A Pocket Guide To Public Speaking 6th Edition

2
3
4
A Pocket Guide to Public Speaking
SIXTH EDITION
Dan O’Hair
University of Kentucky
Hannah Rubenstein
Rob Stewart
Texas Tech University
5
For Bedford/St. Martin’s
Vice President, Editorial, Macmillan Learning Humanities:
Edwin Hill
Senior Program Director for Communication: Erika Gutierrez
Marketing Manager: Amy Haines
Director of Content Development: Jane Knetzger
Development Editor: Will Stonefield
Senior Media Editor: Tom Kane
Assistant Editor: Kimberly Roberts
Content Project Manager: Pamela Lawson
Senior Workflow Project Supervisor: Joe Ford
Production Supervisor: Robin Besofsky
Media Project Manager: Emily Brower
Manager of Publishing Services: Andrea Cava
Project Management: Lumina Datamatics, Inc.
Composition: Lumina Datamatics, Inc.
Photo Permissions Editor: Angela Boehler
Permissions Manager: Kalina Ingham
Design Director, Content Management: Diana Blume
Text Design: Kall Design
Cover Design: William Boardman
Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013, 2010 by Bedford/St. Martin’s.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by
any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording,
6
or otherwise, except as may be permitted by law or expressly
permitted in writing by the Publisher.
ISBN 978-1-319-21700-6 (mobi)
1 2 3 4 5 6 23 22 21 20 19 18
For information, write: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 75 Arlington

Street, Boston, MA 02116
Acknowledgments
Joe Ayres and Tim S. Hopf. “Visualization: Is It More than Extra-
Attention?” From Communication Education, Volume 38 (1989),
pp. 1–5. © National Communication Association, reprinted by
permission of Taylor & Francis Ltd, www.tandfonline.com on
behalf of the National Communication Association.
2017 University of Southern California Commencement

Address. Reproduced with permission of Will Ferrell.
At the time of publication all Internet URLs published in this

text were found to accurately link to their intended website. If
you do find a broken link, please forward the information to
[email protected] so that it can be corrected for
the next printing.
7
Coverage in A Pocket Guide to
Public Speaking, Sixth Edition,
Correlated with NCA’s Learning
Outcomes in Communication
Note: This table aligns with the 2018 learning outcomes of the
National Communication Association (NCA).
NCA Outcome Correlation Grid
NCA Outcome Relevant coverage in A Pocket Guide to Public Speaking
LOC #1: Coverage of foundational communication concepts

Describe the begins in Chapter 1, with an overview of the four main
communication categories of human communication and an exploration
discipline and of the transactional model of communication.
its central Subsequent chapters address core communication
questions competencies, including responsible listening, ethical
speech, intercultural awareness, and argument
construction.
LOC #2: Employ The text is grounded in current communication theories

communication and scholarship. Each chapter helps students understand
theories, and employ key scholarly concepts. These include
perspectives, rhetorical situation (Ch. 1), oral style (Ch. 1), cognitive
principles, and restructuring (Ch. 3), dialogic communication (Ch. 4),
concepts selective perception (Ch. 5), source credibility (Ch. 10),
classical rhetorical proofs (Ch. 23), the elaboration
likelihood model of persuasion (Ch. 23), and initial, derived,
and terminal credibility (Ch. 23), among many others.
LOC #3: Engage The book discusses many critical and scholarly
in approaches to communication, from the classical canons
8
communication of rhetoric and classical proofs (Ch. 1) to modern
inquiry treatments of speech anxiety (Ch. 3), development of
source credibility (Chs. 4 and 29), speech organization
(Chs. 11–13), and models and means of persuasion (Chs.
23–25). LaunchPad also includes a robust video
assessment program that lets students comment on their
own speech videos and on professional speech videos
from external sources, which further helps students
engage in critical inquiry.
LOC #4: Create Chapter 4 introduces students to ethical considerations of

messages audience, topic, and purpose. Chapter 6 explains how to
appropriate to tailor a speech message to an audience, including
the audience, assessing such psychological and demographic factors as
purpose, and gender, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, culture, and
context group membership. Chapter 7 explains how to identify
appropriate topics, and Chapter 25 offers strategies for
adapting a speech to specific audience types.
LOC #5: Chapter 9 offers advice for critically assessing speech

