underlying distribution
function FHmax is determined from limited data and is encumbered with statistical uncertainty.
311 Directionality of waves shall be considered for determination of wave height distributions and wave heights with
specified recurrence periods when such directionality has an impact on the design of a wind-turbine structure.
312 The wave length λ in water depth d is given implicitly by the following relation
g 2 2πd
λ= T tanh
2π λ
in which T is the wave period and g is the acceleration of gravity.
313 The kinematics of regular waves may be represented by analytical or numerical wave theories, which are listed below
together with an indication of their ranges of validity:
— linear wave theory, by which the wave profile is represented by a sine function, valid for d/λ≥0.3
— Stokes wave theories for high waves, valid for 0.1≤ d/λ≤0.3
— Airy theory
— stream function theory, based on numerical methods and accurately representing the wave kinematics over a broad range of
water depths, valid for 0.1≤ d/λ≤0.3, and considered the best wave theory for waves in shallow waters
— solitary wave theory for particularly shallow water, valid for d/λ≤0.1
d/λ denotes the water-depth-to-wave-length ratio. The ranges of validity of the various wave theories are demonstrated in Figure
1.
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Sec.3 – Page 39
Figure 1 Ranges of validity for wave theories
314 Wave breaking may take place as a result of shoaling and limited water depth. Such breaking may take place either before
the waves arrive at the site or when they have arrived at the site. In both cases, the wave breaking implies that a depth-dependent
limitation is imposed on the waves at the site. This depth dependency shall be taken into account when wave heights for use in
design are to be determined. For this determination, the water depth corresponding to the maximum water level on the site shall
be assumed. The breaking criterion is identified as the curve marked “H/HB=1” in Figure 1. Breaking waves are irregular waves,
for which the kinematics deviate from those implied by the wave theories referenced in Clause 313. The kinematics of breaking
waves depends on the type of breaking.
315 There are three types of breaking waves depending on the wave steepness and the slope of the seabed
• Surging breaker
• Plunging breaker
• Spilling breaker
D. Current
D 100 Current parameters
101 The current consists of a wind-generated current and a tidal current, and a density current when relevant.
102 The current is represented by the wind-generated current velocity vwind0 at the still water level and the tidal current
velocity vtide0 at the still water level.
D 200 Current data
201 Current statistics are to be used as a basis for representation of the long-term and short-term current conditions. Empirical
statistical data used as a basis for design must cover a sufficiently long period of time.
Guidance Note:
Current data obtained on site are to be preferred over current data observed at an adjacent location. Measured current data are to be
preferred over visually observed current data. Continuous records of data are to be preferred over records with gaps. Longer periods of
observation are to be preferred over shorter periods.
202 The variation of the current with the water depth shall be considered when relevant.
203 In regions where bottom material is likely to erode, special studies of current conditions near the sea bottom may be
required.
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D 300 Current modelling
301 When detailed field measurements are not available, the variation in current velocity with depth may be taken as
v( z ) = vtide ( z ) + v wind ( z )
where
17
h+ z
vtide ( z ) = vtide 0   for z≤0
 h 
and
h +z
v wind ( z ) = v wind  0  for –h0≤z≤0
 h0 
in which
v(z) = total current velocity at level z
z = distance from still water level, positive upwards
vtide0 = tidal current at still water level
vwind0 = wind-generated current at still water level
h = water depth from still water level (taken as positive)
h0 = reference depth for wind-generated current
302 The variation in current profile with variation in water depth due to wave action shall be accounted for. In such cases, the
current profile may be stretched or compressed vertically, such that the current velocity at any proportion of the instantaneous
depth is kept constant. By this approach, the surface current component remains constant, regardless of the sea elevation during
the wave action.
E. Water level
E 100 Water level parameters
101 The water level consists of a mean water level in conjunction with tidal water and a wind- and pressure-induced storm
surge.
E 200 Water level data
201 Water level statistics are to be used as a basis for representation of the long-term and short-term water level conditions.
Empirical statistical data used as a basis for design must cover a sufficiently long period of time.
Guidance Note:
Water level data obtained on site are to be preferred over water level data observed at an adjacent location. Measured water level data are to
be preferred over visually observed water level data. Continuous records of data are to be preferred over records with gaps. Longer periods
of observation are to be preferred over shorter periods.
202 Water level and wind are correlated, because the water level has a wind-generated component. The correlation between
water level data and wind data shall be accounted for in design.
Guidance Note:
Simultaneous observations of water level and wind data in terms of simultaneous values of water level and U10 should be obtained.
E 300 Water level modelling

301 For determination of the water level for calculation of loads and load effects, both tidal water and pressure- and
wind-induced storm surge shall be taken into account.
302
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Sec.3 – Page 41
F. Ice
F 100 Sea ice
101 When the wind-turbine structure is to be located in an area where ice may develop or where ice may drift, ice conditions
shall be properly considered.
102 Relevant statistical data for the following sea ice conditions and properties shall be considered
— geometry and nature of ice
— concentration and distribution of ice
— type of ice (ice floes, ice ridges, rafted ice etc.)
— mechanical properties of ice (compressive strength ru, bending strength rf)
— velocity and direction of drifting ice
— thickness of ice
— probability of encountering icebergs
F 200 Snow and ice accumulation

201 Ice accretion from sea spray, snow and rain and air humidity shall be considered wherever relevant.
202 Snow and ice loads due to snow and ice accumulation may be reduced or neglected if a snow and ice removal procedure
is established.
203 Possible increases of cross-sectional areas and changes in surface roughness caused by icing shall be considered wherever
relevant, when wind loads and hydrodynamic loads are to be determined.
204 For buoyant structures, the possibility of uneven distribution of snow and ice accretion shall be considered.
F 300 Ice modelling
301 The ice thickness forms an important parameter for calculation of ice loads. The ice thickness shall be based on local ice
data, e.g. as available in an ice atlas or as derived from frost index data.
302 As a basis for design against ice loads, the frost index K may be used. The frost index for a location is defined as the sum
of the daily mean temperature over all days whose mean temperature is less than 0°C in one year. The frost index K exhibits
variability from year to year and can be represented by its probability distribution.
Guidance Note:
Unless data indicate otherwise, the frost index may be represented by a three-parameter Weibull distribution,
k −b β
FK (k ) = 1 − exp(−( ) )
a
303 The frost index with recurrence period TR in units of years is defined as the (1−1/TR) quantile in the distribution of the
frost index, i.e. it is the frost index whose probability of exceedance in one year is 1/TR. It is denoted KTR and is expressed as
−1 1
K TR = FK (1 − )
TR
304 The compression strength ru, the bending strength rf and the thickness of the ice may be expressed as functions of the frost
index or, alternatively, in terms of their respective probability distributions. Other location-dependent parameters which may
need to be considered are the floe size and the drift speed of floes.
305 The following general values of ice parameters apply, regardless of location:
- Density 900 kg/m3
- Unit weight 8.84 kN/m3
- Modulus of elasticity 2 GPa
- Poisson’s ratio 0.33
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- Ice-ice frictional coefficient 0.1
- Ice-concrete dynamic frictional coefficient 0.2
- Ice-steel dynamic frictional coefficient 0.1
G. Soil
G 100 Soil investigations
101 The soil investigations shall provide all necessary soil data for a detailed design. The soil investigations may be divided
into geological studies, geophysical surveys and geotechnical site investigations.
Guidance Note:
A geological study, based on the geological history, can form a basis for selection of methods and extent of the geotechnical site
investigations. A geophysical survey, based on seismic methods, can be combined with single soil borings to establish information about
soil stratification and seabed topography for an extended area such as the area covered by a wind farm. A geotechnical site investigation
consists of in-situ testing of soil and of soil sampling for laboratory testing.
102 The extent of soil investigations and the choice of soil investigation methods shall take into account the type, size and
importance of the wind-turbine structure, the uniformity of soil and seabed conditions and the actual type of soil deposits. The
area to be covered by site investigations shall account for positioning and installation tolerances.
103 For multiple foundations such as in a wind farm, the soil stratigraphy and range of soil strength properties shall be
assessed within each group of foundations or per foundation location, as relevant.
Guidance Note:
Whether the soil stratigraphy and range of soil strength properties shall be assessed within each group of foundations or per foundation
location is much a function of the degree to which the soil deposit can be considered as homogeneous. Thus, when very homogeneous soil
conditions prevail, the group of foundations to be covered by such a common assessment may consist of all the foundations within the
entire area of a wind farm or it may consist of all the foundations within a sub-area of a wind farm. Such sub-areas are typically defined
when groups of wind turbines within the wind farm are separated by kilometre-wide straits or traffic corridors. When very
non-homogeneous soil conditions prevail, it may be necessary to limit common assessments of the soil stratigraphy and soil strength
properties to cover only a few close foundations, and in the ultimate case to carry out individual assessments for individual foundations.
104 Soil investigations shall provide relevant information about the soil to a depth below which possible existence of weak
formations will not influence the safety or performance of the wind turbine and its support structure and foundation.
Guidance Note:
For piled foundations, soil borings and in-situ tests such as CPTs should extend at least to a depth one pile diameter below the level of the
pile tip. For gravity based foundations, the soil investigations should extend at least to a depth equal to the largest horizontal dimension of
the foundation structure.
105 Soil investigations are normally to comprise of the following types of investigation:
— site geology survey

— topography survey of the seabed
— geophysical investigations for correlation with soil borings and in-situ testing
— soil sampling with subsequent laboratory testing
— in-situ tests, e.g. cone penetration tests (CPT)
Guidance Note:
For solitary wind turbine structures, one soil boring to sufficient depth for recovery of soil samples for laboratory testing is recommended.
For wind turbine structures in a wind farm, a tentative soil investigation program may contain one CPT per foundation in combination with
one soil boring to sufficient depth in each corner of the area covered by the wind farm for recovery of soil samples for laboratory testing.
An additional soil boring in the middle of the area may provide information about possible non-homogeneities over the area.
A geotechnical engineer representing the owner or developer should be present during the soil investigations on the site and, depending on
the findings as the soil investigations proceed, may suggest changes of the soil investigation program during its execution. This includes
suggestions for increased depths of planned soil borings, suggestions for additional soil borings, and suggestions for changed positions of
soil borings.
When non-homogeneous soil deposits are encountered or when difficult or weak soils are identified locally, it may be necessary to carry
out more soil borings than the tentative minimum of four borings within the wind farm area and more than one CPT per foundation. For a
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Sec.3 – Page 43
tripod foundation, one CPT per footing would be reasonable in such a case. For calibration of the CPTs, it is important that one CPT be
carried out close to each soil boring. Soil borings and CPTs may be supplemented by shallow vibro-core borings when deemed appropriate.
When the soil investigation program is planned to consist of two consecutive phases, the results of the first phase shall be subject to an
evaluation to allow for possible modifications of the second phase, including an assessment of the need for additional investigations.
106 A push-piston sampler shall be used for the soil sampling in the soil borings.
Guidance Note:
The diameter of the soil string obtained from the soil borings shall measure at least 70 mm. If the soil sampler is of a kind, which causes
disturbance of the soil string perimeter during the sampling, a larger diameter should be considered to allow for necessary trimming of the
soil samples to obtain undisturbed specimens for laboratory testing.
107 For cable routes, a sufficient number of soil samples should be secured from each major surface deposit along the routes
to identify and classify the soil.
Guidance Note:
Several types of shallow sampling techniques are available, including grab sampling, gravity coring and vibro-coring. The soil sampling
should be supplemented by CPTs, vane tests or both.
The soil investigation along the pipeline routes should be sufficiently detailed to determine where the surface deposits are sufficiently loose
to allow the cables to be buried by washing and where the surface deposits are so hard that a trench need to be dug for the cables.
108 Seabed samples should be taken for evaluation of scour potential.

109 For details of soil investigations and soil sampling, reference is made to DNV Classification Notes No. 30.4. For
requirements to equipment, execution and reporting of soil investigations, reference is made to the following standards:
NORSOK N-004, NORSOK G-CR-001, DIN 4020 and 4021, BSH No. 7004, and ISO 14688.
G 200 Soil data
201 The geotechnical site investigations shall provide the following types of geotechnical data for the soil deposits as found
relevant for the design:
— data for soil classification and description of the soil

— shear strength parameters
— deformation properties, including consolidation parameters
— permeability
— stiffness and damping parameters for prediction of the dynamic behaviour of the wind-turbine structure
Variations in the vertical and horizontal directions shall be documented.
202 Data for soil classification and description of the soil consist of unit weight of sample, unit weight of solid particles, water
content, void ratio, liquid and plastic limits, and grain size distributions.
203 Shear strength parameters consist of friction angles for sand and undrained shear strengths for clay, and parameters to
describe the development of excess pore water pressures and degradation due to cyclic loading. For drained analysis of clays,
cohesions and friction angles of the clays are needed in addition.
G 300 Laboratory test program
301 The laboratory test program for determination of soil strength and deformation properties shall cover a set of different
types of tests and a number of tests of each type, which will suffice to carry out a detailed foundation design.
302 The extent of the laboratory test program depends on the degree to which the soil deposit is homogeneous over the area of
interest, on the possible stratification of the soil deposit, and on the possible presence of critical and soft soil layers.
Guidance Note:
Based on the geophysical survey in conjunction with results of in-situ classification tests, an initial impression of the degree of
homogeneity, the degree of stratification and the presence of critical and soft layers can be established and form an initial basis for
definition of the laboratory test program.
303 The laboratory test program shall include a number of tests for determination of soil strength properties.
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Guidance Note:
For mineral soils, such as sand and clay, direct simple shear tests and triaxial tests are relevant types of tests.
For a 10 m long string of soil recovered from a soil boring, a tentative minimum test program may consist of 10 static direct simple shear
tests and 5 static triaxial tests. Alternatively, the program may consist of 5-10 static triaxial tests.
For soils identified as sensitive to effects of cyclic loading, such as loose sands and overconsolidated clays, this program should be
supplemented by a set of cyclic direct simple shear tests or cyclic triaxial tests, tentatively a minimum of four such tests.
When soil samples have been extracted from the soil string to serve as test specimens for the tests in the laboratory test program, excess
material from the soil string can be used for soil classification tests and other tests as needed.
For fibrous peat, it is not recommended to apply direct simple shear tests and triaxial tests to determine strength properties. Shear strength
properties of low-humified peat can be determined by ring shear tests.
304 The laboratory test program shall include a number of oedometer tests for determination of deformation properties.
Guidance Note:
The number of tests required depends on the soil stratification, but a minimum of two tests per layer is recommended for
deformation-sensitive layers, such as layers of loose sands and soft clays.
305 It is important that the laboratory test program is designed such that it includes tests on soil samples from thin layers
whose strength and deformation properties may be critical and from local pockets whose locations relative to the intended
position of a foundation may be unfavourable.
306 The extent of the laboratory test program may depend on the design strategy.
Guidance Note:
The cyclic loading due to combined wind and wave loading will be a one-way cyclic loading. For a foundation on normally consolidated
clay, the associated rate effect may cause the available cyclic shear strength to be in excess of the static shear strength of the soil. If one
chooses to ignore this beneficial effect of the one-way cyclic loading for this type of clay and bases the design of the static strength only,
one may save on the extent of the laboratory program by omitting cyclic strength tests from the program.
G 400 Laboratory test requirements

401 Tests to determine the necessary geotechnical properties shall be carried out in a way that accounts for the actual stress
conditions in the soil. The effects of cyclic loading caused by waves, wind and earthquake, as applicable, shall be included.
402 Testing equipment and procedures shall be adequately documented. Uncertainties in test results shall be described.
Wherever possible, mean and standard deviation of test results shall be given.
G 500 Inferences from laboratory test results
501 The results of both laboratory tests and in-situ tests shall be evaluated and corrected as relevant on the basis of recognised
practice and experience. Such evaluations and corrections shall be documented. In this process account shall be given to
possible differences between properties measured in the tests and the soil properties governing the behaviour of the in-situ soil
for the limit state in question. Such differences may be due to:
— soil disturbance due to sampling and samples not reconstituted to in-situ stress history
— presence of fissures
— different loading rate between test and limit state in question
— simplified representation in laboratory tests of certain complex load histories
— soil anisotropy effects giving results which are dependent on the type of test
502 Possible effects of installation activities on the soil properties should be considered.
H. Other site conditions

H 100 Seismicity
101 The level of seismic activity of the area where the wind turbine structure is to be installed shall be assessed on the basis of
previous record of earthquake activity as expressed in terms of frequency of occurrence and magnitude.
102 For areas where detailed information on seismic activity is available, the seismicity of the area may be determined from
such information.
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Sec.3 – Page 45
103 For areas where detailed information on seismic activity is not available, the seismicity is to be determined on the basis of
detailed investigations, including a study of the geological history and the seismic events of the region.
104 If the area is determined to be seismically active and the wind turbine structure will be affected by an earthquake, an
evaluation shall be made of the regional and local geology in order to determine the location and alignment of faults, epicentral
and focal distances, the source mechanism for energy release and the source-to-site attenuation characteristics. Local soil
conditions shall be taken into account to the extent that they may affect the ground motion. The evaluation should consider both
the design earthquake and the maximum credible earthquake.
105 The potential for earthquake-induced sea waves, also known as tsunamis, shall be assessed as part of the seismicity
assessment.
H 200 Salinity
201 The salinity of the seawater shall be addressed with a view to its influence with respect to corrosion.
H 300 Temperature
301 Extreme values of high and low temperatures are to be expressed in terms of the most probable highest and lowest values,
respectively, with their corresponding recurrence periods.
302 Both air and sea water temperatures are to be considered when describing the temperature environment.
H 400 Marine growth
401 The plant, animal and bacteria life on the site causes marine growth on structural components in the water and in the
splash zone. The potential for marine growth shall be addressed. The marine growth adds weight to the structural components
and may increase the hydrodynamic forces on the components.
Guidance Note:
Marine growth depends on other site conditions such as salinity, oxygen content, pH value, current and temperature.
H 500 Traffic
501 Traffic due to fishery, ship transportation and military activities shall be addressed.
H 600 Disposed matters
601 The presence of obstacles and wrecks within the area of installation shall be mapped.
H 700 Pipelines and cables
701 The presence of pipelines and cables within the area of installation shall be mapped.
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SECTION 4
LOADS AND LOAD EFFECTS
A. Introduction
A 100 General
101 The requirements in this section define and specify load components and load combinations to be considered in the
overall strength analysis as well as design pressures applicable in formulas for local design.
102 It is a prerequisite that the wind turbine and support structure as a minimum meet the requirements to loads given in
IEC61400-1 for site-specific wind conditions.
B. Basis for selection of characteristic loads

B 100 General
101 Unless specific exceptions apply, as documented within this standard, the basis for selection of characteristic loads or
characteristic load effects specified in 102 and 103 shall apply in the temporary and operational design conditions, respectively.
Guidance Note:
Temporary design conditions cover design conditions during transport, assembly, maintenance, repair and decommissioning of the wind
turbine structure.
Operational design conditions cover design conditions in the permanent phase which includes steady conditions such as power production,
idling and stand-still as well as transient conditions associated with start-up, shutdown, yawing and faults.
102 For the temporary design conditions, the characteristic values shall be based on specified values, which shall be selected
dependent on the measures taken to achieve the required safety level. The values shall be specified with due attention to the
actual location, the season of the year, the weather forecast and the consequences of failure. For design conditions during
transport and installation, reference is made to DNV Rules for Planning and Execution of Marine Operations.
103 The basis for selection of characteristic loads and load effects specified in Table B1 refers to statistical terms whose
definitions are given in Table B2.
Table B1 Basis for selection of characteristic loads and load effects for operational design conditions
Limit states – operational design conditions
Load category ULS FLS ALS SLS
Intact structure Damaged structure (*)
Permanent (G) Expected value
Variable (Q) Specified value
Environmental (E) 99% quantile in Expected load Not applicable Load or load effect Specified value
distribution of annual history or expected with recurrence period
maximum load or load effect history not less than 1 year
load effect
(Load or load effect
with recurrence
period 100 years)
Accidental (A) Specified value, see also
DNV-OS-A101
Deformation (D) Expected extreme value
(*) Only relevant for support structures and foundations for transformer stations.
Guidance Note:
For support structures and foundations for wind turbines, the ALS occurs only for a number of severe fault situations for the wind turbine,
which result in activation of system protection functions, and for ship collisions from approaching service vessels. The design ship impact
is an operational impact which does not cause damage. For support structures and foundations for wind turbines, design in the ALS
therefore only involves design of intact structures to resist accidental loads associated with these situations. Design to ensure that the
damaged structure maintains its integrity and performance is not relevant.
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Sec.4 – Page 47
Support structures and foundations for transformer stations shall in general be designed in full analogy with design according to DNV
offshore standard for design of unmanned oil and gas platforms. The environmental loading on these structures and foundations remains
the way it is produced by nature, as it cannot be affected by any means or interventions once the structures and foundations are in place.
The environmental loading on support structures and foundations for wind turbines does – as far as wind loading is concerned – not always
remain the way it is produced by nature, because the control system of the wind turbine interferes by introducing measures to reduce the
loads.
Table B3 Statistical terms used for specification of characteristic loads and load effects
Term Recurrence period Quantile Probability of exceedance
(years) in distribution of annual maximum in distribution of annual maximum
100-year value 100 99% quantile 0.01
1-year value 1 Most probable highest value in one year
104 Wherever environmental and accidental loads may act simultaneously, the characteristic loads may be determined based
on their joint probability distribution.
105 Characteristic values of environmental loads or load effects, which are specified as the 99% quantile in the distribution of
the annual maximum of the load or load effect, shall be estimated by their central estimates.
C. Permanent loads (G)

C 100 General
101 Permanent loads are loads that will not vary in magnitude, position or direction during the period considered. Examples
are:
— mass of structure
— mass of permanent ballast and equipment
— external and internal hydrostatic pressure of a permanent nature
— reaction to the above, e.g. articulated tower base reaction
102 The characteristic load of a permanent load is defined as the expected value based on accurate data of the unit, mass of the
material and the volume in question.
D. Variable functional loads (Q)

D 100 General
101 Variable functional loads are loads which may vary in magnitude, position and direction during the period under
consideration, and which are related to operations and normal use of the installation. Examples are:
— personnel
— crane operational loads
— loads from fendering
— loads associated with installation operations
— loads from variable ballast and equipment
— stored materials, equipment, gas, fluids and fluid pressure
— lifeboats
102 For an offshore wind turbine structure, the variable functional loads usually consist of
— actuation loads
— loads on access platforms and internal structures such as ladders and platforms
103 Actuation loads result from the operation and control of the wind turbine. They are in several categories including torque
control from a generator or inverter, yaw and pitch actuator loads and mechanical braking loads. In each case, it is important in
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Page 48 – Sec.4
the calculation of loading and response to consider the range of actuator forces available. In particular, for mechanical brakes, the
range of friction, spring force or pressure as influenced by temperature and ageing shall be taken into account in checking the
response and the loading during any braking event.
104 Actuation loads are usually represented as an integrated element in the wind turbine loads that result from an analysis of
the wind turbine subjected to wind loading. They are therefore in this standard treated as environmental wind turbine loads and
do therefore not appear as separate functional loads in load combinations.
105 Loads on access platforms and internal structures are used only for local design of these structures and do therefore
usually not appear in any load combination for design of primary support structures and foundations.
106 The characteristic value of a variable functional load is the maximum (or minimum) specified value, which produces the
most unfavourable load effects in the structure under consideration.
107 The specified value shall be determined on the basis of relevant specifications. An expected load history or load effect
history shall be used in the FLS.
D 200 Variable functional loads on platform areas
201 Variable functional loads on platform areas of the support structure shall be based on Table D1 unless specified otherwise
in the design basis or the design brief. For offshore wind turbine structures, the platform area of most interest is the external
platform, which shall be designed for ice loads and wave loads. The external platform area consists of lay down area and other
platform areas. The intensity of the distributed loads depends on local or global aspects as given in Table D1. The following
notions are used:
Local design: For example design of plates, stiffeners,

beams and brackets
Primary For example design of girders and
design: columns
Global design: For example design of support structure
Table D1 Variable functional loads on platform areas

Primary Global
Local design
design design
Apply
Distributed Apply
Point factor to
load factor to
load, primary
p (kN/m2) distributed
P(kN) design
load
load
Storage areas q 1.5 q 1.0 1.0
Lay down areas q 1.5 q f f
Area between may be
5.0 5.0 f
equipment ignored
Walkways, may be
staircases and 4.0 4.0 f ignored
platforms
Walkways and may be
staircases for 3.0 3.0 f ignored
inspection only
Areas not -
exposed to
2.5 2.5 1.0
other functional
loads
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Sec.4 – Page 49
Notes:
— Point loads to be applied on an area 100 x 100 mm, and at the most
severe position, but not added to wheel loads or distributed loads.
— q to be evaluated for each case. Lay down areas should not be designed
for less than 15 kN/m2.
— f = min{1.0 ; (0.5 + 3/ A )}, where A is the loaded area in m2.
— Global load cases shall be established based upon “worst case”,
characteristic load combinations, complying with the limiting global
criteria to the structure. For buoyant structures these criteria are
established by requirements for the floating position in still water, and
intact and damage stability requirements, as documented in the
operational manual, considering variable load on the deck and in tanks.
D 300 Tank pressures

301 Requirements to hydrostatic pressures in tanks are given in DNV-OS-C101.
D 400 Miscellaneous loads
401 Railing shall be designed for a horizontal line load equal to1.5 kN/m, applied to the top of the railing.
402 Ladders shall be designed for a concentrated load of 2.5 kN.
403 Requirements given in prEN50308 should be met when railing, ladders and other structures for use by personnel are
designed.
E. Environmental loads (E)

E 100 General
101 Environmental loads are loads which may vary in magnitude, position and direction during the period under
consideration, and which are related to operations and normal use of the structure. Examples are:
— wind loads
— hydrodynamic loads induced by waves and current, including drag forces and inertia forces
— earthquake loads
— current-induced loads
— tidal effects
— marine growth
— snow and ice loads
102 Practical information regarding environmental loads and conditions are given in Classification Notes No. 30.5.
103 According to this standard, characteristic environmental loads and load effects shall be determined as quantiles with
specified probabilities of exceedance. The statistical analysis of measured data or simulated data should make use of different
statistical methods to evaluate the sensitivity of the result. The validation of distributions with respect to data should be tested by
means of recognised methods. The analysis of the data shall be based on the longest possible time period for the relevant area. In
the case of short time series, statistical uncertainty shall be accounted for when characteristic values are determined.
E 200 Wind turbine loads
201 Wind-generated loads on the rotor and the tower shall be considered. Wind-generated loads on the rotor and the tower
include wind loads produced directly by the inflowing wind as well as indirect loads that result from the wind-generated motions
of the wind turbine and the operation of the wind turbine. The direct wind-generated loads consist of
- aerodynamic blade loads (during operation, during parking and idling, during braking, and during start-up)
- aerodynamic drag forces on tower and nacelle
The following loads, which only indirectly are produced by wind and which are a result of the operation of the wind turbine, shall
be considered as wind loads in structural design according to this standard:
- gravity loads on the rotor blades, vary with time due to rotation
- centrifugal forces and Coriolis forces due to rotation
- gyroscopic forces due to yawing
- braking forces due to braking of the wind turbine
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Guidance Note:
Aerodynamic wind loads on the rotor and the tower may be determined by means of aeroelastic load models.
Gyroscopic loads on the rotor will occur regardless of the structural flexibility whenever the turbine is yawing during operation and will
lead to a yaw moment about the vertical axis and a tilt moment about a horizontal axis in the rotor plane.
202 For determination of wind loads, the following factors shall be considered:
- tower shadow, tower stemming and vortex shedding, which are disturbances of the wind flow owing to the presence of
the tower
- wake effects wherever the wind turbine is located behind other turbines such as in wind farms
- misaligned wind flow relative to the rotor axis, e.g. owing to a yaw error
- rotational sampling, i.e. low-frequent turbulence will be transferred to high-frequent loads due to blades cutting through
vortices
- aeroelastic effects, i.e., the interaction between the motion of the turbine on the one hand and the wind field on the other
- aerodynamic imbalance and rotor-mass imbalance due to differences in blade pitch
- influence of the control system on the wind turbine, for example by limiting loads through blade pitching
- turbulence and gusts
- instabilities caused by stall-induced flapwise and edgewise vibrations must be avoided
- damping
- wind turbine controller
Guidance Note:
The damping comes about as a combination of structural damping and aerodynamic damping. The structural damping depends on the
blade material and material in other components such as the tower. There is also a damping in the drive train and a damping which is
governed by the controller. The aerodynamic damping can be determined as the outcome of an aeroelastic calculation in which correct
properties for the aerodynamics are used. The aerodynamic calculation depends on:
- aerodynamic profile of blade and twist of blade
- operational condition
- wind speed
- rotor frequency
- vibration direction of blade cross section
- motion of blade section relative to incoming airflow
203 Wind turbine loads during power production and selected transient events shall be verified by load measurements that
cover the intended operational range, i.e. wind speeds between cut-in and cut-out. Measurements should be carried out by an
accredited party.
204 Table E1 specifies 11 wind load cases to be considered for loads and load effects due to wind loading on the rotor and the
tower in the ULS. The 11 wind load cases are to be considered as a minimum set of prospective candidates for the 50-year wind
load case. The 50-year wind load effect shall be taken at least equal to the largest load effect among the load effects that result
from analysis of the load cases in Table E1.
The wind load cases in Table E1 are defined in terms of wind conditions, which are characterised by wind speed. For most of the
load cases, the wind speed is defined as a particular 10-minute mean wind speed plus a particular extreme coherent gust, which
forms a perturbation on the mean wind speed. Extreme coherent gusts are specified in Appendix I. Some load cases in Table E1
refer to the normal wind profile. The normal wind profile is given in Section 3.
The 11 wind load cases in Table E1 correspond to 11 wind load cases for the ULS defined in IEC61400-1. The corresponding
load case numbers in IEC61400-1 are given in the 5th column of Table E1 for reference. The 6th column of Table E1 provides
the wave intensity HS or the maximum wave height Hmax, as relevant, that the wind load case in question shall be combined with
when loads and load effects for combined wind and wave loading are to be simulated in an integrated analysis in which both load
types are included. For each specified wind load case in Table E1, simulations for simultaneously acting wind and waves based
on the waves given in the 6th column of Table E1 can be waived when it can be documented that it is not relevant to include a
wave load or wave load effect for the design of a structural part in question.
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Sec.4 – Page 51
Guidance Note:
Wind load case 2 is usually only relevant for design of the top of the tower, and wave loading may only in rare cases have an impact on the
design of this structural part.
Table E1 Wind load cases for the ULS, representative for 50-year recurrence period
Design situation Wind Wind condition Other IEC61400 Wave to
load conditions -1 load combine with
case case in simulations
for
simultaneous
wind and
waves
Power production 1 vin < U10hub < vout For 1.1 N/A
+ characteristic standard deviation of wind prediction
speed σU,c = 90% quantile in probability of extreme
distribution of σU events
2 vr−2 m/s < U10hub < vr+2 m/s 1.4 Hmax,10-yr
+ extreme coherent gust with direction
change
3 vin < U10hub < vout 1.3 HS,10-yr
+ extreme turbulence model (to be specified)
4 vin < U10hub < vout 1.5 HS,50-yr (See
+ extreme wind shear Clause F703)
Power production plus 5 vin < U10hub < vout Control 2.1 HS,10-yr
occurrence of fault + characteristic standard deviation of wind system
speed σU,c = 90% quantile in probability fault or
distribution of σU loss of
electrical
connection
Start up 6 U10hub = vin, vout and vr±2 m/s 3.2 Hmax,10-yr
+ extreme operating gust in one year
7 U10hub = vin, vout and vr±2 m/s 3.3 Hmax,10-yr
+ extreme direction change
Normal shutdown 8 U10hub = vout and vr±2 m/s 4.2 Hmax,10-yr
+ extreme operating gust in one year
Emergency shutdown 9 U10hub = vout and vr±2 m/s 5.1 Hmax,10-yr
+ normal wind profile to find average
vertical wind shear across swept area of
rotor
Parked (standing still or 10a U10hub = U10,50-yr 6.1 HS,10-yr (1)
idling) + characteristic standard deviation of wind
speed σU,c, minimum 0.11·U10hub
10b (2) U10hub = U10,10-yr N/A HS,50-yr
+ characteristic standard deviation of wind
11 U10hub = U10,1-yr Extreme 6.3 HS,10-yr
+ characteristic standard deviation of wind yaw error
(1) When the wind climate and the wave climate are fully correlated such that the extremes of these two climates occur
simultaneously, the 50-year 10-minute mean wind speed U10,50-yr shall be combined with the 50-year significant wave height
HS,50-yr rather than with the 10-year significant wave height HS,10-yr when simulations of loads and load effects for simultaneous
wind and waves are to be made.
(2) Wind load case 10b is only applicable when simulations for simultaneous wind and waves are to be carried out.
205 Analysis of the load cases in Table E1 shall be carried out for assumptions of aligned wind and waves or misaligned wind
and waves, or both, as relevant. Analysis of the load cases in Table E1 shall be carried out for assumptions of wind in one single
direction or wind in multiple directions, as relevant.
206 The wind load cases in Table E1 may not suffice in case of dynamic structures whose 50-year wind load effect does not
occur for the 50-year wind load case that Table E1 is meant to cover. For such dynamic structures, the 50-year wind load effect
may be larger than the largest load effect resulting for the load cases in Table E1.
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tower in the FLS.
The 5 wind load cases in Table E2 correspond to 5 wind load cases for the FLS defined in IEC61400-1. The corresponding load
case numbers in IEC61400-1 are given in the 5th column of Table E2 for reference. The 6th column of Table E2 provides the
wave intensity HS that the wind load case in question shall be combined with when loads and load effects for combined wind and
wave loading are to be simulated in an integrated analysis in which both load types are included. For each specified wind load
case in Table E2, simulations for simultaneously acting wind and waves based on the waves given in the 6th column of Table E2
can be waived when it can be documented that it is not relevant to include a wave load or wave load effect for the fatigue design
of a structural part in question.
Table E2 Wind load cases for the FLS
Design situation Wind Wind condition Other IEC61400-1 Wave to
load conditions load case combine
case with in
simulations
for
simultaneous
wind and
waves
Power production 12 vin < U10hub < vout 1.2 HS as a
+ characteristic standard deviation of function of
wind speed σU,c = 90% quantile in U10hub
distribution of σU
Power production plus 13 vin < U10hub < vout Control or 2.4 HS as a
occurrence of fault + characteristic standard deviation of protection function of
wind speed σU,c = 90% quantile in system fault U10hub
distribution of σU
Start up 14 vin < U10hub < vout 3.1 HS as a
+ normal wind profile to find average function of
vertical wind shear across swept area of U10hub
rotor
Normal shutdown 15 vin < U10hub < vout 4.1 HS as a
+ normal wind profile to find average function of
vertical wind shear across swept area of U10hub
rotor
Parked (standing still or 16 U10hub < 0.7U10,50-yr 6.4 HS as a
idling) function of
U10hub
tower in the ALS.
The 5 wind load cases in Table E3 correspond to 5 wind load cases for the ALS defined in IEC61400-1. The corresponding load
case numbers in IEC61400-1 are given in the 5th column of Table E3 for reference. The 6th column of Table E3 provides the
wave intensity HS or the maximum wave height Hmax, as relevant, that the wind load case in question shall be combined with
when loads and load effects for combined wind and wave loading are to be simulated in an integrated analysis in which both load
types are included. For each specified wind load case in Table E3, simulations for simultaneously acting wind and waves based
on the waves given in the 6th column of Table E3 can be waived when it can be documented that it is not relevant to include a
wave load or wave load effect for the design of a structural part in question.
Table E3 Wind load cases for the ALS
Design situation Wind Wind condition Other IEC61400-1 Wave to
load conditions load case combine with
case in simulations
for
simultaneous
wind and
waves
Power production plus 17 vin < U10hub < vout Protection 2.2 E[HS|U10hub]
occurrence of fault + normal turbulence model system fault or
preceding
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Sec.4 – Page 53
internal
electrical fault
18 U10hub = vout and vr±2 m/s External or 2.3 E[Hmax|U10hub]
+ extreme operating gust internal
electrical fault
including loss
of electrical
network
connection
Parked (standing still or 19a U10hub = U10,50-yr Loss of 6.2 HS,10-yr (1)
idling) electrical
network
connection
19b (2) U10hub = U10,10-yr Loss of N/A HS,50-yr
electrical
network
connection
Parked and fault 20 U10hub = U10,1-yr 7.1 HS,1-yr
conditions
Transport, assembly, 21 U10hub = U10,1-yr 8.2 HS,1-yr
maintenance and repair
(1) When the wind climate and the wave climate are fully correlated such that the extremes of these two climates occur
simultaneously, the 50-year 10-minute mean wind speed U10,50-yr shall be combined with the 50-year significant wave height
HS,50-yr rather than with the 10-year significant wave height HS,10-yr when simulations of loads and load effects for simultaneous
wind and waves are to be made.
(2) Wind load case 19b is only applicable when simulations for simultaneous wind and waves are to be carried out.
Guidance Note:
Wind load cases, which in this standard are classified as accidental load cases, are referred to as abnormal load cases in IEC61400-1.
209 Computer codes which are used for prediction of wind turbine loads shall be validated for the purpose. The validation
shall be documented.
210 Characteristic extreme wind load effects are in this standard defined as wind load effects with a 100-year recurrence
period. 10-year wind load effects form part of some load combinations. When only wind load effects with a 50-year recurrence
period are available, the 50-year wind load effects have to be converted to 100-year values. This can be done by multiplication by
a conversion factor. Likewise, to the extent that 10-year wind load effects are needed in load combinations and only 50-year
values are available, the 50-year values have to be converted to 10-year values for use in these load combinations.
Guidance Note:
The ratio Fwind,100/Fwind,50 between the 100- and 50-year wind load effects depends on the coefficient of variation in the distribution of the
annual maximum wind load and can be used as a conversion factor to achieve the 100-year wind load effect Fwind,100 in cases where only the
50-year value Fwind,50 is available. Unless data indicate otherwise, the ratio Fwind,100/Fwind,50 can be taken from Table E4. Table E4 also gives
the ratio Fwind,10/Fwind,50 between the 10-year wind load effect Fwind,10 and the 50-year wind load effect Fwind,50. This is useful in some load
combinations that require the 10-year wind load effect. Table E4 is based on an assumption of a Gumbel-distributed annual maximum wind
load effect.
Table E4 Conversion factors for wind load effects
Coefficient of variation Ratio between 100- and Ratio between 10- and
of annual maximum 50-year wind load effects, 50-year wind load effects,
wind load effect (%) Fwind,100/Fwind,50 Fwind,10/Fwind,50
10 1.05 0.90
15 1.06 0.86
20 1.07 0.83
25 1.08 0.80
30 1.09 0.78
35 1.10 0.76
The conversion factors are given as functions of the coefficient of variation of the annual maximum wind load effect. There is no
requirement in this standard to document this coefficient of variation.
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Page 54 – Sec.4
Note that use of the conversion factor Fwind,10/Fwind,50 given in Table E4 to obtain the 10-year wind load effect from the 50-year wind load
effect will be nonconservative if the distribution of the annual maximum wind load effect is not a Gumbel distribution and has a less heavy
upper tail than the Gumbel distribution.
Note also that for a particular wind turbine, the coefficient of variation of the annual maximum wind load effect may be different depending
on whether the wind turbine is located on an offshore location or on an onshore location. For offshore wind turbines one can normally count
on a coefficient of variation of approximately 20-30%.
E 300 Determination of characteristic hydrodynamic loads

301 Hydrodynamic loads shall be determined by analysis. When theoretical predictions are subjected to significant
uncertainties, theoretical calculations shall be supported by model tests or full scale measurements of existing structures or by a
combination of such tests and full scale measurements.
302 Hydrodynamic model tests should be carried out to:
— confirm that no important hydrodynamic feature has been overlooked by varying the wave parameters (for new types of
installations, environmental conditions, adjacent structure, etc.)
— support theoretical calculations when available analytical methods are susceptible to large uncertainties
— verify theoretical methods on a general basis
303 Models shall be sufficient to represent the actual installation. The test set-up and registration system shall provide a basis
for reliable, repeatable interpretation.
304 Full-scale measurements may be used to update the response prediction of the relevant structure and to validate the
response analysis for future analysis. Such tests may especially be applied to reduce uncertainties associated with loads and load
effects which are difficult to simulate in model scale.
305 In full-scale measurements it is important to ensure sufficient instrumentation and logging of environmental conditions
and responses to ensure reliable interpretation.
E 400 Wave loads
401 For calculation of wave loads, a recognised wave theory for representation of the wave kinematics shall be applied. The
wave theory shall be selected with due consideration of the water depth and of the range of validity of the theory.
402 Methods for wave load prediction shall be applied that properly account for the size, shape and type of structure.
403 For slender structures, such as jacket structure components and monopole structures, Morison’s equation can be applied
to calculate the wave loads.
404 For large volume structures, for which the wave kinematics are disturbed by the presence of the structure, radiation
analysis or diffraction analysis shall be performed to determine wave loads such as excitation forces and pressures.
405 Both viscous effects and potential flow effects may be important in determining the wave-induced loads on a
wind-turbine support structure. Wave diffraction and radiation are included in the potential flow effects.
Guidance Note:
Figure 2 can be used as a guidance to establish when viscous effects or potential flow effects are important. Figure 2 refers to horizontal
wave-induced forces on a vertical cylinder, which stands on the seabed and penetrates the free water surface, and which is subject to
incoming regular waves.
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Sec.4 – Page 55
H/D
20 H
Lλ
D
Drag forces
Breaking wave limit