Critically sources and includes an extended discussion of the
analyze differences between information, propaganda,
messages misinformation, and disinformation. In LaunchPad, the
new video assessment program provides ample
opportunity for critical analysis: students and instructors
can pull video of speeches from anywhere on the web and
then engage in conversation.
LOC #6: Chapter 3 discusses barriers that often impede

Demonstrate communication self-efficacy and provides step-by-step
the ability to guidance for overcoming those barriers, from pinpointing
accomplish the onset of speech anxiety to visualizing success. In
communicative LaunchPad, new “before and after” speech videos show a
goals (self- speaker improving from a rough first attempt to a
efficacy) polished, final speech; students can watch this
9
progression, which helps them achieve their own
communication goals.
LOC #7: Apply Chapter 4 enables students to reflect on and actively

ethical engage their own values when considering the role of
communication ethics in the speechmaking process. Included are
principles and guidelines for avoiding plagiarism and using one’s right to
practices free speech responsibly. The discussion includes other
core ethical concepts, such as responsibility, integrity,
and respecting the audience’s values.
LOC #8: Utilize Chapter 6 explains how to speak to diverse audiences

communication while respecting their values. The chapter includes
to embrace guidelines for speaking to people from different cultures.
difference
LOC #9: Chapter 1 discusses the potential of public speaking to

Influence promote civic engagement and influence public discourse
public (Find New Opportunities for Civic Engagement). Chapter 4
discourse explains how to engage in positive public discourse while
avoiding invective, slander, and outright hate speech.
Chapters 23 and 24 explain how public speaking can sway
listeners’ opinions and change the public conversation.
10
How to Use the Book and Digital
Resources
A Pocket Guide to Public Speaking, Sixth Edition, is designed to
provide quick, clear answers to your questions about public
speaking—whether you’re in a public speaking class, in a course
in your major, on the job, or in your community. Here you will
find the tools you need to help you prepare and deliver a wide
range of speeches and presentations.
In Parts 1 through 5 you will find chapters that cover all the
steps necessary to create a speech—from planning, research,
and development to organization, practice, and delivery. Part 6
includes three chapters about presentation aids and how to use
them effectively. Chapters in Part 7 contain guidelines for
creating three of the most commonly assigned speeches in
public speaking classes: informative, persuasive, and special
occasion. For specific guidelines on preparing online
presentations, communicating and speaking in small groups,
and speaking on the job, see Part 8. Part 9 contains advice on
speaking in other college courses, from science and math to
engineering, education, and nursing and allied health.
Finding What You Need

in the Book
11
TABLES OF CONTENTS.
Browsing through the brief table of contents inside the front
cover will usually guide you to the information you need. If not,
consult the more detailed table of contents included inside the
back cover.
INDEX.
If you can’t locate what you need in either set of contents,
consult the index. This can be especially useful if you’re looking
for something specific and you know the term for it. For
example, if you need to prepare a sales proposal for a business
course, you could simply look under “sales proposal” (or “sales
pitch”) in the index and then go to the designated pages.
LISTS OF FEATURES.
You’ll find quick guide to some of the most consulted parts of
this book: the Quick Tips, Sample Speeches, Visual Guides
(illustrated explanations of key points), and Checklists.
SPEAKING BEYOND THE SPEECH

CLASSROOM.
In Part 8, “Online, Group, and Business Contexts,” you’ll find
useful information on preparing online presentations,
communicating and speaking in groups, and interacting in the
workplace. In Part 9, “Speaking in Other College Courses,”
you’ll find detailed directions for speaking in a range of college
classes including courses in the social sciences, arts and
humanities, education, science and mathematics, engineering
12
and architecture, and nursing and allied health.
GLOSSARY.
For definitions of key terms highlighted in the book, see the
glossary.
Quick Speech Preparation