≅ 10
Inertia Forces
Wave
Diffraction
0
0 ≅5 10 15 20 L/D
λ/D
Figure 2 Relative importance of inertia, drag and diffraction wave forces

406 Wave forces on slender structural members, such as a cylinder submerged in water, can be predicted by Morison’s
equation. By this equation, the horizontal force on a vertical element dz of the structure at level z is expressed as:
dF = dFM + dFD
D2 D
= C M ρπ &x&dz + C D ρ x& x&dz
4 2
where the first term is an inertia force and the second term is a drag force. Here, CD and CM are drag and inertia coefficients,
respectively, D is the diameter of the cylinder, ρ is the density of water, x& is the horizontal wave-induced velocity of water, and
&x& is the horizontal wave-induced acceleration of water. The level z is measured from still water level, and the z axis points
upwards. Thus, at seabed z=−d, when the water depth is d.
Guidance Note:
The drag and inertia coefficients are in general functions of the Reynold’s number, the Keulegan-Carpenter number and the relative
roughness. The coefficient also depends on the cross-sectional shape of the structure and of the orientation of the body. For a cylindrical
structural member of diameter D, the Reynolds’s number is defined as Re=umaxD/ν and the Keulegan-Carpenter number as KC=umaxTi/D,
where umax is the maximum horizontal particle velocity at still water level, ν is the kinematic viscosity of seawater, and Ti is the intrinsic
period of the waves. Re and KC, and in turn CD and CM, may attain different values for the extreme waves that govern the ULS and for the
moderate waves that govern the FLS.
For KC>30, which may be typical for storm conditions, CD=0.65 and CM=1.6 for smooth slender members, and CD=1.05 and CM=1.2 for
rough slender members.
For 1<KC<6, which may be typical for fatigue loading conditions, CD=0.65 and CM=2.0 for smooth slender members, and CD=0.8 and
CM=2.0 for rough slender members.
In 30-40 meters of water in the southern and central parts of the North Sea, CD=0.8 and CM=1.6 can be applied for diameters less than 2.2
m for use in load calculations for fatigue limit states.
For structures in shallow waters and near coastlines where there is a significant current in addition to the waves, CM should not be taken less
than 2.0.
Careful selection of drag and inertia coefficients for structures can be made according to NORSOK N-003.
Based on Airy theory for non-breaking waves, the horizontal wave-induced velocity can be expressed as
cosh k ( z + d )
x& = AW ω sin ωt
sinh kd
DET NORSKE VERITAS

Page 56 – Sec.4
and the acceleration can be expressed as
cosh k ( z + d )
x& = AW ω sin ωt
sinh kd
in which AW is the wave amplitude, ω is the angular frequency of the wave, and k is the wave number which results implicitly from the
relationship ω2=gk⋅tanh(kd), where g denotes the acceleration of gravity.
407 The resulting horizontal force F on the cylinder can be found by integration of Morison’s equation for values of z from –d
to the wave crest, η(t).
Guidance Note:
Based on Airy theory for non-breaking waves, the resulting horizontal force becomes
F = FM + FD
η (t )
D2 H 2
= ∫
−d
(C M ρπ
4 2
ω cos ωt
sinh k ( z + d )
⋅ )dz
sinh kd
η (t )
D H2 2
+ ∫
−d
(C D ρ
2 4
ω sin ωt sin ωt
cosh 2 k ( z + d )
⋅ )dz
sinh 2 kd
The integration from –d to 0 ignores contributions to the force from the wave crest above the still water level at z=0. This is a minor
problem when the inertia force FM is the dominating force component in F, since FM has its maximum when a nodal line at the still water
level passes the structure. The drag force FD has its maximum when the crest or trough passes the structure. If this force is the dominating
force component in F, a significant error can be introduced by ignoring the contribution from the wave crest.
The relative magnitude between the inertia force component FM and the drag force component FD can be expressed by the ratio between
their amplitudes, A=AM/AD. Figure 3 can be used to quickly establish whether the inertia force or the drag force is the dominating force,
once the ratios H/D and d/L have been calculated. Structures which come out above the curve marked A=1 in Figure 3 experience
drag-dominated loads, whereas structures which come out below this curve experience inertia-dominated loads.
Morison’s equation is only valid when the dimension of the structure is small relative to the wave length, i.e. when D<0.2L. The integrated
version of Morison’s equation given here is only valid for non-breaking waves. However, Morison’s equation as formulated for a vertical
element dz is valid for calculation of wave forces from both breaking and non-breaking waves as long as the element is fully submerged. In
deep water, waves break when H/L exceeds about 0.14. In shallow water, waves break when H/d exceeds about 0.78.
Airy theory, which has been used here to exemplify how wave forces can be calculated, may not always be an adequate wave theory as a
basis for prediction of wave forces in particularly shallow waters. 5th order stream function theory is usually considered the best wave
theory for representation of wave kinematics in shallow waters. Still, Airy theory is usually considered adequate for prediction of wave
forces for fatigue assessment, even in shallow waters, because the involved wave amplitudes are small.
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Sec.4 – Page 57
Figure 3 Relative magnitude of inertia and drag forces; inertia-to-drag ratio A plotted as a function of wave-height-to-diameter
ratio H/D and water-depth-to-wave-length ratio d/L. The figure refers to cylinders with D/L<0.2.
408 When the dimension of the structure is large compared with the wave length, typically when D>0.2L, Morison’s equation
is not valid. The inertia force will be dominating and can be predicted by diffraction theory.
Guidance Note:
For a cylinder of radius R=D/2 installed in water of depth d and subjected to a wave of amplitude A, the maximum horizontal force can be
calculated as
4 ρgA sinh[k (d + A sin α )]

FX ,max = ξ
k2 tanh[kd ]
and its arm measured from the seabed is
kd sinh[kd ] − cosh[kd ] + 1
hF = d
kd sinh[kd ]
The coefficients ξ and α are given in Table yy.
The formulas given in this guidance note are limited to vertical circular cylinders with constant diameter D. For other geometries of the
support structure, such as when a conical component is present in the wave-splash zone to absorb or reduce ice loads, diffraction theory is
still valid, but the resulting force and moment arm will come out different from the vertical cylinder solutions given here.
Table yy Coefficients ξ and α
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Page 58 – Sec.4
409 When waves are likely to break on the site of the structure or in its vicinity, wave loads from breaking waves shall be
considered in the design of the structure. Wave loads from breaking waves depend on the type of breaking waves. A distinction
is made between surging, plunging and spilling waves. The kinematics is different for these three types of breaking waves.
Guidance Note:
For plunging waves, an impact model may be used to calculate the wave forces on a structure. The impact force from a plunging wave can
be expressed as
F = ½ ρCSAu2
where u denotes the water particle velocity in the plunging wave crest, ρ is the mass density of the fluid, A is the area on the structure which
is assumed exposed to the slamming force, and CS is the slamming coefficient. For a smooth circular cylinder, the slamming coefficient
should not be taken less than 3.0. The upper limit for the slamming coefficient is 2π. Careful selection of slamming coefficients for
structures can be made according to DNV Classification Notes No. 30.5. The area A exposed to the slamming force depends on how far the
plunging breaker has come relative to the structure, i.e., how wide or pointed it is when it hits the structure. Plunging waves are rare in
Danish and German waters.
For surging and spilling waves, an approach to calculate the associated wave forces on a vertical cylindrical structure of diameter D can be
outlined as follows: The cylinder is divided into a number of sections. As the breaking wave approaches the structure, the instantaneous
wave elevation close to the cylinder defines the time instant when a section is hit by the wave and starts to penetrate the sloping water
surface. The instantaneous force per vertical length unit on this section and on underlying sections, which have not yet fully penetrated the
sloping water surface, can be calculated as
f = ½ ρCSDu2
where u denotes the horizontal water particle velocity, ρ is the mass density of the fluid, and CS is the slamming coefficient whose value
can be taken as
 D 0.107 s 
C S = 5.15 +  for 0<s<D
 D + 19 s D 
The penetration distance s for a section in question is the horizontal distance from the periphery on the wet side of the cylinder to the
sloping water surface, measured in the direction of the wave propagation. For fully submerged sections of the cylinder, the wave forces can
be determined from classical Morison theory with mass and drag terms using constant mass and drag coefficients,
DET NORSKE VERITAS

Sec.4 – Page 59
D 2 du 1
f = ρπC M + ρC D Du 2
4 dt 2
The water particle velocity u is to be determined from the wave kinematics for the particular type of breaking wave in question.
410 For prediction of wave load effects in a structure, caused by wave loads from non-breaking waves as well as from
breaking waves, dynamic effects shall be considered.
Guidance Note:
When breaking of waves takes place and produce many almost identical waves that arrive at a structure, rather large dynamic amplification
factors may develop in the structure, depending on the frequency of the waves relative to the natural frequency of the structure.
411 Computer codes which are used for prediction of wave loads on wind turbine structures shall be validated for the purpose.
The validation shall be documented.
412 Characteristic extreme wave loads are in this standard defined as wave load values with a 100-year recurrence period.
Guidance Note:
In the southern and central parts of the North Sea, experience shows that the ratio between the 100- and 50-year wave load values
Fwave,100/Fwave,50 attains a value approximately equal to 1.10. Unless data indicate otherwise, this value of the ratio Fwave,100/Fwave,50 may be
applied to achieve the 100-year wave load Fwave,100 in cases where only the 50-year value Fwave,50 is available, provided the location in
question is located in the southern or central parts of the North Sea.
413 For determination of the deck elevation of access platforms, a sufficient airgap based on design water level and design
wave crest height shall be ensured, such that extreme wave crests up to the height of the design wave crest are allowed to pass
without risk of touching the platform.
Guidance Note:
Sufficient airgap is necessary in order to avoid slamming forces on the access platform. When the airgap is calculated, it is recommended to
consider an extra allowance to account for possible local wave effects due to local seabed topography and shoreline orientation. The extra
allowance should be at least 1.0 m.
E 500 Ice loads

501 Loads from laterally moving ice shall be based on relevant full scale measurements, on model experiments which can be
reliably scaled, or on recognised theoretical methods. When determining the magnitude and direction of ice loads, consideration
is to be given to the nature of the ice, the mechanical properties of the ice, the ice-structure contact area, the size and shape of the
structure, and the direction of the ice movements. The oscillating nature of the ice loads, including build-up and fracture of
moving ice, is to be considered.
Guidance Note:
In sheltered waters and in waters close to the coastline, a rigid ice cover will usually not move once it has grown to exceed some threshold
thickness. In such waters, loads caused by moving ice may be calculated on the basis of this threshold thickness only, while loads
associated with thermal pressures, arch effects and vertical lift need to be calculated on the basis of the actual characteristic ice thickness as
required by this standard.
In open sea, where moving ice can be expected regardless of thickness, all ice loads shall be based on the actual characteristic ice thickness
as required by this standard.
502 Where relevant, ice loads other than those caused by laterally moving ice are to be taken into account. Such ice loads
include, but are not limited to, the following
• loads due to rigid covers of ice, including loads due to arch effects and water level fluctuations
• loads due to masses of ice frozen to the structure
• pressures from pack ice and ice walls
• thermal ice pressures associated with temperature fluctuations in a rigid ice cover
• possible impact loads during thaw of the ice, e.g. from falling blocks of ice
• loads due to icing.
DET NORSKE VERITAS

Page 60 – Sec.4
Guidance Note:
Owing to the very large forces associated with pack ice, it is not recommended to install wind turbines in areas where pack ice may build
up.
503 Wherever there is a risk that falling blocks of ice may hit a structural member, a system to protect these members from the
falling ice shall be arranged.
504 Possible increases in volume due to icing are to be considered when wind and wave loads acting on such volumes are to
be determined.
505 The structure shall be designed for horizontal and vertical static ice loads. Ice loads on vertical structures may be
determined according to API RP2N.
Guidance Note:
Horizontal loads from moving ice should be considered to act in the same direction as the concurrent wind loads.
Unilateral thermal ice pressures due to thermal expansion and shrinkage can be assumed to act from land outwards toward the open sea or
from the centre of a wind farm radially outwards. Larger values of unilateral thermal ice pressures will apply to stand-alone foundations
and to the peripheral foundations of a wind farm than to foundations in the interior of a wind farm.
The water level to be used in conjunction with calculation of ice loads shall be taken as the high water level or the low water level with the
required recurrence period, whichever is the most unfavourable.
506 Ice loads on inclined structural parts such as ice-load reducing cones in the splash zone may be determined according to
Ralston’s formulas. Ralston’s formulas are given in Appendix E.
Guidance Note:
To achieve an optimal ice cone design and avoid that ice load governs the design of the support structure and foundation, it is recommended
to adjust the inclination angle of the cone such that the design ice load is just less than the design wave load.
For ice-load reducing cones of the “inverted cone” type that will tend to force moving ice downwards, the bottom of ice-load reducing
cones is recommended to be located a distance of one ice thickness below the water level.
507 The characteristic local ice pressure for use in design against moving ice shall be taken as
2
eC
rlocal ,C = ru ,C 1 + 5
Alocal
where ru,C is the characteristic compressive strength of the ice, eC is the characteristic thickness of the ice, and Alocal is the area
over which the locale ice pressure is applied.
Guidance Note:
The characteristic compressive strength of ice depends on local conditions such as the salinity. For load cases, which represent rare events,
the characteristic compressive strength is expressed in terms of a required recurrence period. The below table specifies recurrence values of
the compressive strength for various recurrence periods in different waters.
Recurrence Compressive strength of ice, ru (MPa)
period (years)
Southern North Sea, Southwestern Baltic Gulf of Bothnia
Skagerrak, Kattegat Sea
5 1.0 1.0
10 1.5 1.5
50 1.6 1.9
100 1.7 2.1
For load cases, which are based on special events during thaw, break-up and melting, lower values than those associated with rare events
during extreme colds apply. 1.5 MPa applies to rigid ice during spring at temperatures near the melting point. 1.0 MPa applies to partly
weakened, melting ice at temperatures near the melting point.
Local values for the characteristic ice thickness ec shall be applied.
508 The structure shall be designed for horizontal and vertical dynamic ice loads.
DET NORSKE VERITAS

Sec.4 – Page 61
Guidance Note:
For structures located in areas, where current is prevailing, the dynamic ice load may govern the design when it is combined with the
concurrent wind load. This may apply to the situation when the ice breaks in the spring.
509 The level of application of horizontal ice load depends on the water level and the possible presence of ice-loading
reducing cones. Usually a range of application levels needs to be considered.
510 When ice breaks up, static and dynamic interactions will take place between the structure and the ice. For structures with
vertical walls, the natural vibrations of the structure will affect the break-up frequency of the ice, such that it becomes tuned to
the natural frequency of the structure. This phenomenon is known as lock-in and implies that the structure becomes excited to
vibrations in its natural mode shapes. The structure shall be designed to withstand the loads and load effects from dynamic ice
loading associated with lock-in when tuning occurs. All contributions to damping in the structure shall be considered. Additional
damping owing to pile-up of ice floes may be accounted for when it can be documented.
Guidance Note:
The criterion for occurrence of tuning is
U ice f n
> 0.3
t
where Uice is the velocity of the ice floe, t is the thickness of the ice, and fn is the natural frequency of the structure.
The loading can be assumed to follow a serrated profile in the time domain as shown in Figure X. The maximum value of the load shall be
set equal to the static horizontal ice load. After crushing of the ice, the loading is reduced to 20% of the maximum load. The load is applied
with a frequency that corresponds to the natural frequency of the structure. All such frequencies that fulfil the tuning criterion shall be
considered.
Figure X Serrated load profile for dynamic ice load

511 For conical structures, the break-up frequency of the ice shall be assumed independent of the natural vibrations of the
structure. It shall be assured in the design that the frequency of the ice load is not close to the natural frequency of the structure.
Guidance Note:
The frequency of the ice load can be determined as
U ice
f ice =
L
where Uice is the velocity of the ice floe, and L is the crack length in the ice.
The force can be applied according to the simplified model in Figure X, even though the failure mechanism in the ice is different for conical
structures than for vertical structures.
For prediction of the crack length L, the following two models are available:
(1) L = ½ ρD, where D is the diameter of the cone at the water table and ρ is determined from Figure Y as a function of γWD2/(σft), in which
σf is the flexural strength of the ice, γW is the unit weight of water and t is the thickness of the ice.
1 3
Et
(2) L = ( 2 ) 0.25
12γ W (1 −ν 2 )
DET NORSKE VERITAS
Page 62 – Sec.4
where E is Young’s modulus of the ice and ν is Poisson’s ratio of the ice.
Neither of these formulas for prediction of L reflects the dependency of L on the velocity of the ice floe, and the formulas must therefore be
used with caution. The prediction of L is in general rather uncertain, and relative wide ranges for the frequency fice must therefore be
assumed in design to ensure that an adequate structural safety is achieved.
Figure Y Factor ρ for calculation of crack length in ice

E 600 Water level loads
601 Tidal effects and storm surge effects shall be considered in evaluation of responses of interest. Higher mean water levels
tend to increase hydrostatic loads and current loads on the structure. Higher mean water levels also imply a decrease in the
available airgap to access platforms and other structural components which depend on some minimum clearance.
Guidance Note:
In general, both high water levels and low water levels shall be considered, whichever is most unfavourable, when water level loads are
predicted.
E 700 Earthquake loads

701 When a wind turbine structure is to be designed for installation on a site which may be subject to an earthquake, the
structure shall be designed to withstand the earthquake loads. Response spectra in terms of so-called pseudo response spectra
may be used for this purpose.
Guidance Note:
Pseudo response spectra for a structure are defined for displacement, velocity and acceleration. For a given damping ratio γ and angular
frequency ω, the pseudo response spectrum S gives the maximum value of the response in question over the duration of the response. This
can be calculated from the ground acceleration history by Duhamel’s integral. The following pseudo response spectra are considered:
SD, response spectral displacement
SV, response spectral velocity
SA, response spectral acceleration
For a lightly damped structure, the following approximate relationships apply, SA≈ω2SD and SV≈ωSD, such that it suffices to establish the
acceleration spectrum and then use this to establish the other two spectra.
It is important to analyze the wind turbine structure for the earthquake-induced accelerations in one vertical and two horizontal directions.
It usually suffices to reduce the analysis in two horizontal directions to an analysis in one horizontal direction, due to the symmetry of the
dynamic system. The vertical acceleration may lead to buckling in the tower. Since there is not expected to be much dynamics involved
with the vertical motion, the tower may be analyzed with respect to buckling for the load induced by the maximum vertical acceleration
caused by the earthquake. However, normally the only apparent buckling is that associated with the ground motion in the two horizontal
directions, and the buckling analysis for the vertical motion may then not be relevant.
For analysis of the horizontal motions and accelerations, the wind turbine can be represented by a concentrated mass on top of a vertical
rod, and the response spectra can be used directly to determine the horizontal loads set up by the ground motions. For a typical wind
turbine, the concentrated mass can be taken as the mass of the nacelle, including the rotor mass, plus ¼ of the tower mass.
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Sec.4 – Page 63
702 When a wind turbine structure is to be installed in areas which may be subject to tsunamis set up by earthquakes, the load
effect of the tsunamis on the structure shall be considered.
Guidance Note:
Tsunamis are seismic sea waves. To account for load effects of tsunamis on wind turbine structures in shallow waters, an acceptable
approach is to calculate the loads for the maximum sea wave that can exist on the site for the given water depth.
E 800 Marine growth

801 Marine growth shall be taken into account by increasing the outer diameter of the structural member in question in the
wave load calculations.
Guidance Note:
Unless data indicate otherwise, the following marine growth profile may be used for design:
Depth below MSL (m) Marine growth thickness (mm)
0-10 50
10-20 45
20-25 65
25-35 90
>35 80
The outer diameter of a structural member subject to marine growth shall be increased by twice the thickness specified in this table.
The type of marine growth may have an impact on the values of the hydrodynamic coefficients that are used in the wave load calculations.
E 900 Scour
901 Scour is the result of erosion of soil particles at and near a foundation and is caused by waves and current. Scour is a load
effect and may have an impact on the geotechnical capacity of a foundation and thereby on the structural response that governs
the ultimate and fatigue load effects in structural components.
902 Means to prevent scour and requirements to such means are given in Sec. 10 B300.
E 1000 Ship impacts and collisions
1001 For design of offshore wind turbine structures and their foundations in the ULS, the following situation shall be
considered: Impact from approaching characteristic service vessel by stem or stern. Alongside approach against appropriate
fendering shall be assumed.
1002 For design of offshore wind turbine structures and their foundations in the ALS, the following situation shall be
considered: Unintended collision by a drifting ship, such as large working vessels and crane barges, or by an unauthorised vessel.
The speed of the drifting ship shall be assessed in each case, however, the speed shall not be assumed to be less than 2 m/s. A
laterally drifting ship shall be assumed.
1003 For design against ship impacts and collisions in the ULS, it is a requirement that main structural parts such as the support
structure and its foundation must not endure damages which will reduce their capacities.
Guidance Note:
This requirement does not apply to secondary structural parts such as boat landings and ladders.
1004 In the ALS, it is usually not possible to protect the main structure from damage.
1005 For offshore wind farms located in waters with commercial ship traffic, the collision risk should be evaluated.
Guidance Note:
An analysis of the risk for ship collisions should be carried out. Such a risk analysis should contain the following elements:
- An investigation of the ship traffic in the vicinity of the wind farm. The investigation should include identification of shipping lanes in the
area, assessment of the annual ship traffic, and identification of ship types and ship sizes for each lane.
- A description of the environmental conditions, for example wind, waves, current, ice and visibility. The most important environmental
parameters must be included in the calculation model for the collision frequency.
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- Evaluation of the ship collision frequency for the following scenarios:
• Collision resulting from navigational error whilst the ship is fully operational, i.e. a collision due to human error. This scenario
could lead to a head-on bow collision.
• Collision from a mechanically disabled ship drifting into a wind turbine structure by the action of wind, current, tide or a
combination. This scenario could lead to a sideway collision.
• For wind farms located very close to shipping lanes, a steering failure scenario must also be considered.
- Evaluation of the consequences of the different scenarios. The consequences may concern structural safety (e.g. damage of wind turbine,
support structure and ship), human safety (e.g. injuries and fatalities), and the environment (e.g. an oil spill).
- Calculation of the risk. For each collision scenario, the risk is defined as the frequency or probability of the scenario times the
consequence.
- Evaluation of whether the total risk from all scenarios is acceptable. If no risk acceptance criteria are given, then the calculated total risk
should be compared with risks accepted for other offshore wind farms.
- Recommendation of cost-effective or necessary risk reduction measures for implementation. The implementation of risk reduction
measures for implementation should be based on ALARP principles.
The final risk should be verified against historical data of ship-ship collisions and groundings in the wind farm area.
The risk analysis should be differentiated with respect to types of ships and associated impact energies. The robustness of the structure
should be assessed relative to the results of this analysis. If it is practically and economically feasible to reinforce the structure such that the
risk of damage due to ship impacts becomes significantly reduced, such reinforcement shall be implemented.
E 1100 Transportation loads and installation loads

1101 Criteria shall be defined for acceptable external conditions during transportation, installation and dismantling of offshore
wind turbine structures and their foundations. This includes external conditions during installation, dismantling and replacement
of wind turbine rotors and nacelles as far as the involved loads on the support structures and foundations are concerned. Based on
the applied working procedures, on the vessels used and on the duration of the operation in question, acceptable limits for the
following environmental properties shall be specified:
• Wind speed
• Wave height and wave crest
• Water level
• Current
• Ice
1102 It shall be documented that lifting fittings mounted on a structure subject to lifting is shaped and handled in such a manner
that the structure will not be damaged during lifting under the specified external conditions.
1103 The capacity of transport fittings, lifting fittings and other equipment mounted on a structure should be certified.
1104 Reference is made to DNV Rules for Marine Operations.
F. Combination of Environmental Loads

F 100 General
101 This section gives requirements for combination of environmental loads in the operational condition.
102 The requirements refer to characteristic wind turbine loads based on an investigation of the load cases specified in Tables
E1, E2 and E3 for the ULS, the FLS and the ALS, respectively.
103 For design against the ULS, the characteristic environmental load effect shall be taken as the 99% quantile in the
distribution of the annual maximum environmental load effect, i.e. it is the load effect whose recurrence period is 100 years, and
whose associated probability of exceedance is 0.01. When the load effect is the result of the simultaneous occurrence of two or
more environmental load processes, these requirements to the characteristic load effect apply to the combined load effect from
the concurrently acting load processes. The subsequent clauses specify how concurrently acting environmental loads can be
combined to arrive at the required characteristic combined load effect.
104 Environmental loads are loads exerted by the environments that surround the structure. Typical environments are wind,
waves, current, and ice, but other environments may also be thought of such as temperature and ship traffic. Each environment is
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usually characterized by an intensity parameter. Wind is usually characterized by the 10-minute mean wind speed, waves by the
significant wave height, current by the mean current, and ice by the ice thickness.
F 200 Environmental states
201 Environmental states are defined as short-term environmental conditions of approximately constant intensity parameters.
The typical duration of an environmental state is 10 minutes or one hour. The long-term variability of multiple intensity
parameters representative of multiple, concurrently active load environments can be represented by a scattergram or by a joint
probability distribution function including information about load direction.
F 300 Environmental contours
301 An environmental contour is a contour drawn through a set of environmental states on a scattergram or in a joint
probability density plot for the intensity parameters of concurrently active environmental processes. The environmental states
defined by the contour are states whose common quality is that the probability of a more rare environmental state is p=TS/TR
where TS is the duration of the environmental state and TR is a specified recurrence period.
Guidance Note:
The idea of the environmental contour is that the environmental state whose recurrence period is TR is located somewhere along the
environmental contour defined based on TR. When only one environmental process is active, the environmental contour reduces to a point
on a one-dimensional probability density plot for the intensity parameter of the process in question, and the value of the intensity in this
point becomes equal to the value whose recurrence period is TR.
For an offshore wind turbine, the wind process and the wave process are two typical concurrent environmental processes. The 10-minute
mean wind speed U10 represents the intensity of the wind process, and the significant wave height HS represents the intensity of the wave
process. The joint probability distribution of U10 and HS can be represented in terms of the cumulative distribution function FU10 for U10 and
the cumulative distribution function FHS|U10 for HS conditional on U10. A first-order approximation to the environmental contour for
recurrence period TR can be obtained as the infinite number of solutions (U10, HS) to the following equation
TS
(Φ −1 ( FU10 (U 10 ))) 2 + (Φ −1 ( FH S |U10 ( H S ))) 2 = Φ −1 (1 − )
TR
in which Φ−1 denotes the inverse of the standard normal cumulative distribution function.
The environmental contour whose associated recurrence period is 100 years is useful for finding the 100-year load effect in the wind
turbine structure when the assumption can be made that the 100-year load effect occurs during the 100-year environmental state. When this
assumption can be made, the 100-year load effect can be estimated by the expected value of the maximum load effect that can be found
among the environmental states of duration TS along the 100-year environmental contour.
F 400 Combined load and load effect due to wind load and wave load
401 In a short-term period with a combination of waves and fluctuating wind, the individual variations of the two load
processes about their respective means can be assumed uncorrelated. This assumption can be made regardless of the intensities
and directions of the load processes, and regardless of possible correlations between intensities and between directions.
402 Two methods to combination of wind load and wave load are given in this standard:
- Linear combination of wind load and wave load, or of wind load effects and wave load effects, see F500
- Combination of wind load and wave load by simulation, see F600
403 The load combination methods presented in F500 and F600 and the load combinations specified in F700 are expressed in
terms of combinations of wind load effects, wave load effects and possible other load effects. This corresponds to design
according to Approach (1) in Sec. 2 E202. For design according to Approach (2) in Sec. 2 E202, the term “load effect” in F500,
F600 and F700 shall be interpreted as “load” such that “design loads” are produced by the prescribed combination procedures
rather than “design load effects”. Following Approach (2), the design load effects then result from structural analyses for these
design loads.
F 500 Linear combinations of wind load and wave load
501 The combined load effect in the structure due to concurrent wind and wave loads may be calculated by combining the
separately calculated wind load effect and the separately calculated wave load effect by linear superposition. This method may
be applied to concept evaluations and in some cases also to load calculations for final design, for example in shallow water or
when it can be demonstrated that there is no particular dynamic effect from waves, wind, ice or combinations thereof.
According to the linear combination format presented in Section 2, the design combined load effect is expressed as
S d = γ f 1 S wind ,k + γ f 2 S wave ,k
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in which Swind,k denotes the characteristic wind load effect and Swave,k denotes the characteristic wave load effect. It is a
prerequisite for using this approach to determine the design combined load effect that the separately calculated value of the
characteristic wave load effect Swind,k is obtained for realistic assumptions about the equivalent damping that results from the
structural damping and the aerodynamic damping. The equivalent damping depends on the following conditions related to the
wind turbine and the wind load on the turbine:
o whether the wind turbine is exposed to wind or not
o whether the wind turbine is in operation or is parked
o whether the wind turbine is a pitch-regulated turbine or a stall-regulated turbine
o the direction of the wind loading relative to the direction of the wave loading
Correct assumptions for the wind turbine and the wind load shall be made according to this list. The equivalent damping shall be
determined in correspondence with these assumptions. Structural analyses by an adequate structural analysis model and based on
this equivalent damping shall then be used to determine the characteristic wave load effect Swave,k. The damping from the wind
turbine should preferably be calculated directly in an integrated model.
Guidance Note:
When the characteristic load effect Swave,k is defined as the load effect whose recurrence period is TR, the determination of Swave,k as a
quantile in the distribution of the annual maximum load effect may prove cumbersome and involve a large number of structural analyses to
be carried out before contributions to this distribution from all important sea states have been included.
When the assumption can be made that Swave,k occurs during the particular sea state of duration TS whose significant wave height HS has a
recurrence period equal to TR, then Swave,k may be estimated by the expected value of the maximum load effect during this sea state, and the
analytical efforts needed may become considerably reduced. The assumption that Swave,k occurs in the sea state whose recurrence period is
TR is often reasonable, unless sea states exist for which the structure becomes more dynamically excited than by this particular sea state, for
example sea states involving wave trains whose periods are close to integer multiples of the natural period of the structure.
When the structural analysis involves executions of a number of simulations of the maximum load effect that occurs during the sea state
whose significant wave height has a recurrence period TR, then Swave,k shall be estimated by the mean of these simulated maximum load
effects.
When dynamic simulations utilising a structural dynamics model are used to calculate load effects, the total period of load effect data
simulated shall be long enough to ensure statistical reliability of the estimate of the sought-after maximum load effect. At least six
10-minute stochastic realisations (or a continuous 60-minute period) shall be required for each 10-minute mean, hub-height wind speed
considered in the simulations, except when load effects for fatigue assessments are simulated, for which one 10-minute stochastic
realisations suffices. Since the initial conditions used for the dynamic simulations typically have an effect on the load statistics during the
beginning of the simulation period, the first 5 seconds of data (or longer if necessary) shall be eliminated from consideration in any analysis
interval involving turbulent wind input.
The wind loads in the wind direction during idling and with the yaw system in function will be quite small and will consist mainly of drag
on the tower and the nacelle cover. The largest wind loads in this condition will be the blade loads that act perpendicular to the wind
direction.
F 600 Combination of wind load and wave load by simulation

601 The combined load effect in the structure due to concurrent wind and wave loads may alternatively be calculated by direct
simulation. This approach is based on structural analyses in the time domain for simultaneously applied simulated time series of
the wind load and the wave load. By this approach, simulated time series of the combined load effect results, from which the
characteristic combined load effect Sk is interpreted.
Guidance Note:
The approach requires that a global structural analysis model is established, e.g. in the form of a beam-element based frame model, to
which load series from several simultaneously acting load processes can be applied. Although this is here exemplified for two concurrently
acting load processes, viz. wind loads and wave loads, this can be generalized to include also other concurrent load processes.
When the characteristic load effect Sk is defined as the load effect whose recurrence period is TR, the determination of Sk as a quantile in the
distribution of the annual maximum load effect may prove cumbersome and involve a large number of structural analyses to be carried out
before contributions to this distribution from all important environmental states have been included.
When the assumption can be made that Sk occurs during an environmental state of duration TS associated with a recurrence period TR, then
Sk may be estimated by the expected value of the maximum load effect during such an environmental state, and the analytical efforts
needed may become considerably reduced. Under this assumption, Sk can be estimated by the expected value of the maximum load effect
that can be found among the environmental states on the environmental contour whose associated recurrence period is TR.
To simulate one realisation of the maximum load effect along the environmental contour whose associated recurrence period is TR, one
structural simulation analysis is carried out for each environmental state along the environmental contour and one maximum load effect
results for each one of these states. The same seed needs to be applied for each environmental state investigated this way. A following
search along the contour will identify the sought-after realisation of the maximum load effect. In practice, it will suffice to carry out
structural simulation analyses only for a limited number of environmental states along a part of the environmental contour. The procedure
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is repeated for a number of different seeds, and a corresponding number of maximum load effect realisations are obtained. The sought-after
characteristic load effect Sk is estimated by the mean of these simulated maximum load effects.
The assumption that Sk occurs in an environmental state associated with a recurrence period TR is often reasonable, unless environmental
states exist for which the structure becomes more dynamically excited than by this particular environmental state, for example
environmental states involving wave trains whose periods are close to integer multiples of the natural period of the structure.
When dynamic simulations utilising a structural dynamics model are used to calculate load effects, the total period of load effect data
simulated shall be long enough to ensure statistical reliability of the estimate of the sought-after maximum load effect. At least six
ten-minute stochastic realisations (or a continuous 60-minute period) shall be required for each 10-minute mean, hub-height wind speed
considered in the simulations. Since the initial conditions used for the dynamic simulations typically have an effect on the load statistics
during the beginning of the simulation period, the first 5 seconds of data (or longer if necessary) shall be eliminated from consideration in
any analysis interval involving turbulent wind input.
The wind loads in the wind direction during idling and with the yaw system in function will be quite small and will consist mainly of drag
on the tower and the nacelle cover. The largest wind loads in this condition will be the blade loads that act perpendicular to the wind
direction.
F 700 Basic load cases

701 When information is not available to produce the required characteristic combined load effect directly, the required
characteristic combined load effect can be obtained by combining the individual characteristic load effects due to the respective
individual environmental load types. Table F1 specifies a list of load cases that shall be considered when this approach is
followed, thereby to ensure that the required characteristic combined load effect, defined as the combined load effect with a
recurrence period of 100 years, is obtained for the design. Each load case is defined as the combination of two or more
environmental load types. For each load type in the load combination of a particular load case, the table specifies the
characteristic value of the corresponding, separately determined load effect. The characteristic value is specified in terms of the
recurrence period.
Table F1 Load combinations when recurrence period of characteristic combined load effect shall be 100 years
Environmental load type and recurrence period to define characteristic value of corresponding load effect
Limit state Load Wind Waves Current Ice Water level
combination
1 100 years 10 years 10 years 100 years
ULS/ALS 3 10 years 10 years 100 years 100 years
4 10 years 10 years 10 years 100 years * Mean water level
5 100 years 10 years 100 years Mean water level
* The 100-year ice load in this load combination refers to the break-up condition in the spring
Guidance Note:
Table F1 forms the basis for determination of the design combined load effect according to the linear combination format in Clause 501.
Table F1 refers to a characteristic combined load effect with a recurrence period of 100 years and shall be used in conjunction with load
factors specified for a 100-year recurrence period in Section 5.
When it can be assumed that a load effect whose recurrence period is TR occurs during the environmental state whose recurrence period is
TR, then the tabulated recurrence values in Table F1 can be used as the recurrence period for the load intensity parameter for the load type
that causes the particular load effect in question. With this interpretation, Table F1 may be used as the basis for determination of the
characteristic combined load effect by linear combination, in which case the analyses for the particular load cases of Table F1 replace the
more cumbersome searches for the characteristic load effect on environmental contours as described in Clause 403.
When the direction of the loading is an important issue, it may be of particular relevance to maintain that the recurrence periods of Table F1
refer to load effects rather than to load intensities.
For determination of the 100-year water level, two values shall be considered, viz. the high water level which is the 99% quantile in the
distribution of the annual maximum water level and the low water level which is the 1% quantile in the distribution of the annual minimum
water level. For each load combination in Table F1, the most unfavourable value among the two shall be used for the 100-year water level.
702 When it is practical to carry out the design on the basis of a characteristic combined load effect defined as the combined
load effect with a recurrence period of 50 years, rather than on the basis of the 100-year combined load effect as specified in
Clause 701, it is permitted to do so. Table F2 specifies a list of load cases that shall be considered when this approach is followed.
Table F2 Load combinations when recurrence period of characteristic combined load effect shall be 50 years
Environmental load type and recurrence period to define characteristic value of corresponding load effect
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Limit state Load Wind Waves Current Ice Water level
combination
ULS/ALS 3 5 years 5 years 50 years 50 years
4 5 years 5 years 5 years 50 years * Mean water level
5 50 years 5 years 50 years Mean water level
* The 50-year ice load in this load combination refers to the break-up condition in the spring
Guidance Note:
When the characteristic combined load effect is defined as a 50-year load effect, Table F2 shall be applied for design in exactly the same
manner as Table F1 is applied for design according to Clause 701 when the characteristic combined load effect is defined as a 100-year
load effect.
Table F2 refers to a characteristic combined load effect with a recurrence period of 50 years and shall be used in conjunction with load
factors specified for a 50-year recurrence period in Section 5.
Load cases and recurrence periods specified in Table F2 may not in any way be combined with load cases and recurrence periods specified
in Table F1.
703 Every time a load combination is investigated, which contains a load effect contribution from wind load, the load
combination shall be analysed for two different assumptions about the state of the wind turbine:
- wind turbine in operation (power production)
- parked wind turbine (idling or standing still)
The largest load effect resulting from the corresponding two analyses shall be used for design.
Guidance Note:
It will usually not be clear beforehand which of the two assumptions will produce the largest load effect, even if the blades of the parked
turbine are put in the braking position to minimise the wind loads.
In a ULS situation where the characteristic wind load effect is to be taken as the 100-year wind load effect, the calculation for the wind
turbine in operation will normally correspond to calculation of the expected maximum load effect for a wind climate whose intensity is
represented by the cut-out wind speed. For the parked wind turbine, the calculation will correspond to the calculation of the 100-year wind
load effect as if the wind turbine would be in the parked condition during its entire design life.
704 When it can be established as unlikely that the wind turbine will be in operation during the wave, ice, current and/or
water level conditions that form part of a load combination under investigation, the requirement of Clause 703 to analyse the load
combination for the assumption of wind turbine in operation may be too strict. When such an unlikely situation is encountered,
the fulfilment of this requirement of Clause 703 may be deviated from in the following manner: The load combination under
investigation shall still be analysed for the assumption of wind turbine in operation; however, the requirements to the recurrence
periods of the wave, ice, current and water level conditions that the wind load effect is combined with may be relaxed and set
lower than the values specified in Table F1 for the particular load combination, as long as it can be documented that the
recurrence period for the resulting combined load effect does not fall below 100 years.
Guidance Note:
When the fetch is limited and wind and waves have the same direction in severe storms, then the wind climate intensity is likely to reach its
extreme maximum at the same time as the wave climate intensity reaches its extreme maximum, and it may be unlikely to see wind speeds
below the cut-out wind speed during the presence of the 100-year wave climate. Likewise, it may be unlikely to see the 100-year wave
climate during operation of the wind turbine.
When the topography, e.g. in terms of a nearby coastline, forces the extreme maximum of the wind climate to take place at a different time
than the extreme maximum of the wave climate intensity, then it may be likely to see wind speeds below the cut-out wind speed during the
presence of the 100-year wave climate. Likewise, it may be likely to see the 100-year wave climate during operation of the wind turbine.
When a large fetch is present, there may be a phase difference between the occurrence of the extreme maximum of the wind climate
intensity and the extreme maximum of the wave climate intensity, and it may be likely to see wind speeds below the cut-out wind speed
during the presence of the 100-year wave climate. Likewise, it may be likely to see the 100-year wave climate during operation of the wind
turbine.
705 Every time a load case is investigated, which contains a load effect contribution from ice loads, loads from moving ice
shall be considered as well as loads from fast-frozen ice and loads due to temperature fluctuations in the ice.
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706 Load combination No. 5 in Tables F1 and F2 is of relevance for structures in waters which are covered by ice every year.
Investigations for Load combination No. 5 in Tables F1and F2 can be waived for structures in waters which are covered by ice
less frequently than every year.
707 When a load case is investigated, which contains a load effect contribution from wave loads, loads from wave trains in
less severe sea states than the sea state of the specified recurrence period shall be considered if these loads prove to produce a
larger load effect than the sea state of the specified recurrence period.
Guidance Note:
Dynamic effects may cause less severe sea states than the sea state of the specified recurrence period to produce more severe load effects,
e.g. if these sea states imply wave trains arriving at the wind turbine structure with periods which are integer multiples of the natural
frequency of the structure. The possibility that waves break at the wind turbine structure may play a role in this context and should be
included in the considerations.
708 Co-directionality of wind and waves may be assumed for calculation of the wave loads acting on the support structure for
all design cases except those corresponding to the wind turbine in a parked (standstill or idling) design situation. The
misalignment of wind and wave directions in the parked situation is to be accounted for.
Guidance Note:
Allowance for short term deviations from the mean wind direction in the parked situation should be made by assuming a constant yaw
misalignment. It is recommended to apply a yaw misalignment of ±15°.
709 The multi-directionality of the wind and the waves may in some cases have an important influence on the loads acting on
the support structure, depending primarily on whether the structure is axisymmetric or not. For some design load cases the load
calculations may be undertaken by assuming that the wind and the waves are acting co-directionally from a single, worst case
direction.
F 800 Transient load cases
801 Actuation loads from the operation and control of the wind turbine produce transient wind loads on the wind turbine
structure. The following events produce transient loads and shall be considered:
- start up from stand-still or from idling
- normal shutdown
- emergency shutdown
- normal fault events: faults in control system and loss of electrical network connection
- abnormal fault events: faults in protection system and electrical systems
- yawing
802 The characteristic transient wind load effect shall be calculated as the maximum load effect during a 10-minute period
whose wind intensity shall be taken as the most unfavourable 10-minute mean wind speed in the range between the cut-in wind
speed and the cut-out wind speed. In order to establish the most critical wind speed, i.e. the wind speed that produce the most
severe load during the transient loading, gusts, turbulence, shift in wind direction, wind shear, timing of fault situations, and grid
loss in connection with deterministic gusts shall be considered.
803 The characteristic transient wind load effect shall be combined with the 10-year wave load effect. The combination may
be worked out according to the linear combination format to produce the design load effect from the separately calculated
characteristic wind load effect and wave load effect. The combination may alternatively be worked out by direct simulation of
the characteristic combined load effect in a structural analysis in the time domain for simultaneously applied simulated time
series of the wind load and the wave load.
804 When transient wind loads are combined with wave loads, misalignment between wind and waves shall be considered.
For non-axisymmetric support structures, the most unfavourable wind load direction and wave load direction shall be assumed.
Guidance Note:
When a wave train arrives crosswise of the wind for a wind turbine in operation, sideways motions of the wind turbine may result and force
the turbine to shut down automatically, because the operating system of the turbine interprets this event with an expectation of something
worse to come. This automatic shutdown of the turbine may imply transient load effects in the support structure which are more severe than
the load effects that the structure will experience if the turbine remains in operation during the loading exerted by the arriving wave train.
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F 900 Load combination for the fatigue limit state
901 For analyses of the fatigue limit state, a characteristic load effect distribution shall be applied which is the expected load
effect distribution over the design life. The expected load effect distribution is a distribution of stress ranges owing to load
fluctuations and contains contributions from wind, waves, current, ice and water level as well as from possible other sources. The
expected load effect distribution shall include contributions from
- wind turbine in operation
- parked wind turbine (idling and standing still)
- start up
- normal shutdown
- control, protection and system faults, including loss of electrical network connection
- transport and assembly prior to putting the wind turbine to service
- maintenance and repair during the service life
For fatigue analysis of a foundation pile, the characteristic load effect distribution shall include the history of stress ranges
associated with the driving of the pile prior to installing the wind turbine and putting it to service.
Guidance Note:
The characteristic load effect distribution can be represented as a histogram of stress ranges, i.e., the number of constant-range stress cycles
is given for each stress range in a sufficiently fine discretisation of the stress ranges. The individual contributions to this load effect
distribution from different sources can be represented the same way.
For contributions to the expected load effect distribution that are consecutive in time or otherwise mutually exclusive, such as the
contribution from the transportation and installation phase and the contribution from the in-service phase, the fatigue damage due to each
contribution can be calculated separately and added together without introducing any particular prior combination of the contributions to
the distribution. Alternatively, the different contributions can be combined to form the expected load effect distribution prior to the fatigue
damage calculation by adding together the number of stress cycles at each defined discrete stress range from the respective underlying
distributions.
For contributions to the expected load effect distribution that are concurrent, such as the contribution from wind load and the contribution
from wave load, the corresponding underlying individual stress range distributions for wind load effect and wave load effect, respectively,
need to be adequately combined prior to the calculation of the fatigue damage. When wind loads and wave loads act concurrently, it can be
expected that their combined load effect distribution will contain somewhat higher stress ranges than those of the underlying individual
wave load effect and wind load effect distributions. The following idealised approach to combination of the two underlying stress range
distributions will usually be conservative: The number of stress cycles of the combined load effect distribution is assumed equal to the
number of stress cycles in the underlying distribution that contains the most cycles. Then the largest stress range in the wind load effect
distribution is combined by the largest stress range in the wave load effect distribution by simple superposition, the second largest stress
ranges are combined analogously, the third largest stress ranges the same, and so on.
There may be some ambiguity involved with how concurrent wave load effects and wind load effects shall be combined to form the
resulting load effect distribution for fatigue damage prediction. The proposed method of combination is idealised and imply an assumption
of colinear wind and waves. However, when combining wind load effects and wave load effects for fatigue, consideration of the
distribution of the wind direction, the distribution of the wave direction and the distribution of the misalignment between wind and waves
is important and may, relative to the situation with colinear wind and waves, often imply gains in terms of reduced fatigue damage that will
more than outweigh the possible effects of conservatism in the idealised combination method. Caution should be exercised when counting
on such gains when wind and waves are not colinear, since situations may exist for which larger fatigue damage will accumulate if the
waves act perpendicular to the wind rather than colinearly with the wind.
G. Load Effect Analysis