If you have to prepare a speech quickly (for example, giving a
first speech early in the semester), consult Chapters 1–3 in A
Pocket Guide:
Chapter 1, “Becoming a Public Speaker,” provides a brief

discussion of public speaking basics.
Chapter 2, “From A to Z: Overview of a Speech,” offers
quick guidance on each step in the speechmaking process,
from selecting a topic to delivery.
Chapter 3, “Managing Speech Anxiety,” provides
techniques that will help you overcome any fears of public
speaking you may have.
For more on specific types of speeches, consult Chapters 22–25

in Part 7 on informative, persuasive, and special occasion
speeches, or the appropriate chapter in Part 8 or Part 9.
Other Useful Tools

CITATION GUIDELINES.
Appendix A contains guidelines for documenting sources in the
following styles: Chicago, American Psychological Association
13
(APA), Modern Language Association (MLA), Council of Science
Editors (CSE), and Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE).
TIPS FOR NON-NATIVE SPEAKERS OF

ENGLISH.
Appendix D addresses the most common ESL challenges,
including pronunciation of certain words and challenges in
being understood.
launchpadworks.com
LaunchPad is an easy-to-use platform that offers digital tools to

support the speechmaking process. It contains the e-book plus
14
high-quality multimedia content and ready-made assessment
options, including LearningCurve adaptive quizzing that will
give you a leg up on learning key concepts and a new video
assessment program that allows immediate, responsive
feedback on video assignments. Your book may have come with
an access card to LaunchPad at your instructor’s request. If not,
access can be purchased online from the URL listed above.
LearningCurve
LearningCurve is an online learning tool that adapts to what you
already know and helps you learn the topics that you need to
practice. LearningCurve ensures that you receive as much
targeted practice as you need in order to master the material.
Video
LaunchPad for A Pocket Guide to Public Speaking provides
access to more than 120 video clips from student speeches.
Video icons appear near sample speeches, indicating that you
can watch the video of the speech in LaunchPad.
New video assessment program

This new video assessment program in LaunchPad helps
students and instructors record and provide immediate
feedback. Students can record speeches directly into their
assignment via the Macmillan Mobile Video iOS/Android apps,
and instructors and peers can assess the speech live while the
student is delivering it. Afterward, students can watch their
video paired with feedback to help them start preparing for
15
their next speech. Online students can livestream a speech
while the instructor and classmates give feedback in real time,
providing an experience similar to delivering a live speech.
E-readings
E-readings offer additional online content, including a complete
tutorial on how to create presentation aids using Microsoft
PowerPoint, Prezi, and Apple Keynote.
16
Preface
The Sixth Edition of A Pocket Guide to Public Speaking reflects
our continuing mission to provide students with a truly effective
speech resource that is comprehensive yet brief, affordable,
and student friendly, based on solid scholarship and the
rhetorical tradition. We designed this guide to be useful in the
widest possible range of situations, from the traditional speech
classroom and courses across the curriculum, to the workplace,
and in the community.
Our primary goal in writing A Pocket Guide has always been

to meet the needs of speech instructors who find mainstream,
full-size introductory speech texts either too overwhelming, too
prescriptive, or too costly for their classes. We also aim to adapt
to the changing realities of technology in the discipline by
providing helpful guidance on online research and online
presentations as well as digital options for reading and studying
with A Pocket Guide that students can access easily on a
number of devices.
A Pocket Guide to Public Speaking has been a popular choice

for instructors and students since the first edition was
published in 2003. More than 350,000 instructors and students
across the academic spectrum—from courses in speech and the
humanities to education, engineering, and business—have
embraced the book, making it the most successful pocket-size
17
speech text available. We have used their helpful feedback to
create this sixth edition.
Features
A Pocket Guide to Public Speaking addresses all of the topics
and skills typically covered in an introductory speech text. And
because the book is meant to be used throughout students’
academic careers and in a wide variety of classroom settings
and beyond, examples are drawn from a broad range of speech
situations and disciplines. Speech excerpts, sample outlines,
and full-length visually annotated sample speeches provide
useful models that help students see how speech fundamentals
can be applied effectively.
Throughout the text, users will find many tools to help them
focus on key public speaking concepts: charts and tables that
summarize salient points; Checklists that reinforce critical
content; insightful Quick Tips that offer succinct and practical
advice; Visual Guides that illustrate the steps for accomplishing
challenging speech tasks; and Appendices that offer citation
guidelines, help with question-and-answer sessions and
preparing for TV and radio communication, and support for
non-native speakers of English.
New to This Edition