G 100 General
101 Load effects, in terms of motions, displacements, and internal forces and stresses in the wind turbine structure, shall be
determined with due regard for:
— their spatial and temporal nature including:

— possible non-linearities of the load
— dynamic character of the response
— the relevant limit states for design checks
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— the desired accuracy in the relevant design phase.
102 Permanent loads, functional loads, deformation loads, and fire loads can generally be treated by static methods of
analysis. Environmental loads (by wind, waves, current, ice and earthquake) and certain accidental loads (by impacts and
explosions) may require dynamic analysis. Inertia and damping forces are important when the periods of steady-state loads are
close to natural periods or when transient loads occur.
103 In general, three frequency bands need to be considered for offshore structures:
High frequency Rigid body natural periods below the

(HF) dominating wave periods, e.g.
ringing and springing responses.
Wave frequency Typically wave periods in the range 4

(WF) to 25 seconds. Applicable to all
offshore structures located in the
wave active zone.
Low frequency This frequency band relates to slowly
(LF) varying responses with natural
periods beyond those of the
dominating wave energy (typically
slowly varying motions).
104 For fully restrained structures a static or dynamic wind-wave-structure-foundation analysis is required.
105 Uncertainties in the analysis model are expected to be taken care of by the load and resistance factors. If uncertainties are
particularly high, conservative assumptions shall be made.
106 If analytical models are particularly uncertain, the sensitivity of the models and the parameters utilised in the models shall
be examined. If geometric deviations or imperfections have a significant effect on load effects, conservative geometric
parameters shall be used in the calculation.
107 In the final design stage theoretical methods for prediction of important responses of any novel system should be verified
by appropriate model tests
108 Earthquake loads need only be considered for restrained modes of behaviour.
G 200 Global motion analysis
201 The purpose of a motion analysis is to determine displacements, accelerations, velocities and hydrodynamic pressures
relevant for the loading on the wind turbine support structure. Excitation by waves, current and wind should be considered.
G 300 Load effects in structures and foundation soils
301 Displacements, forces and stresses in the structure and foundation, shall be determined for relevant combinations of loads
by means of recognised methods, which take adequate account of the variation of loads in time and space, the motions of the
structure and the limit state which shall be verified. Characteristic values of the load effects shall be determined.
302 Non-linear and dynamic effects associated with loads and structural response, shall be accounted for whenever relevant.
303 The stochastic nature of environmental loads shall be adequately accounted for.
H. Accidental loads
H 100 General
101 Accidental loads are loads related to abnormal operations or technical failure. Examples of accidental loads are loads
caused by:
— dropped objects
— collision impact
— explosions
— fire
— change of intended pressure difference
— accidental impact from vessel, helicopter or other objects
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— unintended change in ballast distribution
102 Relevant accidental loads should be determined on the basis of an assessment and relevant experiences. With respect to
planning, implementation, use and updating of such assessment and generic accidental loads, reference is made to
DNV-OS-A101.
103 For temporary design conditions, the characteristic load may be a specified value dependent on practical requirements.
The level of safety related to the temporary design conditions is not to be inferior to the safety level required for the operating
design conditions.
I. Deformation loads
I 100 General
Deformation loads are loads caused by inflicted deformations such as:
— temperature loads
— built-in deformations
— settlement of foundations
I 200 Temperature loads

201 Structures shall be designed for the most extreme temperature differences they may be exposed to.
202 The ambient sea or air temperature shall be calculated as the extreme value whose recurrence period is 100 years.
203 Structures shall be designed for a solar radiation intensity of 1000 W/m2.
I 300 Settlements
301 Settlement of the support structure and its foundation due to vertical deformations of the supporting soils shall be
considered. This includes consideration of differential settlements.
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SECTION 5
LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTORS
A. Load factors
A 100 Load factors for the ULS and the ALS
101 Table A1 provides three sets of load factors to be used when characteristic loads or load effects from different load
categories are combined to form the design load or load effect for use in design. For analysis of the ULS, the set denoted (a) shall
be used when the characteristic environmental load or load effect is established as the 99% quantile in the distribution of the
annual maximum load or load effect. The set denoted (b) shall be used when the characteristic environmental load or load effect
is established as the 98% quantile in the distribution of the annual maximum load or load effect. For analysis of the ALS, the set
denoted (c) shall be used. The load factors apply in the operational condition as well as in the temporary condition. The load
factors are generally applicable for all types of support structures and foundations.
Table A1 Load factors γf for the ULS and the ALS
Combination Limit Recurrence period for Load categories
state definition of characteristic
environmental load in the ULS G Q E D
(years)
(a) ULS 100 ψ ψ 1.25 1.0
(b) ULS 50 ψ ψ 1.35 1.0
(c) ALS - 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.0
Load categories are:
G = permanent load
Q = variable functional load, normally only relevant for local design of platforms
E = environmental load
D = deformation load
For description of load categories, see Section 5.
For values of ψ, see Clauses 103 and 104.
Guidance Note:
Conversion factors for conversions between 50- and 100-year values of environmental loads and load effects are given in Sec. 4 E200 and
E400.
102 The characteristic environmental load effect (E), which forms part of the load combinations of Table A1, is to be taken as
the characteristic combined load effect, determined according to Section 5, and representing the load effect that results from two
or more concurrently acting load processes.
103 For permanent loads (G) and variable functional loads (Q), the load factor in the ULS shall normally be taken as ψ=1.0.
104 When a permanent load (G) or a variable functional load (Q) is a favourable load, then a load factor ψ=1.0 or less shall be
applied for this load in combinations (a) and (b) of Table A1 instead of the value 1.0 otherwise required. A load is a favourable
load when a reduced value of the load leads to an increased load effect in the structure.
Guidance Note:
One example of a favourable load is the weight of a soil volume which has a stabilising effect in an overturning problem for a foundation.
A load factor 1.0 for a favourable load is reasonable when the load is well determined. For a favourable load which is not well determined,
a load factor less than 1.0 may be appropriate and should be considered.
A 200 Load factor for the FLS

201 The structure shall be able to resist expected fatigue loads, which may occur during temporary and operational design
conditions. Whenever significant cyclic loads may occur in other phases, e.g. during manufacturing and transportation, such
cyclic loads shall be included in the fatigue load estimates.
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202 The load factor γf in the FLS is 1.0 for all load categories.
A 300 Load factor for the SLS
301 For analysis of the SLS, the load factor γf is 1.0 for all load categories, both for temporary and operational design
conditions.
B. Resistance factors
B 100 Resistance factors for the ULS
101 Resistance factors for the ULS are given in the relevant sections for design in the ULS.
B 200 Resistance factors for the FLS
201 Resistance factors for the FLS are given in the relevant sections for design in the FLS.
B 300 Resistance factor for the ALS
301 Unless otherwise specified, the material factor γm for the ALS shall be taken as the material factor for the ULS.
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Sec.6 – Page 75
SECTION 6
MATERIALS
A. Selection of Steel Materials and Inspection Principles

A 100 General
101 This section describes the selection of steel materials and inspection principles to be applied in design and construction of
offshore steel structures.
A 200 Design Temperatures
201 The design temperature is a reference temperature used as a criterion for the selection of steel grades. The design
temperature shall be based on lowest daily mean temperature.
202 In all cases where the service temperature is reduced by localised cryogenic storage or other cooling conditions, such
factors shall be taken into account in establishing the minimum design temperatures.
203 The design temperature for floating units shall not exceed the lowest service temperature of the steel as defined for
various structural parts.
204 External structures above the lowest waterline shall be designed with service temperatures equal to the lowest daily mean
temperature for the area(s) where the unit is to operate.
205 Further details regarding design temperature for different structural elements are given in the object standards.
206 External structures below the lowest waterline need not be designed for service temperatures lower than 0°C. A higher
service temperature may be accepted if adequate supporting data can be presented relative to the lowest average temperature
applicable to the relevant actual water depths.
207 Internal structures in way of permanently heated rooms need not be designed for service temperatures lower than 0°C.
208 For fixed units, materials in structures above the lowest astronomical tide (LAT) shall be designed for service
temperatures down to the lowest daily mean temperature.
209 Materials in structures below the lowest astronomical tide (LAT) need not to be designed for service temperatures lower
than of 0°C. A higher service temperature may be accepted if adequate supporting data can be presented relative to the lowest
daily mean temperature applicable for the relevant water depths.
A 300 Structural category
301 The purpose of the structural categorisation is to assure adequate material and suitable inspection to avoid brittle fracture.
The purpose of inspection is also to remove defects that may grow into fatigue cracks during service life.
Guidance Note:
Conditions that may result in brittle fracture are sought avoided. Brittle fracture may occur under a combination of:
- presence of sharp defects such as cracks
- high tensile stress in direction normal to planar defect(s)
- material with low fracture toughness.
Sharp cracks resulting from fabrication may be found by inspection and repaired. Fatigue cracks may also be discovered during service life
by inspection.
High stresses in a component may occur due to welding. A complex connection is likely to provide more restraint and larger residual stress
than a simple one. This residual stress may be partly removed by post weld heat treatment if necessary. Also a complex connection shows
a more three-dimensional stress state due to external loading than simple connections. This stress state may provide basis for a cleavage
fracture.
The fracture toughness is dependent on temperature and material thickness. These parameters are accounted for separately in selection of
material. The resulting fracture toughness in the weld and the heat affected zone is also dependent on the fabrication method.
Thus, to avoid brittle fracture, first a material with suitable fracture toughness for the actual design temperature and thickness is selected.
Then a proper fabrication method is used. In special cases post weld heat treatment may be performed to reduce crack driving stresses, see
also DNV-OS-C401. A suitable amount of inspection is carried out to remove planar defects larger than that are acceptable. In this standard
selection of material with appropriate fracture toughness and avoidance of unacceptable defects are achieved by linking different types of
connections to different structural categories and inspection categories.
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302 Components are classified into structural categories according to the following criteria:
— significance of component in terms of consequence of failure

— stress condition at the considered detail that together with possible weld defects or fatigue cracks may provoke brittle
fracture.
Guidance Note:
The consequence of failure may be quantified in terms of residual strength of the structure when considering failure of the actual
component.
303 The structural category for selection of materials shall be determined according to principles given in Table A1.
Table A1 Structural categories for selection of materials 1)

Structural Principles for determination of structural category
category
Special Structural parts where failure will have substantial
consequences and are subject to a stress condition
that may increase the probability of a brittle
fracture.2)
Primary Structural parts where failure will have substantial
consequences.
Secondary Structural parts where failure will be without
significant consequence.
1) Examples of determination of structural categories are given in the

various object standards.
2) In complex joints a triaxial or biaxial stress pattern will be present.
This may give conditions for brittle fracture where tensile stresses are
present in addition to presence of defects and material with low
fracture toughness.
304 Requirements for type and extent of inspection of welds are given in DNV-OS-C401 depending on assigned inspection
category for the welds. The requirements are based on the consideration of fatigue damage and assessment of general fabrication
quality.
305 The inspection category is by default related to the structural category according to Table A2.
Table A2 Inspection categories

Inspection category Structural category
I Special
II Primary
III Secondary
306 The weld connection between two components shall be assigned an inspection category according to the highest of the
joined components. For stiffened plates, the weld connection between stiffener and stringer and girder web to the plate may be
inspected according to inspection Category III.
307 If the fabrication quality is assessed by testing, or if it is of a well known quality based on previous experience, the extent
of inspection required for elements within structural category primary may be reduced, but the extent must not be less than that
for inspection Category III.
308 Fatigue-critical details within structural category primary and secondary shall be inspected according to requirements
given for Category I.
309 Welds in fatigue-critical areas not accessible for inspection and repair during operation shall be inspected according to
requirements in Category I during construction.
A 400 Structural Steel
401 Wherever the subsequent requirements for steel grades are dependent on plate thickness, these requirements are based on
the nominal thickness as built.
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Sec.6 – Page 77
402 The requirements in this subsection deal with the selection of various structural steel grades in compliance with the
requirements given in DNV-OS-B101. Where other codes or standards have been agreed on and utilised in the specification of
steels, the application of such steel grades within the structure shall be specially considered.
403 The steel grades selected for structural components shall be related to calculated stresses and requirements to toughness
properties. Requirements for toughness properties are in general based on the Charpy V-notch test and are dependent on design
temperature, structural category and thickness of the component in question.
404 The material toughness may also be evaluated by fracture mechanics testing in special cases.
405 In structural cross-joints where high tensile stresses are acting perpendicular to the plane of the plate, the plate material
shall be tested to prove the ability to resist lamellar tearing, Z-quality, see 411.
406 Requirements for forgings and castings are given in DNV-OS-B101.
407 Material designations for steel are given in terms of a strength group and a specified minimum yield stress. Structural
steel designations for various strength groups are referred to as given in Table A3.
408 Each strength group consists of two parallel series of steel grades:
— steels of normal weldability

— steels of improved weldability.
The two series are intended for the same applications. However, the improved weldability grades have, in addition to leaner
chemistry and better weldability, extra margins to account for reduced toughness after welding. These grades are also limited to
a specified minimum yield stress of 500 N/mm2.
Table A3 Material designations

Specified minimum yield stress
Designation Strength group
fy (N/mm2)1)
Normal strength
NV 235
steel (NS)
NV-27 265
NV-32 High strength 315
NV-36 steel (HS) 355
NV-40 390
NV-420 420
NV-460 460
NV-500 Extra high 500
strength steel
NV-550 (EHS) 550
NV-620 620
NV-690 690
1) For steels of improved weldability the required specified minimum

yield stress is reduced for increasing material thickness, see
DNV-OS-B101.
409 Conversions between NV grades as used in Table A3 and steel grades used in the EN10025 standard are given in Table
A4. The number of one-to-one conversions between NV grades and EN10025 grades given in Table A4 is limited, because the
E-qualities of the NV grades are not defined in EN10025 and because no qualities with specified minimum yield stress fy greater
than 355 MPa are given in EN10025.
Table A4 Steel grade conversions
NV grade EN10025 grade
NVA S235JRG2
NVB S235J0
NVD S235J2G3
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NVE ___
NV A27 S275J0
NV D27 S275J2G3
NV E27 ___
NV A32 ___
NV D32 ___
NV E32 ___
NV A36 S355J0
NV D36 S355K2G3 and S355J2G3
NV E36 ___
NV A40 ___
NV D40 ___
NV E40 ___
NV D420 ___
NV E420 ___
NV F420 ___
NV D460 ___
NV E460 ___
NV F460 ___
Guidance Note:
Important notes to the conversions between NV grades and EN10025 grades in Table A4:
NV grades are, in general, better steel qualities than comparable EN10025 grades. For example, all NV grades except NV A and NV B, are
fully killed and fine grain treated. This is the case only for the J2G3 and K2G3 grades in EN10025.
The delivery condition is specified as a function of thickness for all NV grades, while this is either optional or at the manufacturer’s
discretion in EN10025.
The steel manufacturing process is also at the manufacturer’s option in EN10025, while only the electric process or one of the basic oxygen
processes is generally allowed according to the DNV standard.
For the grades NV A, NV B and NV D, an averaged impact energy of minimum 27 Joule is specified for thicknesses up to and including 50
mm. For larger thicknesses, higher energy requirements are specified. EN10025 requires an averaged impact energy of minimum 27 Joule
regardless of thickness.
Concerning NV A36 and NV D36, minimum 34 Joule averaged impact energy is required for thicknesses below 50 mm, 41 Joule for
thicknesses between 50 and 70 mm, and 50 Joule for thicknesses above 70 mm. EN10025 specifies 27 Joule averaged impact energy for the
S355J0 and S355J2G3 grades and 40 Joule for the S355K2G3 grade.
In EN10025, minimum specified mechanical properties (yield stress, tensile strength range and elongation) are thickness dependent. The
corresponding properties for NV grades are specified independently of thickness.
410 Conversions between NV grades as used in Table D1 and steel grades used in the EN10113 standard are given in Table
A5. The number of one-to-one conversions between NV grades and EN10025 grades given in Table X is limited, because the
E-qualities of the NV grades are not defined in EN10025 and because no qualities with specified minimum yield stress fy greater
than 355 MPa are given in EN10025.
Table A5 Steel grade conversions
NV grade EN10113 grade
NVA ___
NVB ___
NVD ___
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Sec.6 – Page 79
NVE ___
NV A27 ___
NV D27 S275N
NV E27 S275NL (max. 50 mm)
NV A32 ___
NV D32 ___
NV E32 ___
NV A36 ___
NV D36 S355N (max. 70 mm)
NV E36 (*) S355NL (*)
NV A40 ___
NV D40 ___
NV E40 ___
NV D420 S420NL
NV E420 ___
NV F420 ___
NV D460 S460N
NV E460 S460NL
NV F460 ___
(*) Lower requirement to toughness for EN10113 grade than for NV grade.
Guidance Note:
Important notes to the conversions between NV grades and EN10113 grades in Table A5:
The conversions are based on comparable requirements to strength and toughness.
Because EN10113 specifies requirements to fine grain treatment, the EN10113 grades are in general better grades than corresponding
grades listed in EN10025 and can be considered equivalent with the corresponding NV grades.
For the grades NV A, NV B and NV D, an averaged impact energy of minimum 27 Joule is specified for thicknesses up to and including 50
mm. For larger thicknesses, higher energy requirements are specified. EN10025 requires an averaged impact energy of minimum 27 Joule
regardless of thickness.
411 Within each defined strength group, different steel grades are given, depending on the required impact toughness
properties. The grades are referred to as A, B, D, E, and F for normal weldability grades and AW, BW, DW, and EW for
improved weldability grades as defined in Table A6.
Additional symbol :
Z = steel grade of proven through-thickness
properties. This symbol is omitted for steels of
improved weldability although improved
through-thickness properties are required.
Table A6 Applicable steel grades

Grade
Test
Strength group Normal Improved temperature(ºC)
weldability weldability
NS A - Not tested
1)
B BW 0
D DW -20
E EW -40
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HS A AW 0
D DW -20
E EW -40
F - -60
EHS A - 0
D DW -20
E EW -40
F - -60
1) Charpy V-notch tests are required for thickness above 25 mm but is

subject to agreement between the contracting parties for thickness of
25 mm or less.
412 The grade of steel to be used shall in general be selected according to the design temperature and the thickness for the
applicable structural category as specified in Table A7.
Table A7 Thickness limitations(mm) of structural steels for

different structural categories and design temperatures (ºC)
Structural Grade ≥ 10 0 -10 -20
Category
A 30 30 25 20
B/BW 60 60 50 40
D/DW 150 150 100 80
E/EW 150 150 150 150
AH/AHW 50 50 40 30
DH/DHW 100 100 80 60
Secondary
EH/EHW 150 150 150 150
FH 150 150 150 150
AEH 60 60 50 40
DEH/DEHW 150 150 100 80
EEH/EEHW 150 150 150 150
FEH 150 150 150 150
A 30 20 10 N.A.
B/BW 40 30 25 20
D/DW 60 60 50 40
E/EW 150 150 100 80
AH/AHW 25 25 20 15
DH/DHW 55 55 45 35
Primary
EH/EHW 100 100 80 60
FH 150 150 150 150
AEH 30 30 25 20
DEH/DEHW 60 60 50 40
EEH/EEHW 150 150 100 80
FEH 150 150 150 150
D/DW 35 30 25 20
E/EW 60 60 50 40
AH/AHW 10 10 N.A. N.A.
DH/DHW 25 25 20 15
EH/EHW 50 50 40 30
Special
FH 100 100 80 60
AEH 15 15 10 N.A.
DEH/DEHW 30 30 25 20
EEH/EEHW 60 60 50 40
FEH 150 150 100 80
N.A. = no application
413 Selection of a better steel grade than minimum required in design shall not lead to more stringent requirements in
fabrication.
414 Grade of steel to be used for thickness less than 10 mm and/or design temperature above 0 °C will be specially considered
in each case. For submerged structures, i.e. for structures below LAT−1.5m e.g. in the North Sea, the design temperature will be
somewhat above 0 °C (typically 2 °C) and special considerations can be made in such cases.
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415 Welded steel plates and sections of thickness exceeding the upper limits for the actual steel grade as given in Table A7
shall be evaluated in each individual case with respect to the fitness for purpose of the weldments. The evaluation should be
based on fracture mechanics testing and analysis, e.g. in accordance with BS 7910.
416 For regions subjected to compressive and/or low tensile stresses, consideration may be given to the use of lower steel
grades than stated in Table A7.
417 The use of steels with specified minimum yield stress greater than 550 N/mm2 (NV550) shall be subject to special
consideration for applications where anaerobic environmental conditions such as stagnant water, organically active mud
(bacteria) and hydrogen sulphide may predominate.
418 Predominantly anaerobic conditions can for this purpose be characterised by a concentration of sulphate reducing
bacteria, SRB, in the order of magnitude < 103 SRB/ml, determined by method according to NACE TPC Publication No. 3.
419 The susceptibility of the steel to hydrogen-induced stress cracking (HISC) shall be specially considered when used for
critical applications. See also Section 12.
B. Selection of Concrete Materials

B 100 General
101 For selection of structural concrete materials, DNV-OS-C502, Section 3, “Structural Concrete and Materials” shall apply.
102 The present subsection, B, provides a short summary of DNV-OS-C502, Section 3, focusing on issues which typically
pertain to offshore concrete structures, but not necessarily to standard concrete design. The contents of C do not replace the text
of DNV-OS-C502. For all design purposes, the user should always refer to the complete description in DNV-OS-C502.
103 For each clause included in the present subsection, B, the corresponding clause number in DNV-OS-C502 is given in
parenthesis for reference.
B 200 Material Requirements
201 The materials selected for the load-bearing structures shall be suitable for the purpose. The material properties and
verification that these materials fulfil the requirements shall be documented. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 3, C102.)
202 The materials, all structural components and the structure itself shall be ensured to maintain the specified quality during
all stages of construction and for the intended structural life. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 3, C103.)
203 Constituent materials for structural concrete are cement, aggregates and water. Structural concrete may also include
admixtures and additions. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 3, C109.)
204 Constituent materials shall be sound, durable, free from defects and suitable for making concrete that will attain and retain
the required properties. Constituent materials shall not contain harmful ingredients in quantities that can be detrimental to the
durability of the concrete or cause corrosion of the reinforcement and shall be suitable for the intended use. (DNV-OS-C502,
Sec. 3, C110.)
205 The following types of Portland cement are, in general, assumed to be suitable for use in structural concrete and/or grout
in a marine environment if unmixed with other cements:
• Portland cements.
• Portland composite cements.
• Blastfurnace cements, with high clinker content.
Provided suitability is demonstrated also the following types of cement may be considered:
• Blastfurnace cements.
• Pozzolanic cements.
• Composite cements.
The above types of cement have characteristics specified in international and national standards. They can be specified in grades
based on the 28-day strength in mortar. Cements shall normally be classified as normal hardening, rapid hardening or slowly
hardening cements. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 3, C204.)
Guidance Note:
Low heat cement may be used where heat of hydration may have an adverse effect on the concrete during curing.
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206 The required water content is to be determined by considering the strength and durability of hardened concrete and the
workability of fresh concrete. The water-to-cement ratio by weight may be used as a measure. The water-to-cement ratio for
structural concrete shall be less than 0.40. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 3, C302.)
207 Salt water, such as raw seawater, shall not be used as mixing or curing water for structural concrete. (DNV-OS-C502,
Sec. 3, C304.)
208 Normal weight aggregates shall, in general, be of natural mineral substances. They shall be either crushed or uncrushed
with particle sizes, grading and shapes such that they are suitable for the production of concrete. Relevant properties of aggregate
shall be defined, e.g. type of material, shape, surface texture, physical properties and chemical properties.
Aggregates shall be free from harmful substances in quantities that can affect the properties and the durability of the concrete
adversely. Examples of harmful substances are claylike and silty particles, organic materials and sulphates and other salts.
(DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 3, C403.)
209 Aggregates shall be evaluated for risk of Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR) in concrete according to internationally recognized
test methods. The test method shall be approved by the owner. Suspect aggregates shall not be used unless specifically tested and
approved. The approval of aggregates that might combine with the hydration products of the cement to cause ASR shall state
which cement the approval applies to. The aggregate for structural concrete shall have sufficient strength and durability.
(DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 3, C404.)
210 An appropriate grading of the fine and coarse aggregates for use in concrete shall be established. The grading and shape
characteristics of the aggregates shall be consistent throughout the concrete production. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 3, C405.)
211 Maximum aggregate size is to be specified based on considerations concerning concrete properties, spacing of
reinforcement and cover to the reinforcement. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 3, C408.)
212 Latent hydraulic or pozzolanic supplementary materials such as silica fume, pulverized fly ash and granulated blast
furnace slag may be used as additions. The amount is dependent on requirements to workability of fresh concrete and required
properties of the hardened concrete. The content of silica fume used as additions should normally not exceed 10% of the weight
of Portland cement clinker. When fly ash or other pozzolana is used as additions, their content should normally not exceed 35%
of the total weight of cement and additions. When Portland cement is used in combination with only ground granulated blast
furnace slag, the slag content may be increased. The clinker content shall, however, not be less than 30% of the total weight of
cement and slag. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 3, C603.)
213 The composition and properties of repair materials shall be such that the material fulfils its intended use. Only materials
with established suitability shall be used. Emphasis shall be given to ensure that such materials are compatible with the adjacent
material, particularly with regard to the elasticity and temperature dependent properties. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 3, C801.)
B 300 Concrete
301 Normal Strength Concrete is a concrete with a characteristic cube strength of 30 MPa to 65 MPa. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 3,
D201.)
302 High Strength Concrete is a concrete with a characteristic cube strength in excess of 65 MPa. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 3,
D202.)
303 The concrete composition and the constituent materials shall be selected to satisfy the requirements of DNV-OS-C502
and the project specifications for fresh and hardened concrete such as consistency, density, strength, durability and protection of
embedded steel against corrosion. Due account shall be taken of the methods of execution to be applied. The requirements of the
fresh concrete shall ensure that the material is fully workable in all stages of its manufacture, transport, placing and compaction.
(DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 3, D301.)
304 The required properties of fresh and hardened concrete shall be specified. These required properties shall be verified by
the use of recognized testing methods, international standards or recognized national standards. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 3, D302.)
305 Compressive strength shall always be specified. In addition, tensile strength, modulus of elasticity (E-modulus) and
fracture energy may be specified. Properties which can cause cracking of structural concrete shall be accounted for, i.e. creep,
shrinkage, heat of hydration, thermal expansion and similar effects. The durability of structural concrete is related to
permeability, absorption, diffusion and resistance to physical and chemical attacks in the given environment, a low
water/cement-binder ratio is generally required in order to obtain adequate durability. The concrete shall normally have a
water/cement-binder ratio not greater than 0.45. In the splash zone, this ratio shall not be higher than 0.40. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec.
3, D303.)
306 The concrete grades are defined as specified in DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5.
The properties of hardened concrete are generally related to the concrete grade. For concrete exposed to sea water the minimum
characteristic cube strength is 40 MPa. For concrete which is not directly exposed to the marine environment, the characteristic
cube strength is not to be less than 30 MPa. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 3, D310.)
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B 400 Grout and Mortar
401 The mix design of grout and mortar shall be specified for its designated purpose. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 3, E101.)
402 The constituents of grout and mortar shall meet the same type of requirements for their properties as those given for the
constituents of concrete. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 3, E102.)
B 500 Reinforcement Steel
501 Reinforcements are to be suitable for their intended service conditions and are to have adequate properties with respect to
strength, ductility, toughness, weldability, bond properties (ribbed), corrosion resistance and chemical composition. These
properties are to be specified by the supplier or determined by a recognized test method. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 3, F101.)
502 Reinforcement steel shall comply with ISO 6935, Parts 2 and 3 or relevant international standards on reinforcing steel.
(DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 3, F102.)
503 Consistency shall be ensured between material properties assumed in the design and the requirements of the standard
used. In general, hot-rolled, ribbed bars of weldable quality and with high ductility shall be used. Where the use of seismic
detailing is required, the reinforcement provided shall meet the ductility requirements of the reference standard used in the
design. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 3, F103.)
504 Fatigue properties and S-N curves shall be consistent with the assumptions of design. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 3, F104.)
B 600 Prestressing Steel
601 Prestressing steel shall comply with ISO 6934 and/or relevant international standards on prestressing steel.
(DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 3, G101.)
C. Grout Materials and Material Testing

C 100 General
101 The grout materials for grouted connections shall comply with relevant requirements given for both concrete and grout in
DNV-OS-C502 “Offshore Concrete Structures”, Section 3, as well as with requirements given for concrete in this standard
(DNV-OS-J101) Section 6B.
102 The materials shall have sufficient workability to secure filling of the annulus without establishing air pockets or water
pockets or both in the grout.
103 Test specimens are to be made with varying mix proportions to simulate the batching tolerances under field conditions.
Grout mixes shall as a minimum be tested for the following properties:
- Density
- Air content
- Workability
- Viscosity
- Stability (separation and bleeding)
- Setting time
- Compressive strength.
- Shrinkage/expansion
- Effect of admixtures and compatibility of admixtures.
104 For some applications, other properties of the grout mix may be required to be confirmed by testing. For example, if
hardening of the grout may introduce unacceptable thermal strains in the structure, it shall be confirmed that the maximum
temperature-rise caused by the hardening process is within acceptable limits.
105 Samples for testing of the grout quality shall preferably be taken from the emerging, surplus grout. If this is not possible,
other means of monitoring the density of the return grout are to be provided.
106 Tests on grout samples shall be carried out in order to verify the characteristic compressive strength of the grout. The
characteristic compressive strength is normally defined as the compressive strength after setting 28 days at 20°C or the
equivalent. If the grout is to be subjected to loading before the characteristic design strength has been achieved, for example due
to installation of other structures or due to wave and wind loading before 28 days have passed, the assumed allowable grout
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Page 84 – Sec.6
strength at the time of the loading shall be verified. Curing of the specimens shall take place under conditions which are as
similar to the curing conditions of the placed grout as possible.
107 The compressive strength is normally to be tested by making sets of 5 test specimens each. One such set of 5 specimens
shall be used every time a test is to be carried out. Each specimen is to be taken from a single, random sample. The total number
of test sets required according to this specification shall be obtained for every consumed 200 m3 of grout, once per shift or once
per grouted compartment/annulus, whichever gives the largest number of test specimens. The test specimens are to be
adequately marked and recorded for identification.
C 200 Experimental Verification
201 If no sufficient documentation of the material properties of the grout is available experimental verification of the
properties must be carried out.
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Sec.7 – Page 85
SECTION 7
DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES
A. Ultimate Limit States – General

A 100 General
101 This subsection gives provisions for checking the ultimate limit states for typical structural elements used in offshore
steel structures.
102 The ultimate strength capacity of structural elements in yielding and buckling shall be assessed using a rational and
justifiable engineering approach.
103 The structural capacity of all structural components shall be checked. The capacity check shall consider both excessive
yielding and buckling.
104 Simplified assumptions regarding stress distributions may be used provided that the assumptions are made in accordance
with generally accepted practice, or in accordance with sufficiently comprehensive experience or tests.
105 The corrosion allowance as given in Section 12 shall not be accounted for in the determination of design resistance.
A 200 Structural analysis
201 The structural analysis may be carried out as linear elastic, simplified rigid-plastic, or elastic-plastic analyses. Both first
order or second order analyses may be applied. In all cases, the structural detailing with respect to strength and ductility
requirement shall conform to the assumption made for the analysis.
202 When plastic or elastic-plastic analyses are used for structures exposed to cyclic loading, i.e. wind turbine loads and wave
loads, checks shall be carried out to verify that the structure will shake down without excessive plastic deformations or fracture
due to repeated yielding. A characteristic or design cyclic load history needs to be defined in such a way that the structural
reliability in case of cyclic loading, e.g. storm loading, is not less than the structural reliability in the ULS for non-cyclic loads.
203 In case of linear analysis combined with the resistance formulations set down in this standard, shakedown can be assumed
without further checks.
204 If plastic or elastic-plastic structural analyses are used for determining the sectional stress resultants, limitations to the
width-to-thickness ratios apply. Relevant width-to-thickness ratios are found in the relevant codes used for capacity checks.
205 When plastic analysis and/or plastic capacity checks are used (cross section type I and II, according to Appendix H), the
members shall be capable of forming plastic hinges with sufficient rotation capacity to enable the required redistribution of
bending moments to develop. It shall also be checked that the load pattern will not be changed due to the deformations.
206 Cross sections of beams are divided into different types dependent on their ability to develop plastic hinges. A method for
determination of cross sectional types is given in Appendix H.
A 300 Ductility
301 It is a fundamental requirement that all failure modes are sufficiently ductile such that the structural behaviour will be in
accordance with the anticipated model used for determination of the responses. In general all design procedures, regardless of
analysis method, will not capture the true structural behaviour. Ductile failure modes will allow the structure to redistribute
forces in accordance with the presupposed static model. Brittle failure modes shall therefore be avoided, or they shall be verified
to have excess resistance compared to ductile modes and in this way protect the structure from brittle failure.
302 The following sources for brittle structural behaviour may need to be considered for a steel structure:
— unstable fracture caused by a combination of the following factors: brittle material, low temperature in the steel, a design
resulting in high local stresses and the possibilities for weld defects
— structural details where ultimate resistance is reached with plastic deformations only in limited areas, making the global
behaviour brittle
— shell buckling
— buckling where interaction between local and global buckling modes occurs.
A 400 Yield check

401 Structural members for which excessive yielding is a possible mode of failure, are to be investigated for yielding.
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Page 86 – Sec.7
402 Local peak stresses from linear elastic analysis in areas with pronounced geometrical changes, may exceed the yield
stress provided that the adjacent structural parts has capacity for the redistributed stresses.
403 Yield checks may be performed based on net sectional properties. For large volume hull structures gross scantlings may
be applied.
404 For yield check of welded connections, see Subsection I regarding welded connections.
A 500 Buckling check
501 Requirements for the elements of the cross section not fulfilling requirements to cross section type III need to be checked
for local buckling.
502 Buckling analysis shall be based on the characteristic buckling resistance for the most unfavourable buckling mode.
503 The characteristic buckling strength shall be based on the 5th percentile of test results.
504 Initial imperfections and residual stresses in structural members shall be accounted for.
505 It shall be ensured that there is conformity between the initial imperfections in the buckling resistance formulas and the
tolerances in the applied fabrication standard.
B. Ultimate Limit States – Flat-Plated Structures and Stiffened Panels

B 100 General
101 The material factor γM for plated structures is 1.15.
B 200 Yield check
201 Yield check of plating and stiffeners may be performed as given in F.
202 Yield check of girders may be performed as given in G.
B 300 Buckling check
301 The buckling stability of plated structures may be checked according to Classification Note 30.1, Sec. 3.
Guidance Note:
When using Classification Note 30.1 for check of buckling, the allowable usage factor should be set to 1/γM and the load effects should be
based on factorised loads. For unstiffened flat plate panels, this usage factor may be increased by 10% according to Classification Note
30.1.
302 In case the stiffened panel is checked for buckling as a stiffener with effective plate width, the plate between the stiffeners
need not be checked separately.
B 400 Capacity checks according to other codes
401 Stiffeners and girders may be designed according to provisions for beams in recognised standards such as Eurocode 3 or
AISC LRFD Manual of Steel Construction.
402 Material factors when using Eurocode 3 are given in Table B1.
Table B1 Material factors used with Eurocode 3

Type of calculation Material factor 1) Value
Resistance of Class 1, 2 or 3 γM0 1.15
cross sections
Resistance of Class 4 cross γM1 1.15
sections
Resistance of members to γM1 1.15
buckling
1) Symbols according to Eurocode 3.
Guidance Note:
The principles and effects of cross section types are included in the AISC LRFD Manual of Steel Construction.
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Sec.7 – Page 87
C. Ultimate Limit States – Shell Structures

C 100 General
101 The buckling stability of shell structures may be checked according to DNV-RP-C202.
102 For interaction between shell buckling and column buckling, DNV-RP-C202 may be used.
103 If DNV-RP-C202 is applied, the material factor for shells shall be in accordance with Table C1.
Table C1 Material factors γ M for buckling

Type of structure λ ≤ 0.5 0.5 < λ < 1.0 λ ≥ 1.0
Girder, beams stiffeners
1.15 1.15 1.15
on shells
Shells of single curvature
(cylindrical shells, 1.15 0.85 + 0.60 λ 1.45
conical shells)
Note that the slenderness is based on the buckling mode under
consideration.
λ = reduced slenderness parameter
fy
= -----
se
fy = specified minimum yield stress

σe = elastic buckling stress for the buckling mode under
consideration.
D. Ultimate Limit States – Tubular Members, Tubular Joints and Conical Transitions
D 100 General
101 Tubular members without external pressure may be checked according to Classification Note 30.1. Tubular members
with external pressure and with compact cross sections may be checked according to Classification Note 30.1.
Guidance Note:
Compact tubular cross section is in this context defined as when the diameter (D) to thickness (t) ratio satisfy the following criteria:
D E-
---- ≤ 0.5 ---
t fy
E = modulus of elasticity and
fy = minimum yield strength
102 Tubular members with external pressure, tubular joints and conical transitions may be checked according to API RP 2A –
LRFD or NORSOK N-004.
103 The material factor γM for tubular structures is 1.15.
E. Ultimate Limit States – Non-Tubular Beams, Columns and Frames

E 100 General
101 The design of members shall take into account the possible limits on the resistance of the cross section due to local
buckling.
102 Buckling checks may be performed according to Classification Note 30.1.
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Page 88 – Sec.7
103 Capacity check may be performed according to recognised standards such as Eurocode 3 or AISC LRFD Manual of Steel
Construction.
104 The material factors according to Table B1 shall be used if Eurocode 3 is used for calculation of structural resistance.
F. Ultimate Limit States – Special Provisions for Plating and Stiffeners

F 100 Scope
101 The requirements in F will normally give minimum scantlings to plate and stiffened panels with respect to yield.
Dimensions and further references with respect to buckling capacity are given in B.
F 200 Minimum thickness
201 The thickness of plates should not to be less than:
14.3t 0
t = --------------- (mm)|
fy d
fyd = design yield strength fy/γM

fy is the minimum yield stress (N/mm2) as given
in Sec.6 Table A3
t0 = 7 mm for primary structural elements
= 5 mm for secondary structural elements
γM = material factor for steel
= 1.15.
F 300 Bending of plating

301 The thickness of plating subjected to lateral pressure shall not be less than:
15,8k a k r s p d
t = ---------------------------------- ( mm )
s p d1 k pp
ka = correction factor for aspect ratio of plate field

= (1.1 − 0.25 s/l)2
= maximum 1.0 for s/l = 0.4
= minimum 0.72 for s/l = 1.0
kr = correction factor for curvature perpendicular
to the stiffeners
= (1 − 0.5 s/rc)
rc = radius of curvature (m)
s = stiffener spacing (m), measured along the
plating
pd = design pressure (kN/m2) as given in Sec. 4
σpd1 = design bending stress
= 1.3 (fyd −σjd), but less than fyd = fy /γM
σjd = equivalent design stress for global in-plane
membrane stress
kpp = fixation parameter for plate
= 1.0 for clamped edges
= 0.5 for simply supported edges.
Guidance Note:
The design bending stress σpd1 is given as a bi-linear capacity curve.
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Sec.7 – Page 89
F 400 Stiffeners
401 The section modulus for longitudinals, beams, frames and other stiffeners subjected to lateral pressure shall not be less
than:
2
l sp d 6 3 3 3
Z s = --------------------------- 10 ( mm ), minimum 15 ⋅ 10 ( mm )
k m s pd2 kps
l = stiffener span (m)

km = bending moment factor, see Table G1
= fyd − σjd
kps = fixation parameter for stiffeners
= 1.0 if at least one end is clamped
= 0.9 if both ends are simply supported.
402 The formula given in 401 shall be regarded as the requirement about an axis parallel to the plating. As an approximation
the requirement for standard section modulus for stiffeners at an oblique angle with the plating may be obtained if the formula in
401 is multiplied by the factor:
1
cos  ---
a
α = angle between the stiffener web plane and the
plane perpendicular to the plating.
403 Stiffeners with sniped ends may be accepted where dynamic stresses are small and vibrations are considered to be of
small importance, provided that the plate thickness supported by the stiffener is not less than:
( l – 0.5s )sp
t ≥ 16 -------------------------------d- ( mm )
fy d
In such cases the section modulus of the stiffener calculated as indicated in 401 is normally to be based on the following
parameter values:
km = 8
kps = 0.9
The stiffeners should normally be snipped with an angle of maximum 30º.