As with previous editions, we have focused this revision on
what instructors say are the greatest challenges of teaching and
18
learning public and presentational speaking. The new edition is
designed to help students master basic skills while also
addressing the challenges that digital technology brings to
public speaking.
LaunchPad offers powerful content and exciting assessment

tools.
LaunchPad for A Pocket Guide to Public Speaking, Sixth

Edition, now delivers a comprehensive, easily assignable
media package. In response to feedback from instructors,
this edition of LaunchPad contains the full e-book, along
with new auto-scored chapter quizzes that help students
master course material. LaunchPad also includes a wealth
of assessment and activities—from LearningCurve adaptive
quizzing to new iClicker questions—to help students
overcome core public speaking challenges. LaunchPad can
be purchased on its own or packaged with the text.
A powerful new video assessment program makes it easy
for instructors and peers to provide immediate feedback.
Video can be recorded, uploaded, or streamed directly into
an assignment via computer or from the Macmillan Mobile
Video apps for iOS and Android devices. Instructors and
classmates can provide a wealth of real-time feedback
during the speech from comments, to markers, to audio
and even video suggestions tagged to a specific times in the
video. Additionally, rubric functionality is available for
instructor, peer, and self-assessment. Students can use this
feedback to improve their public speaking skills from
speech to speech.
19
New video scenarios at the beginning of each Part are a
fun way to preview upcoming steps in the speech making
process. The text directs students to LaunchPad to watch a
sometimes humorous video scenario related to a key
concept, like delivery or preparation. After watching each
video in LaunchPad, students answer a series of critical
thinking questions, increasing their understanding of
foundational public speaking concepts. This new feature is
great for discussion and helps students understand and
tackle common challenges in the public speaking course.
New speeches on contemporary topics, paired with video in

LaunchPad, engage students and serve as models.
A new informative speech, accompanied by questions in

LaunchPad, shows how student speakers can polish their
organization and delivery. The speech, titled “Going Carbon
Neutral on Campus,” appears in Chapter 22 in the book
with margin annotations explaining the speaker’s effective
use of rhetorical techniques. The speech also appears as a
new, professionally shot video in LaunchPad, available with
electronic transcripts and closed captioning. A “needs
improvement” version of the speech video is available,
allowing students to see how the speaker progressed from a
rough first attempt to a final speech with strong delivery.
A new special occasion speech by actor and comedian
Will Ferrell. Ferrell explains his own experiences with
speech anxiety in a moving and inspirational address to the
2017 graduating class of the University of Southern
California. The speech includes margin annotations
20
explaining Ferrell’s effective use of rhetorical devices, such
as anecdotes and emotional appeals.
A wealth of new research gives students the tools they need to

succeed. As in previous editions, new peer-reviewed studies
focus on the common challenges that students face in the
course. The sixth edition introduces new studies about audience
demographics, speaking to culturally diverse audiences, and
using body language to make one’s speech memorable, among
many others.
The new edition continues to give students the tools they

need to prepare and deliver successful speeches.
A new visual guide on using effective body language

provides speakers with best practices they can apply. The
guide reinforces key skills discussed in Chapter 18,
including eye contact with the audience and effective
gestures. The feature helps students put speech concepts
from the text into action.
A new detailed table on organizational patterns maps out
each pattern using the same topic. Students and
instructors say that organizational patterns are among the
most difficult concepts to master. This new visual chart
brings clarity and helps students confidently choose the
best organizational pattern for their speech purpose.
Current examples help students engage with course material.

New in-text examples include Emma Watson’s powerful United
Nations speech about the HeForShe gender equality campaign;
21
and the students from Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School,
who use public speaking to influence civic discourse about gun
violence.
Digital and Print Formats

For more information on formats and packaging options, please
visit the online catalog at launchpadworks.com.
To get the most out of the book, package the print book
with LaunchPad. This dynamic course platform includes a
new video assessment program that allows custom video
assignments with real-time commenting by students and
instructors; LearningCurve adaptive quizzing; and
exclusive e-pages that expand on key concepts from the
print book, including an in-depth tutorial on creating
presentations using Microsoft PowerPoint, Apple Keynote,
and Prezi. LaunchPad is available packaged at a significant
discount with the text. Use ISBN 978-1-319-22441-7.
E-books. A Pocket Guide to Public Speaking is available as
an e-book for use on computers, tablets, and e-readers. See
macmillanlearning.com/ebooks to learn more.
Customize A Pocket Guide to Public Speaking using
Bedford Select for Communication. Create the ideal
textbook for your course with only the chapters you need.
You can rearrange chapters, delete unnecessary chapters,
and add your own original content to create just the book
you’re looking for. With Bedford Select, students pay only
for material that will be assigned in the course, and nothing
more. For more information, visit
22
macmillanlearning.com/selectcomm.
Macmillan Learning Student Store. You want to give your
students affordable rental, packaging, and e-book options.
So do we. Learn more at store.macmillanlearning.com.
Student Resources
For more information on student resources or to learn about
package options, please visit the Macmillan online catalog at
launchpadworks.com.
The Essential Guides. These brief yet comprehensive and

affordable print booklets focus on a range of topics and are
designed to supplement a main text in a public speaking
course. These guides are available to be packaged with A
Pocket Guide to Public Speaking, Sixth Edition, for a very
low price. Versions include The Essential Guide to Rhetoric,
Second Edition, by Christian O. Lundberg and William M.
Keith; The Essential Guide to Presentation Software, Second
Edition, by Allison Joy Bailey and Rob Patterson; The
Essential Guide to Interpersonal Communication, Third
Edition, by Steven McCornack and Kelly Morrison; The
Essential Guide to Group Communication, Third Edition, by
Dan O’Hair, Mary O. Wiemann, and Andrea M. Davis; and
The Essential Guide to Intercultural Communication by
Jennifer Willis-Rivera.
Instructor Resources
For more information or to download instructor resources,
please visit the online catalog at launchpadworks.com. The
23
Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank are also available in
LaunchPad for A Pocket Guide to Public Speaking, Sixth Edition.
Instructor’s Resource Manual. The online instructor’s