Guidance Note:
For typical sniped end detail as described above, a stress range lower than 30 MPa can be considered as a small dynamic stress.
G. Ultimate Limit States – Special Provisions for Girders and Girder Systems
G 100 Scope
101 The requirements in G give minimum scantlings to simple girders with respect to yield. Further procedures for the
calculations of complex girder systems are indicated.
102 Dimensions and further references with respect to buckling capacity are given in B.
G 200 Minimum thickness
201 The thickness of web and flange plating is not to be less than given in F200 and F300.
G 300 Bending and shear
301 The requirements for section modulus and web area are applicable to simple girders supporting stiffeners and to other
girders exposed to linearly distributed lateral pressures. It is assumed that the girder satisfies the basic assumptions of simple
beam theory and that the supported members are approximately evenly spaced and has similar support conditions at both ends.
Other loads will have to be specially considered.
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Page 90 – Sec.7
302 When boundary conditions for individual girders are not predictable due to dependence of adjacent structures, direct
calculations according to the procedures given in 700 will be required.
303 The section modulus and web area of the girder shall be taken in accordance with particulars as given in 600 or 700.
Structural modelling in connection with direct stress analysis shall be based on the same particulars when applicable.
G 400 Effective Flange
401 The effective plate flange area is defined as the cross sectional area of plating within the effective flange width. The cross
section area of continuous stiffeners within the effective flange may be included. The effective flange width be is determined by
the following formula:
b e = Ceb
Ce = as given in Fig.1 for various numbers of

evenly spaced point loads (Np) on the span
b = full breadth of plate flange e.g. span of the
stiffeners supported by the girder with
effective flange be, see also 602.
l0 = distance between points of zero bending
moments (m)
= S for simply supported girders
= 0.6 S for girders fixed at both ends
S = girder span as if simply supported, see also

602.
Figure 1
Graphs for the effective flange parameter C
G 500 Effective Web

501 Holes in girders will generally be accepted provided the shear stress level is acceptable and the buckling capacity and
fatigue life is documented to be sufficient.
G 600 Strength requirements for simple girders
601 Simple girders subjected to lateral pressure and which are not taking part in the overall strength of the structure, shall
comply with the following minimum requirements:
— net section modulus according to 602

— net web area according to 603.
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Sec.7 – Page 91
602 Section modulus:

2
S bp d 6 3
Z g = ------------------- 10 ( mm )
k m s p d2
S = girder span (m). The web height of in-plane

girders may be deducted. When brackets are
fitted at the ends, the girder span S may be
reduced by two thirds of the bracket arm length,
provided the girder ends may be assumed
clamped and provided the section modulus at
the bracketed ends is satisfactory
b = breadth of load area (m) (plate flange) b may be
determined as:
= 0.5 (l1 + l2) (m), l1 and l2 are the spans of the
supported stiffeners, or distance between girders
km = bending moment factor km-values in accordance
with Table G1 may be applied
= fyd − σjd
σjd = equivalent design stress for global in-plane
membrane stress.
603 Net web area:

kt Sbp d – N s P pd 3 2
Aw = --------------------------------------- 10 ( mm )
tp
kτ = shear force factor kτ may be in accordance

with 604
Ns = number of stiffeners between considered
section and nearest support
The Ns-value is in no case to be taken greater
than (Np+1)/4.
Np = number of supported stiffeners on the girder
span
Ppd = average design point load (kN) from stiffeners
between considered section and nearest
support
τp = 0.5 fyd (N/mm2).
604 The km- and kτ-values referred to in 602 and 603 may be calculated according to general beam theory. In Table G1, km and
kτ values are given for some defined load and boundary conditions. Note that the smallest km value shall be applied to simple
girders. For girders where brackets are fitted or the flange area has been partly increased due to large bending moment, a larger
km value may be used outside the strengthened region.
Table G1 Values of km and kτ

Bending moment and shear
Load and boundary conditions
force factors
Positions 3km3kτ3
1km1kτ1 2km2-
1Support 2Field 3Support
120.5 24 120.5
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Page 92 – Sec.7
14.2 80.63
0.38
0.5 0.5
150.3 23.3 100.7
16.8 7.50.8
0.2
7.8
0.33 0.67
G 700 Complex girder system

701 For girders that are parts of a complex 2- or 3-dimensional structural system, a complete structural analysis shall be
carried out.
702 Calculation methods or computer programs applied shall take into account the effects of bending, shear, axial and
torsional deformation.
703 The calculations shall reflect the structural response of the 2- or 3-dimensional structure considered, with due attention to
boundary conditions.
704 For systems consisting of slender girders, calculations based on beam theory (frame work analysis) may be applied, with
due attention to:
— shear area variation, e.g. cut-outs

— moment of inertia variation
— effective flange
— lateral buckling of girder flanges.
705 The most unfavourable of the loading conditions given in Sec. 5 shall be applied.
706 For girders taking part in the overall strength of the unit, stresses due to the design pressures given in Sec. 5 shall be
combined with relevant overall stresses.
H. Ultimate Limit States – Slip-resistant Bolt Connections

H 100 General
101 The requirements in H give the slip capacity of pre-tensioned bolt connections with high-strength bolts.
102 A high-strength bolt is defined as a bolt that has an ultimate tensile strength larger than 800 N/mm2 and a yield strength
which as a minimum is 80 % of the ultimate tensile strength.
103 The bolt shall be pre-tensioned in accordance with international recognised standards. Procedures for measurement and
maintenance of the bolt tension shall be established.
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Sec.7 – Page 93
104 The design slip resistance Rd may be specified equal to or higher than the design loads Fd.
Rd ≥ Fd
105 In addition, the slip resistant connection shall have the capacity to withstand ULS and ALS loads as a bearing bolt
connection. The capacity of a bolted connection may be determined according to international recognised standards which give
equivalent level of safety such as Eurocode 3 or AISC LRFD Manual of Steel Construction.
106 The design slip resistance of a preloaded high-strength bolt shall be taken as:
k s nm
R d = ------------ Fp d
gMs
ks = hole clearance factor

= 1.00 for standard clearances in the direction
of the force
= 0.85 for oversized holes
= 0.70 for long slotted holes in the direction of
the force
n = number of friction interfaces
µ = friction coefficient
γMs = 1.25 for standard clearances in the direction
of the force
= 1.4 for oversize holes or long slotted holes in
the direction of the force
= 1.1 for design shear forces with load factor
1.0.
Fpd = design preloading force.
107 For high strength bolts, the controlled design pre-tensioning force in the bolts used in slip resistant connections are:
F pd = 0.7f u b A s
fub = ultimate tensile strength of the bolt

As = tensile stress area of the bolt (net area in the
threaded part of the bolt).
108 The design value of the friction coefficient µ is dependent on the specified class of surface treatment as given in
DNV-OS-C401 Sec.7. The value of µ shall be taken according to Table H1.
Table H1 Friction coefficient µ

Surface category µ
A 0.5
B 0.4
C 0.3
D 0.2
109 The classification of any surface treatment shall be based on tests or specimens representative of the surfaces used in the
structure using the procedure set out in DNV-OS-C401.
110 Provided the contact surfaces have been treated in conformity with DNV-OS-C401 Sec.7, the surface treatments given in
Table H2 may be categorised without further testing.
Table H2 Surface treatment
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Page 94 – Sec.7
Surface Surface treatment
category
A Surfaces blasted with shot or grit,
- with any loose rust removed, no pitting
- spray metallised with aluminium
- spray metallised with a zinc-based coating certified
to prove a slip factor of not less than 0.5
B Surfaces blasted with shot or grit, and painted with an
alkali-zinc silicate paint to produce a coating thickness
of 50 to 80 mm
C Surfaces cleaned by wire brushing or flame cleaning,
with any loose rust removed
D Surfaces not treated
111 Normal clearance for fitted bolts shall be assumed if not otherwise specified. The clearances are defined in Table H3.
Table H3 Clearances in bolt holes

Clearance type Clearance Bolt diameter d (maximum)
mm mm
1 12 and 14
Standard 2 16 to 24
3 27 and larger bolts
3 12
4 14 to 22
Oversized
6 24
8 27
112 Oversized holes in the outer ply of a slip resistant connection shall be covered by hardened washers.
113 The nominal sizes of short slotted holes for slip resistant connections shall not be greater than given in Table H4.
Table H4 Short slotted holes

Maximum size Bolt diameter d (maximum)
mm mm
(d + 1) by (d + 4) 12 and 14
(d + 2) by (d + 6) 16 to 22
(d + 2) by (d + 8) 24
(d + 3) by (d + 10) 27 and larger
114 The nominal sizes of long slotted holes for slip resistant connections shall not be greater than given in Table H5.
Table H5 Long slotted holes

Maximum size Bolt diameter d (maximum)
mm mm
(d + 1) by 2.5 d 12 and 14
(d + 2) by 2.5 d 16 to 24
(d + 3) by 2.5 d 27 and larger
115 Long slots in an outer ply shall be covered by cover plates of appropriate dimensions and thickness. The holes in the cover
plate shall not be larger than standard holes.
I. Ultimate Limit States – Welded Connections

I 100 General
101 The requirements in this subsection apply to types and sizes of welds.
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Sec.7 – Page 95
I 200 Types of welded steel joints
201 All types of butt joints should be welded from both sides. Before welding is carried out from the second side, unsound
weld metal shall be removed at the root by a suitable method.
202 The connection of a plate abutting on another plate in a tee joint or a cross joint may be made as indicated in Fig. 1.
203 The throat thickness of the weld is always to be measured as the normal to the weld surface, as indicated in Fig. 1d.
Figure 1
Tee and cross joints
204 The type of connection should be adopted as follows:
a) Full penetration weld

Important cross connections in structures exposed to
high stress, especially dynamic, e.g. for special areas
and fatigue utilised primary structure. All external
welds in way of opening to open sea e.g. pipes,
sea-chests or tee-joints as applicable.
b) Partly penetration weld
Connections where the static stress level is high.
Acceptable also for dynamically stressed
connections, provided the equivalent stress is
acceptable, see C300.
c) Fillet weld
Connections where stresses in the weld are mainly
shear, or direct stresses are moderate and mainly
static, or dynamic stresses in the abutting plate are
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Page 96 – Sec.7
small.
205 Double continuous welds are required in the following connections, irrespective of the stress level:
— oil-tight and watertight connections

— connections at supports and ends of girders, stiffeners and pillars
— connections in foundations and supporting structures for machinery
— connections in rudders, except where access difficulties necessitate slot welds.
206 Intermittent fillet welds may be used in the connection of girder and stiffener webs to plate and girder flange plate,
respectively, where the connection is moderately stressed. With reference to Fig. 2, the various types of intermittent welds are as
follows:
— chain weld
— staggered weld
— scallop weld (closed).
207 Where intermittent welds are accepted, scallop welds shall be used in tanks for water ballast or fresh water. Chain and
staggered welds may be used in dry spaces and tanks arranged for fuel oil only.
Figure 2
Intermittent welds
208 Slot welds, see Fig. 3, may be used for connection of plating to internal webs, where access for welding is not practicable,
e.g. rudders. The length of slots and distance between slots shall be considered in view of the required size of welding.
Figure 3
Slot welds
209 Lap joints as indicated in Fig.4 may be used in end connections of stiffeners. Lap joints should be avoided in connections
with dynamic stresses.
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Sec.7 – Page 97
Figure 4
Lap joint
I 300 Weld size

301 The material factors γMw for welded connections are given in Table C1.
Table C1 Material factors γMw for welded connections

Limit states Material factor
ULS 1.3
ALS 1.0
302 If the yield stress of the weld deposit is higher than that of the base metal, the size of ordinary fillet weld connections may
be reduced as indicated in 104.
The yield stress of the weld deposit is in no case to be less than given in DNV-OS-C401.
303 Welding consumables used for welding of normal steel and some high strength steels are assumed to give weld deposits
with characteristic yield stress σfw as indicated in Table C2. If welding consumables with deposits of lower yield stress than
specified in Table C2 are used, the applied yield strength shall be clearly informed on drawings and in design reports.
304 The size of some weld connections may be reduced:
— corresponding to the strength of the weld metal, fw:
s fw 0,75
f w =  --------
- or
 235 
— corresponding to the strength ratio value fr, base metal to weld metal:
fy = characteristic yield stress of base material,

abutting plate (N/mm2)
σfw = characteristic yield stress of weld deposit
(N/mm2).
f y 0,75
f r =  --------
- minimum 0.75
 s fw
Ordinary values for fw and fr for normal strength and high-strength steels are given in Table 2. When deep penetrating welding
processes are applied, the required throat thicknesses may be reduced by 15 % provided that sufficient weld penetration is
demonstrated.
Table 2 Strength ratios, fw and fr
Base metal Weld deposit Strength ratios
Strength group Designation Yield stress Weld metal Base metal/weld metal
NV grade σfw s fw 0,75 fy
(N/mm2) fw =  --------- f r =  --------- ≥ 0,75
235 s fw
Normal strength steels NV NS 355 1.36 0.75

High strength steels NV27 375 1.42 0.75
NV32 375 1.42 0.88
NV36 375 1.42 0.96
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Page 98 – Sec.7
NV40 390 1.46 1.00
305 Conversions between NV grades as used in Table 2 and steel grades used in the EN10025 standard are given in Section 6.
306 Where the connection of girder and stiffener webs and plate panel or girder flange plate, respectively, are mainly shear
stressed, fillet welds as specified in 202 to 204 should be adopted.
307 Unless otherwise established, the throat thickness of double continuous fillet welds should not be less than:
tw = 0,43f r t 0 ( mm ), minimum 3 mm
fr = strength ratio as defined in 104

t0 = net thickness (mm) of abutting plate.
For stiffeners and for girders within 60 % of the
middle of span, t0 should not be taken greater than
11 mm, however, in no case less than 0.5 times the
net thickness of the web.
308 The throat thickness of intermittent welds may be as required in 202 for double continuous welds provided the welded
length is not less than:
— 50 % of total length for connections in tanks

— 35 % of total length for connections elsewhere.
Double continuous welds shall be adopted at stiffener ends when necessary due to bracketed end connections.
309 For intermittent welds, the throat thickness is not to exceed:
— for chain welds and scallop welds:
t0 = net thickness abutting plate.
tw = 0,6f r t 0 ( mm )
— for staggered welds:
tw = 0,75 f r t 0 ( mm )
If the calculated throat thickness exceeds that given in one of the equations above, the considered weld length shall be increased
correspondingly.
310 In structural parts where dynamic stresses or high static tensile stresses act through an intermediate plate, see Fig. 1,
penetration welds or increased fillet welds shall be used.
311 When the abutting plate carries dynamic stresses, the connection shall fulfil the requirements with respect to fatigue, see
K.
312 When the abutting plate carries tensile stresses higher than 120 N/mm2, the throat thickness of a double continuous weld
is not to be less than:
1,36 sd r
tw = ---------- 0,2 +  --------- – 0,25 ---- t 0 ( mm )
fw  320  t0
minimum 3 mm.
fw = strength ratio as defined in 104
DET NORSKE VERITAS

Sec.7 – Page 99
σd = calculated maximum design tensile stress in

abutting plate (N/mm2)
r = root face (mm), see Fig. 1b
t0 = net thickness (mm) of abutting plate.
313 Stiffeners may be connected to the web plate of girders in the following ways:
— welded directly to the web plate on one or both sides of the stiffener
— connected by single- or double-sided lugs
— with stiffener or bracket welded on top of frame
— a combination of the ways listed above.
In locations where large shear forces are transferred from the stiffener to the girder web plate, a double-sided connection or
stiffening should be required. A double-sided connection may be taken into account when calculating the effective web area.
314 Various standard types of connections between stiffeners and girders are shown in Fig. 5.
Figure 5
Connections of stiffeners
315 Connection lugs should have a thickness not less than 75% of the web plate thickness.
316 The total connection area (parent material) at supports of stiffeners should not to be less than:
DET NORSKE VERITAS

Page 100 – Sec.7
c 3 2
a0 = 3 ------- 10 ( l – 0.5s )sp d ( mm )
f yd
c = detail shape factor as given in Table C3

fyd = minimum yield design stress (N/mm2)
l = span of stiffener (m)
s = distance between stiffeners (m)
pd = design pressure (kN/m2).
Table C3 Detail shape factor c

Type I II
ofconnection(se Web to Stiffener or bracket ontop of
e Fig. 5) webconnection stiffener
only
Single-sided Double-sided
a 1.00 1.25 1.00
b 0.90 1.15 0.90
c 0.80 1.00 0.80
The total weld area a is not to be less than:

2
a = f r a 0 ( mm )
fr = strength ratio as defined in 104

a0 = connection area (mm2) as given in 404.
The throat thickness is not to exceed the maximum for scallop welds given in 204.
317 The weld connection between stiffener end and bracket is principally to be designed such that the design shear stresses of
the connection corresponds to the design resistance.
318 The weld area of brackets to stiffeners which are carrying longitudinal stresses or which are taking part in the strength of
heavy girders etc., is not to be less than the sectional area of the longitudinal.
319 Brackets shall be connected to bulkhead by a double continuous weld, for heavily stressed connections by a partly or full
penetration weld.
320 The weld connection area of bracket to adjoining girders or other structural parts shall be based on the calculated normal
and shear stresses. Double continuous welding shall be used. Where large tensile stresses are expected, design according to 300
shall be applied.
321 The end connections of simple girders shall satisfy the requirements for section modulus given for the girder in question.
Where the shear design stresses in web plate exceed 90 N/mm2, double continuous boundary fillet welds should have throat
thickness not less than:
td
tw = --------------- t 0 ( mm )
260f w
τd = design shear stress in web plate (N/mm2)

fw = strength ratio for weld as defined in 104
t0 = net thickness (mm) of web plate.
322 The distribution of forces in a welded connection may be calculated directly based on an assumption of either elastic or
plastic behaviour.
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Sec.7 – Page 101
323 Residual stresses and stresses not participating in the transfer of load need not be included when checking the resistance
of a weld. This applies specifically to the normal stress parallel to the axis of a weld.
324 Welded connections shall be designed to have adequate deformation capacity.
325 In joints where plastic hinges may form, the welds shall be designed to provide at least the same design resistance as the
weakest of the connected parts.
326 In other joints where deformation capacity for joint rotation is required due to the possibility of excessive straining, the
welds require sufficient strength not to rupture before general yielding in the adjacent parent material.
Guidance Note:
In general this will be satisfied if the design resistance of the weld is not less than 80 % of the design resistance of the weakest of the
connected parts.
327 The design resistance of fillet welds is adequate if, at every point in its length, the resultant of all the forces per unit length
transmitted by the weld does not exceed its design resistance.
328 The design resistance of the fillet weld will be sufficient if both the following conditions are satisfied:
2 2 2 fu
s ⊥ d + 3 ( t ||d + t ⊥d ) ≤ ------------------
b g w Mw
fu
and s ⊥d ≤ ----------
gMw
σ⊥d = normal design stress perpendicular to the

throat (including load factors)
τ⊥d = shear design stress (in plane of the throat)
perpendicular to the axis of the weld
τ ||d = shear design stress (in plane of the throat)
parallel to the axis of the weld, see Fig. 6
fu = nominal lowest ultimate tensile strength of
the weaker part joined
βw = appropriate correlation factor, see Table C4
γMw = material factor for welds
Figure 6
Stresses in fillet weld
Table C4 The correlation factor βw

DET NORSKE VERITAS
Page 102 – Sec.7
Steel grade Lowest ultimate tensile Correlation factor

strength βw
fu
NV NS 400 0.83
NV 27 400 0.83
NV 32 440 0.86
NV 36 490 0.89
NV 40 510 0.9
NV 420 530 1.0
NV 460 570 1.0
Figure 6
J. Serviceability Limit States

J 100 General
101 Serviceability limit states for offshore steel structures are associated with:
— deflections which may prevent the intended operation of equipment

— deflections which may be detrimental to finishes or non-structural elements
— vibrations which may cause discomfort to personnel
— deformations and deflections which may spoil the aesthetic appearance of the structure.
J 200 Deflection criteria

201 For calculations in the serviceability limit states γM = 1.0.
202 Limiting values for vertical deflections should be given in the design brief. In lieu of such deflection criteria limiting
values given in Table A1 may be used.
Table A1 Limiting values for vertical deflections

Condition Limit for δmax Limit for δ2
L L
--------- ---------
Deck beams 200 300
Deck beams supporting plaster L L

or other brittle finish or non- --------- ---------
250 350
flexible partitions
L is the span of the beam. For cantilever beams L is twice the projecting
length of the cantilever.
203 The maximum vertical deflection is:
d ma x = d 1 + d 2 – d 0
δmax = the sagging in the final state relative to the

straight line joining the supports
δ1 = the pre-camber
δ2 = the variation of the deflection of the beam due
to the permanent loads immediately after
loading
DET NORSKE VERITAS

Sec.7 – Page 103
δ0 = the variation of the deflection of the beam due

to the variable loading plus any time
dependent deformations due to the permanent
load
Figure 1
Definitions of vertical deflections
204 Shear lag effects need to be considered for beams with wide flanges.
J 300 Out-of-plane deflection of local plates
301 Checks of serviceability limit states for slender plates related to out-of-plane deflection may be omitted if the smallest
span of the plate is less than 150 times the plate thickness.
K. Fatigue Limit States

K 100 Fatigue Limit State
101 The aim of fatigue design is to ensure that the structure has sufficient resistance against fatigue failure, i.e. that it has an
adequate fatigue life. Prediction of fatigue lives is used in fatigue design to fulfil this aim. Prediction of fatigue lives can also
form the basis for definition of efficient inspection programs, both during manufacturing and during the operational life of the
structure.
102 The resistance against fatigue is normally given in terms of an S-N curve. The S-N curve gives the number of cycles to
failure N versus the stress range S. The S-N curve is usually based on fatigue tests in the laboratory. For interpretation of S-N
curves from fatigue tests, the fatigue failure is defined to have occurred when a fatigue crack has grown through the thickness of
the structure or structural component.
103 The characteristic S-N curve shall in general be taken as the curve that corresponds to the 2.3% quantile of N for given S,
i.e. the S-N curve that provides 97.7% probability of survival.
104 The design fatigue life for structural components should be based on the specified service life of the structure. If a service
life is not specified, 20 years should be used.
105 To ensure that the structure will fulfil the intended function, a fatigue assessment shall be carried out for each individual
member, which is subjected to fatigue loading. Where appropriate, the fatigue assessment shall be supported by a detailed
fatigue analysis.
Guidance Note:
Any element or member of the structure, every welded joint or attachment or other form of stress concentration is potentially a source of
fatigue cracking and should be considered individually.
K 200 Characteristic S-N curves

201 For structural steel, the characteristic S-N curve can be taken as
DET NORSKE VERITAS

Page 104 – Sec.7
  t 
k

log10 N = log10 a − m log10  ∆σ   

t 
  ref  
in which
N = fatigue life, i.e. number of stress cycles to failure at stress range ∆σ
∆σ = stress range in MPa
m = negative slope of S-N curve on logN-logS plot
loga = intercept of logN axis
tref = reference thickness, tref=16 mm for tubular joints, t=22 mm for girth welds
t = thickness through which the potential fatigue crack will grow; t=tref shall be used in expression when t < tref
k = thickness exponent, also known as scale exponent; k=0.25
Guidance Note:
For welds in tubular joints in air: loga=12.500 and m=3 for N<107
loga=14.333 and m=4 for N>107
For welds in tubular joints in seawater with adequate cathodic protection:
loga=12.199 and m=3 for N<6.27·105
loga=14.333 and m=4 for N>6.27·105
For butt welds and tubular girth welds in air:

At the weld toe: loga=12.179 and m=3 for N<107
At the root: loga=11.799 and m=3 for N<6.23·105

loga=13.400 and m=4 for N>6.23·105
For butt welds and tubular girth welds in seawater with adequate cathodic protection:
At the weld toe: loga=11.878 and m=3 for N<6.25·105
loga=13.905 and m=4 for N>6.25·105
At the root: loga=11.498 and m=3 for N<6.23·105

loga=13.400 and m=4 for N>6.23·105
For non-load carrying welded attachments (fillet welded and full penetration) such as ladders, J-tubes, boatlanding, platforms etc.:
For attachment length in main stress direction ≤ 150 mm:
loga=11.498 and m=3 for N<6.23·105
loga=13.400 and m=4 for N>6.23·105
For attachment length in main stress direction > 150 mm:

DET NORSKE VERITAS

Sec.7 – Page 105
loga=11.332 and m=3 for N<6.21·105
loga=13.179 and m=4 for N>6.21·105
Curves specified for material in air are valid for details, which are located above the splash zone. The “in air” curves may also be utilised
for the internal parts of air-filled members below water and for pile driving fatigue analysis.
The basis for the use of the above S-N curves is that a high fabrication quality of the details is present, i.e. welding and NDT shall be in
accordance with Inspection Category I and Structural Category 'Special' according to DNV-OS-C401, Chapter 2, Section 3, Tables C3, C4
and C5.
202 Fracture mechanics design analysis may be applied as supplement to an S-N fatigue calculation in cases which do not fall
into known structural detail categories or applications.
K 300 Characteristic stress range distribution

301 A characteristic long-term stress range distribution shall be established for the structure or structural component.
302 All significant stress ranges, which contribute to fatigue damage in the structure, shall be considered.
Guidance Note:
Stress ranges caused by wave loading shall be established from site-specific wave statistics. Discrete wave statistics can be applied for this
purpose and usually imply that the number of waves are specified from eight different compass directions in one-meter wave height
intervals. For wave heights between 0 and 1 m, a finer discretisation with 0.2 m wave height intervals, is recommended in order to enhance
the accuracy of the fatigue damage predictions for the loading arising from waves heights in this range.
The choice of wave theory to be applied for calculation of wave kinematics is to be made according to Section 3. The wave theory depends
much on the water depth. For water depths less than approximately 15 m, higher order stream function theory is to be applied. For water
depths in excess of approximately 30 m, Stokes 5th order theory is to be applied.
Stress ranges caused by wind loading shall be established from site-specific wind statistics. Stress ranges caused by wind loading shall be
established under due consideration of the actual alignment of the rotor axis of the wind turbine relative to the direction of the wind. Stress
ranges arising during fault conditions where a yaw error is present need to be considered.
Stress ranges caused by the operation and control of the wind turbine shall be included. They include stress ranges owing to drive train
mechanical braking and transient loads caused by rotor stopping and starting, generator connection and disconnection, and yawing loads.
303 Whenever appropriate, all stress ranges of the long-term stress range distribution shall be multiplied by a stress
concentration factor (SCF). The SCF depends on the structural geometry. SCFs can be calculated from parametric equations or
by finite element analysis.
Guidance Note:
When parametric equations are used to calculate SCFs for tubular joints, the Efthymiou equations should be applied for T, Y, DT and X
joints, while the Lloyd’s equations should be applied for K and KT joints. For details, see Appendix A.
When finite element methods based on conventional rigid-joint frame models of beam elements are used to calculate SCFs for tubular
joints, it is important to include local joint flexibilities. Such local joint flexibilities exist, but are not reflected in the rigid beam element
connections of such frame models. For inclusion of local joint flexibilities, Buitrago’s parametric formulas shall be used. Details are given
in Appendix B.
For multi-planar tubular joints for which the multi-planar effects are not negligible, the SCFs may either be determined by a detailed FEM
analysis of each joint or by selecting the largest SCF for each brace among the values resulting from considering the joint to be a Y, X and
K joint.
When conical stubs are used, the SCF may be determined by using the cone cross section at the point where the centre line of the cone
intersects the outer surface of the chord. For gapped joints with conical stubs, the true gaps shall be applied.
A minimum SCF equal to 1.5 should be adopted for tubular joints if no other documentation is available.
In tube-to-tube girth welds, geometrical stress increases are induced by local bending moments in the tube wall, created by centre line
misalignment from tapering and fabrication tolerances and by differences in hoop stiffness for tubes of different thickness. Details for
calculation of SCFs for tube-to-tube girth welds are given in Appendix C. It is recommended that as strict fabrication tolerances as possible
are required for tube-to-tube welds as a means for minimising the stress concentration factor.
DET NORSKE VERITAS

Page 106 – Sec.7
304 For fatigue analysis of regions in base material not significantly affected by residual stresses due to welding, the stress
ranges may be reduced prior to the fatigue analysis depending on whether the mean stress is a tensile stress or a compressive
stress.
Guidance Note:
The reduction is meant to account for effects of partly or full fatigue crack closure when the material is in compression. An example of
application is cut-outs in the base material. The mean stress σm is the static notch stress including stress concentration factors. Let ∆σ
denote the stress range including stress concentration factors. Prior to execution of the fatigue analysis, in which the long-term stress range
distribution is applied together with the S-N curve for prediction of fatigue damage, the stress ranges may be multiplied by a reduction
factor fm which is in general obtained from the figure below:
This implies in particular that fm is 1.0 when the material is in tension during the entire stress cycle, 0.6 when it is in compression during the
entire stress cycle, and 0.8 when it is subject to zero-mean stress.
305 For fatigue analysis of regions in welded structural details where the residual stresses due to welding are relatively low or
where the residual stresses due to welding become reduced over time due to relaxation from application of high tensile peak
loads, the stress ranges may be reduced prior to the fatigue analysis depending on whether the mean stress is a tensile stress or a
compressive stress.
Guidance Note:
An example of application of the reduction is welded structural details in plate structures, such as longitudinal stiffeners welded onto the
pile wall. The mean stress σm is the static notch stress including stress concentration factors. Let ∆σ denote the stress range including stress
concentration factors. Prior to execution of the fatigue analysis, in which the long-term stress range distribution is applied together with the
S-N curve for prediction of fatigue damage, the stress ranges may be multiplied by a reduction factor fm which is in general obtained from
the figure below:
This implies in particular that fm is 1.0 when the material is in tension during the entire stress cycle, 0.7 when it is in compression during the
entire stress cycle, and 0.85 when it is subject to zero-mean stress.
It is emphasised that the reduction factor fm as implied by the figure does not apply to tubular joints and large-scale tubular girth welds
owing to the presence of high stress concentration factors and high, long-range residual stresses due to external constraints (which are not
easily relaxed due to loading) in these connections.
306 Dynamic effects, including dynamic amplification, shall be duly accounted for when establishing the long-term stress
range distribution.
Guidance Note:
When the natural period of the wind turbine, support structure and foundation is less than or equal to 2.5 sec, a dynamic amplification factor
DAF may be applied to the wave load on the structure, when the wind turbine, support structure and foundation are modelled as a
single-degree-of-freedom system
1
DAF =
(1 − Ω 2 ) 2 + (2ξΩ) 2
in which
DET NORSKE VERITAS

Sec.7 – Page 107
ξ = damping ratio relative to critical damping
Ω = ratio between applied frequency and natural frequency
When the natural period of the wind turbine, support structure and foundation is greater than 2.5 sec, a time domain analysis shall be carried
out to determine the dynamic amplification factor.
The damping ratio for jacket type support structures can generally be chosen as 1% relative to critical damping. The vibration modes
relevant for determination of dynamic amplification factors are typically the global sway modes, which can be excited by wave loading.
307 The stress ranges in the stress range distribution must be compatible with the stress ranges of the S-N curve that the
distribution is to be used with for fatigue damage predictions. At welds, where stress singularities are present and extrapolation
needs to be applied to solve for the stress ranges, this implies that the same extrapolation procedure must be applied to establish
the stress ranges of the stress range distribution as the one that was used to establish the stress range values of the S-N curve for
the weld.
Guidance Note:
S-N curves are based on fatigue tests of representative steel specimens. During testing, stresses are measured by means of strain gauges.
Stresses in the notch zone at the weld root and the weld toe cannot be measured directly, because strain gauges cannot be fitted in this area
due to the presence of the weld. In addition comes that a stress singularity will be present in this area, i.e. stresses will approach infinity.
The stress which is recorded in standard fatigue tests is the so-called hot spot stress which is an imaginary reference stress. The hot spot
stress at the weld root and the weld toe is established by extrapolation from stresses measured outside the notch zone. During testing for
interpretation of the S-N curve, strain gauges are located in specific positions on the test specimens, and the hot spot stress is established by
processing the measurements. To ensure an unambiguous stress reference for welded structural details, the strain gauge positions to be used
for application of the strain gauges and for subsequent stress extrapolation are prescribed for each type of structural detail.
To fulfil the compatibility requirement, the stresses in the welds from the applied loading must be established as hot spot stresses for the
weld in question, i.e. the stresses in the welds must be established by extrapolation from stresses in the extrapolation points which are
prescribed for the actual structural detail. Thus when a finite element analysis is used to establish the stresses in the welds from the applied
loading, the stresses in the welds are to be found by extrapolation from the stresses that are calculated by the analysis in the prescribed
extrapolation points.
Appendix D provides definitions of the stress extrapolation points to be used for various structural details.
K 400 Characteristic cumulative damage

401 Predictions of fatigue life may be based on calculations of cumulative fatigue damage under the assumption of linearly
cumulative damage.
Guidance Note:
The characteristic cumulative fatigue damage DC can be calculated by Miner’s sum as
I nC ,i
DC = ∑
i =1 N C ,i
in which
DC = characteristic cumulative fatigue damage
I = number of stress range blocks in a sufficiently fine, chosen discretisation of the stress range axis
nC,i = number of stress cycles in the ith stress block, interpreted from characteristic long-term distribution of stress ranges
NC,i = number of cycles to failure at stress range of the ith stress block, interpreted from the characteristic S-N curve
K 500 Design fatigue factors

501 The design fatigue factor DFF is a partial safety factor to be applied to the characteristic fatigue damage in order to obtain
the design fatigue damage.
Guidance Note:
Because fatigue life is inversely proportional to fatigue damage, the design fatigue factor can be applied as a divisor on the characteristic
fatigue life to arrive at the design fatigue life.
DET NORSKE VERITAS

Page 108 – Sec.7
502 The DFF depends on the significance of the structure or structural component with respect to structural integrity and
accessibility for inspection and repair.
503 The design fatigue factors in Table xx are valid for structures or structural components with low consequence of failure
and for which it can be demonstrated that the structure satisfies the requirement to the damaged condition according to the ALS
when failure in the actual joint is specified as damage. For accessible areas, use of the design factors in Table xx are based on the
assumption that in-service inspections are carried out.
Table Xx Design fatigue factors, DFF
Access for inspection and repair
No access Accessible
Below or in the splash zone Above splash zone
3.0 2.0 1.0
K 600 Design requirement

601 The design cumulative fatigue damage DD is obtained by multiplying the characteristic cumulative fatigue damage by the
design fatigue factor DFF
D D = DFF ⋅ DC
602 The design criterion is
DD ≤ 1
K 700 Improved Fatigue Performance of Welded Structures by Grinding

701 The fatigue performance of welds in tubular joints can be improved by grinding. If the critical hotspot is at the weld toe,
reduction of the local notch stresses by grinding the weld toe to a circular profile will improve the fatigue performance, as the
grinding removes defects and some of the notch stresses at the weld toe.
If the grinding is performed in accordance with Figure X.1, an improvement in fatigue life by a factor of 2.2, equivalent to a 30%
increase in fatigue strength, can be obtained. Further, the scale exponent, k, in the S-N curves may be reduced from 0.25 to 0.15.
Smooth transition at
Rotary burr start/stop of grinding
Edge to be rounded
(Typ.)
Figure X.1 Weld toe grinding
702 The following conditions shall be fulfilled when welds in tubular joints are ground:
• A ball type rotary burr shall be used for grinding
• Final grid marks should be kept small and always be normal to the weld toe
• The diameter of the ball shall be between 8 and 10 mm. If the brace thickness is less than 16 mm, the diameter of the
grinder may be reduced to 6 mm.
• The edges between the ground profile and the brace/chord shall be rounded, i.e. no sharp edges are allowed
DET NORSKE VERITAS

Sec.7 – Page 109
• If the weld toe grinding shall not be performed on the complete circumference of the joint, a smooth transition between
the ground profile and the non-ground weld shall be ensured
• The ground surface shall be proven free of defects by an approved NDT method, e.g. MPI
• The depth of grinding shall be 0.5 mm below any visible undercut. However, the grinding depth is not to exceed 2 mm or
5% of wall thickness whichever is less
If weld toe grinding is performed on ‘old’ joints according to the above specification, these joints can be considered as ‘newborn’
when their fatigue lives are to be predicted.
703 The fatigue performance of girth welds can be improved by grinding. Grinding of girth welds will increase the fatigue life
of the welded connection if performed according to the conditions specified in Figure X.2.
Large radius grinding

Grinding as for tubular removing weld caps and
joints weld toe undercut
Figure X.2 Grinding of girth welds. A local grinding by small-scale rotary burr (left) may not be performed. The figure only
shows weld profile grinding (right) of the weld at the one side, but a grinding of the weld root may be performed following the
same principle.
If the grinding is performed as shown to the right in Figure X.2 and the below conditions are fulfilled, an improved S-N curve
may be applied for the weld toe. If the weld root is ground according to the same principles, an improved S-N curve may also be
applied for the weld root. The SCF due to fabrication tolerances and geometry such as tapering shall still be applied, see also
Appendix C.
• Final grid marks should be kept small and always be normal to the weld toe
• The largest radius possible considering the actual geometry shall be selected
• The edges between the ground profile and the brace/chord shall be rounded, i.e. no sharp edges are allowed
• If the weld toe grinding shall not be performed on the complete circumference of the joint, a smooth transition between
the ground profile and the non-ground weld shall be ensured
• The ground surface shall be proven free of defects by an approved NDT method, e.g. MPI
• The depth of grinding shall be 0.5 mm below any visible undercut. However, the grinding depth is not to exceed 2 mm or
5% of wall thickness whichever is less
Guidance Note:
The following improved S-N curves can be applied for girth welds if grinding is carried out according to the above specifications:
For ground girth welds in air:
loga=13.648 and m=3.56 for N<107

loga=15.516 and m=4.56 for N>107
For girth welds in seawater with adequate cathodic protection:

loga=13.347 and m=3.56 for N<4.24·105
loga=15.516 and m=4.56 for N>4.24·105
DET NORSKE VERITAS

Page 110 – Sec.8
SECTION 8
DETAILED DESIGN OF OFFSHORE CONCRETE STRUCTURES
A. General
A 100 Introduction
101 For detailed design of offshore concrete structures, DNV-OS-C502, Section 5, “Detailed Design of Offshore Concrete
Structures” shall apply.
102 The loads that govern the design of a concrete structure are described in Section 4. Details regarding the process of
determining the load effects within the concrete structure can be found in DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 4, D “Structural Analysis”,
supplemented by DNV-OS-C502, Appendix B “Structural Analyses – Modelling” and Appendix C “Structural Analyses”.
103 Section 8 provides a short summary of DNV-OS-C502, Section 5, focusing on issues which typically pertain to offshore
concrete structures, but not necessarily to standard concrete design. The contents of Section 8 do not replace the text of
DNV-OS-C502. For all design purposes, the user should always refer to the complete description in DNV-OS-C502.
104 For each clause included in Section 8, the corresponding clause number in DNV-OS-C502 is given in parenthesis for
reference.
A 200 Material
201 Prestressed reinforced concrete structures shall not be designed with characteristic cylinder strength lower than 30 MPa.
(DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, A203.)
202 For concrete exposed to sea water, the minimum characteristic cylinder strength is to be 35 MPa. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5,
A204.)
A 300 Load effects
301 Load effects shall be calculated in accordance with the methods outlined in DNV-OS-C502 Section 4 subsection D.
Cracking of the concrete, where that has a significant influence on the load effects, shall be taken into account. (DNV-OS-C502,
Sec. 5, A301.)
302 In slender structures the effect of the structural displacement shall be accounted for in the calculation of forces and
moments. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, A303.)
303 Load effects from imposed deformations are to be considered when relevant. Restraint forces caused by imposed
deformations such as support settlements, imposed or restrained axial deformations, rotations etc. shall be considered. When
calculating the action effects due to restraint forces, potential cracking may be considered in accordance with DNV-OS-C502,
Sec. 5, O700. In the ultimate limit state the non-linear behaviour of the structure may be considered in the calculation of the
effects of imposed strains and deformations. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, A304.)
304 The capacity of a structure may be checked by assuming plastic regions in the calculation of forces and moments. It shall
be documented that the necessary displacements are possible in these regions. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, A305.)
305 Moments and shear forces from concentrated loads on slabs can be calculated assuming a load spread of 45º from the
loaded surface to the reinforcement on the opposite side of the slab. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, A306.)
306 Calculation of load effects in shear walls and shells may be based on assumptions other than the theory of elasticity if
sufficient knowledge is available, on the stress conditions of the actual structure, based on tests or non-linear calculations. Force
models as indicated in DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, I100 may be used if relevant models can be established for the structure in
question. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, A307.)
307 Unless otherwise documented, pressure from liquids and gasses is, in addition to acting on the surface, also be assumed to
act internally on the entire cross section or in the cracks, whatever is the most unfavourable. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, A308.)
A 400 Effective flange width
401 A cross section subjected to bending with a flange in the compression zone may be assumed to have an effective flange
width on each side outside the web equal to the smallest of the following values:
• Actual width of the flange.
• 10% of the distance between the beam’s points of zero moments.
• 8 times the flange thickness.
(DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, A401.)
DET NORSKE VERITAS
Sec.8 – Page 111
402 If the flange has a haunch of width exceeding the height, the effective flange width may be increased by the height of the
haunch, but shall not exceed the actual width of the flange. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, A402.)
403 In a cross section with flange on only one side of the web and not braced laterally, skew bending and torsion shall be
considered. Further more, effective flange width shall not exceed 7.5% of the distance between the beam points of zero
moments. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, A403.)
404 If the flange is located in the tension zone the reinforcement located inside a width as given for a compression zone may
be considered fully effective. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, A404.)
A 500 Composite structures
501 For design of composite structures such as pile-to-sleeve connections and similar connections, the requirements given in
DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, A500 shall be supplemented by the requirements given in Section 9.
A 600 Yield line theory
601 Yield line theory may be used as the basis for design in the ULS conditions and the ALS conditions provided the
following conditions are satisfied:
• The load carrying capacity will be governed by a ductile mode of failure.
• Second order effects will be negligible.
• The plastic hinges along the yield lines will allow sufficient rotation.
Compliance with the above requirements is to be documented. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, A701.)
B. Design Principles
B 100 General
101 Design in compliance with this standard can be based either on calculations or on testing, or a combination of these.
(DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, B101.)
B 200 Limit states
201 Structures shall satisfy the requirements in the following limit states:
• Ultimate limit state (ULS).
• Accidental limit state (ALS).
• Fatigue limit state (FLS).
• Serviceability limit state (SLS).
(DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, B201.)
202 In the ULS and the ALS, the capacity shall be demonstrated by testing or by calculation based on the strain properties and
design material strengths. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, B202.)
203 In the FLS, it shall be demonstrated that the structure can sustain the expected load cycles at the applied load levels for the
intended service life.
The documentation shall include:
• Bending moments.
• Axial force.
• Shear forces.
• Torsional moment.
• Anchorage of reinforcement.
• Partial loading.
and combinations of these. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, B203.)
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204 The design in the SLS shall demonstrate that the structure, during its service life, will satisfy the functional requirements
related to its use and purpose. Serviceability limit state requirements shall also ensure the durability and strength of the structure.
(DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, B204.)
B 300 Design load effects
301 Design load effects shall be calculated using loads and load factors in accordance with Table A1 in Section 5 A101.
(DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, B301.)
B 400 Design material strength
401 In design by calculation, the design material strength shall be taken as a nominal value of the in-situ strength in
accordance with Table B1 divided by a material factor γm. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, B401.)
Guidance Note:
It is important to note that the partial safety factor γm for material strength of concrete shall be applied as a divisor on the nominal
compressive strength fcn and not as a divisor on the characteristic compressive strength defined as the 5% quantile in the probability
distribution of the compressive strength of concrete. The nominal compressive strength and the characteristic compressive strength are not
necessarily the same.
402 The material factors, γm, takes into account the uncertainties in material strength, execution, cross-sectional dimensions
and the theory used for calculation of the capacity. The material coefficients are determined without accounting for the reduction
of capacity caused by corrosion or mechanical deterioration. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, B404.)
403 The design strength and stiffness values of concrete shall be calculated as:
Ecd = Ecn/γc
fcd = fcn/γc
ftd = ftn/γc
where
Ecd = Design value of Young’s Modulus of concrete used in the stress-strain curve
Ecn = Normalised value of Young’s Modulus used in the stress-strain curve
fcd = Design compressive strength of concrete
fcn = Normalised compressive strength of concrete
ftd = Design strength of concrete in uniaxial tension
fcn = Normalised tensile strength of concrete
γc = Material factor γm for strength of concrete
In the ultimate limit state and in the accidental limit state, the Young’s Modulus for Concrete, Ec, is taken equal to the nominal
value, Ecn, in the serviceability limit state and fatigue limit state Ec is taken equal to the characteristic value, Eck.
(DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, B405.)
404 The design values for the reinforcement are:
Esd = Esk/γs
fsd = fsk/γs
where
Esd = Design value of Young’s Modulus of reinforcement
Esk = Characteristic value of Young’s Modulus of reinforcement
fsd = Design strength of reinforcement
fsk = Characteristic strength of reinforcement
γs = Material factor γm for strength of reinforcement
(DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, B406.)
405 The material factors, γm, for concrete and reinforcement are given in Table B1
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Table B1 Material factors for concrete and reinforcement
(DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, B407.)
C. Basis for Design by Calculation

C 100 Concrete grades and in-situ strength of concrete
101 The characteristic strength of concrete cylinders is defined in DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 4, A400.
In Table C1, nominal values for the in situ strength of concrete are given. The given tensile strength is valid for concrete in
uni-axial tension.
Lightweight aggregate concrete grades are identified by the symbol LC.
Table C1 Concrete Strength in MPa
(DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, C101.)

C 200 Reinforcement steel
201 The reinforcement shall be in accordance with DNV-OS-C502, Section 3, Subsection F. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, C201.)
202 The nominal value of the in-situ structural strength of non-prestressed reinforcement is taken equal to the characteristic
yield strength, fsk, determined as the 5% quantile in the probability distribution of the yield strength. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5,
C202.)
203 For prestressed reinforcement, the nominal value of the in-situ strength is taken equal to the yield strength fsy or the 0.2%
proof stress. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, C203.)
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C 300 Concrete stress−strain curves for strength design
301 The shape of the stress-strain relationship in compression for concrete of a specified grade is to be chosen such that it
results in prediction of behavioural characteristics in the relevant limit states that are in agreement with results of comprehensive
tests. In lieu of such data, the general relation relationship given in Figure C1 may be used. DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5 C can be
consulted for mathematical expressions for the shown model and for other simplified models. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, C301.)
Fig. C1 General stress-strain diagram for calculation of resistance of normal dense aggregate concrete in compression.
302 For reinforcement, a relationship between force and strain which is representative for the type and make in question shall
be used.
The stress-strain diagram for design is found by dividing the steel stress σs by the material coefficient γs.
Any deviating properties in compression shall be considered. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, C306.)
303 Where the assumed composite action with the concrete does not impose stricter limitations, the strain in the reinforcement
shall be limited to 10 ‰. For prestressed reinforcement, the strain difference between reinforcement and concrete is added to this
limit. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, C307.)
304 For reinforcement the steel stress may be assumed to increase linearly from 0 to fsd when the strain increases from 0 to εsy
= fsk/Esk.
The reinforcement stress may be assumed to be equal to fsd when the strain varies between εsy and εsu. The strain εsu shall not
exceed 10 ‰ (see Figure C4).
The steel can be assumed to have the same strain properties and yield stress in both compression and tension.
Fig. C4 Stress-strain diagram for reinforcement in accordance with DNV-OS-C502 Section 3.

(DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, C308.)
C 400 Geometrical dimensions in the calculation of sectional capacities
401 When allowing larger deviations in dimensions than those specified in Table C3, the deviations in sectional dimensions
and reinforcement position shall be considered in the design. Smaller deviations than the specified tolerances may be considered.
Table C3 Acceptable Deviations
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Sec.8 – Page 115
Type of Dimensional Deviation Maximum Tolerance
Overall dimension ± 25 mm
Cross-sectional 8%
Perpendicularity 8‰
Inclination 3‰
Local variations (1 m measuring 8 mm
length)
Local variations (2 m measuring 12 mm
length)
For structures of special shapes and geometry alternative tolerances may be specified from a strength point of view provided the
capacity calculated based on the specified tolerances does not reduce the capacity with more than 10 %. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5,
C401.)
402 If the most unfavourable combinations of specified tolerances for the sectional dimensions and reinforcement positions
are considered, and if conformity control verifies that the actual deviations do exceed those specified, then the increased material
factors given in Table B1 may be used.
Should the as-built documentation show that the intended deviation in tolerances is not met, then the section shall be reevaluated
in all relevant limit states. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, C402.)
403 For structures cast under water, the outer 100 mm of concrete at horizontal construction joints and in the contact area
between the ground and the concrete shall not be taken into account as effective cross section for transfer of forces. If the
structure is set at least 100 mm into rock, the entire concrete section can be calculated as being effective for transfer of forces to
the ground. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, C403.)
C 500 Tension in structural members
501 Tensile forces shall be provided for by reinforcement with the following exceptions:
• Tension caused by shear transfer, anchorage or splicing of reinforcement, and by partially loaded areas, and which may
be assumed transferred by the concrete by design in accordance with this standard.
(DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, C501.)
C 600 Fatigue strength relationships
601 Fatigue strength relationships (S-N curves) for concrete are to take into account all relevant parameters, such as:
• Concrete quality.
• Predominant load effect (axial, flexural, shear, bond or appropriate combinations of these).
• State of stress (cycling in pure compression or compression/tension).
• Surrounding environment (air, submerged).
(DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, C601.)
C 700 Deformation-induced loads, prestressing and creep
701 Deformation-induced loads, created by imposed deformations in the structure, are loads to be treated as deformation
loads (D), and not as a force which requires equilibrium. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, C701.)
702 In case of a ductile mode of failure in conjunction with negligible second order effects, the effect of deformation loads
may normally be neglected.
A typical example of a ductile mode of failure is a flexural failure provided sufficient rotational capacity exists. Verification of
sufficient rotational capacity may in most cases be based on simplified considerations. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, C702.)
703 Imposed deformations normally have a significant influence on the shear resistance of a section, and they are therefore to
be duly considered in the design. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, C703.)
704 Creep effects are to be considered where relevant. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, C705.)
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C 800 Effect of water pressure
801 The effect of water pressure in the concrete is to be fully considered when relevant. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, C801.)
802 The effect of hydrostatic pressure on the concrete strength is to be evaluated where relevant. For lightweight aggregate
concrete, this effect may be significant. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, C802.)
803 The effect of hydrostatic forces acting on the faces of cracks is to be taken into account in the analytical models used for
prediction of concrete strength. This effect is also to be taken into account when actual load effects are evaluated.
(DNV-OS-C502, 5, C803.)
D. Bending Moment and Axial Force

D 100 General
101 Details regarding ULS design for structural members subject to bending moments and axial forces are given in
DNV-OS-C502 Section 5D.
102 Similar details for ULS design for structural members subject to shear forces and torsional moments and for ULS design
of construction joints are given in DNV-OS-C502 Sections 5E through 5L.
E. Fatigue Limit State

E 100 General
101 All stress fluctuations imposed during the life of the structure which are significant with respect to fatigue evaluation are
to be taken into account when determining the long term distribution of stress ranges, see Sec. 5. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5,
M101.)
102 Statistical considerations for loads of a random nature are required for determination of the long term distribution of
fatigue loading effects. Deterministic analysis or spectral analysis may be used. The method of analysis shall be documented.
(DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, M102.)
103 The effects of significant dynamic response are to be properly accounted for when determining stress ranges. Special care
is to be taken to adequately determine the stress ranges in structures or members which are excited in the resonance range. The
amount of damping assumed is to be appropriate to the design. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, M103.)
104 The geometrical layout of the structural elements and the reinforcement is to be such as to minimize the possibility of
fatigue failure. Ductility is to be assured by confinement of the concrete by appropriate reinforcement. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5,
M104.)
105 Calculation of design life at varying stress amplitude can be based on cumulative linear damage theory.
The stress ranges due to cyclic actions may be arranged in stress blocks (action effect blocks), each with constant amplitude and
a corresponding number of cycles, ni.
A minimum of 8 blocks is recommended in this discretisation of the stress range axis.
The design criterion is
k
ni
∑N
i =1
<η
i
where
k = the number of stress blocks

ni = the number of cycles in stress-block i
Ni = the number of cycles with constant amplitude which causes fatigue failure
η = the ratio of fatigue utilization
(DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, M107.)
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Sec.8 – Page 117
106 The characteristic fatigue strength or fatigue resistance (S-N curve) of the structural detail is to be applicable for the
material, the structural detail, the state of stress considered and the surrounding environment. S-N curves are to take into account
material thickness effects as relevant. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, M108.)
107 The cumulative damage ratio (η) to be used in the design is to depend on the access for inspection and repair. Cumulative
damage ratios according to Table E1 are normally acceptable.
Table E1 Cumulative Damage Ratios (η)

No access for inspection and Below or in the splash zone1) Above splash zone
repair
0.33 0.5 1.0
1)
In typically harsh environments (e.g. the North Sea) structural details exposed to seawater in
the splash zone are normally to be considered to have no access for inspection and repair, i.e.
the cumulative damage ratio is to be reduced to 0.33.
(DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, M109.)
108 The action effects shall be calculated according to the theory of elasticity. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, M110.)
109 The capacity may be assumed to be adequate, when the calculated design life for the largest acting amplitude corresponds
to at least 2.0 x 106 cycles if the fatigue loading is caused by randomly varying actions such as wind, waves, traffic etc.
(DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, M111.)
E 200 S-N curves
201 S-N curves for concrete and reinforcement are given in DNV-OS-C502, Section 5, M200. For concrete there is a
distinction between structures in air and structures in water, and for structures in water there is a distinction between stress blocks
being in the compression-compression range and stresses being in the compression-tension range.
E 300 Further details
301 DNV-OS-C502, Section 5, M300-M500, give further details on fatigue analysis.
F. Accidental Limit State

F 100 General
101 Structural calculations for an accidental limit state shall document the capacity of the structure. The calculations can be
performed according to the regulations of this subsection (Subsection F) in conjunction with DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5,
Subsections D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L or P as relevant. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, N101.)
102 The material factor shall be taken as specified in B405. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, N102.)
103 Strength and strain properties are as given in DNV-OS-C502 Section 4 D200, C100, C200 and C300. The strain limits εcu
and εcu may, however, be subject to particular assessment. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, N103.)
104 Structures in High Safety Class and Normal Safety Class shall be designed in such a way that an accidental load will not
cause extensive failure. Support structures and foundations for offshore wind turbines are in this standard defined to belong to
the normal safety class.
The design may permit local damage and displacements exceeding those which normally assumed by design in the ultimate limit
state, and structural models and load transferring mechanisms which are normally not permitted may be assumed.
(DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, N104.)
105 Detailed requirements are given in DNV-OSC502, Sec. 5, N200 for explosion and impact and in DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5,
N300 for fire.
G. Serviceability Limit State

G 100 General
101 When calculating action effects in the serviceability limit state (SLS), the mode of behaviour of the structure in this limit
state shall govern the choice of analytical model.
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The design resistance in SLS is normally related to criteria for:
• Durability.
• Limitation of cracking.
• Tightness.
• Limitation of deflections and vibrations.
(DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, O101.)
102 The properties of the materials under short- and long-term actions and the effects of shrinkage, temperature and imposed
displacements, if any, shall be taken into account.
Cracking of concrete is to be limited so that it will not impair the function or durability of the structure. The crack size is control
by ensuring that the predicted crack width by calculation is within the nominal characteristic crack width limits in Table O1.
(DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, O102.)
103 Concrete structures are to have at least, a minimum amount of reinforcement to provide adequate ability for crack
distribution and resistance against minor load affects not accounted for in design. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, O104.
104 The material coefficients (γm) for concrete and reinforcement are given in DNV-OS-C502 section 5 B407.
(DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, O105.)
105 In the analysis and structural design it shall be ensured that displacements and cracks, spalling of concrete and other local
failures are not of such a nature that they make the structure unfit for its purpose in the serviceability limit state, nor alter the
assumptions made when designing in the other limit states. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, O106.)
G 200 Durability
201 For concrete structures of a permanent character and dependent on the environmental conditions to which the structure is
exposed, a material composition shall be selected in accordance with DNV-OS-C502 Section 3. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, O201.)
202 The environment shall be classified into one of the following Environmental classes:
SA: Specially aggressive environment: Structures exposed to strong chemical attack which will require additional protective
measures. This may require specially mixed concrete, membranes or similar.
MA: Severely aggressive environment: Structures in saline water, in the splash zone or exposed to sea spray, structures
exposed to aggressive gases, salt or other chemical substances, and structures exposed to repeated freezing and thawing
in a wet condition.
NA: Moderately aggressive environment: Outdoor structures or indoor structures in humid environment and structures in
fresh water.
LA: Mildly aggressive environment: Indoor structures in dry climate without aggressiveness.
For structures of class SA, the requirements for material mixtures shall be considered in relation to the chosen protective
measures. If the concrete may become exposed to the aggressive environment, at least the requirements for class MA shall be
fulfilled.
(DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, O202.)
203 In order to protect the reinforcement against corrosion and to ensure the structural performance, the reinforcement shall
have a minimum concrete cover as given in DNV-OS-C502 Section 5 Q200 and the nominal crack widths calculated in
accordance with DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, O700 shall be limited as given in Table G1.
Table G1 Limiting values of nominal characteristic crack width wk

Environmental Class wk wk
(reinforcement sensitive to corrosion) (reinforcement slightly sensitive to
corrosion)
SA Special considerations Special considerations
MA 0.10 mm 0.20 mm
NA 0.20 mm 0.40 mm
LA 0.40 mm -
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Sec.8 – Page 119
(DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, O203.)
204 Cold-worked prestressed reinforcement having a stress exceeding 400 MPa, and reinforcement with diameter less than 5
mm, shall be considered as reinforcement sensitive to corrosion. Other types of reinforcement can be considered as slightly
sensitive to corrosion. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, O106.)
205 For structures permanently submerged in saline water, the crack width requirements given for class NA in Table O1
apply. Exceptions are made for structures with water on one side and air on the opposite side, for which the requirements for
class MA apply on the air side. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, O106.)
206 The crack width limitations given in Table O1 are related to the crack width at a distance from the reinforcement
corresponding to the minimum concrete cover in accordance with Table I1 . (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, O106.)
207 When calculating crack widths for comparison with the values in table O1, long-term actions shall be applied in
combination with short-term actions. The short-term actions shall be chosen so that the crack width criterion will not be
exceeded more than 100 times during the design life of the structure. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, O106.)
208 All load factors in this calculation shall be taken as 1.0. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, O106.)
209 If more accurate values are not known for short-term, but frequently repeated, actions such as wind, traffic and wave
actions, 60 % of the characteristic value of the action may be applied. For other variable actions that rarely reach their
characteristic value, 100 % of the long-term part of the actions in combination with 40 % of the short-term part of the actions
may be applied. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, O106.)
210 The strain in the reinforcement shall not exceed the yield strain during short period loading in the construction phase or
any permanent SLS load condition.
G 300 Crack widths
301 Crack widths can be calculated in accordance with the method described in DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, O700 or in
accordance with the alternative method of DNV-OS-C502, Appendix F.
G 400 Other serviceability limit states
401 Requirements to serviceability limit states associated with displacements, vibrations, tightness, freeze/thaw cycles, and
temperatures are given in DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, O300-O1000.
H. Design by Testing
H 100 General
101 Concrete structures can be designed either by testing or by a combination of calculation and testing. This applies to all
limit states defined in DNV-OS-C502 Section 5 B201. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, P101.)
102 For details regarding design by testing, reference is made to DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, P100-P600.
I. Detailing of Reinforcement
I 100 Positioning
101 Reinforcement shall be placed in such a way that concreting will not be obstructed and so that sufficient bond anchorage,
corrosion protection and fire resistance will be achieved.
The positions of ribbed bars may be designed in accordance with the given minimum spacings without regard to the ribs, but the
actual outer dimensions shall be taken into account when calculating clearance for placing of reinforcement and for execution of
the concreting.
The positioning of reinforcement shall be designed so that the given requirements to the concrete cover can be obtained in
compliance with the specified tolerances. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, Q101.)
102 Ribbed bars may be arranged in bundles. Bundles shall not consist of more than four bars. Normally, the bars shall be
arranged so that the bundle has the least possible perimeter. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, Q102.)
103 Reference is made to DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, Q103-Q107 for further requirements to reinforcement.
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I 200 Concrete Cover
201 The concrete cover shall not be less than φ for ribbed bars and bundled bars and 2· φ for pre/post tensioned reinforcement.
φ is the nominal diameter for ribbed bars and strands and the equivalent diameter for bundles. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, Q201.)
202 Based on requirements to corrosion protection, the concrete cover shall not be less than the values given in Table I1.
Table I1 Minimum Concrete cover to ensure corrosion protection
Environmental Class Corrosion-sensitive reinforcement Noncorrosion-sensitive reinforcement
SA Special considerations Special considerations
MA 50 mm 40 mm
NA 35 mm 25 mm
LA 25 mm 15 mm
In the tidal zone, the minimum cover shall not be less than 50 mm.
The end surfaces of tensioned reinforcement in precast elements in very aggressive environment (MA) shall be protected.
Adequate corrosion protection of the end anchorage system of post-tensioned bars shall be documented for the actual
environmental class.
Post-tension bars shall be placed in tight pipes injected with grout, grease etc.
(DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, Q202.)
203 For structures exposed to fire, the requirement to minimum concrete cover shall not be taken less than the minimum
requirement to achieve sufficient fire resistance. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, Q203.)
I 300 Minimum Area of Reinforcement
301 Minimum reinforcement shall be provided so, that the reinforcement in addition to securing a minimum capacity also
contributes to preventing large and harmful cracks. This is achieved by transferring the tensile force present when the concrete
cracks to a well distributed reinforcement. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, Q501.)
302 Further requirements to minimum area of reinforcement are given in DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, Q500.
J. Structural Detailing
J 100 General
101 DNV-OS-C502 Section 5 R100-R700 contain requirements regarding detailing of structural elements.
K. Corrosion Control
K 100 General
101 Requirements to corrosion protection arrangement and equipments are generally given in Section 12. Special evaluations
relevant for offshore concrete structures are given herein. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, S101.)
102 Concrete rebars and prestressing tendons are adequately protected by the concrete itself, (i.e. provided adequate coverage
and adequate type/quality of the aggregate). However, rebar portions freely exposed to seawater in case of concrete defects, and
embedment plates, penetration sleeves and various supports which are freely exposed to seawater or to the marine atmosphere
will normally require corrosion protection. (DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, S103.)
103 More details regarding corrosion and cathodic protection can be found in DNV-OS-C502, Sec. 5, S100-S400.
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Sec.9 – Page 121
SECTION 9
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF GROUTED CONNECTIONS
A. Introduction
A 100 General
101 The requirements in this section apply to grouted tubular connections in steel support structures for offshore wind
turbines.
102 Grouted tubular connections are structural connections, which consist of two concentric tubular sections where the
annulus between the outer and the inner tubular has been filled with grout. Typical grouted connections used in offshore wind
turbine support structures consist of pile-to-sleeve or pile-to-structure grouted connections, single- or double-skin grouted
tubular joints, and grout-filled tubes.
Guidance Note:
In steel monopile support structures, grouted connections typically consist of pile-to-sleeve connections. In tripod legs, pile-to-structure
grouted connections are typically used.
103 Types of grouted connections not specifically covered by this standard shall be specially considered.
104 All relevant factors which may influence the strength of a grouted connection are to be adequately considered and
accounted for in the design.
Guidance Note:
The strength of grouted connections may depend on factors such as:
- Grout strength and modulus of elasticity
- Tubular and grout annulus geometries
- Application of mechanical shear keys
- Grouted length to pile-diameter ratio
- Surface conditions of tubular surfaces in contact with grout
- Grout shrinkage or expansion
- Load history (mean stress level, stress ranges)
105 Grout materials are to comply with the requirements given in Section 6B “Selection of Concrete Materials and Inspection
Principles” and Section 6C “Grout Material and Material Testing” as relevant.
106 Grouted connections in wind turbine support structures must be designed for the ULS and the FLS load combinations
specified in Section 5 for the loads specified in Section 4.
A 200 Design principles
201 Design rules for grouted connections are given for axial loading combined with torque and for bending moment
combined with shear loading, respectively.
Guidance Note:
Long experience with connections subjected to axial load in combination with torque exists, and parametric formulas have been established
for design of connections subjected to this type of loading. For connections subjected to bending moment and shear force, no parametric
design formulas have yet been established. Therefore, detailed investigations must be carried out for such connections.
202 For design of grouted connections, it may be conservative to assume that axial load and bending moment do not interact.
When it is assumed for a grouted connection that axial load and bending moment do not interact, the grouted connection shall
satisfy two separate requirements. The first requirement to satisfy is the capacity requirement specified for the combined action
of axial load and torque under the assumption of no concurrently acting bending moment and shear force. The second
requirement to satisfy is the capacity requirement specified for the combined action of bending moment and shear force under
the assumption of no concurrently acting axial force and torque.
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203 When shear stresses in grouted connections of piles subjected to axial load are calculated, due account shall be taken of
the distribution of global loads between the various piles in a group or cluster of piles. Analyses of the connections are to take
account of the highest calculated load with due consideration of the possible range of in-situ soil stiffness.
204 A grouted connection can be established with or without shear keys as shown on Fig. 1.
Guidance Note:
Shear keys can reduce the fatigue strength of the tubular members and of the grout due to the stress concentrations around the keys. If shear
keys are used in a grouted connection subjected to bending, they should be placed at the mid level of the connection in order to minimise
the influence on the fatigue damage, because the maximum grout stresses from bending will develop at the top and the bottom of the grout
member.
205 The distance between the mean seawater level (MSL) and the connection has to be considered in the early design phase
since it may have great influence on the behaviour of the connection.
Guidance Note:
The location of the connection relative to MSL may influence the shrinkage of the grout, the size of the bending moment in the connection,
the fatigue performance of the connection, and the grouting operation.
206 A grouted connection in a monopile can be constructed with the transition piece placed either inside or outside the
foundation pile.
Guidance Note:
Traditionally the transition piece is located outside the foundation pile for connections near MSL. This is mainly to be able to mount
accessories like boat landing and to paint the structure before load-out. These issues must be paid special attention if the transition piece is
placed inside the foundation pile.
207 The steel tubes shall be checked according to Section 7.

208 Local buckling in the steel tubes must be considered.
B. Ultimate Limit States

B 100 Connections subjected to axial load and torque
101 The ultimate capacity of axially loaded grouted tubular connections may be calculated according to the method given in
DNV Rules for Fixed Offshore Installations, January 1998. The method is reproduced in the guidance note.
Guidance Note:
The shear stress to be transferred in an axial loaded connection is:
P
τs =
2 ⋅ R p ⋅π ⋅ L
where:
τs = shear stress in axial loaded connection
P = axial force from factored load actions
Rp = pile outer radius (see Fig. 1)
L = effective grouted connection length.
For grouted connections with mill rolled surface where the mill scale has been removed completely by corrosion or mechanical means, the
following simplified design equations may be used. The ultimate strength is the lesser of the interface shear strength and the grout matrix
strength. The interface shear strength may be taken as:
µ ⋅E  δ h tp 
τ ki = ⋅ + 0.4
⋅ f ck ⋅ 
K  R p 21 ⋅ s Rp 
 
where:
τ ki = characteristic interface shear strength
µ = grout to steel interface coefficient of friction to be taken as 0.4-0.6 for corrode or grit blasted steel surfaces with the mill scale
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Sec.9 – Page 123
removed.
δ = height of surface irregularities to be taken as 0.00037⋅Rp for rolled steel surfaces
Rs = sleeve outer radius
ts = wall thickness of sleeve
tp = wall thickness of pile
tg = thickness of grout
h = shear key outstand
s = shear key spacing
E = modules of elasticity for steel
Eg = modulus of elasticity for grout
fck = characteristic compressive cube strength of the grout
Rp E ⋅ tg Rs
K = stiffness factor = + +
tp Eg ⋅ R p ts
Where more precise information is not available, Eg may be taken as equal to 150⋅fck MPa.
The above equation has been proven valid within the following limits:
Rp
5≤ ≤ 30
tp
Rs
9≤ ≤ 70
ts
h
< 0.1
s
s > Rp ⋅tp
The upper limit for the ratio Rp/tp can be exceeded for low utilization of the axial capacity of the grouted connection. The allowable upper
limit for Rp/tp must be evaluated for the actual connection and the actual utilization.
It is to be noted that when the shear key spacing, s, approaches a limit of R p ⋅ t p , no further significant increase in strength may be
obtained by decreasing the shear key spacing.
The capacity of the grout matrix may be taken as:
(
τ kg = κ ⋅ f ck0.7 ⋅ 1 − e
-2L/R p
)
where:
τ kg = characteristic shear strength of the grout
κ = early age cycling reduction factor
= 1 − 3 ⋅ ∆/R p for s / R p ⋅ t p < 3
= 1 for s / R p ⋅ t p ≥ 3
∆ = early age cycling movement.

There is only modest test experience of early age cycling effects such as will be caused by relative movement between pile and sleeve due
to wave action during setting of the grout. The above equations are for initial estimation only. It will be necessary to verify the performance
of the specimens subject to early age cycling effects with ad hoc tests.
The shear stress in an axial loaded connection shall satisfy:
τk
τs ≤
γm
where:
τk = characteristic shear strength of the connection, min (τ ki ,τ kg)
γm = the material factor according to section D 200.
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Fig. 1 Grouted pile-to-sleeve connection

B 200 Connections subjected to bending moment and shear loading

201 For grouted connection subjected to bending moment and shear loading, the grout will mainly be exposed to radial
stresses given a sufficient length-to-pile-diameter ratio.
Guidance Note:
The length-to-pile-diameter ratio (L/D ratio) of the connection should typically be in the order of L/D ≈ 1.5 to secure that the bending
moment is safely transferred by radial stresses in the grout.
Due to load transfer by radial stresses, no shear keys in pile-to-sleeve connections are necessary to transfer the moment.
For a pile-to-sleeve connection, for example for a monopile support structure, relatively high loads must be transferred in the grouted
connection. Due to this, it is most likely that such connections require the use of high strength grout (i.e. compressive strength in excess of
65 MPa).
202 The ultimate strength capacity of grouted connections shall be documented. This may be carried out by the use of
non-linear finite element (FE) analyses. However, both the connection modelling and the solution methodology should be
calibrated to experimental data in cases where no prior knowledge or experimental data exists.
Guidance Note:
The analyses should as a minimum describe the interaction between the grout and the steel. Further the analyses could include buckling
check for the steel tubes by including non-linear geometric effects.
For FE analyses guidelines and recommendations stated by the manufacturer of the FE program applied, such as in user’s manuals, should
always be followed.
FE analyses of the grouted connection shall be modelled with double contact interfaces between the grout and the steel tubes (both sides of
the grout member).
FE analyses shall be carried out both with and without contact friction on surfaces without shear keys. Friction coefficients should be in the
order of 0.4-0.6, if not documented by testing. The effect of slip should be included in the contact formulation when the friction is present.
The mesh size on the contact surfaces shall account for the non-linear stress singularities at the surface edges. The mesh size shall therefore
secure that contact occurs on minimum 3 elements in the slip direction. Further, the element edge aspect ratio on the contact surfaces
should not exceed 1:5.
The grout elements should as a minimum be linear 8-node solid elements with 3 translation degrees of freedom. Through the thickness of
the grout member, a minimum of two first-order elements, or alternatively one second-order element, should be applied.
The constitutive model for the grout should account for the non-linear behaviour of the grout. The non-linear properties to be regarded are
e.g. the difference in compressive and tensile strength, possible cracking due to tension and effects from confinement.
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Sec.9 – Page 125
The steel elements should as a minimum be modelled with first-order shell elements with 5 integration points through the thickness.
The element choice for the steel tubes and the grout shall together provide a consistent deformation field.
If shrinkage can be expected this should be accounted for in the model.
For the determination of stresses in the fatigue limit state, the peak stresses can be averaged over a length of about 100 mm.
The input and output for the FE model must be documented thoroughly by relevant printouts and plots. The input shall as a minimum be
documented by input file and plots showing geometry, boundary conditions and loads. The output shall as a minimum be documented by
plots showing total stresses (von Mises stresses in steel and Tresca stresses in grout) together with plots showing principal stresses and
strains.
203 In the ultimate limit state, the compressive stresses in the grout shall satisfy:
f cck
fs ≤
γm
where:
fs = compressive stress in the grout
fcck = characteristic compressive cylinder strength of the grout
γm = the material factor according to Subsection D 200.
C. Fatigue Limit States

C 100 General
101 The fatigue strength of the grout in the grouted connections subjected to bending moment shall be based on codes for
grout and concrete.
102 A characteristic long-term stress cycle history shall be established for the grouted connection. All significant stress
cycles, which contribute to fatigue damage in the structure during its design lifetime, shall be considered. Each stress cycle is
characterised by its mean stress and its stress range. The design lifetime shall be based on the specified service life of the
structure. If a service life is not specified, 20 years should be used.
C 200 Connections subjected to axial load and torque
201 The fatigue strength of axially loaded grouted connections is to be based on relevant test data or experience relevant for
the actual properties of the connection. Provided a grouted connection, exposed to environmental loading as the only form of
dynamic loading, is designed to comply with the ultimate strength requirements of B.101 no further check will be required for
fatigue strength of a grouted connection only subjected to axial load and torque.
C 300 Connections subjected to bending moment and shear loading
301 The accumulated damage, D, for the long-term stress cycle history shall be calculated using the Palmgren-Miner
summation and is required not to exceed 1.0:
j
ni
D=∑ ≤1
i =1 Ni
where:
ni = number of stress cycles for the actual combination of mean stress and stress range (applied number of stress cycles at ith
stress combination over design life)
Ni = allowable number of cycles for the actual combination of mean stress and stress range (number of cycles to failure at ith
stress combination)
j = total number of combinations of mean stress and stress range in a suitable discretisation of the mean stress and stress
range plane
Guidance Note:
When it can be demonstrated that the compressive stresses in the fatigue-critical sections of a high-strength grout member are
predominantly unidirectional, the calculations of the accumulated damage can be carried out according to FIB/CEB SR90/1, Bulletin
d’Information No. 197, “High Strength Concrete”, 1990.
First calculate an intermediate value NI for the number of cycles to failure:
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log 10 N I = (12 + 16S min + 8S min
2
) ⋅ (1 − S max )
The number of cycles to failure N can then be calculated according to the following S-N curve:
 log 10 N I for 0 ≤ log 10 N I ≤ 6

log 10 N = 
log 10 N I ⋅ (1 + 0.2 ⋅ (log 10 N I − 6)) for log 10 N I > 6
An endurance limit is defined for stress ranges ∆S<0.30−0.375Smax. For these stress ranges, an infinite number of cycles to failure applies
and overrides the value of N resulting from the above expressions.
Definitions:
fcck,f = design fatigue strength, fcck/γm
smax,f = maximum compressive stress in cycle
smin,f = minimum compressive stress in cycle
Smax = max. relative stress, i.e. smax,f/fcck,f
Smin = min. relative stress, i.e. smin,f/fcck,f
∆S = Stress range, Smax - Smin
γm = material factor for the FLS to be taken according to Subsection D 200.
Fig. 2 S-N curves for fatigue of high-strength grout

D. Requirements to Verification and Material Factors

D 100 Experimental Verification
101 If no sufficient documentation of the behaviour of a grouted connection is available, experimental verification of the
behaviour must be carried out.
D 200 Material Factors for Grouted Connections
201 To account for uncertainties in the strength of the grouted connections, including but not limited to natural variability and
uncertainties due to the offshore grouting operations, the material factor γ m is in general to be taken as:
Limit state ULS FLS
γm 3.0 2.6
202 Provided that the actual in-situ concrete compressive strength and the grouting operation are documented and further
verified on site, and that the stress distribution in the grout is particularly well-controlled, a lower material factor γ m than 2.6
required in 201 can be accepted for design in the FLS.
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Sec.9 – Page 127
Guidance Note:
The FIP/CEB High Strength Model Code, ref. FIB/CEB SR90/1, Bulletin d’Information No. 197, “High Strength Concrete”, 1990,
requires the design compressive dynamic fatigue strength, fcck,f to be determined as follows:
fcck,f = γ1 ∗ γ2 ∗ γ3 * (fcck/γ4)
where:
γ1 = 0.8 factor to account for the possible deviation between in-situ strength and laboratory test specimen strength due to inferior in-situ
compaction and curing.
γ2 = 0.85 factor to account for the combined effect of long term duration loading and the use of a rectangular, constant stress distribution
in the calculations
γ3 = 0.85 factor to account for an extra safety for higher-grade concrete due to possible less ductility of higher-strength concrete
γ4 = 1.5 is the material factor to account for the statistical variation in the compressive strength.
When all of the above factors are applied, the ‘overall material’ concrete fatigue design safety factor equal to 1.5/(0.85·0.85·0.8) = 2.6 is
obtained as required in 201.
Provided that the actual in-situ concrete compressive strength, the grouting procedure and the grouting operation are documented and
further verified on site, the factor γ1 can be taken as 1.0. The documentation and verification activities as related to the grouting operation
to be performed are:
- Verification of the grout procedure and test sample requirements
- On site verification of the grouting operation and results hereof
- Verification and survey of test sample, mechanical tests and test results.
As the fatigue loading is short term duration loading from the wind turbine and waves γ2 can be taken as 1.0 if the stress check is based on
Gauss stresses including local stress concentrations derived from the Finite Element (FE) Analysis performed. However, if the
determination of the fatigue limit state peak stresses have been averaged over a length of 100 mm, as recommended in the guidance note in
B.202, γ2 is to remain equal to 0.85.
The design partial factors γ3 and γ4 always have to be applied with the above specified values.
E. Grouting Operations
E 100 General
101 The grouting operations of connections are to comply with relevant requirements given in DNV-OS-C502 Section 7
together with the requirements given for concrete in Section 8 of this standard.
102 It is to be ensured that the grouting system has sufficient venting capacity to enable air, water and surplus grout to be
evacuated from the annuli and compartments required to be grout filled at a rate exceeding the filling rate of grout.
103 Injection of grout shall be carried out from the bottom of the annulus. Complete filling of the annulus is to be confirmed
by grout overfill at top of grout connection or at top outlet hole.
104 Sufficient strength of formwork or similar (e.g. an inflatable rubber seal) must be secured.
105 To avoid casting joints in the grout member, the grouting should be carried out in one process.
106 Sufficient material of acceptable quality is to be available at the start of a grouting operation to enable fabrication of grout
for the biggest compartment to be grouted. A reliable system for replenishment of accepted material according to the
consumption rate is to be established.
107 Adequate back-up equipment for the grouting process must be available before the process is initiated.
108 The temperature of all surroundings (air, water, steel structures etc.) must be between 5°C and 35°C during the grouting
operation.
109 In general, piling operations are not to be performed after commencement of pile-grouting operations.
E 200 Operations Prior to Grouting
201 Prior to commencement of grouting operations, the properties of the proposed grout mix are to be determined by
appropriate qualification tests to a recognised code or standard, cf. also Sec. 6C.
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202 All steel surfaces must be clean before grouting. Before positioning of the tubes, the surfaces must be checked for grease,
oil, paint, marine growth etc. and cleaned if necessary.
E 300 Monitoring
301 Parameters considered as important for controlling the grouting operation are to be monitored prior to and during the
grouting operation. Records are to be kept of all monitored parameters. These parameters are normally to include:
- Results from qualification tests for grout mix