manual was prepared by Karin Becker, University of North
Dakota; Paula Baldwin, George Mason University; Elaine
Wittenberg-Lyles, University of North Texas; and Melinda
M. Villagran, George Mason University. This
comprehensive manual offers useful guidance for new and
experienced instructors, and outlines and activities for
every chapter in the main text. The Instructor’s Resource
Manual has been updated with new guidance on online
instruction and using the video assessment program in
LaunchPad.
Computerized Test Bank. The Computerized Test Bank was
prepared by Diana Rehling, St. Cloud State University;
Paula K. Baldwin, George Mason University; Elaine
Wittenberg-Lyles, University of North Texas; and Merry
Buchanan, University of Central Oklahoma. The
Computerized Test Bank contains more than 1500
true/false, multiple-choice, fill-in-the-blank, and
essay/short answer questions that have been carefully
crafted to test students’ specific knowledge of the text. The
questions appear in easy-to-use software that allows
instructors to add, edit, resequence, and print questions
and answers. Instructors can also export the questions into
a variety of course management systems. The
Computerized Test Bank can be downloaded from the
Instructor Resources tab of the book’s catalog page, andthe
content is loaded into LaunchPad.
24
Lecture Slides. These downloadable presentation slides
have been revised and redesigned for the sixth edition and
are ready to use in your public speaking classroom. Each
chapter has a set of slides that include key terms, key
concepts, figures, and charts from the chapter. The slides
can be downloaded from the Instructor Resources tab of
the book’s catalog page, and the content is loaded into
LaunchPad.
iClicker Questions. If you use iClicker in your classroom,
don’t miss the brand-new suite of iClicker questions for A
Pocket Guide to Public Speaking, Sixth Edition. These
questions test students’ knowledge of foundational
concepts in each chapter, making it easy for you to assess
your students’ understanding and progress. The questions
come preloaded into LaunchPad.
Communication in the Classroom: A Collection of
G.I.F.T.S. This new resource was prepared by John S.
Seiter, Jennifer Peeples, and Matthew L. Sanders of Utah
State University, who have collected over 100 powerful
ideas for classroom activities. Many activities are designed
specifically for the public speaking course, and all activities
have been submitted by real instructors who have tested
and perfected them in real classrooms. Each activity
includes a detailed explanation and debrief, drawing on the
instructors’ experiences.
ESL Students in the Public Speaking Classroom: A Guide
for Instructors, Second Edition. This resource was
prepared by Robbin D. Crabtree, Loyola Marymount
University; and David Alan Sapp, Fairfield University. The
guide addresses specific challenges ESL students may
25
experience in the public speaking course and offers
instructors valuable advice for helping students overcome
obstacles.
Coordinating the Communication Course: A Guidebook.
This resource was written by leading scholars and course
coordinators Deanna Fassett, San José State University; and
John T. Warren, late of Southern Illinois University
Carbondale. The guidebook offers practical advice on every
topic central to the course coordinator role. Starting with
establishing a clear program vision, the text continues on
with thoughtful guidance, tips, and best practices on crucial
topics like creating continuity across multiple sections,
orchestrating meaningful assessment, hiring and training
instructors, and advocating for promotion, and for the
course and program itself.
The Macmillan Learning Communication COMMunity is
our new online space for instructor development and
engagement. Find such resources to support your teaching
as class activities, video assignments, and invitations to
conferences and webinars. Connect with our team, our
authors, and other instructors through online discussions
and blog posts at
community.macmillan.com/community/communication.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank all our colleagues at Bedford/St.
Martin’s: Vice President of Editorial for the Humanities Edwin
Hill, Senior Program Director for Communication Erika
26
Gutierrez, Senior Development Manager Susan McLaughlin,
Marketing Manager Amy Haines, Senior Workflow Project
Supervisor Joe Ford, hardworking and careful Content Project
Manager Pamela Lawson, Production Supervisor Robin
Besofsky, lightning-quick and helpful Assistant Editor Kimberly
Roberts, and Senior Media Editor Tom Kane—we are truly
grateful for your knowledge, creativity, expertise, and hard
work throughout this process. We are especially grateful to
Development Editor Will Stonefield for his enthusiastic,
thoughtful developmental editing and tireless stewarding of this
text through every stage of this revision and to market.
Thanks to all the instructors who participated in reviews for