- Results from grout tests during operation
- Records of grout density at mixer and of total volumes pumped for each compartment or annulus
- Records from differential pressure measurements, if applicable
- Observation records from evacuation points
- Records of grout density at evacuation points or density of return grout
- Results from compressive strength testing.
302 Means are to be provided for observing the emergence of grout from the evacuation point from the compartment/annulus
being grouted.
303 During fabrication of grout, regular tests are to be carried out for confirming of the following properties:
- Density
- Air content
- Viscosity
- Workability
- Bleeding
- Temperature of grout
- Compressive strength.
Guidance Note:
A Grouting Procedure including the Quality Control Scheme for the grout operation is to be worked out.
The Quality Control Scheme shall name the responsible companies or personnel for each grouting operation activity.
The density and air content are normally to be checked manually every half hour. The viscosity, workability, bleeding and temperature are
to be checked once every two hours or once per compartment or annulus to be grouted if the grouting takes less than two hours.
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SECTION 10
FOUNDATION DESIGN
A. General
A 100 Introduction
101 The requirements in this section apply to pile foundations, gravity type foundations, and stability of sea bottom.
102 Foundation types not specifically covered by this standard shall be specially considered.
103 Design of foundations shall be based on site-specific information, see Section 3.
104 The geotechnical design of foundations shall consider both the strength and the deformations of the foundation structure
and of the foundation soils.
This section states requirements for
- foundation soils
- soil reactions upon the foundation structure
- soil-structure interaction
Requirements for the foundation structure itself are given in Sections 7 to 9 as relevant for a foundation structure constructed
from steel and/or concrete.
105 A foundation failure mode is defined as the mode in which the foundation reaches any of its limit states. Examples of such
failure modes are
- bearing failure
- sliding
- overturning
- pile pull-out
- large settlements or displacements
106 The definition of limit state categories as given in Section 2 is valid for foundation design with the exception that failure
due to effect of cyclic loading is treated as an ultimate limit state (ULS), alternatively as an accidental limit state (ALS), using
partial load and material factors as defined for these limit state categories. The load factors are in this case to be applied to all
cyclic loads in the design load history. Lower load factors than prescribed in Section 5 may be accepted if the total safety level
can be demonstrated to be within acceptable limits.
107 The load factors to be used for design related to the different categories of limit states are given in Section 5.
108 The material factors to be used are specified in the relevant subsection for design in this Section. The characteristic
strength of soil shall be assessed in accordance with Clause 300.
109 Material factors shall be applied to soil shear strength as follows:
- for effective stress analysis, the tangent to the characteristic friction angle shall be divided by the material coefficient γm
- for total stress analysis, the characteristic undrained shear strength shall be divided by the material factor γm
For soil resistance to axial pile load, material factors shall be applied to the characteristic resistance as described in Subsection C.
For soil resistance to lateral pile load, material factors shall be applied to the characteristic resistance as described in Subsection
D.
110 Settlements caused by increased stresses in the soil due to structural weight shall be considered for structures with gravity
type foundations.
111 Further elaborations on design principles and examples of design solutions for foundation design are given in DNV
Classification Notes 30.4.
A 200 Soil investigations
201 Requirements to soil investigations as a basis for establishing necessary soil data for a detailed design are given in Section
3.
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A 300 Characteristic properties of soil
301 The characteristic strength and deformation properties of soil shall be determined for all deposits of importance.
302 The characteristic value of a soil property shall account for the variability in that property based on an assessment of the
soil volume that governs the limit state in consideration.
Guidance Note:
Variability in a soil property is usually a variability of that property from point to point within a soil volume. When small soil volumes are
involved, it is necessary to base calculations on the local soil property with its full variability. When large soil volumes are involved, the
effect of spatial averaging of the fluctuations in the soil property from point to point over the soil volume comes into play. Calculations may
then be based on the spatially averaged soil property, which eventually becomes equal to the mean of the soil property when the soil
volume is large enough.
303 The results of both laboratory tests and in-situ tests shall be evaluated and corrected as relevant on the basis of recognised
practice and experience. Such evaluations and corrections shall be documented. In this process account shall be given to
possible differences between properties measured in the tests and those soil properties that govern the behaviour of the in-situ
soil for the limit state in question. Such differences may be due to:
— soil disturbance due to sampling and samples not reconstituted to in-situ stress history
— presence of fissures
— different loading rate between test and limit state in question
— simplified representation in laboratory tests of certain complex load histories
— soil anisotropy effects giving results which are dependent on the type of test.
304 Possible effects of installation activities on the soil properties should be considered.
305 The characteristic value of a soil property shall be a cautious estimate of the value that affects the occurrence of the limit
state, selected such that the probability of a worse value is low.
306 A limit state may involve a large volume of soil and it is then governed by the spatial average of the soil property within
that volume. The choice of the characteristic value shall take due account for the number and quality of tests within the soil
volume involved. Specific care should be made when the limit state is governed by a narrow zone of soil.
307 The characteristic value of a soil property shall be selected as a lower value, being less than the most probable value, or an
upper value being greater, depending on which is worse for the limit state in question.
Guidance Note:
Relevant statistical methods should be used. When such methods are used, the characteristic value should be derived such that the
probability of a worse value governing the occurrence of the limit state is not greater than 5%.
A 400 Effects of cyclic loading

401 The effects of cyclic loading on the soil properties shall be considered in foundation design where relevant.
402 Cyclic shear stresses may lead to a gradual increase in pore pressure. Such pore pressure build-up and the accompanying
increase in cyclic and permanent shear strains may reduce the shear strength of the soil. These effects shall be accounted for in
the assessment of the characteristic shear strength for use in design within the applicable limit state categories.
403 In the SLS design condition the effects of cyclic loading on the soil’s shear modulus shall be corrected for as relevant
when dynamic motions, settlements and permanent (long-term) horizontal displacements shall be calculated. See also D400.
404 The effects of wave- and wind-induced forces on the soil properties shall be investigated for single storms and for several
succeeding storms, where relevant.
405 In seismically active areas, where the structure−foundation system may be subjected to earthquake forces, the
deteriorating effects of cyclic loading on the soil properties shall be evaluated for the site-specific conditions and considered in
the design where relevant. See also 500.
A 500 Soil−structure interaction
501 Evaluation of structural load effects shall be based on an integrated analysis of the soil and structure system. The analysis
shall be based on realistic assumptions regarding stiffness and damping of both the soil and structural members.
502 Due consideration shall be given to the effects of adjacent structures, where relevant.
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Sec.11 – Page 131
503 For analysis of the structural response to earthquake vibrations, ground motion characteristics valid at the base of the
structure shall be determined. This determination shall be based on ground motion characteristics in free field and on local soil
conditions using recognised methods for soil and structure interaction analysis.
B. Stability of sea bottom

B 100 Slope stability
101 The risk of slope failure shall be evaluated. Such calculations shall cover:
— natural slopes
— slopes developed during and after installation of the structure
— future anticipated changes of existing slopes
— effect of continuous mudflows
— wave induced soil movements.
The effect of wave loads on the sea bottom shall be included in the evaluation when such loads are unfavourable.
102 When the structure is located in a seismically active region, the effects of earthquakes on the slope stability shall be
included in the analyses.
103 The safety against slope failure for ULS design shall be analysed using material factors (γM):
γM = 1.2 for effective stress analysis

= 1.3 for total stress analysis.
104 For ALS design, the material factor γM may be taken equal to 1.0.
B 200 Hydraulic stability
201 The possibility of failure due to hydrodynamic instability shall be considered where soils susceptible to erosion or
softening are present.
202 An investigation of hydraulic stability shall assess the risk for:
— softening of the soil and consequent reduction of bearing capacity due to hydraulic gradients and seepage forces
— formation of piping channels with accompanying internal erosion in the soil
— surface erosion in local areas under the foundation due to hydraulic pressure variations resulting from environmental loads.
203 When erosion is likely to reduce the effective foundation area, measures shall be taken to prevent, control and/or monitor
such erosion, as relevant, see 300.
B 300 Scour and scour prevention
301 The risk for scour around the foundation of a structure shall be taken into account unless it can be demonstrated that the
foundation soils will not be subject to scour for the expected range of water particle velocities.
Guidance Note:
When a structure is placed on the seabed, the water-particle flow associated with steady currents and passing waves will undergo
substantial changes. The local change in the flow will generally cause an increase in the shear stress on the seabed, and the sediment
transport capacity of the flow will increase. In the case of an erodible seabed, this may result in a local scour around the structure. Such
scour will be a threat to the stability of the structure and its foundation.
302 The effect of scour, where relevant, shall be accounted for according to at least one of the following methods:
a) Adequate means for scour protection is placed around the structure as early as possible after installation.
b) The foundation is designed for a condition where all materials, which are not scour-resistant, are assumed removed.
c) The seabed around the structure is kept under close surveillance and remedial works to prevent further scour are carried out
shortly after detection of significant scour.
303 In an analysis of scour, the effect of steady current, waves, or current and waves in combination shall be taken into
account as relevant.
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Guidance Note:
The extent of a scour hole will depend on the dimensions of the structure and on the soil properties. In cases where a scour protection is in
place, it will also depend on the design of the scour protection.
304 Scour protection material shall be designed to provide both external and internal stability, i.e. protection against excessive
surface erosion of the scour protection material and protection against transportation of soil particles from the underlying natural
soil.
Guidance Note:
When scour protection consists of an earth structure, such as a sequence of artificially laid-out soil layers, it must be ensured that standard
filter criteria are met when the particle sizes of the individual layers of such an earth structure are selected.
305 Scour protection shall as a minimum be designed for environmental loads from waves and current with a recurrence
period of 100 years.
Guidance Note:
When the foundation is designed for the environmental loads from waves and current with a recurrence period of 100 years, and this is done
under the assumption that a scour protection is present, an assumption needs to be made of the maximum depth and maximum extent of the
scour hole that will result in this scour protection when this loading takes place. When subsequently the scour protection is designed, it has
to be designed for this environmental loading in such a manner that the maximum depth and maximum extent of the scour hole assumed
during the foundation design are not exceeded.
In practice, this implies that it must be ensured that the assumed maximum depth and maximum extent of the scour hole in the scour
protection are not exceeded during the occurrence of the 100-year storm condition. It is not realistic to assume that no scour hole will
develop during the 100-year storm. Development of a scour hole in the scour protection is allowed as long as this is a smaller hole than the
hole that will develop if no scour protection is in place.
The design of the scour protection for the environmental loads from waves and current needs to be supplemented with adequate inspections
and necessary repairs of the scour protection. The intention with an adequate inspection plan is to avoid situations where unrepaired
damages are left in the scour protection prior to the arrival of the 100-year event and thereby allow for larger damages to be present at the
completion of the 100-year event than those assumed in the foundation design.
It is recommended to inspect the scour protection at least every five years and after the occurrence of the 100-year design conditions.
Inspections of the scour protection can practicably be executed in connection with the execution of other inspection tasks on the site for
which necessary equipment such as a remotely operated vessel is present. An example of such another inspection task is the inspection of
sacrificial anodes for corrosion protection.
306 In cases where a scour protection is in place at a foundation structure and consists of an earth structure, the effect of soil
support from the scour protection can be taken into account in the design of the foundation structure. For this purpose, a scour
hole in the scour protection material shall be assumed with dimensions equal to those that are assumed in the design of the scour
protection for the relevant governing ULS event.
307 A methodology for prediction of scour around a vertical pile that penetrates the seabed is given in Appendix J.
C. Pile foundations
C 100 General
101 The load-carrying capacity of piles shall be based on strength and deformation properties of the pile material as well as on
the ability of the soil to resist pile loads.
102 In evaluation of soil resistance against pile loads, the following factors shall be amongst those to be considered:
— shear strength characteristics

— deformation properties and in-situ stress conditions of the foundation soil
— method of installation
— geometry and dimensions of pile
— type of loads.
103 The data bases of existing methods for calculation of soil resistance to axial and lateral pile loads are often not covering
all conditions of relevance for offshore piles. This in particular relates to size of piles, soil shear strength and type of load. When
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Sec.11 – Page 133
determining the soil resistance to axial and lateral pile loads, extrapolations beyond the data base of a chosen method shall be
made with thorough evaluation of all relevant parameters involved.
104 It shall be demonstrated that the selected solution for the pile foundation is feasible with respect to installation of the piles.
For driven piles, this may be achieved by a driveability study or an equivalent analysis.
105 Structures with piled foundations shall be assessed with respect to stability for both operation and temporary design
conditions, e.g. prior to and during installation of the piles.
Guidance note:
For drilled piles, it is important to check the stability of the drilled hole in the temporary phase before the pile is installed in the hole.
106 Unless otherwise specified, the following material factors γM shall be applied to the characteristic soil strength parameters
for determination of design soil resistance against axial, lateral and moment loading of piles in the ULS and the SLS:
Type of geotechnical Limit state
analysis
ULS SLS
γM γM
Effective stress analysis 1.2 1.0
Total stress analysis 1.3 1.0
107 For determination of design soil resistance against axial pile loads in ULS design, a material factor γM = 1.3 shall be
applied to all characteristic values of soil resistance, e.g. to characteristic limit skin friction and characteristic tip resistance.
Guidance note:
This material factor may be applied to pile foundations of multi-legged jacket or template structures. The design pile loads shall be
determined from structural analyses in which the pile foundation is modelled either with an adequate equivalent elastic stiffness or with
non-linear models that reflect the true non-linear stress-strain properties of the soil in conjunction with the characteristic soil strength.
If the ultimate plastic resistance of the foundation system is analysed by modelling the soil with its design strength and allowing full
plastic redistribution until a global foundation failure is reached, higher material factors should be used.
For individual piles in a group lower material factors may be accepted, as long as the pile group as a whole is designed with the required
material factor. A pile group in this context shall not include more piles that those supporting one specific leg.
108 For drilled piles, the assumptions made for the limit skin friction in design shall be verified during the installation.
Guidance note:
The drilling mud which is used during the drilling of the hole for the pile influences the adhesion between the pile and the soil and thereby
also the limit skin friction.
109 Laterally loaded piles may be analysed on the basis of realistic stress-strain curves for soil and pile. The pile deflections
induced by the combination of lateral and axial loading may be so large that inelastic behaviour of the soil takes place.
110 The lateral resistance of a pile or a pile group may in the ULS be based on the theory of plasticity provided that the
characteristic resistance is in accordance with recognised plastic theorems so as to avoid nonconservative estimates of the safety.
The calculations are then to be based on the assumption that the lateral deformations of the pile are sufficiently large to plastify
the soil completely.
C 200 Design criteria for monopile foundations
201 For geotechnical design of monopile foundations, both the ultimate limit state and the serviceability limit state shall be
considered.
202 For design in the ultimate limit state, design soil strength values are to be used for the soil strength, defined as the
characteristic soil strength values divided by the specified materials factor. Design loads are to be used for the loads, each design
load being defined as the characteristic load multiplied by the relevant specified load factor. The loads are to be representative of
the extreme load conditions. Two cases are to be considered:
- axial loading
- combined lateral loading and moment loading
203 For axial loading in the ULS, sufficient axial pile capacity shall be ensured.
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Guidance Note:
The pile head is defined to be the position along the pile in level with the seabed. Sufficient axial pile capacity can be ensured by checking
that the design axial load on the pile head does not exceed the design axial resistance, obtained as the design unit skin friction, integrated
over the pile surface area, plus a possible pile tip resistance.
For clay, the unit skin friction is a function of the undrained shear strength. For sand, the unit skin friction is a function of the density. In
both cases, the unit skin friction may be determined as specified in the API RP2A and the DNV Classification Notes No. 30.4.
The effects of cyclic loading on the axial pile resistance should be considered in design. The main objective is to determine the shear
strength degradation, i.e. the degradation of the unit skin friction, along the pile shaft for the appropriate prevailing loading intensities.
The effects of cyclic loading are most significant for piles in cohesive soils, in cemented calcareous soils and in fine-grained cohesionless
soils (silt), whereas these effects are much less significant in medium to coarsely grained cohesionless soils.
Unless data indicate otherwise, the static unit skin friction of sand may be multiplied by a factor 0.9 to establish the unit skin friction of the
sand reduced for cyclic loading effects. Similarly, unless data indicate otherwise, the unit skin friction of clay may be multiplied by a factor
0.72 to establish the unit skin friction of the clay reduced for cyclic loading effects.
204 For combined lateral loading and moment loading in the ULS, sufficient pile capacity against this loading shall be
ensured. The pile capacity is formed by lateral pile resistance. Verification of sufficient pile capacity implies that the following
two requirements shall be fulfilled:
(1) The theoretical design total lateral pile resistance, which is found by vectorial integration of the design lateral resistance over
the length of the pile, shall not be less than the design lateral load applied at the pile head.
(2) The lateral displacement at the pile head shall not exceed some specified limit. The lateral displacement shall be calculated
for the design lateral load and moment in conjunction with design values of the soil resistance and soil stiffness.
Requirement (1) is the conventional design rule, which is based on full plastification of the soil. Requirement (2) is a necessary
additional requirement, because lateral soil resistance cannot be mobilised locally in zones near points along the pile where the
direction of the lateral pile deflection is reversed, i.e. the soil in these zones will not be fully plastified, regardless of how much
the pile head deflects laterally.
Guidance Note:
Sufficient pile capacity against combined lateral loading and moment loading can be ensured by means of a so-called single pile analysis in
which the pile is discretised into a number of structural elements, interconnected by nodal points, and with soil support springs in terms of
p-y and t-z curves attached at these nodal points. Lateral forces and overturning moments are applied to the pile head. Also axial forces
acting at the pile head need to be included, because they may contribute to the bending moment and the mobilization of lateral soil
resistance owing to second-order effects.
The p-y curves specified for cyclic loading conditions in the API RP2A or the DNV Classification Notes No. 30.4 can be applied for
representation of the lateral support in this analysis.
The p-y curve formulations of these sources automatically accounts for the cyclic degradation effects in the lateral resistances.
The acceptance criterion for sufficient lateral pile resistance needs to be a criterion on displacement, cf. Requirement (2). A criterion on the
lateral deflection of the pile head or a criterion on the rotation of the pile head about a horizontal axis will be practical. When particularly
conservative assumptions have been made for the lateral soil resistance, Requirement (2) can be waived.
It will usually not suffice to ensure that the lateral design load at the pile head does not exceed the design total lateral resistance that is
theoretically available and which can be obtained from the single-pile analysis. This is so because long before the total available lateral
resistance becomes mobilised by mobilisation of all lateral soil resistance along the pile, excessive (and unacceptable) lateral pile
displacements will take place at the pile head.
When carrying out a single-pile analysis, it is recommended to monitor the lateral pile head displacements that result from the single-pile
analysis and make sure that they do not become too large, e.g. monitor the pile head displacement as function of the pile length and make
sure that the design is on the horizontal part of the corresponding displacement-vs.-length curve.
It is also recommended to make sure that the soil zones along the pile, which are plastified for the lateral ULS loads, are not too extensive.
205 For design in the serviceability limit state, characteristic soil strength values are to be used for the soil strength.
Characteristic loads are to be used for the loads. The loading shall be representative of loads that will cause permanent
deformations of the soil in the long term, and which in turn will lead to permanent deformations of the pile foundation, e.g. a
permanent accumulated tilt of the pile head. For this purpose, the behaviour of the soil under cyclic loading needs to be
represented in such a manner that the permanent cumulative deformations in the soil are appropriately calculated as a function of
the number of cycles at each load amplitude in the applied history of SLS loads.
206 For design in the serviceability limit state, it shall be ensured that deformation tolerances are not exceeded. The
deformation tolerances refer to permanent deformations.
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Guidance Note:
Deformation tolerances are usually given in the design basis and they are often specified in terms of maximum allowable rotations of the
pile head in a vertical plane. The pile head is usually defined to be at the seabed. The deformation tolerances are typically derived from
visual requirements and requirements for the operation of the wind turbine. The deformation tolerances should therefore always be
clarified with the wind turbine manufacturer.
Usually, an installation tolerance is specified which is a requirement to the maximum allowable rotation of the pile head at the completion
of the installation of the monopile.
In addition, another tolerance is usually specified which is an upper limit for the accumulated permanent rotation of the pile head due to the
history of SLS loads applied to the monopile throughout the design life. The accumulated permanent rotation subject to meeting this
tolerance usually results from permanent accumulated soil deformations caused by cyclic wave and wind loads about a non-zero mean.
In some cases, an installation tolerance is specified together with a tolerance for the total rotation owing to installation and permanent
accumulated deformations. This is usually expressed as a requirement to the rotation or tilt of the pile at the pile head, where the pile head
is defined as the position along the pile in level with the seabed. If, for example, the tolerance for the total rotation at seabed is 0.5° and the
installation tolerance at seabed is 0.25°, then the limit for the permanent accumulated rotation becomes 0.25° at seabed.
C 300 Design criteria for jacket pile foundations

301 Jacket piles are the piles that support a jacket or frame structure such as a tripod platform. For geotechnical design of
jacket piles, both the ultimate limit state and the serviceability limit state shall be considered.
302 For design in the ultimate limit state, design soil strength values are to be used for the soil strength, defined as the
characteristic soil strength values divided by the specified materials factor. Design loads are to be used for the loads, each design
load being defined as the characteristic load multiplied by the relevant specified load factor. The loads are to be representative of
the extreme load conditions. Two cases are to be considered:
- axial loading
- combined lateral loading and moment loading
303 For axial loading, sufficient axial pile capacity in the ULS shall be ensured for each single pile. For combined lateral
loading and moment loading, sufficient pile capacity against this loading in the ULS shall be ensured for each single pile.
Guidance Note:
The verification of sufficient axial and lateral capacities of the individual piles can be performed by means of an integrated analysis of the
entire support structure and its foundation piles, subject to the relevant design loads.
In such an analysis, the piles are discretised into a number of structural elements, interconnected by nodal points, and with soil support
springs in terms of p-y and t-z curves attached at these nodal points to represent lateral and axial load-displacements relationships,
respectively.
The p-y curves can be generated according to procedures given in the API RP2A and the DNV Classification Notes No. 30.4 for cyclic
loading conditions. p-y curves established according to these procedures will automatically account for cyclic degradation effects in the
lateral resistances.
The t-z curves can be generated according to procedures given in the DNV/Risø “Guidelines for Design of Wind Turbines”. These curves
depend on the unit skin friction. For clay, the unit skin friction is a function of the undrained shear strength. For sand, the unit skin friction
is a function of the density. In both cases, the unit skin friction may be determined as specified in the API RP2A and the DNV
Classification Notes No. 30.4.
It is important to consider the effects of the cyclic loading on the unit skin friction. The degradation of the unit skin friction should be
determined for the relevant prevailing load intensities before the t-z curves are generated.
The effects of cyclic loading are most significant for piles in cohesive soils, in cemented calcareous soils and in fine-grained cohesionless
soils (silt), whereas these effects are much less significant in medium to coarsely grained cohesionless soils.
Unless data indicate otherwise, the static unit skin friction of sand may be multiplied by a factor 0.9 to establish the unit skin friction of the
sand reduced for cyclic loading effects. Similarly, unless data indicate otherwise, the unit skin friction of clay may be multiplied by a factor
0.72 to establish the unit skin friction of the clay reduced for cyclic loading effects.
304 Pile group effects shall be accounted for.
Guidance Note:
When piles are closely spaced, the resistance of the piles as a group may be less than the sum of the individual pile capacities, both laterally
and axially, and the lateral and axial resistances of the p-y and t-z curves should be adjusted accordingly.
When piles are closely spaced, the load transferred from each pile to its surrounding soils leads to displacements of the soils that support the
other piles, and the behaviour of the piles as a group may be softer than if the piles were considered to have supports which were not
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displaced by influence from the neighbouring piles. This effect may in principle be accounted for by elastic half-space solutions for
displacements in a soil volume due to applied point loads.
305 For design in the serviceability limit state, characteristic soil strength values are to be used for the soil strength.
Characteristic loads are to be used for the loads. The loading shall be representative of loads that will cause permanent
deformations of the soil in the long term, and which in turn will lead to permanent deformations of the pile foundation, e.g. a
permanent accumulated tilt of the support structure. For this purpose, the behaviour of the soil under cyclic loading needs to be
represented in such a manner that the permanent cumulative deformations in the soil are appropriately calculated as a function of
the number of cycles at each load amplitude in the applied history of SLS loads.
306 For design in the serviceability limit state, it shall be ensured that deformation tolerances are not exceeded.
Guidance Note:
Deformation tolerances are usually given in the design basis and they are often specified in terms of maximum allowable rotations of the
support structure and maximum allowable horizontal displacements of the pile heads.
Separate tolerances may be specified for the support structure and piles for the situation immediately after completion of the installation
and for the permanent cumulative damages owing to the history of SLS loads applied to the structure and foundation throughout the design
life.
C 400 Design of piles subject to scour

401 Effects of scour shall be accounted for. Scour will lead to complete loss of lateral and axial resistance down to the depth of
scour below the original seabed. Both general scour and local scour shall be considered.
Guidance Note:
The p-y and t-z curves must be constructed with due consideration of the effects of scour.
In the case of general scour, which is characterised by a general erosion and removal of soil over a large area, all p-y and t-z curves are to
be generated on the basis of a modified seabed level which is to be taken as the original seabed level lowered by a height equal to the depth
of the general scour.
General scour reduces the effective overburden. This has an impact on the lateral and axial pile resistances in cohesionless soils. This also
has an impact on the depth of transition between shallow and deep ultimate lateral resistances for piles in cohesive soils.
In the case of local scour, which is characterised by erosion and removal of soil only locally around each pile, the p-y and t-z curves may be
generated on the basis of a seabed level equal to the original seabed level. However, over the local scour depth below this seabed level, no
soil resistance and thus no p-y or t-z curves are to be applied. Further down, the p-y and t-z curves can be taken as the curves that
correspond to the situation without any scour.
Unless data indicate otherwise, the depth of a current-induced scour hole around a pile in sand can be assumed equal to a factor 1.3 times
the pile diameter. For large-diameter piles such as monopiles, this emphasises the need for scour protection unless the piles are designed
with additional lengths to counteract the effects of the scour.
D. Gravity base foundations

D 100 General
101 Failure modes within the categories of limit states ULS and ALS shall be considered as described in 200.
102 Failure modes within the SLS, i.e. settlements and displacements, shall be considered as described in 300 using material
coefficient γM = 1.0.
D 200 Stability of foundations
201 The risk of shear failure below the base of the structure shall be investigated for all gravity type foundations. Such
investigations shall cover failure along any potential shear surface with special consideration given to the effect of soft layers and
the effect of cyclic loading. The geometry of the foundation base shall be accounted for.
Guidance Note:
For gravity base structures equipped with skirts which penetrate the seabed, the theoretical foundation base shall be assumed to be at the
skirt tip level. Bucket foundations, for which penetrating skirts are part of the foundation solution, and for which suction is applied to
facilitate the installation, shall be considered as gravity base structures for the condition after the installation is completed.
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Sec.11 – Page 137
202 The analyses shall be carried out for fully drained, partially drained or undrained conditions, whatever represents most
accurately the actual conditions.
203 For design within the applicable limit state categories ULS and ALS, the foundation stability shall be evaluated by one of
the following methods:
— effective stress stability analysis

— total stress stability analysis.
204 An effective stress stability analysis shall be based on effective strength parameters of the soil and realistic estimates of
the pore water pressures in the soil.
205 A total stress stability analysis shall be based on total shear strength parameters determined from tests on representative
soil samples subjected to similar stress conditions as the corresponding elements in the foundation soil.
206 Both effective stress and total stress analysis methods shall be based on laboratory shear strength with pore pressure
measurements included. The test results should preferably be interpreted by means of stress paths.
207 Stability analyses by conventional bearing capacity formulae are only acceptable for uniform soil conditions.
Guidance Note:
Gravity base foundations of wind turbines usually have relatively small areas, such that bearing capacity formulas for idealised conditions
will normally suffice and be acceptable for design.
208 For structures where skirts, dowels or similar foundation members transfer loads to the foundation soil, the contributions
of these members to the bearing capacity and lateral resistance may be accounted for as relevant. The feasibility of penetrating
the skirts shall be adequately documented.
209 Foundation stability shall be analysed in the ULS by application of the following material factors to the characteristic soil
shear strength parameters:
γM = 1.2 for effective stress analysis

= 1.3 for total stress analysis.
For ALS design, γM = 1.0 shall be used.
210 Effects of cyclic loading shall be included by applying load factors in accordance with A106.
211 In an effective stress analysis, evaluation of pore pressures shall include:
— initial pore pressure

— build-up of pore pressures due to cyclic load history
— transient pore pressures through each load cycle
— effects of dissipation.
212 The safety against overturning shall be investigated in the ULS and in the ALS.
D 300 Settlements and displacements
301 For SLS design conditions, analyses of settlements and displacements are, in general, to include calculations of:
— initial consolidation and secondary settlements

— differential settlements
— permanent (long term) horizontal displacements
— dynamic motions.
302 Displacements of the structure, as well as of its foundation soils, shall be evaluated to provide the basis for design of
conductors and other members connected to the structure which are penetrating the seabed or resting on the seabed.
303 Analysis of differential settlements shall account for lateral variations in soil conditions within the foundation area,
non-symmetrical weight distributions and possible predominating directions of environmental loads. Differential settlements or
tilt due to soil liquefaction shall be considered in seismically active areas.
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D 400 Soil reactions on foundation structure
401 The reactions from the foundation soils shall be accounted for in the design of the supported structure for all design
conditions.
402 The distribution of soil reactions against structural members, seated on or penetrated into the sea floor, shall be estimated
from conservatively assessed distributions of strength and deformation properties of the foundation soil. Possible spatial
variation in soil conditions, including uneven seabed topography, shall be considered. The stiffness of the structural members
shall be taken into account.
403 The penetration resistance of dowels and skirts shall be calculated based on a realistic range of soil strength parameters.
The structure shall be provided with sufficient capacity to overcome the maximum expected penetration resistance in order to
reach the required penetration depth.
404 As the penetration resistance may vary across the foundation site, eccentric penetration forces may be necessary to keep
the platform inclination within specified limits.
D 500 Soil modelling for dynamic analysis
501 Dynamic analyses of a gravity structure shall consider the effects of soil−structure interaction. For homogeneous soil
conditions, modelling of the foundation soils using the continuum approach may be used. For non-homogeneous conditions,
modelling by finite element techniques or other recognised methods accounting for non-homogenous conditions shall be
performed.
Guidance Note:
When the soil conditions are fairly homogeneous and an equivalent shear modulus G can be determined, representative for the participating
soil volume as well as for the prevailing strain level in the soil, then the foundation stiffnesses may be determined based on formulas from
elastic theory, see Tables 1 and 2. Foundation springs based on these formulas will be representative for the dynamic foundation stiffnesses
that are needed in structural analyses for wind and wave loading on the wind turbine and its support structure. In structural analyses for
earthquake loads, however, it may be necessary to apply frequency-dependent reductions of the stiffnesses from Tables 1 and 2 to get
appropriate dynamic stiffness values for the analyses.
502 Due account shall be taken of the strain dependency of shear modulus and internal soil damping. Uncertainties in the
choice of soil properties shall be reflected in parametric studies to find the influence on response. The parametric studies should
include upper and lower boundaries on shear moduli and damping ratios of the soil. Both internal soil damping and radiation
damping shall be considered.
D 600 Filling of voids
601 In order to assure sufficient stability of the structure or to provide a uniform vertical reaction, filling of the voids between
the structure and the seabed, e.g. by underbase grouting, may be necessary.
602 The foundation skirt system and the void-filling system shall be designed so that filling pressures do not cause
channelling from one skirt compartment to another or to the seabed outside the periphery of the structure.
603 The filling material used shall be capable of retaining sufficient strength during the lifetime of the structure considering
all relevant forms of deterioration such as:
— chemical
— mechanical
— placement problems such as incomplete mixing and dilution.
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Sec.11 – Page 139
Table 1 Circular footing on stratum over bedrock or on stratum over half space
On stratum over bedrock On stratum over half space
Mode of motion Foundation stiffness Foundation stiffness

Vertical 4GR R R
KV = (1 + 1.28 ) 1 + 1.28
1 −ν H 4G1 R H ; 1≤H/R≤5
KV =
1 −ν 1 R G1
1 + 1.28
H G2
Horizontal 8GR R R
KH = (1 + ) 1+
2 −ν 2H 8G1 R 2 H ; 1≤H/R≤4
KH =
2 −ν 1 R G1
1+
2H G2
Rocking 8GR 3 R R
KR = (1 + ) 1+
3(1 − ν ) 6H 8G1 R 3 6 H ; 0.75≤ H/R ≤2
KR =
3(1 − ν 1 ) R G1
1+
6H G2
Torsion 16GR 3 Not given
KT =
3
Table 2 Circular footing embedded in stratum over bedrock
Mode of Foundation stiffness

motion
Vertical 4GR R D D D/H
KV = (1 + 1.28 )(1 + )(1 + (0.85 − 0.28 ) )
1 −ν H 2R R 1− D / H
Horizontal 8GR R 2D 5 D
KH = (1 + )(1 + )(1 + )
2 −ν 2H 3 R 4H
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Rocking 8GR 3 R D D
KR = (1 + )(1 + 2 )(1 + 0.7 )
3(1 − ν ) 6H R H
Torsion 16GR 3 8D
KT = (1 + )
3 3R
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Sec.11 – Page 141
SECTION 11
INSPECTIONS DURING MANUFACTURING
A. General
A 100 Scope
101 This section gives certification requirements associated with fabrication and testing, including requirements for
documentation during manufacturing. The basis for these requirements can be found in DNV-OS-C401 Fabrication and Testing
of Offshore Structures (steel) as well as DNV-OS-C502 Offshore Concrete Structures, which contain requirements for
fabrication and testing of offshore structures.
B. Records and documentation

B 100 General
101 Adequate records related to the fabrication of a structure shall be prepared to document that the structure meets the
specified requirements. Such records shall be compiled in parallel with the fabrication process. Compiled records shall be
systematic and fully traceable. Such records shall reflect all relevant testing, alterations, additions, corrections and revisions
made during the fabrication period in order to provide information required during the in-service life of the structure. The records
are to be available for review upon request.
B 200 Reporting
201 On a weekly basis, a short form inspection report shall be completed stating the inspections performed and the result
(findings) of these inspections.
202 Upon completion of production, a final summary inspection report shall be made.
C. Manufacturing survey
C 100 General
101 Inspections during manufacturing are required in order to verify compliance between certified design and actual as-built
structure.
102 For steel structures, reference is made to DNV-OS-C401 Fabrication and testing of offshore Structures, which contains
requirements for fabrication and testing. For concrete structures reference is made to DNV-OS-C502 Offshore Concrete
Structures.
103 The objectives of this subsection are to:
- attain compliance between certified design and actually built structure by conducting site surveys at the contractor’s facilities
- serve as a reference document between purchaser and contractor
- describe inspection scope for contractor’s quality system
- describe inspection for materials and products
- describe inspection scope for non-destructive testing
- describe inspection scope for corrosion protection
104 References used in this subsection are listed in Table B1.
Table B1 DNV Offshore standards and rules

Reference Title
DNV-OS-B101 Metallic Materials
DNV-OS-C101 Design of offshore steel structures
DNV-OS-C201 Structural design of offshore units
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DNV-OS-C401 Fabrication and testing of offshore structures

DNV-OS-C502 Offshore concrete structures
C 200 Contractor’s quality system

201 The requirements in this subsection shall be regarded as minimum requirements in order to confirm the implementation
of the contractor’s quality system.
202 Unscheduled inspections for review and acceptance of the contractor’s quality system shall be performed during the
manufacturing period and shall as a minimum include:
• Adherence to the quality/inspection and surveillance plans
• Inspection coverage and performance
• Document control including use of and adherence to approved design drawings, specifications, procedures
• Transfer of information to shop drawings
• Handling of deviations and non-conformances
• Procedures for dimensional and NDT control
• Infrastructure
• Internal communication
• Education/training program
• Handling of subcontractors, subcontractors qualifications etc.
• Handling of material certificates
C 300 Structural survey

301 This subsection gives requirements that shall be met during manufacturing of a structure or structural details.
302 It shall be verified by inspections that materials used are manufactured at works which have been approved in accordance
with DNV Rules for Classification, Part 2. A list of approved manufacturers is published separately.
303 Steel materials and products shall be delivered with inspection documents as defined in EN 10204 or in an agreed
equivalent standard. The level of documentation, i.e. test report, type of inspection certificate or other documentation, depends
on the application and shall be subject to agreement in each case. However, unless otherwise stated, material certificates
according to Table XX shall be presented.
Table XX
Certification process Material certificate (EN10204) Structural category
Test certificate
As work certificate, inspection and tests witnessed and signed by 3.1.C Special
an independent third party body
Work certificate
Test results of all specified tests from samples taken from the 3.1.B Primary
products supplied. Inspection and tests witnessed and signed by
QA department
Test report 2.2
Confirmation by the manufacturer that the supplied products fulfil Secondary
the purchase specification, and test data from regular production,
not necessarily from products supplied
Definitions of structural categories are given in Section 6 under Steel Materials in Table C1.
304 Materials used in the structure shall be in compliance with Table XX and with approved drawings.
305 The WPS established for welds shall be verified. This applies to welds in special areas and in primary structural elements,
and to butt welds in secondary structural elements. It shall be verified that the welding is performed within the limits of essential
variables of the qualified welding procedure and that it is conducted by qualified personnel.
Guidance Note:
Welding procedures are qualified for fabrication if satisfactory compliance with requirements is established by one of the following
methods:
- execution of welding procedure tests and subsequent review of the welding procedure qualification records
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Sec.11 – Page 143
- review of previously qualified procedure tests
- review of WPS
- review and verification of documentation that demonstrates successful application of welding procedures over an extended period of time
Qualified welding procedures are required for all production welding of special areas and primary structural elements.
306 Grooves produced by gouging shall be in accordance with the groove profile dimensions given in the welding procedure
specification. The grooves shall also meet the requirements to weld groove preparations, cleanliness, fit-up, and use of correct
material.
307 Inspection of welding performance shall be carried out. The adherence to welding procedures shall be verified. The
inspection shall as a minimum address the following elements of welding: Preheating, tack-welding, welding, weld profiles,
post-weld heat treatment, and weld repairs.
308 It shall be verified by inspection that consumables for welding of offshore structures are approved by a recognised body.
309 The final inspection of the structure should consist of the following two parts:
- Inspection of a complete section (structural block)
- In particular for structural categories “special” and “primary”, verification that the following requirements are fulfilled:
- Traceability of steel grades and strengths are satisfactory
- Alignment and welding deformations are within tolerance
- Correct weld types are applied according to WPSs
- In fatigue exposed zones that surface defects are within the allowable
- NDT is complete according to approved plans, and the contractors signed reports are available.
- Structural continuity
310 For a description of an inspection scope for concrete structures, reference is made to DNV-OS-C502 Offshore Concrete
Structures.
C 400 Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)
401 The surveyor shall review the contractor’s NDT records and verify that
- all activities are carried out in accordance with the contractor’s NDT procedure
- activities are carried out by qualified personnel
- there is conformity between records and certified drawings
402 The surveyor should at random monitor the execution of NDT activities and verify that results are within the acceptance
criteria.
403 The surveyor shall pay special attention to NDTs performed at pad-eyes and other lifting points.
404 The inspection category to be used for the inspections shall be defined by the designer in accordance with DNV-OS-C101
Section 4 or DNV-OS-C201 Section 4. The inspection category shall be specified on the design drawings. The extent of NDT is
specified in DNV-OS-C401 Section 3 together with acceptance criteria.
C 500 Corrosion protection
501 This subsection gives requirements to inspection of installation and application of corrosion protection systems such as
coating, sacrificial anodes and impressed current systems. Installation and application of corrosion protection systems shall be
carried out in conformance with recognised standards of workmanship and specifications agreed upon.
Guidance Note:
Requirements to corrosion protection are given in Chapter 12 of this standard as well as in DNV-OS-C201 Section 10 and DNV-OS-C401
Section 5.
C 600 Coating
601 During inspection of application of coating, it shall be verified that the following conditions are fulfilled:
• The area to be coated shall be defined and if necessary limited by masking. Components and areas, which may be
damaged by the pre-treatment and/or by the coating, such as anodes, are shielded.
• The surfaces to be coated shall be clean and dry.
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Page 144 – Sec.11
• Sharp edges shall be rounded and surfaces blast-cleaned to the profile and degree of cleanliness as required in the coating
specification and in accordance with the coating manufacturer's recommendations
• Coating systems shall be applied in the number of coats and within the thickness ranges as stated in the specification
agreed upon and in accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations.
• Inspection, repair and touch-up are performed according to specifications agreed upon.
Primer-coated surfaces shall be inspected and, if necessary, be adequately cleaned and prepared before applying the next
coating layer.
• Adequate curing times in relation to temperature and humidity conditions, overcoating intervals, dry-film thickness of
individual coats and total dry-film thickness, shall be within tolerances stated in the coating specification.
C 700 Survey of impressed current system

701 During inspection of installation of impressed current systems, it shall be verified that the following conditions are
fulfilled:
• The anodes, the cables and the signal receivers are furnished with relevant material certificates and properly marked for
identification.
• The installation of the system is carried out according to an agreed specification.
• Testing of the proper functioning of the systems shall be carried out. The test method and results shall be reported.
702 Final testing and acceptance of the system shall be carried out after installation and shall be witnessed by a surveyor.
C 800 Survey of sacrificial anodes

801 During inspection of installation of sacrificial anodes, it shall be verified that the following conditions are fulfilled:
• The anodes are properly marked for identification and furnished with relevant material certificates which are in
compliance with approved system.
• Installation of anodes is carried out according to drawings and specifications.
• That anodes fastened by other means than welding, attention should be paid to the establishing of good electrical
contact. Surveyor may require resistance measurements.
• Welding of connections shall be carried out by qualified welders using specified consumables.
• Fillet welds shall as far as practicable be continuous (all around the studs).
D. Special requirements
D 100 General
101 In addition to the standard manufacturer inspection scope, special requirements may be compulsory due to a particular
approved design. Additional inspection to be conducted will be stated on the final, approved drawing or in an enclosed approval
letter.
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Sec.12 – Page 145
SECTION 12
CORROSION PROTECTION
A. General
A 100 General
101 In this section, the requirements regarding corrosion protection arrangement and equipment are given.
B. Acceptable corrosion protection

B 100 Atmospheric zone
101 Steel structure components in the atmospheric zone shall be protected by a high quality, multilayer coating.
B 200 Splash zone
201 Steel structure components in the splash zone shall be protected by coating and corrosion allowance.
202 The splash zone is the part of a support structure which is intermittently exposed to air and immersed in the sea. The zone
has special requirements to fatigue.
203 The wave height to be used to determine the upper and lower limits of the splash zone shall be taken as one-third of the
100-year wave height.
204 The upper limit of the splash zone SZU shall be calculated as
SZU = U1 + U2 + U3
in which
U1 = 60% of the wave height defined in 203
U2 = highest astronomical tide (HAT)
U3 = foundation settlement, if applicable
SZU is measured from mean sea water level. U1, U2 and U3 shall be applied as relevant to the structure in question with a sign
leading to the largest or larger value of SZU.
For floating support structures, the upper limit of the splash zone should be calculated according to DNV-OS-C101.
205 The lower limit of the splash zone SZL shall be calculated as
SZL = L1 + L2
in which
L1 = 40% of the wave height defined in 203
L2 = lowest astronomical tide (LAT)
SZL is measured from mean sea water level. L1 and L2 shall be applied as relevant to the structure in question with a sign leading
to the smallest or smaller value of SZU.
For floating support structures, the lower limit of the splash zone should be calculated according to DNV-OS-C101.
206 The corrosion protection systems shall be suitable for resisting the aggressive environment in the splash zone.
Application of corrosion allowance may form the main system for corrosion protection, i.e. the wall thicknesses of structural
components are increased during design to allow for corrosion in operation. The particular corrosion allowance shall be assessed
in each particular case.
Guidance Note:
For calculation of corrosion allowance, it can generally be assumed that the rate of corrosion in the splash zone is in the range 0.3-0.5 mm
per year. The corrosion will in general increase with the age of the structure.
It is recommended to combine a protection system based on corrosion allowance with surface protection such as glass fibre reinforced
epoxy coating. When such a combination is applied, the reducing effect of the surface protection on the corrosion rate shall not be taken
into account. The beneficial effect of the surface protection on the fatigue life may be taken into account through selection of the relevant
S-N curve.
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Page 146 – Sec.12
207 Corrosion allowance shall be taken into account by decreasing the nominal wall thickness in the fatigue calculations.
Guidance Note:
For a 20-year design life, a corrosion allowance of 3-5 mm should be applied to all primary steel structures in the splash zone for fatigue
analyses. For secondary structures in the splash zone, a corrosion allowance of 2 mm can be applied.
B 300 Submerged zone

301 Steel structure components in the submerged zone shall be cathodically protected, preferably in combination with
coating.
Guidance Note:
In a zone near the seabed, it is recommended to combine the cathodic protection with a corrosion allowance of 3 mm for structural
members such as piles. Further, it is recommended to carry out the design in this zone using a fatigue life endurance limit, which is reduced
by a factor of 2.0, thereby taking into account that an optimal cathodic protection is not obtainable due to the anaerobic environment of this
zone.
C. Cathodic protection
C 100 General
101 Requirements to cathodic protection are given in DNV-RP-B401.
102 The electrical potential for the cathodic protection shall be verified after the cathodic protection has been installed.
Guidance Note:
Extra requirements to cathodic protection in a zone near the seabed, where the cathodic protection may not be sufficiently effective, can be
waived when a good electrical connection is established for the cathodic protection.
D. Coating
D 100 General
101 Requirements to coating are given in DNV-OS-C101. For application of coating, reference is made to DNV-OS-C401.
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Sec.13 – Page 147
SECTION 13
TRANSPORT AND INSTALLATION
A. Marine operations
A 100 Warranty surveys
101 Warranty surveys are required for insurance of the sea transport project phase and the installation project phase.
102 Warranty surveys are to be carried out in accordance with an internationally recognised scheme. The DNV ‘Rules for
Planning and Execution of Marine Operations’ is accepted by the insurance, finance and marine industries. Marine operations
cover yard lift, load out, sea transportation, offshore lift and installation operations.
103 DNV ‘Rules for Planning and Execution of Marine Operations’, Part 1, Chapter 1, describes in detail the principles, the
scope and the procedures for insurance warranty surveys.
A 200 Planning of operations
201 The planning of the operations should cover planning principles, documentation and risk evaluation.
202 Operational prerequisites such as design criteria, weather forecast, organisation, marine operation manuals as well as
preparation and testing should be covered.
203 The stability of the installation vessels shall be evaluated. This evaluation includes evaluation of stability during barge
transports and load-out operations and applies to all vessels used during the installation, including special vessels such as
floating cranes. Equipment including equipment used for towing of vessels and for mooring systems is also subject to evaluation.
204 Requirements are given in DNV ‘Rules for Planning and Execution of Marine Operations’, Part 1, Chapter 2.
A 300 Design loads
301 The design loads include basic environmental conditions like wind, wave, current and tide.
302 The load analysis should take into account dynamic effects and non-linear effects. Permanent loads, live loads,
deformation loads, environmental loads as well as accidental loads should be considered.
303 Requirements are given in DNV ‘Rules for Planning and Execution of Marine Operations’, Part 1, Chapter 3.
A 400 Structural design
401 Prerequisites for structures involved in marine operations shall include design principles, strength criteria for limit state
design, testing, material selection and fabrication.
402 Requirements and guidelines are given in DNV ‘Rules for Planning and Execution of Marine Operations’, Part 1, Chapter
4.
A 500 Load transfer operations
501 The load transfer operations cover load-out, float-out, lift-off and mating operations.
502 Requirements to load transfer operations are given in DNV ‘Rules for Planning and Execution of Marine Operations’,
Part 2, Chapter 1.
A 600 Towing
601 Specific requirements and guidelines for single-vessel and barge-towing operations are given in DNV ‘Rules for Planning
and Execution of Marine Operations’, Part 2, Chapter 2.
A 700 Offshore installation
701 Specific requirements and recommendations for offshore installation operations particularly applicable for fixed offshore
structures like piled or gravity based wind turbine support structures are given in DNV ‘Rules for Planning and Execution of
Marine Operations’, Part 2, Chapter 4. Environmental loads and load cases to be considered are described as well as on-bottom
stability requirements and requirements to structural strength.
702 Operational aspects for ballasting, pile installation and grouting shall be considered.
A 800 Lifting
801 Guidance and recommendations for well controlled lifting operations, onshore, inshore and offshore, of objects with
weight exceeding 50 tonnes are given in DNV ‘Rules for Planning and Execution of Marine Operations’, Part 2, Chapter 5. The
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Page 148 – Sec.13
chapter describes in detail the basic loads, dynamic loads, skew loads and load cases to be considered. Design of slings,
grommets and shackles as well as design of the lifted object itself are covered.
802 In addition, operational aspects such as clearances, monitoring of lift and cutting of sea fastening are described.
A 900 Subsea operations
901 Subsea operations are relevant for tie-in of, for example, electrical cables. Planning, design and operational aspects for
such installations are described in DNV ‘Rules for Planning and Execution of Marine Operations’, Part 2, Chapter 6.
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Sec.14 – Page 149
SECTION 14
IN-SERVICE INSPECTION, MAINTENANCE AND MONITORING
A. General
A 100 General
101 An offshore wind farm is typically planned for a 20-year design lifetime. In order to sustain the harsh offshore
environment, adequate inspections and maintenance have to be carried out. This applies to the entire wind farm including
substation and power cables.
102 This section provides the requirements to the maintenance and inspection system for the wind turbines, the support
structures, the substation and the power cables.
B. Periodical inspections
B 100 General
101 The following periodical inspections shall be performed in order to evaluate the condition of the offshore wind farm
during its design lifetime:
- Periodical Inspection of Wind Turbines (PSWT)
- Periodical Inspection of Structural and Electrical Systems above Water (PSAW)
- Periodical Inspection of Structures below Water (PSBW)
- Periodical Inspection of Sea Cable (PSSC)
The periodical inspection consists of three levels of inspection, viz. general visual inspection, close visual inspection and
non-destructive examination.
B 200 Preparation for periodical inspections
201 A Long Term Inspection Program for the wind farm shall be prepared, in which all disciplines and systems are specified.
In this program, inspection coverage over a five-year period should be specified in order to ensure that all essential components,
systems and installations in the offshore wind farm will be covered by annual inspections over the five-year period.
202 The periodical inspections should be carried out with a scope of work necessary to provide evidence as to whether the
inspected installation or parts thereof continue to comply with the design assumptions as specified in the Certificate of
Compliance.
203 The scope of work for a inspection shall always contain a sufficient number of elements and also highlight any findings or
deviations reported during previous inspections which have not been reported or dealt with.
Guidance Note:
The inspection will typically consist of an onshore part and an offshore part.
The onshore part typically includes:
- Follow up on outstanding points from the previous inspection.
- Revision of inspection procedures.
- Revision of maintenance documentation.
- Interview with discipline engineers, including presentation/clarification of any comments deduced during review of procedures.
- Review of maintenance history.
- Preparation of the offshore program, based on findings from the onshore part and systems selected from the Long Term Inspection
Program.
The offshore inspection typically includes test and inspections on site as well as an assessment of the findings in order to distinguish
between random failures and systematic failures.
B 300 Interval between inspectionss

301 The interval between inspections of critical items should not exceed one year. For less critical items longer intervals are
acceptable. The entire wind farm should be inspected at least once during a five-year period. Inspection intervals for subsequent
inspections should be modified based on findings.
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Page 150 – Sec.14
B 400 Inspection results
401 The results of the periodical inspections shall be assessed and remedial actions taken, if necessary. Inspection results and
possible remedial actions shall be documented.
B 500 Reporting
501 The inspection shall be reported. The inspection report shall give reference to the basis for the inspection such as national
regulations, rules and inspection programs, instructions to surveyors and procedures. It shall be objective, have sufficient
content to justify its conclusions and should include good quality sketches and/or photographs as considered appropriate.
C. Periodical inspection of wind turbines

C 100 Interval between inspections
101 The interval between inspections above water should not exceed one year. In addition the requirements in the wind
turbine service manual shall be followed.
C 200 Scope for inspection
201 The following items shall be covered by the inspection:
• Blades
• Gear Boxes
• Electrical systems
• Transformers and Generators
• Lifting Appliances
• Fatigue cracks
• Dents and deformation(s)
• Bolt pre-tension
• Status on outstanding points from previous PSWT's
202 Inspections as required in the wind turbine service manual come in addition to the inspection implied by 201 .
D. Periodical inspection of structural and electrical systems above water

D 100 Interval between inspections
101 The interval between inspections above water should not exceed one year. In addition the requirements in the wind
turbine service manual shall be followed.
D 200 Scope for inspection
201 The following items shall be covered by the inspection.
• Electrical systems
• Transformers and Generators
• Tower structures
• Lifting Appliances
• Access Platforms
• J-Tubes
• Ladders
• Fenders
• Heli-hoist platforms
• Corrosion protection systems
• Marine growth
• Fatigue cracks
• Dents
• Deformation(s)
• Bolt pre-tension
• Status on outstanding points from previous PSAWs
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Sec.14 – Page 151
202 Inspections as required in the wind turbine service manual come in addition to the inspection implied by 201.
E. Periodical inspection of structures below water

E 100 Interval between inspections
101 The interval between inspections above water should not exceed one year.
E 200 Scope for inspection
201 The following items shall be covered by the inspection:
• Support structures and foundations
• J-Tubes
• Corrosion protection systems (anodes, coating etc.)
• Marine growth
• Fatigue cracks
• Scour and scour protection
• Damages and dents
• Deformations
• Debris
• Status on outstanding points from previous PSBWs
Visual inspections may be carried out by a remotely operated vehicle (ROV).
202 The anode potential shall be measured and fulfil minimum requirements.
203 If deemed critical, steel wall thickness shall be measured.
F. Periodical inspection of sea cables

F 100 Interval between inspections
101 The interval between inspections of sea cables should not exceed five years.
F 200 Scope for inspection
201 Interconnecting power cables between the wind turbines and the transformer station as well as power cables to the shore
shall be inspected.
202 It shall be ensured that the cables are buried to design depth.
G. Deviations
G 100 General
101 Deviations or non-conformances are findings made during an inspection that require special follow-up. Deviations may
be assigned one of three different levels of concern according to their criticality:
(1) Those impairing the overall safety, integrity and fitness of the installation or parts thereof and/or the persons onboard.
(2) Those which are found to present a hazard for the persons onboard due to deterioration and/or damage, and those where
documents are missing for completing a matter.
(3) Those which are found starting to deteriorate or those which are found to have minor defects.
The deviations shall be handled and reported accordingly.
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Page 152 – Appendix A
APPENDIX A
STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS FOR TUBULAR JOINTS
Calculation of stress concentration factors (SCFs) for simple planar tubular joints can be carried out by application of available
closed form solutions. The Efthymiou equations should be applied for T, Y, DT, and X joints, while the Lloyd’s equations should
be applied for K and KT joints. These parametric equations are expressed in terms of a number of geometric parameters whose
definitions are given in Figure 1. Table 1 gives the ranges of these parameters for which the parametric equations are valid.
Brace outer data:

Dbrace: Diameter
Tbrace: Thickness
Chord outer data:
Lgap Dchord: Diameter
Tchord: Thickness
Lchord
2 Lchord Dbrace Dchord Tbrace 2 L gap

α= β= γ = τ= ζ =
Dchord Dchord 2Tchord Tchord Dbrace,1 + Dbrace, 2
Figure 1 Non-dimensional tubular joint parameters.
Table 1
Joint type Equation Validity range
α β γ τ θ ζ
T and Y Efthymiou 4-40 0.2-1.0 8-32 0.2-1.0 30°-90° N/A
DT and X Efthymiou 4-40 0.2-1.0 8-32 0.2-1.0 30°-90° N/A
K and KT Lloyd’s ≥4 0.13-1.0 10-35 0.25-1.0 30°-90° 0-1
The parametric equations for calculation of SCFs for tubular joints are given on the following pages.
The following symbols are used in the Lloyd’s equations:

SCFCS = SCF at the chord saddle
SCFCC = SCF at the chord crown
SCFC = Maximum SCF on the chord side
SCFBS = SCF at the brace saddle
SCFBC = SCF at the brace crown
SCFB = Maximum SCF on the brace side
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Appendix A – Page 153
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Appendix A – Page 155
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Appendix B – Page 157
APPENDIX B
LOCAL JOINT FLEXIBILITIES FOR TUBULAR JOINTS
Calculation of local joint flexibilities (LJFs) for simple planar tubular joints can be carried out by application of available closed
form solutions. Buitrago’s parametric expressions for LJFs should be used. These expressions give local joint flexibilities of
brace ends for axial loading, for in-plane bending and for out-of-plane bending. There are expressions for single-brace joints (Y
joints), for cross joints (X joints), and for gapped K joints and overlapped K joints. The expressions are given in terms of a
number of geometric parameters whose definitions are given in Figure 1. LJFs influence on the global static and dynamic
structural response.
In addition to direct flexibility terms between loading and deformation of a particular brace end, there are cross terms between
loading of one brace end and deformation of another brace end in joints where more than one brace join in with the chord beam.
Figure 1 provides information of degrees of freedom for which cross terms of local joint flexibility exist between different brace
ends.
Figure 1 General joint geometry, loads, and degrees of freedom

The local joint flexibility LJF for a considered degree of freedom of a brace end is defined as the net local deformation of the
brace-chord intersection (“footprint”) in the brace local coordinates due to a unit load applied to the brace end.
The local joint flexibilities are expressed in terms of non-dimensional local joint flexibilities, f, which are also known as
non-dimensional influence factors, as follows
f axial
LJFaxial =
ED
f IPB
LJFIPB =
ED 3
f OPB
LJFOPB =
ED 3
in which E denotes Young’s modulus of elasticity, D is the outer chord diameter, IPB denotes in-plane bending, and OPB
denotes out-of-plane bending. Expressions for faxial, fIPB and fOPB are given in the following for various types of joints.
Implementation of LJFs in conventional frame analysis models requires springs, whose spring stiffnesses are equal to the inverse
of the local joint flexibilities, to be included between the brace end and the corresponding point on the chord surface.
Alternatively, a short flexible beam element can be included between the brace end and the chord at the chord surface.
LJFs are given separately for different joint types. However, note that for multi-brace joints, such as X and K joints, the LJFs are
dependent on the load pattern. This implies that for a given load case, the joint should be classified by the loads or the load
pattern, rather than by its actual geometry. This further implies that a multi-brace joint may be classified as a different joint type
than the one which is given by its geometry, or it may be classified as a combination of joint types. In the former case, its LJFs
shall be calculated according to the formulas given for the joint type to which the joint has become classified. In the latter case,
its LJFs shall be calculated as
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Page 158 – Appendix B
LJF = λY LJFY + λ X LJFX + λ K LJFK
in which the λ values are the fractions corresponding to the joint type designated by the subscript when the joint is classified by
loads.
It is important to include LJFs not only in joints which are being analysed, but also in joints which influence the force distribution
to the joints which are being analysed.
The expressions for LJFs are developed for planar joints. For fatigue assessments in a traditionally braced jacket structure, the
expressions can be applied to multi-planar joints as well, as long as these joints are un-stiffened and non-overlapping.
According to the above, the following steps should thus be included in a global analysis of a wind turbine support structure,
based on a conventional frame analysis model of beam elements:
1. Classification of joints (T/Y/X/XT joints) by load pattern, i.e. not by geometry.
2. Implementation of local joint flexibility in all joints according to classification and parametric expressions by Buitrago.
3. Calculation of sectional forces at the surface footprint of the brace-to-chord connection.
The parametric expressions for calculation of LJFs for tubular joints are given in the following.
Table 1 Non-dimensional influence factor expressions for local joint flexibility of single-brace joints
Table 2 Non-dimensional influence factor expressions for local joint flexibility of X joints
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Appendix B – Page 159
Table 3 Non-dimensional influence factor expressions for local joint flexibility of K joints
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Page 160 – Appendix B
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Appendix C – Page 161
APPENDIX C
STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS FOR GIRTH WELDS
Stress concentration factors (SCFs) for hotspot stresses in tube-to-tube girth welds can be calculated by means of one of the
equations given in Table 1.
Equation
Equation Nomenclature
ID
High
A 3e T: Member thickness
SCF = 1 + T1 ≤ T2
T1
e: Wall centre line offset
Degree of Conservatism
  between Tube 1 and

  Tube 2
6e  1 
SCF = 1+  
T1   T 1.5 
B  1 +   
2
  T1  
Low
Table 1 SCF expressions for girth welds

Equation A is for the SCF between two plates of equal thickness and will always yield conservative results when applied to girth
welds including girth welds with differences in wall thickness. Equation B is an extension of Equation A, accounting for
differences in wall thickness.
Fabrication tolerances for the local wall centre line misalignment are to be included in the determination of the SCF. If the
location and magnitude of the fabrication misalignments are unknown, i.e. they are not measured; the tolerances are to be applied
in the direction that gives the highest SCF. The maximum fabrication tolerances given in Figure 1 can in general be applied.
However, if very strict fabrication tolerances are secured, the tolerances can be taken less than the tolerances given in Figure 1.
Single Sided Full Penetration Welds Double Sided Full Penetration Welds
efab efab
 3mm  6mm
e fab = min of  e fab = min of 
 0.2T1  0.2T1
efab efab
Figure 1 Fabrication tolerances for tube-to-tube girth welds. T1 is the smallest wall thickness of the adjoining tubes
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Page 162 – Appendix D
APPENDIX D
STRESS EXTRAPOLATION FOR WELDS
Since stress singularities are present at weld roots and weld toes, stress extrapolation is required to determine hot spot stresses at
welds. Figure 1 illustrates how the stress distribution over a plate or tube wall thickness varies between zones of different
proximity to a weld. In the notch stress zone, the stress at the weld approaches infinity. The stresses in the geometric stress zone
are used as a basis for extrapolation to find the hot spot stress at the weld.
Stress distribution along surface normal to weld
Notch stress
Geometric stress
Nominal stress
A B C
Stress Distributions through the thickness of the plate/tube wall

Notch Stress Zone Geometric stress zone Nominal Stress Zone
Section A-A Section B-B Section C-C
Figure 1 Definition of stresses in welded structures. The three lower drawings show how the distribution of stresses through the
thickness of a plate or tube wall varies in different stress zones
For welds in tubular joints, the hot spot stress is found by linear extrapolation as defined in Figure 2.
Stress Extrapolation Points in Brace

Brace:
Stress RB = brace radius
extrapolation in TB = brace thickness
brace parallel
to brace axis
0.65 R B TB
0 .2 R B T B
SCF Stress
Geometric stress
zones:
Brace side
Chord side Stress Extrapolation Points in Chord
0.4(R B TB RC TC )
0.25
Stress
0 .2 R B T B
SCF
Stress
Chord: extrapolation in
RC = chord radius chord
TC = chord thickness perpendicular
to weld
Figure 2 Definition of the geometric stress zone in tubular joints. The hot spot stress is calculated by a linear extrapolation of the
stresses in the geometric stress zone to the weld toe.
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Appendix D – Page 163
For welds in plate structures and for girth welds in tubular sections, the hot spot stress is found by linear extrapolation as defined
in Figure 3.
Normal to
Weld Stress 1.0T (1.5T)
0.4T (0.5T)
SCF
Stress singularity at
weld root
Stress singularity at
weld toe SCF
0.4T (1.5T)
Normal to 1.0T (1.5T)

Weld Stress
Figure 3 Stress extrapolation positions for plate structures and girth welds. Distances are measured from the notch, i.e. typically
the weld toe or the weld root. The positions 0.4T/1.0T are recommended in IIW94, while the positions 0.5T/1.5T are
recommended by NORSOK.
For determination of hot spot stresses by finite element analysis, the notch stress as resulting from the analysis shall be excluded
and the hot spot stress shall be calculated by extrapolation from the geometric stresses. The stress concentration factor shall be
calculated on the basis of the extrapolated geometric stresses. The definition of the hot spot location (weld toe or weld root
singularity) for stress extrapolation is given in Figure 4 for different modelling approaches in the finite element analysis.
Solid elements with weld profile Solid elements without weld Shell elements (no weld profile
modelled profile included)
Extrapolation to: Extrapolation to: Extrapolation to:
Weld toe Intersection of surfaces Midline intersection
”OK” ”OK” ”No” ”No”

”OK”
”Maybe”
Solid element model Solid element model Shell element model (no
with weld profile without weld profile weld modelled)
Figure 4 Location of weld singularity for hot spot stress extrapolation dependent on element types used in tubular joint FE
models. The green arrows define the primary positions to be used as the location of the weld singularity when the stress
extrapolation is to be carried out. The yellow arrow pointing at the imaginary surface intersection in shell models defines an
alternative location, which may be adopted for shell models if it can be justified. The locations marked by the red arrows, i.e.
“imaginary weld toes” in FE models where the weld is not modelled, may not be used as the location of the weld singularity
when the stress extrapolation is to be carried out.
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Page 164 – Appendix D
Stress extrapolations, which are based on finite element analyses, shall be based on surface stresses, i.e. not the midline stress
from shell models. The most correct stress to use is the normal-to-weld stress. Unless otherwise agreed, the surface stress that is
used should be based on averaged nodal stresses.
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Appendix E – Page 165
APPENDIX E
ICE LOADS FOR CONICAL STRUCTURES
Calculation of ice loads on conical structures such as ice cones in the splash zone of monopiles and gravity base structures can be
carried out by application of Ralston’s formulas, which are based on plastic limit analysis.
The horizontal force on the cone is
R H = ( A1σ f h 2 + A2 γ w hb 2 + A3 γ w h(b 2 − bT )) A4
2
The vertical force on the cone is
RV = B1 R H + B 2 γ w h(b 2 − bT )
2
The following symbols are used in these expressions

σf = flexural strength of ice
γw = specific weight of sea water
h = ice sheet thickness
b = cone diameter at the water line
bT = cone diameter at top of cone
A1, A2, A3, A4, B1 and B2 are dimensionless coefficients, whose values are functions of the ice-to-cone friction coefficient µ and
of the inclination angle α of the cone with the horizontal. Graphs for determination of the coefficients are given in Figure 1.
The inclination angle α with the horizontal should not exceed approximately 65° in order for the theories underlying the
formulas to be valid.
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Page 166 – Appendix E
Figure 1 Ice force coefficients for plastic limit analysis according to Ralston’s formulas.
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Appendix F – Page 167
APPENDIX F
PILE RESISTANCE AND LOAD-DISPLACEMENT RELATIONSHIPS
A. Axial pile resistance

A 100 General
Axial pile resistance is composed of two parts
• accumulated skin resistance
• tip resistance
For a pile in a stratified soil deposit of N soil layers, the pile resistance R can be expressed as
N
R = R S + RT = ∑ f Si ASi + q T AT
i =1
where fSi is the average unit skin friction along the pile shaft in layer i, ASi is the shaft area of the pile in layer i, qT is the unit end
resistance, and AT is the gross tip area of the pile.
A 200 Clay
For piles in mainly cohesive soils, the average unit skin friction fS may be calculated according to
(1) total stress methods, e.g. the α method, which yields
f Si = αs u
in which
 1 su
 for ≤ 1.0
2 su p0 ' p0 '
α =
1 s
 for u > 1.0
 24 su p0 ' p 0'

where su is the undrained shear strength of the soil and p0’ is the effective overburden pressure at the point in question.
(2) effective stress methods, e.g. the β method, which yields
f Si = βp 0 '
in which β values in the range 0.10-0.25 are suggested for pile lengths exceeding 15 m.
(3) semi-empirical λ method, by which the soil deposit is taken as one single layer, for which the average skin friction is
calculated as
f S = λ ( p 0 m '+2 s um )
where p0m’ is the average effective overburden pressure between the pile head and the pile tip, sum is the average undrained shear
strength along the pile shaft, and λ is the dimensionless coefficient, which depends on the pile length as shown in Figure 1.
Hence, by this method, the total shaft resistance becomes RS=fSAS, where AS is the pile shaft area.
For long flexible piles, failure between pile and soil may occur close to the seabed even before the soil resistance near the pile tip
has been mobilized at all. This is a result of the flexibility of the pile and the associated differences in relative pile-soil
displacement along the length of the pile. This is a length effect, which for a strain-softening soil will imply that the static
capacity of the pile will be less than that of a rigid pile.
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Page 168 – Appendix F
0,5
0,45
0,4
0,35
0,3
λ 0,25
0,2
0,15
0,1
0,05
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Pile length (m)
Figure 1 Coefficient λ vs. pile length
For deformation and stress analysis of an axially loaded flexible pile, the pile can be modelled as a number of consecutive
column elements supported by nonlinear springs applied at the nodal points between the elements. The nonlinear springs are
denoted t-z curves and represent the axial load-displacement relationship between the pile and the soil. The stress t is the
integrated axial skin friction over and z is the relative axial pile-soil displacement necessary to mobilize this skin friction.
A 300 Sand
For piles in mainly cohesionless soils (sand), the average unit skin friction may be calculated according to
fS=Kp0’tanδ≤fl
in which K=0.8 for open-ended piles and K=1.0 for closed-ended piles, p0’ is the effective overburden pressure, δ is the angle of
soil friction on the pile wall as given in Table 1, and fl is a limiting unit skin friction, see Table 1 for guidance.
The unit tip resistance of plugged piles in cohesionless soils can be calculated as
qp=Nqp0’≤ql
in which the bearing factor Nq can be taken from Table 1 and ql is a limiting tip resistance, see Table 1 for guidance.
The unit tip resistance of piles in cohesive soils can be calculated as
qp=Ncsu
where Nc=9 and su is the undrained shear strength of the soil at the pile tip.
Table 1 Design parameters for axial resistance of driven piles in cohesionless silicious soil 1)
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A 400 t-z curves
The t-z curves can be generated according to a method by Kraft et al. (1981). By this method, a nonlinear relation applies
between the origin and the point where the maximum skin resistance tmax is reached,
t
z IF − r f
R t max
z=t ln for 0≤t≤tmax
G0 t
1 − rf
t max
in which R denotes the radius of the pile, G0 is the initial shear modulus of the soil, zIF is a dimensionless zone of influence,
defined as the radius of the zone of influence around the pile divided by R, and rf is a curve fitting factor. For displacements z
beyond the displacement where tmax is reached, the skin resistance t decreases in linear manner with z until a residual skin
resistance tres is reached. For further displacements beyond this point, the skin resistance t stays constant. An example of t-z
curves generated according to this method is given in Figure 2. The maximum skin resistance can be calculated according to one
of the methods for prediction of unit skin friction given above.
Figure 2 Example of t-z curves generated by model
For clays, the initial shear modulus of the soil to be used for generation of t-z curves can be taken as
G0 = 2600 cu
However, Eide and Andersen (1984) suggest a somewhat softer value according to the formula
G 0 = 600c u − 170c u OCR − 1
where su is the undrained shear strength of the clay, and OCR is the overconsolidation ratio. For sands, the initial shear modulus
of the soil to be used for generation of t-z curves is to be taken as
m σ aσ v
G0 = with m=1000tanφ
2(1 + ν )
in which σa=100 kPa is a reference pressure and σv is the vertical effective stress, ν is the Poisson’s ratio of the soil, and φ is the
friction angle of the soil.
B. Laterally loaded piles

B 100 General
The most common method for analysis of laterally loaded piles is based on the use of so-called p-y curves. The p-y curves give
the relation between the integral value p of the mobilized resistance from the surrounding soil when the pile deflects a distance y
laterally. The pile is modelled as a number of consecutive beam-column elements, supported by nonlinear springs applied at the
nodal points between the elements. The nonlinear support springs are characterized by one p-y curve at each nodal point, see
Figure 3.
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The solution of pile displacements and pile stresses in any point along the pile for any applied load at the pile head results as the
solution to the differential equation of the pile
d4y d2y
EI + Q A
− p( y ) + q = 0
dx 4 dx 2
with
d3y dy d2y
EI + Q A
= Q L and EI =M
dx 3 dx dx 2
where x denotes the position along the pile axis, y is the lateral displacement of the pile, EI is the flexural rigidity of the pile, QA
is the axial force in the pile, QL is the lateral force in the pile, p(y) is the lateral soil reaction, q is a distributed load along the pile,
and M is the bending moment in the pile, all at the position x.
Figure 3 p-y curves applied at nodal points in beam−column representation of pile
A finite difference method usually forms the most feasible approach to achieve the sought-after solution of the differential
equation of the pile. A number of commercial computer programs are available for this purpose. These programs usually provide
full solutions of pile stresses and displacements for a combination of axial force, lateral force and bending moment at the pile
head, i.e., also the gradual transfer of axial load to the soil along the pile according to the t-z curve approach presented above is
included. Some of the available programs can be used to analyse not only single piles but also pile groups, including possible
pile-soil-pile interaction and allowing for proper representation of a superstructure attached at the pile heads, either as a rigid cap
or as a structure of finite stiffness.
For construction of p-y curves, the type of soil, the type of loading, the remoulding due to pile installation and the effect of scour
should be considered. A recommended method for construction of p-y curves is presented in the following:
The lateral resistance per unit length of pile for a lateral pile deflection y is denoted p. The static ultimate lateral resistance per
unit length is denoted pu. This is the maximum value that p can take on when the pile is deflected laterally.
B 200 Clay
For piles in cohesive soils, the static ultimate lateral resistance is recommended to be calculated as
(3s + γ ' X ) D + Js u X for 0 < X ≤ X R

pu =  u
9s u D for X > X R
where X is the depth below soil surface and XR is a transition depth, below which the value of (3su+γ’X)D+JsuX exceeds 9suD.
Further, D is the pile diameter, su is the undrained shear strength of the soil, γ’ is the effective unit weight of soil, and J is a
DET NORSKE VERITAS

dimensionless empirical constant whose value is in the range 0.25-0.50 with 0.50 recommended for soft normally consolidated
clay.
For static loading, the p-y curve can be generated according to
 pu y 1 / 3
 ( ) for y ≤ 8y c
p =  2 yc
 p u for y > 8y c
For cyclic loading and X>XR, the p-y curve can be generated according to
 pu y 1 / 3
 ( ) for y ≤ 3y c
p =  2 yc
0.72 p u for y > 3y c
For cyclic loading and X≤XR, the p-y curve can be generated according to
 pu y 1 / 3
 2 (y ) for y ≤ 3y c
 c
 X y − 3yc
p = 0.72 p u (1 − (1 − ) ) for 3y c < y ≤ 15 y c
 X R 12 y c
 X
0.72 p u X for y > 15 y c
 R
Here, yc=2.5εcD, in which D is the pile diameter and εc is the strain which occurs at one-half the maximum stress in laboratory
undrained compression tests of undisturbed soil samples. For further details, reference is made to Classification Notes No. 30.4.
B 300 Sand
For piles in cohesionless soils, the static ultimate lateral resistance is recommended to be calculated as
(C X + C 2 D)γ ' X for 0 < X ≤ X R

pu =  1
C 3 Dγ ' X for X > X R
where the coefficients C1, C2 and C3 depend on the friction angle φ as shown in Figure 4, and where X is the depth below soil
surface and XR is a transition depth, below which the value of (C1X+C2D)γ’X exceeds C3Dγ’X. Further, D is the pile diameter,
and γ’ is the submerged unit weight of soil.
The p-y curve can be generated according to
kX
p = Ap u tanh( y)
Ap u
Figure 4 Coefficients as functions of friction angle
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in which k is the initial modulus of subgrade reaction and depends on the friction angle φ as given in Figure 5, and A is a factor to
account for static or cyclic loading conditions as follows
0.9 for cyclic loading


A= X
(3 − 0.8 D ) ≥ 0.9 for static loading
For further details, reference is made to Classification Notes No. 30.4.
Figure 5 Initial modulus of subgrade reaction k as function of friction angle φ
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Appendix G – Page 173
APPENDIX G
BEARING CAPACITY FORMULAS FOR GRAVITY BASE FOUNDATIONS
A. Forces
A 100 General
All forces acting on the foundation, including forces transferred from the wind turbine, are transferred to the foundation base and
combined into resultant forces H and V in the horizontal and vertical direction, respectively, at the foundation-soil interface.
LC
H
f [kN/m2]
e [m]
rupture 2 rupture 1
Figure G-1 Loading under idealised conditions
In the following, it is assumed that H and V are design forces, i.e., they are characteristic forces that have been multiplied by their
relevant partial load factor γf. This is indicated by index d in the bearing capacity formulas, hence Hd and Vd. The load centre,
denoted LC, is the point where the resultant of H and V intersects the foundation-soil interface, and implies an eccentricity e of
the vertical force V relative to the centre line of the foundation. Reference is made to Figure G-1, and the eccentricity is
calculated as
Md
e=
Vd
where Md denotes the resulting design overturning moment about the foundation-soil interface.
B. Correction for torque

B 100 General
When a torque MZ is applied to the foundation in addition to the forces H and V, the interaction between the torque and these
forces can be accounted for by replacing H and MZ with an equivalent horizontal force H’. The bearing capacity of the
foundation is then to be evaluated for the force set (H’,V) instead of the force set (H,V). According to a method by Hansen
(1978), the equivalent horizontal force can be calculated as
2
2⋅ M z  2⋅ M z 
H'= + H + 
l eff  l 
 eff 
in which leff is the length of the effective area as determined in C100.
C. Effective foundation area

C 100 General
For use in bearing capacity analysis an effective foundation area Aeff is needed. The effective foundation area is constructed such
that its geometrical centre coincides with the load centre, and such that it follows as closely as possible the nearest contour of the
true area of the foundation base. For a quadratic area of width b, the effective area Aeff can be defined as
Aeff = beff ⋅ l eff
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Page 174 – Appendix G
in which the effective dimensions beff and leff depend on which of two idealised loading scenarios leads to the most critical
bearing capacity for the actual foundation.
e Aeff
LC1
leff
beff
Aeff
e
LC2
leff
beff
Figure G-2 Quadratic footing with two approaches to how to make up the effective foundation area
Scenario 1 corresponds to load eccentricity with respect to one of the two symmetry axes of the foundation. By this scenario, the
following effective dimensions are used:
beff = b − 2 ⋅ e , l eff = b
Scenario 2 corresponds to load eccentricity with respect to both symmetry axes of the foundation. By this scenario, the following
effective dimensions are used:
beff = leff = b − e 2
Reference is made to Figure G-2. The effective area representation that leads to the poorest or most critical result for the bearing
capacity of the foundation is the effective area representation to be chosen.
For a circular foundation area with radius R, an elliptical effective foundation area Aeff can be defined as
 e 
Aeff = 2 R 2 arccos( ) − e R 2 − e2 
 R 
with major axes
be = 2(R − e )
and
2
 b 
le = 2 R 1 − 1 − 
 2R 
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Appendix G – Page 175
e
Aeff
LC
leff
le
beff
be
Figure G-3 Circular and octangular footings with effective foundation area marked out
The effective foundation area Aeff can now be represented by a rectangle with the following dimensions
le leff
leff = Aeff and beff = be
be le
For an area shaped as a double symmetrical polygon (octagonal or more), the above formulas for the circular foundation area can
be used provided that a radius equal to the radius of the inscribed circle of the polygon is used for the calculations.
D. Bearing capacity
D 100 General
For fully drained conditions and failure according to Rupture 1 as indicated in Figure G-1, the following general formula can be
applied for the bearing capacity of a foundation with a horizontal base, resting on the soil surface:
1
qd = γ ' beff N γ s γ iγ + p 0' N q s q i q + c d N c s c i c
2
For undrained conditions, which imply φ=0, the following formula for the bearing capacity applies:
q d =c ud ⋅ N c0 ⋅ s c0 ⋅ ic0 + p 0
The symbols used have the following explanations
qd design bearing capacity [kN/m2]

γ' effective (submerged ) unit weight of soil [kN/m3]
p'0 effective overburden pressure at the level of the foundation-soil interface [kN/m2]
cd design cohesion or design undrained shear strength assessed on the basis of the actual shear strength profile, load
configuration and estimated depth of potential failure surface [kN/m2]
Nγ Nq Nc bearing capacity factors, dimensionless
sγ sq sc shape factors, dimensionless
iγ iq ic inclination factors, dimensionless
In principle, the quoted formulas apply to foundations, which are not embedded. However, the formulas may also be applied to
embedded foundations, for which they will lead to results, which will be on the conservative side. Alternatively, depth effects
associated with embedded foundations can be calculated according to formulas given in DNV Classification Notes No. 30.4.
The calculations are to be based on design shear strength parameters:
c tan(φ )
c ud = and φ d = arctan( )
γc γφ
The material factors γc an γφ must be those associated with the actual design code and the type of analysis, i.e. whether drained or
undrained conditions apply.
The dimensionless factors N, s and i can be determined by means of formulas given in the following.
D 200 Bearing capacity formulas for drained conditions
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Page 176 – Appendix G
Bearing capacity factors N:
1 + sin φ d 3
N q = eπ tan φ ⋅
d
; N c = ( N q − 1) ⋅ cot φ d ; N γ = ⋅ ( N q − 1) ⋅ tan φ d
1 − sin φ d 2
When the bearing capacity formulas are used to predict soil reaction stresses on foundation structures for design of such
structures. It is recommended that the factor Nγ is calculated according to the following formula
N γ = 2 ⋅ ( N q + 1) ⋅ tan φ d
Shape factors s:
beff beff
sγ = 1 − 0.4 ⋅ ; s q = s c = 1 + 0.2 ⋅
l eff l eff
Inclination factors i:
2
 Hd 
i q = i c = 1 −  ; iγ = iq
2
 V + A ⋅ c ⋅ cot φ 
 d eff d d 
D 300 Bearing capacity formulas for undrained conditions, φ=0

N c0 = π + 2
s c0 = s c
H
ic0 = 0.5 + 0.5 ⋅ 1 −
Aeff ⋅ cud
E. Extremely eccentric loading

E 100 General
In the case of extremely eccentric loading, i.e., an eccentricity in excess of 0.3 times the foundation width, e>0.3b, an additional
bearing capacity calculation needs to be carried out, corresponding to the possibility of a failure according to Rupture 2 in Figure
8-1. This failure mode involves failure of the soil also under the unloaded part of the foundation area, i.e., under the heel of the
foundation. For this failure mode, the following formula for the bearing capacity applies
q d = γ ' beff N γ s γ iγ + c d N c s c i c (1.05 + tan 3 φ )
with inclination factors
H H
iq = ic = 1 + ; iγ = iq ;
2
ic0 = 0.5 + 0.5 ⋅ 1 +
V + Aeff ⋅ c ⋅ cot φ Aeff ⋅ cud
The bearing capacity is to be taken as the smallest of the values for qd resulting from the calculations for Rupture 1 and Rupture
2.
F. Sliding resistance
F 100 General
Foundations subjected to horizontal loading must also be investigated for sufficient sliding resistance. The following criterion
applies in the case of drained conditions:
H < A eff ⋅c + V ⋅ tan φ
For undrained conditions in clay, φ=0, the following criterion applies:
H < A eff ⋅cud
and it must in addition be verified that
H
< 0.4
V
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Appendix H – Page 177
APPENDIX H
CROSS SECTION TYPES
A. Cross Section Types

A 100 General
101 Cross sections of beams are divided into different types dependent of their ability to develop plastic hinges as given in
Table H1.
Table H1 Cross sectional types

I Cross sections that can form a plastic hinge with the
rotation capacity required for plastic analysis
II Cross sections that can develop their plastic moment
resistance, but have limited rotation capacity
III Cross sections where the calculated stress in the extreme
compression fibre of the steel member can reach its yield
strength, but local buckling is liable to prevent development
of the plastic moment resistance
IV Cross sections where it is necessary to make explicit
allowances for the effects of local buckling when
determining their moment resistance or compression
resistance
Figure 1
Relation between moment M and plastic moment resistance Mp, and rotation θ for cross sectional types. My is elastic moment
resistance
102 The categorisation of cross sections depends on the proportions of each of its compression elements, see Table H3.
103 Compression elements include every element of a cross section which is either totally or partially in compression, due to
axial force or bending moment, under the load combination considered.
104 The various compression elements in a cross section such as web or flange, can be in different classes.
105 The selection of cross sectional type is normally quoted by the highest or less favourable type of its compression
elements.
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Page 178 – Appendix H
A 200 Cross section requirements for plastic analysis
201 At plastic hinge locations, the cross section of the member which contains the plastic hinge shall have an axis of
symmetry in the plane of loading.
202 At plastic hinge locations, the cross section of the member which contains the plastic hinge shall have a rotation capacity
not less than the required rotation at that plastic hinge location.
A 300 Cross section requirements when elastic global analysis is used
301 When elastic global analysis is used, the role of cross section classification is to identify the extent to which the resistance
of a cross section is limited by its local buckling resistance.
302 When all the compression elements of a cross section are type III, its resistance may be based on an elastic distribution of
stresses across the cross section, limited to the yield strength at the extreme fibres.
Table A2 Coefficient related to relative strain

NV Steel grade 1) ε 2)
NV-NS 1
NV-27 0.94
NV-32 0.86
NV-36 0.81
NV-40 0.78
NV-420 0.75
NV-460 0.72
NV-500 0.69
NV-550 0.65
NV-620 0.62
NV-690 0.58
1) The table is not valid for steel with improved weldability. See
Sec.4, Table D1, footnote 1).
235
e = --------
f
- where f y is yield strength
y
2)
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Appendix H – Page 179
Table H3 Maximum width-to-thickness ratios for compression elements
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Page 180 – Appendix I
APPENDIX I
EXTREME WIND SPEED EVENTS
A. Extreme operating gust

A 100 General
The hub height gust magnitude Vgust for a recurrence period of one year shall be given by the following relationship:
 3.3σ U , c 
V gust = min 1.35(v e1 − U 10 , hub ); 
 1 + 0.1 D Λ 1 
in which
σU,c = characteristic standard deviation of wind speed, defined as 90% quantile in the probability distribution of σU
Λ1 = longitudal turbulence scale parameter, is related to the integral scale parameter Lk of the Kaimal spectral density through the
relationship Lk=8.1Λ1.
D = rotor diameter
The wind speed V as a function of height z and time t shall be defined as follows
u ( z ) − 0.37V gust sin(3πt / T )(1 − cos(2πt / T )) for 0 ≤ t ≤ T
V ( z, t ) = 
 u( z) otherwise
where
T = 10.5 sec
and
u(z) is the so-called normal wind shear profile
z
u ( z ) = U 10, hub ( ) 0.2
z hub
for the 10-minute mean wind speed as a function of the height z and the 10-minute mean wind speed U10,hub in the hub height zhub.
An example of extreme operating gust in the hub height is given in Figure 1 for a case where the 10-minute mean wind speed is
25 m/sec.
EOG Wind speed in hub height
36
34
32
30
28
26
24
22
20
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time t in secs.
Figure 1 Example of extreme operating gust
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Appendix I – Page 181
B. Extreme direction change

B 100 General
The extreme direction change magnitude, θe, for a recurrence period of one year shall be calculated using the following
relationship:
σ U ,c
θ e = ±4 ⋅ arctan
U 10 , hub (1 + 0.1 D Λ 1 )
where
σU,c = characteristic standard deviation of wind speed, defined as 90% quantile in the probability distribution of σU
Λ1 = longitudal turbulence scale parameter, is related to the integral scale parameter Lk of the Kaimal spectral density through the
relationship Lk=8.1Λ1.
U10,hub = 10-minute mean wind speed at hub height
D = rotor diameter
θe is limited to the range ±180°
The extreme direction change transient, θ(t), as a function of time t shall be given by:
 0 for t < 0

θ (t ) = 0.5θ e (1 − cos(πt / T )) for 0 ≤ t ≤ T
 0 for t ≥ T

where T = 6 sec is the duration of the extreme direction change. The sign shall be chosen so that the worst transient loading
occurs. At the end of the direction change transient, the direction is assumed to remain unchanged. The wind speed is assumed to
follow the normal wind profile model given in A100 above.
As an example, the magnitude of the extreme direction change with a recurrence period of one year is shown in Figure 2 for
various values of Vhub=U10,hub. The corresponding transient for Vhub = U10,hub = 25 m/s is shown in Figure 3.
200
EDC Wind direction change,
40
EDC change, θe (deg)
100
30
θ (t ) (deg)
0
20
-100
10
-200 0
0 10 20 30 40 -5 0 5 10
Wind speed, V hub (m/s)
Time, t (s)
Figure 2 Example of extreme direction change magnitude Figure 3 Example of extreme direction change
C. Extreme coherent gust with direction change

C 100 General
An extreme coherent gust with a magnitude
Vcg = 15 m/sec
shall be assumed. The wind speed V as a function of height z and time t shall be defined as follows
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Page 182 – Appendix I
 u( z) for t<0

V ( z , t ) = u ( z ) + 0.5V cg (1 − cos(πt / T )) for 0 ≤ t ≤ T
 u ( z ) + Vcg for t >T

where T = 10 sec is the rise time and u(z) the wind speed given in A100 above. The extreme coherent gust is illustrated in Figure
4 for Vhub =U10,hub = 25 m/s.
50
Wind speed V (z,t ) (m/s)
40
30
20
10
0
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Time, t (s)
Figure 4 Example of extreme coherent gust amplitude

The rise in wind speed (described by the extreme coherent gust, see Figure 4) shall be assumed to occur simultaneously with the
direction change θ from 0 degrees up to and including θcg, where θcg is defined by:
 180 o for U 10 ,hub ≤ 4 m / s


θ cg (U 10,hub ) =  720 o m / s
for U 10,hub > 4 m / s
 U 10,hub

The direction change θcg is shown in Figure 5 as a function of the 10-minute mean wind speed Vhub=U10,hub at hub height.
The direction change which takes place simultaneously as the wind speed rises is given by
 0o for t<0

θ (t ) = ± 0.5θ cg (1 − cos(πt / T )) for 0 ≤ t ≤ T
 ± θ cg for t >T

where T = 10 sec is the rise time. The normal wind profile model as specified in A100 shall be used. An example of the direction
change is shown in Figure 6 a function of time for Vhub = U10,hub=25 m/s.
Direction change, V (z,t ) (deg)
200 30
(deg)
25
150
cg
20
Direction change,
100 15
10
50
5
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time, t (s)
Wind speed, V hub (m/s)
Figure 5 Direction change Figure 6 Temporal evolution of direction change for

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Appendix J – Page 183
APPENDIX J
SCOUR AND SCOUR PROTECTION AT A VERTICAL PILE
A. Flow around a Vertical Pile

A 100 General
101 When a vertical pile is placed on a seabed, the water-particle flow associated with currents and passing waves will
undergo substantial changes, see Figure J.1. First, a horseshoe vortex will be formed at the base in front of the pile. Second, a
vortex flow pattern in the form of vortex shedding will be formed at the lee-side of the pile. Third, the streamlines will contract at
the side edges of the pile. This local change in the flow will increase the bed shear stress and the sediment transport capacity will
increase accordingly. In the case of an erodible seabed, this may result in a local scour around the pile. Such scour is a threat to
the stability of the pile.
Figure J.1: Flow around the base of a vertical pile
B. Bed Shear Stress

B 100 General
101 The increase in the bed shear stress can be expressed in terms of the amplification factor α, which is defined by
τ max
α = (J.1)
τ max,∞
in which τmax is the maximum value of the bed shear stress τ when the pile structure is present and τmax,∞ is the maximum value of
the bed shear stress τ∞ for the undisturbed flow. In the case of a steady current, τmax and τmax,∞ are replaced by constant τ and τ∞,
respectively, in the expression for α.
102 In the case of a steady current, the amplification factor can become as large as α=7-11. This is due to the presence of a
very significant horseshoe vortex. For waves the amplification is smaller.
C. Local Scour
C 100 General
101 When local scour is analysed, it is important to distinguish between clear-water scour and live-bed scour. This distinction
is necessary because the development of a scour hole with time and the relationship between the scour depth and the
approach-flow velocity both depend on which of the two types of scour is occurring.
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Page 184 – Appendix J
102 Under ‘clear water’ conditions, i.e. when the sediments far from the pile are not in motion, a state of equilibrium is
reached when the scour hole has developed to an extent such that the flow no longer has the ability to resuspend sediment and
remove it from the scour hole. Under ‘live bed’ conditions, i.e. when the sediment transport prevails over the entire bed,
equilibrium is reached when the rate of removal of material from the scour hole is equal to the rate at which material is being
deposited in the scour hole from ambient suspended material and bed loads.
103 In the case of a steady current, the scour process is mainly caused by the presence of the horseshoe vortex combined with
the effect of contraction of streamlines at the side edges of the pile. The shape of the scour hole will virtually be symmetrical, see
Figure J.2.
Figure J.2: Scour hole around a vertical pile
104 In the case of waves, the horseshoe vortex and the lee-wake vortex form the two processes that govern the scour. These
two processes are primarily governed by the Keulegan-Carpenter number, KC, which is defined by
u max ⋅ T
KC = (J.2)
D
where T is the wave period, D is the cylinder diameter and umax is the maximum value of the orbital velocity at the bed, given by
linear theory as:
π ⋅H
u max = (J.3)
T sinh( kh )
Here H is the wave height, h is the water depth and k is the wave number which can be found by solving the dispersion equation:
2
 2π 
  = g ⋅ k tanh( kh ) (J.4)
T 
where g is the acceleration of gravity, i.e. 9.81 m/s2.
C 200 Scour Depth

201 The typical equilibrium scour hole around a pile will have a depth equal to 1.0-1.5 pile diameters. It will extend 1.5-2.0
pile diameters laterally away from the pile surface. The following empirical expression for the equilibrium scour depth S may be
used:
S
= 1.3 ⋅{1 − exp[− 0.03(KC − 6)]} KC ≥ 6 (J.5)
D
This expression is valid for live-bed conditions, i.e. for θ>θcr, in which the Shields parameter θ is defined below together with its
critical threshold θcr. For steady current, which implies KC→∞, it appears from this expression that S/D→1.3. For waves it
appears that for KC<6 no scour hole is formed. The physical explanation for this is that no horseshoe vortex develops for KC<6.
The Shields parameter S is defined by:
U f2
θ= (J.6)
g (s − 1)d
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Appendix J – Page 185
where s is the specific gravity of the sediment, d is the grain diameter and Uf is the bed shear velocity. The critical Shields
parameter, θcr, is the value of θ at the initiation of sediment motion.
For steady current the bed shear velocity, Uf, is given by the Colebrook and White equation
Uc  2.5 ⋅ d 4.7υ 
= 6.4 − 2.5 ln +  (J.7)
Uf  h h ⋅ Uf 
where ν equal to 10-6 m2/s is the kinematic viscosity. For waves, the maximum value of the undisturbed bed shear velocity is
calculated by:
fw
Uf = ⋅ u max (J.8)
2
where fw is the frictional coefficient given by
0.04 ⋅ (a / k N ) −0.25 a / k N > 50

fw =  (J.9)
 0.4 ⋅ (a / k N ) −0.75 a / k N < 50
Here, a is the free stream amplitude, defined by

u max ⋅ T
a= (J.10)
2π
and kN is the bed roughness equal to 2.5⋅d50, where d50 denotes the median grain diameter in the particle size distribution of the
seabed material.
C 300 Time Scale of Scour
301 The temporal evolution of the scour depth, S, can be expressed as:
S t = S (1 − exp( −t / T1 )) (J.11)
in which t denotes the time, and T1 denotes the time scale of the scour process. The time scale T1 of the scour process can be
found from the non-dimensional time scale T* through the following relationship
g (s − 1)d 3
T* = T1 (J.12)
D2
where T* is given by the empirical expressions:
1 h − 2 .2
T* = θ for steady current (J.13)
2000 D
3
 KC 
T * = 10 −6   for waves (J.14)
 θ 
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Page 186 – Appendix K
APPENDIX K
CALCULATIONS BY FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
A. Introduction
A 100 General
101 If simple calculations cannot be performed to document the strength and stiffness of a structural component, a Finite
Element analysis should be carried out.
102 The model to be included in the analysis and the type of analysis should be chosen with due consideration to the
interaction of the structural component with the rest of the structure.
103 Since a FEM analysis is normally used when simple calculations are insufficient or impossible, care must be taken to
ensure that the model and analysis reflect the physical reality. This must be done by means of carrying out an evaluation of the
input to as well as the results from the analysis. Guidelines for such an evaluation are given below.
B. Types of analysis
B 100 General
101 Though different types of analyses can be performed by means of FEM analysis, most analyses take the form of static
analyses for determination of the strength and stiffness of structures or structural components. FEM analyses are usually
computer-based analyses which make use of FEM computer programs.
B 200 Static analysis
201 In a static analysis, structural parts are commonly examined with respect to determining which extreme loads govern the
extreme stress, strain and deflection responses. As the analysis is linear, unit loads can be applied, and the response caused by
single loads can be calculated. The actual extreme load cases can subsequently be examined by means of linear combinations -
superposition.
B 300 Frequency analysis
301 Frequency analysis is used to determine the eigenfrequencies and normal modes of a structural part.
302 The FEM program will normally perform an analysis on the basis of the lowest frequencies. However, by specifying a
shift value, it is possible to obtain results also for a set of higher frequencies around a user-defined frequency.
Guidance Note:
The normal modes resulting from a frequency analysis only represent the shape of the deflection profiles, not the actual deflections.
B 400 Dynamic analysis

401 Dynamic FEM analysis can be used to determine the time-dependent response of a structural part, e.g. as a transfer
function. The analysis is normally based on modal superposition, as this type of analysis is much less time consuming than a
‘real’ time dependent analysis.
B 500 Stability/buckling analysis
501 Stability/buckling analysis is relevant for slender structural parts or sub-parts. This is due to the fact that the loads causing
local or global buckling may be lower than the loads causing strength problems.
502 The analysis is normally performed by applying a set of static loads. Hereafter, the factor by which this set of loads has to
be multiplied for stability problems to occur is determined by the analysis program.
B 600 Thermal analysis
601 By thermal analysis, the temperature distribution in structural parts is determined, based on the initial temperature, heat
input/output, convection, etc. This is normally a time-dependent analysis; however, it is usually not very time-consuming as only
one degree of freedom is present at each modelled node.
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Appendix K – Page 187
Guidance Note:
A thermal analysis set-up as described can be used to analyse analogous types of problems involving other time-dependent quantities than
temperature. This applies to problems governed by the same differential equation as the one which governs heat transfer. An example of
such an application can be found in foundation engineering for analysis of the temporal evolution of settlements in foundation soils.
B 700 Other types of analyses

701 The analyses listed in B200 through B600 only encompass some of the types of analyses that can be performed by FEM
analysis. Other types of analyses are: plastic analyses and analyses including geometric non-linearities.
702 Combinations of several analyses can be performed. As examples hereof, the results of an initial frequency analysis can
be used as a basis for subsequent dynamic analysis, and the results of a thermal analysis may be used to form a load case in a
subsequent static analysis.
C. Modelling
C 100 General
101 The results of a FEM analysis are normally documented by plots and printouts of selected extreme response values.
However, as the structural FEM model used can be very complex, it is important also to document the model itself. Even minor
deviations from the intention may give results that do not reflect reality properly.
C 200 Model
201 The input for a FEM model must be documented thoroughly by relevant printouts and plots. The printed data should
preferably be stored or supplied as files on a CD-ROM
C 300 Coordinate systems
301 Different coordinate systems may be used to define the model and the boundary conditions. Hence the coordinate system
valid for the elements and boundary conditions should be checked, e.g. by plots. This is particularly important for beam elements
given that it is not always logical which axes are used to define the sectional properties.
302 In a similar manner, as a wrong coordinate system for symmetry conditions may seriously corrupt the results, the
boundary conditions should be checked.
303 Insofar as regards laminate elements, the default coordinate system often constitutes an element coordinate system, which
may have as a consequence that the fibre directions are distributed randomly across a model.
C 400 Material properties
401 Several different material properties may be used across a model, and plots should be checked to verify that the material
is distributed correctly.
402 Drawings are often made by means of using units of mm to obtain appropriate values. When the model is transferred to
the FEM program, the dimensions are maintained. In this case care should be taken in setting the material properties (and loads)
correctly, as kg-mm-N-s is not a consistent set of units. It is advisable to use SI-units (kg-m-N-s).
C 500 Material models
501 The material model used is usually a model for isotropic material, i.e. the same properties prevail in all directions. Note,
however, that for composite materials an orthotropic material model has to be used to reflect the different material properties in
the different directions. For this model, material properties are defined for three orthogonal directions. By definition of this
material, the choice of coordinate system for the elements has to be made carefully.
C 600 Elements
601 For a specific structural part, several different element types and element distributions may be relevant depending on the
type of analysis to be carried out. Usually, one particular element type is used for the creation of a FEM model. However,
different element types may be combined within the same FEM model. For such a combination special considerations may be
necessary.
C 700 Element types
701 1D elements consist of beam elements.
Models with beam elements are quite simple to create and provide good results for framework structures.
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One difficulty may be that the sectional properties are not visible. Hence, the input should be checked carefully for the direction
of the section and the numerical values of the sectional properties. Some FEM programs can generate 3D views showing the
dimensions of the sections. This facility should be used, if present.
Naturally, the stresses in the connections cannot be calculated accurately by the use of beam elements only.
702 2D elements consist of shell and plate elements.
Shell and plate elements should be used for parts consisting of plates or constant thickness sub-parts. As shell elements suitable
for thick plates exist, the wall thickness does not need to be very thin to obtain a good representation by such elements. These
elements include the desired behaviour through the thickness of the plate. The same problems as for beam elements are present
for shell elements as the thickness of the plates is not shown. The thickness can, however, for most FEM programs be shown by
means of colour codes, and for some programs the thickness can be shown by 3D views.
The stresses at connections such as welds cannot be found directly by these elements either.
703 3D elements consist of solid elements.
704 By the use of solid elements the correct geometry can be modelled to the degree of detail wanted. However, this may
imply that the model will include a very large number of nodes and elements, and hence the solution time will be very long.
Furthermore, as most solid element types only have three degrees of freedom at each node, the mesh for a solid model may need
to be denser than for a beam or shell element model.
C 800 Combinations
801 Combination of the three types of elements is possible, however, as the elements may not have the same number of
degrees of freedom (DOF) at each node, care should be taken not to create unintended hinges in the model.
802 Beam elements have six degrees of freedom in each node – three translations and three rotations, while solid elements
normally only have three – the three translations. Shell elements normally have five degrees of freedom – the rotation around the
surface normal is missing. However, these elements may have six degrees of freedom, while the stiffness for the last rotation is
fictive.
803 The connection of beam or shell elements to solid elements in a point, respectively a line, introduces a hinge. This
problem may be solved by adding additional ‘dummy’ elements to get the correct connection. Alternatively, constraints may be
set up between the surrounding nodal displacements and rotations. Some FEM programs can set up such constraints
automatically.
C 900 Element size and distribution of elements
901 The size, number and distribution of elements required in an actual FEM model depend on the type of analysis to be
performed and on the type of elements used.
902 Generally, as beam and shell elements have five or six degrees of freedom in each node, good results can be obtained with
a small number of elements. As solid elements only have three degrees of freedom in each node, they tend to be more stiff.
Hence, more elements are needed.
903 The shape and order of the elements influence the required number of elements. Triangular elements are more stiff than
quadrilateral elements, and first-order elements are more stiff than second-order elements.
Guidance Note:
The required number of elements and its dependency on the element shape are illustrated in an example, in which a cantilever is modelled
by beam, membrane, shell and solid elements, see Figure K-1.
E = 2.1⋅105 N/mm2 100 N
10 mm
100 mm
Figure K-2. Cantilever.
Table 1 gives the required number of elements as a function of the element type applied, and the corresponding analysis results in terms of
displacements and stresses are also given.
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Element Number of uy σx,node σx,element
Description
type elements [mm] [N/mm2] [N/mm2]
Analytical result - 1.9048 600 600
Beam element, 2 nodes per 10 1.9048 600 600
BEAM2D element, 3 DOF per node, ux,
1 1.9048 600 600
uy and θz
Membrane element, 4 nodes
PLANE2D per element, 2 DOF per node, 10 x 1 1.9124 570 0
ux and uy
Membrane element, 3 nodes 10 x 1 x 2 0.4402 141 141
TRIANG per element, 2 DOF per node, 20 x 2 x 2 1.0316 333 333
ux and uy 40 x 4 x 2 1.5750 510 510
Shell element, 3 nodes per
SHELL3 20 x 2 x 2 1.7658 578 405
element, 6 DOF per node
Solid element, 8 nodes per
SOLID element, 3 DOF per node ux, 10 x 1 1.8980 570 570
uy and uz
Solid element, 4 nodes per 10 x 1 x 1 0.0792 26.7 26.7
TETRA4 element, 3 DOF per node ux, 20 x 2 x 1 0.6326 239 239
uy and uz 40 x 4 x 1 1.6011 558 558
Solid element, 4 nodes per
TETRA4R 20 x 2 x 1 1.7903 653 487
element, 6 DOF per node
Table 1. Analysis of cantilever with different types of elements.
C 1000 Element quality

1001 The results achieved by a certain type and number of elements depend on the quality of the elements. Several measures
for the quality of elements can be used; however, the most commonly used are aspect ratio and element warping.
1002 The aspect ratio is the ratio between the side lengths of the element. This should ideally be equal to 1, but aspect ratios of
up to 3-5 do usually not influence the results and are thus acceptable.
1003 Element warping is the term used for non-flatness or twist of the elements. Even a slight warping of the elements may
influence the results significantly.
1004 Most available FEM programs can perform checks of the element quality, and they may even try to improve the element
quality by redistribution of the nodes.
1005 The quality of the elements should always be checked for an automatically generated mesh, in particular, for the internal
nodes and elements. It is usually possible to generate good quality elements for a manually generated mesh.
1006 With regard to automatically generated high-order elements, care should be taken to check that the nodes on the element
sides are placed on the surface of the model and not just on the linear connection between the corner nodes. This problem often
arises when linear elements are used in the initial calculations, and the elements are then changed into higher-order elements for
a final calculation.
1007 Benchmark tests to check the element quality for different element distributions and load cases are given by NAFEMS.
These tests include beam, shell and solid elements, as well as static and dynamic loads.
C 1100 Boundary conditions
1101 The boundary conditions applied to the model should be as realistic as possible. This may require that the FEM model
becomes extended to include element models of structural parts other than the particular one to be investigated. One situation
where this comes about is when the true supports of a considered structure have stiffness properties which cannot be
well-defined unless they are modelled by means of elements that are included in the FEM model.
When such an extended FEM model is adopted, deviations from the true stiffness at the boundary of the structural part in
question may then become minor only. As a consequence of this, the non-realistic effects due to inadequately modelled boundary
conditions become transferred further away to the neighbouring structural parts or sub-parts, which are now represented by
elements in the extended FEM model.
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C 1200 Types of restraints
1201 The types of restraints normally used are constrained or free displacements/rotations or supporting springs. Other types of
restraints may be a fixed non-zero displacement or rotation or a so-called contact, i.e. the displacement is restrained in one
direction but not in the opposite direction.
1202 The way that a FEM program handles the fixed boundary condition may vary from one program to another. One approach
is to remove the actual degree of freedom from the model; another is to apply a spring with a large stiffness at the actual degree
of freedom. The latter approach may lead to singularities if the stiffness of the spring is much larger than the stiffness of the
element model. Evidently, the stiffness can also be too small, which may again result in singularities.
An appropriate value for the stiffness of such a stiff spring may be approximately 106 times the largest stiffness of the model.
1203 As the program must first identify whether the displacement has to be constrained or free, the contact boundary condition
requires a non-linear calculation.
C 1300 Symmetry/antimetry
1301 Other types of boundary conditions are symmetric and antimetric conditions, which may be applied if the model and the
loads possess some kind of symmetry. Taking such symmetry into account may reduce the size of the FEM model significantly.
1302 The two types of symmetry that are most frequently used are planar and rotational symmetries. The boundary conditions
for these types of symmetry can normally be defined in an easy manner in most FEM programs by using appropriate coordinate
systems.
1303 The loads for a symmetric model may be a combination of a symmetric and an antimetric load. This can be considered by
calculating the response from the symmetric loads for a model with symmetric boundary conditions, and adding the response
from the antimetric loads for a model with antimetric boundary conditions.
1304 If both model and loads have rotational symmetry, a sectional model is sufficient for calculating the response.
1305 Some FEM programs offer the possibility to calculate the response of a model with rotational symmetry by a sectional
model, even if the load is not rotational-symmetric, as the program can model the load in terms of Fourier series.
C 1400 Loads
1401 The loads applied for the FEM calculation are usually structural loads, however, centrifugal and temperature loads are
also relevant.
1402 Structural loads consist of nodal forces and moments and of surface pressure. Nodal forces and moments are easily
applied, but may result in unrealistic results locally. This is due to the fact that no true loads act in a single point. Thus,
application of loads as pressure loads will in most cases form the most realistic way of load application.
C 1500 Load application
1501 The loading normally consists of several load components, and all of these components may be applied at the same time.
As a slightly different load combination in a new analysis will require an entirely new calculation, this is, however, not very
rational.
1502 To circumvent the problems involved with execution of an entirely new calculation when only a slightly different load
combination is considered, each of the load components should be applied separately as a single load case, and the results found
from each of the corresponding analyses should then be combined. In this way, a large range of load combinations can be
considered. To facilitate this procedure, unit loads should be used in the single load cases, and the actual loads should then be
used in the linear combinations.
1503 As only one or more parts of the total structure is modelled, care should be taken to apply the loads as they are
experienced by the actual part. To facilitate such load application, ‘dummy’ elements may be added, i.e. elements with a stiffness
representative of the parts which are not modelled – these are often beam elements. The loads can then be applied at the
geometrically correct points and be transferred via the beam elements to the structural part being considered.
D. Documentation
D 100 Model
101 The results of a FEM analysis can be documented by a large number of plots and printouts, which can make it an
overwhelming task to find out what has actually been calculated and how the calculations have been carried out.
102 The documentation for the analysis should clearly document which model is considered, and the relevant results should
be documented by plots and printouts.
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103 The model aspects listed in D200 through D700 can and should be checked prior to execution of the FEM analysis.
D 200 Geometry control
201 A verification of the geometric model by a check of the dimensions is an important and often rather simple task. This
simple check may reveal if numbers have unintentionally been entered in an incorrect manner.
D 300 Mass – volume – centre of gravity
301 The mass and volume of the model should always be checked. Similarly, the centre of gravity should correspond with the
expected value.
D 400 Material
401 Several different materials can be used in the same FEM model. Some of these may be fictitious. This should be checked
on the basis of plots showing which material is assigned to each element, and by listing the material properties. Here, care should
be taken to check that the material properties are given according to a consistent set of units.
D 500 Element type
501 Several different element types can be used, and here plots and listing of the element types should also be presented.
D 600 Local coordinate system
601 With regard to beam and composite elements, the local coordinate systems should be checked, preferably, by plotting the
element coordinate systems.
D 700 Loads and boundary conditions
701 The loads and boundary conditions should be plotted to check the directions of these, and the actual numbers should be
checked from listings. To be able to check the correspondence between plots and listings, documentation of node/element
numbers and coordinates may be required.
D 800 Reactions
801 The reaction forces and moments are normally calculated by the FEM programs and should be properly checked. As a
minimum, it should be checked that the total reaction corresponds with the applied loads. This is especially relevant when loads
are applied to areas and volumes, and not merely as discrete point loads. For some programs it is possible to plot the nodal
reactions, which can be very illustrative.
802 A major reason for choosing a FEM analysis as the analysis tool for a structure or structural part is that no simple
calculation can be applied for the purpose. This implies that there is no simple way to check the results. Instead checks can be
carried out to make probable that the results from the FEM analysis are correct.
D 900 Mesh refinement
901 The simplest way of establishing whether the present model or mesh is dense enough is to remesh the model with a more
dense mesh, and then calculate the differences between analysis results from use of the two meshes. As several meshes may have
to be created and tried out, this procedure can, however, be very time-consuming. Moreover, as modelling simplification can
induce unrealistic behaviour locally, this procedure may in some cases also result in too dense meshes. Instead, an indication of
whether the model or mesh is sufficient would be preferable.
D 1000 Results
1001 Initially, the results should be checked to see if they appear to be realistic. A simple check is made on the basis of an
evaluation of the deflection of the component, which should, naturally, reflect the load and boundary conditions applied as well
as the stiffness of the component. Also, the stresses on a free surface should be zero.
1002 Most commercial FEM programs have some means for calculation of error estimates. Such estimates can be defined in
several ways. One of the most commonly used estimates is an estimate of the error in the stress. The estimated ‘correct’ stress is
found by interpolating the stresses by the same interpolation functions as are used for displacements in defining the element
stiffness properties.
Another way of getting an indication of stress errors is given by means of comparison of the nodal stresses calculated at a node
for each of the elements that are connected to that node. Large variations indicate that the mesh should be more dense.
1003 If the results of the analysis are established as linear combinations of the results from single load cases, the load
combination factors used should be clearly stated.
1004 The global deflection of the structure should be plotted with appropriately scaled deflections. For further evaluation,
deflection components could be plotted as contour plots to see the absolute deflections.
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For models with rotational symmetry, a plot of the deflection relative to a polar coordinate system may be more relevant for
evaluation of the results.
1005 All components of the stresses are calculated, and it is should be possible to plot each component separately to evaluate
the calculated stress distribution.
1006 The principal stresses should be plotted with an indication of the direction of the stress component, and these directions
should be evaluated in relation to the expected distribution.
1007 As for the evaluation of the resulting stresses, also the components of the resulting strains and the principal strain should
be plotted in an evaluation of the results from the analysis.
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Appendix L – Page 193
APPENDIX L
PROJECT CERTIFICATION OF OFFSHORE WIND FARMS
A. Introduction
A 100 General
101 The technical contents of DNV-OS-J101 may form the basis for a DNV project certification service.
102 The DNV project certification scheme consists of six phases, each of which refers to a particular period of time during the
development, installation and operation of the wind farm project. The six phases are listed in chronological order in Table L1
together with the respective activities that they cover.
Table L1 Phases of project certification and associated activities
Phase Description of Activities
No. certification phase
Site Wind turbine Support Installation Planning and Evaluation of
conditions design and structure and of wind evaluation of measurement
manufacture foundation turbines, operations and
design and support and monitoring
manufacture structures maintenance program
and
foundations
I Verification of X X X X X
design basis
II Verification of X X X
preliminary design
III Verification of final X X X X X
design
IV Manufacturing X X
surveys
V Installation X
VI In service X X X
103 The three certification phases I through III cover the steps which are necessary to achieve the final design verification.
This verification includes a site-specific approval of the integrated structural system consisting of wind turbine, support structure
and foundation and is conducted according to DNV-OS-J101.
104 The three certification phases IV through VI involve all follow-up verification and on-site inspections during the
implementation of the project and the following in-service activities.
105 The elements of each certification phase are presented separately in Subsections B through G.
B. Phase I: Verification of Design Basis

B 100 Environmental conditions and soil conditions
101 Establishment and verification of site conditions such as wind, waves, current, ice and soil conditions based on reported
wind data, oceanographic data and geotechnical data available for the project. Principles and methods for
- data acquisition
- statistical methods applied
- establishment of design parameters
will be assessed.
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Page 194 – Appendix L
B 200 Wind turbine
201 Verification of structural interface between wind turbine and support structure is carried out. Type approval of the wind
turbine is required as a prerequisite. Verification of the wind turbine design basis for compliance with the agreed standard(s) and
with respect to the following issues will be carried out:
- Selection of site conditions relevant for the wind turbine design including properties for the grid connection
- Requirements for operation and maintenance
- Specification for the interface between wind turbine and support structure, e.g. tower/foundation geometry, stiffness of support
structure, and stiffness of soil support
B 300 Support structure and foundation
301 The following verification activities are expected:
- design aspects and parameters to be applied in the calculations regarding loads, load combinations, partial safety factors to be
applied etc.
- structural and geotechnical design methods to be applied
- model tests to be carried out (optional)
B 400 Deliverables
401 Upon complete verification of activities in this phase a statement of compliance will be issued.
C. Phase II: Verification of Preliminary Design

C 100 Wind turbine
101 Load calculations for generic wind turbine to be verified and found in compliance with the design basis for the wind
turbine.
102 The verification will be limited to the load cases relevant for preliminary design of the support structure and foundation.
C 200 Support structure and foundation
201 Verification of the offshore support structures and foundation will be carried out based on preliminary estimated wind
turbine loads provided.
202 The verification of the structural design includes assessment of:
- Design calculations for the Ultimate Limit State, the Serviceability Limit State (for example allowable stiffness of support
structure/foundation), and the Fatigue Limit State
- Designer’s calculations and considerations regarding ship impact and regarding installation and manufacturing methods, with
respect to the structural integrity of the final installation
- Proposed corrosion protection system(s) (with a view to required design life, standards and codes, and maintenance)
203 The verification of the geotechnical design includes assessment of:
- Extent and relevance of geotechnical investigation and derivation of soil parameters from these investigations
- Evaluation of calculation methods, stability and failure modes
- Review of design documentation regarding seabed preparation, tolerances and scour protection
C 300 Installation
301 The following verification activities will be conducted:
- Review of Installation Procedure(s) including Lifting Procedure(s)
- Review of structural design of Lifting Appliances
- Review of marine loads (sea-transportation loads, offshore lifting loads and installation loads)
C 400 Deliverables
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D. Phase III: Final Design Verification

D 100 General
101 The final design will be verified against the DNV Offshore Standard, Series J, Wind Turbines.
D 200 Wind Turbine
201 Final verification of site-specific load analyses and requirements in the design basis for the chosen offshore wind turbine
configuration will be conducted.
D 300 Support structure and foundation design
301 The final verification of the offshore support structure and foundation will be carried out based on site specific wind
turbine loads for the integrated structure compromising foundation, support structure and wind turbine. The following activities
are covered:
- Verification of Design documentation, Design Drawings and Specifications
- Independent analyses of combined loads
- Independent Finite Element analyses of structural response
D 400 Installation
401 The Offshore installation procedures of wind turbines, support structures and foundations will be verified against the
recognized DNV standard Marine Operations which includes:
- Installation Procedure(s) including Lifting Procedure(s)
- Structural design of Lifting Appliances
- Marine loads (sea-transportation loads, offshore lifting loads and installation loads)
D 500 Operations and Maintenance
501 The wind turbine operation and maintenance manuals adopted for offshore conditions will be reviewed for compliance
with the agreed requirements.
D 600 Evaluation of measurement and monitoring program
601 The measurement/monitoring program will be evaluated with focus on:
- Instrumentation in relation to the aim of the measurements, for example for load verification
- Calibration and recalibration procedures
- Data acquisition methods, for example sampling frequencies
- Procedures for estimation of uncertainties
- Procedures for logging and processing of data
D 700 Deliverables
E. Phase IV: Manufacturing survey

E 100 General
101 By conducting manufacturing surveys, DNV takes part in the challenge of verifying compliance between approved
design and product. By verifying compliance during production, risk of nonconformities will be minimised. The surveys will be
conducted at all involved manufacturers.
E 200 Wind turbines
201 (Text to be prepared and completed)
E 300 Support structure and foundation
301 Product related quality audits will be conducted. The following verification activities are covered:
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Page 196 – Appendix L
- Contractor’s QA manual and Quality/inspection and surveillance plans
- Fabrication procedures for heat treatment, forming operations and dimensional control
- NDT procedures and personnel qualification records
- Repair welding procedure qualification records
- Welding procedure, performance test records consumables and handling procedures
- Where applicable, material, welding, NDT and testing traceability
- Verification of compliance with codes and specifications
- Where applicable, material, welding, NDT and testing traceability
- Final as-built documentation
302 Witnessing will be carried out as follows:
- Material tests required for Material Certificate 3.1C according to EN 10204
303 Periodical surveys will be carried out as follows:
- Survey of fabrication activities to verify compliance with standards, specifications, procedures, contractor’s QA manual, etc.
304 Surveillance of contractor’s QA activities will be carried out as follows:
- Inspection coverage and performance
- Document control including adherence to standards, specifications and procedures
- Handling of deviations and nonconformances
- Final documentation
E 400 Deliverables
F. Phase V: Installation
F 100 Offshore installation
101 Transportation, installation and piling offshore are crucial phases in an offshore wind farm project. DNV performs marine
verification and warranty surveys in order to minimise the risks involved with these phases.
102 The service consists of the following activities:
- marine verification activities
- warranty survey activities
103 Marine verification is carried out as a documentation review of the designer’s calculations for transport and lift situations
and typically includes
- verification of design basis documentation
- verification of design reports and procedures for load-out, transportation and installation of structures and integrated structures
such as station modules
- attendance in design review meetings, HAZOPS, etc. for operations as requested by Client.
104 Warranty surveys cover
- survey of load-out and transportation of foundation structures and station modules
- survey of installation of foundation structure. Surveys of piling operations are based on a limited number of pile installations,
which are considered sufficient to ensure that the piling operations are carried out in accordance with approved procedures.
- survey of installation station module
F 200 Deliverables
201 Upon completion of a warranty survey, a Marine Operation Declaration will be issued and a survey report will be
forwarded to the owner.
DET NORSKE VERITAS
G. Phase VI: In-service phase

G 100 General
101 In order to secure that DNV’s high standards are maintained throughout the lifetime of the wind farm, In-service
inspections are identified as a very important part in the Project Certification scheme.
102 The In-service phase implies an activity, in which the structure, tower, cables and nacelle are surveyed regularly during
their entire operational life until they are scrapped. A system of periodical surveys will be used in order to attain that the required
standard is observed and maintained.
103 A Project Certificate valid for five years subject to successful completion of annual surveys will be issued by DNV. Prior
to assigning a Project Certificate, an initial survey has to be conducted by DNV in order to verify compliance with standards.
Upon a satisfactory initial survey, a Project Certificate will be issued. As a part of the valid Project Certificate, a Maintenance
and Repair Program is to be developed and approved by DNV Global Wind Energy. The Program serves as a reference for
parties involved in maintenance and repair carried out at the wind farm.
104 As a part of the annual survey, records of maintenance and repairs carried out will be reviewed and verified against the
Program. The company responsible for the maintenance and repairs will be subject to audits in order to verify the documentation
for work carried out.
105 The surveys conducted offshore cover:
- tower and nacelle (annual surveys)
• Verify that installed components are in compliance with type approval requirements
• Verify that repair and maintenance according to approved program and manufactures recommendations are conducted.
• Conduct general survey and test of selected systems and components.
- subsea structures and cables (biannual or annual surveys). For subsea inspections, special arrangements will be made with
approved companies in order to secure thorough inspections regarding:
• Scour
• Corrosion
• Marine growth
• Fatigue cracks and deformations
A report will be completed after each survey and forwarded to the owner, describing the extent of the survey including findings,
non-conformities, and possible recommendations.
G 200 Deliverables
201 Upon completion of the initial survey after commissioning of the wind farm, a Project Certificate will be issued. In order
to maintain this certificate, annual surveys are to be carried out.
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What are the different types of support structures discussed in the document?

What are the different types of support structures discussed in the document?

What factors are considered when designing for site conditions?

What factors are considered when designing for site conditions?

DNV-OS-J101

DESIGN OF OFFSHORE WIND

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A 300 Scope and application

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A 400 Non-DNV codes

Table B1 DNV Offshore Service Specifications, Offshore

DNV-OS-B101 Metallic Materials

DNV-OS-C101 Design of Offshore Steel Structures,

DNV-OSS-xxx Project Certification of Offshore Wind

Table C1 DNV Offshore Standards for structural design

Table C2 DNV Recommended Practices and Classification

DNV-RP-B401 Cathodic Protection Design

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DNV-RP-C203 Fatigue Strength Analysis of Offshore

Table C3 Other references

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E. Abbreviations and Symbols

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Figure 1.1: Gravity-based structure Figure 1.2: Piled jacket

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Figure 1.3: Jacket-monopile Hybrid Figure 1.4: Harvest jacket

Figure 1.5: Gravity-pile structure Figure 1.6: Tripod

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Figure 1.7: Monopile Figure 1.8: Supported monopile

Figure 1.9: Bucket suction pile Figure 1.10: Guided tower

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Figure 1.11: Suction bucket Figure 1.12: Lattice tower

Figure 1.13: Floater Figure 1.14: Tension leg platform

B. General Design Conditions

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C. Safety Classes and Target Safety Level

C 200 Target Safety

Ultimate limit states (ULS) correspond to the maximum load-carrying resistance

103 Examples of limit states within each category:

Ultimate limit states (ULS)

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E. Design by the LRFD Method

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211 Material factors account for:

E 300 Characteristic load effect