the sixth edition: Monique Bourdage, Finlandia University;
Ayanna Bridges, Metropolitan Community College Maple
Woods; Constance Hudspeth, Seminole State College of Florida;
Carlton Hughes, Southeast Kentucky Community and Technical
College; Melissa Johnson, Valencia College; James McNamara,
Alverno College; Elizabeth Monske, Northern Michigan
University; Emily Paramonova, Pierce College; Todd Parker,
California State University, Northridge; Shawn Queeney, Bucks
County Community College; Nicolas Rangel, Houston
Community College; Ann Reading, Thaddeus Stevens College of
Technology; Michelle Rush, Ivy Tech Community College
Valparaiso Campus; Kevin Rushing, Valencia College; Meagan
Sovine, Houston Community College; Summer Wagner, Golden
West College; Elyse Warford-Spearman, Pierce College; Eric
Warner, College of Central Florida; Crystal Whitaker, Howard
27
Community College; and Andrew Winckles, Adrian College.
28
Brief Contents
Part 1 Getting Started
1. Becoming a Public Speaker
2. From A to Z: Overview of a Speech
3. Managing Speech Anxiety
4. Ethical Public Speaking
5. Listeners and Speakers
Part 2 Development
6. Analyzing the Audience
7. Selecting a Topic and Purpose
8. Developing Supporting Material
9. Finding Credible Sources in Print and Online
10. Citing Sources in Your Speech
Part 3 Organization
11. Organizing the Body of the Speech
12. Selecting an Organizational Pattern
13. Preparing Outlines for the Speech
Part 4 Starting, Finishing, and Styling
14. Developing the Introduction and Conclusion
15. Using Language
Part 5 Delivery
16. Methods of Delivery
17. Your Voice in Delivery
29
18. Your Body in Delivery
Part 6 Presentation Aids
19. Speaking with Presentation Aids
20. Designing Presentation Aids
21. Using Presentation Software
Part 7 Types of Speeches
22. Informative Speaking
23. Principles of Persuasive Speaking
24. Constructing the Persuasive Speech
25. Speaking on Special Occasions
Part 8 Online, Group, and Business Contexts
26. Preparing Online Presentations
27. Communicating in Groups
28. Delivering Group Presentations
29. Business and Professional Presentations
Part 9 Speaking in Other College Courses
30. Presentations Assigned across the Curriculum
31. Science and Mathematics Courses
32. Technical Courses
33. Social Science Courses
34. Arts and Humanities Courses
35. Education Courses
36. Nursing and Allied Health Courses
Appendices
30
A. Citation Guidelines
B. Question-and-Answer Sessions
C. Preparing for TV and Radio Communication
D. Tips for Non-Native Speakers of English
Glossary
Index
31
Contents
A Vital Life Skill
Classical Roots
Learning to Speak
Speech as Communication
An Interactive Process
2. Speech Overview
Analyze the Audience
Select a Topic
Speech Purpose
Thesis Statement
Main Points
Supporting Materials
Separate Speech Parts
Outline
Presentation Aids
Delivery
3. Speech Anxiety
Causes of Anxiety
Onset of Anxiety
Boosting Confidence
Relaxation Techniques
32
Using Movement
Learning from Feedback
4. Ethics
Character
Audience Values
Positive Public Discourse
Free Speech and Responsibility
Ethical Ground Rules
Avoid Plagiarism
Fair Use, Copyright, and Ethics
5. Listening
Centrality of Listening
Selective Listening
Listening Obstacles
Active Listening
Exchanging Ideas
Evaluating Evidence
Feedback
Part 2 Development
6. Audience Analysis
Psychology
Demographics
Diverse Audiences
Learning About Your Audience
33
Setting and Context
7. Topic and Purpose
Explore Topics
General Speech Purpose
Refine Topic and Purpose
From Source to Speech:
Narrowing Your Topic
8. Supporting Material
Examples
Stories
Testimony
Facts and Statistics
9. Finding Sources
Assessing Your Research Needs
Using Library Databases
Propaganda, Misinformation, and Disinformation
Mix Primary and Secondary Sources
From Source to Speech:
Evaluating Web Sources
10. Citing Sources

Key Source Information
Avoid Mechanical Delivery
Sample Oral Citations
Part 3 Organization
34
11. Organizing the Body
Main Points
Supporting Points
Coordination and Subordination
Balanced Organization
Transitions
From Point to Point:
Using Transitions
12. Organizational Patterns

Chronological
Spatial
Causal (Cause-Effect)
Problem-Solution
Topical
Narrative
13. Outlining the Speech
Create Two Outlines
Working Outlines
Speaking Outlines
Part 4 Starting, Finishing, and Styling

14. Introductions and Conclusions
15. Language
Oral Style
Concrete Words, Vivid Imagery
35
Building Credibility
Creating an Impression
Part 5 Delivery
Volume
Intonation
Speaking Rate
Strategic Pauses
Vocal Variety
Pronunciation and Articulation
Dialect
Body Language
Practicing Delivery
From Weak to Confident Delivery:
Body Language
Part 6 Presentation Aids

19. Presentation Aids
Selecting Aids
Presenting Aids
Simplicity
Consistency
36
Typefaces and Fonts
Using Color
Interpretations of Color
21. Presentation Software
A Speech, Not a Slide Show
Developing a Plan
Avoiding Technical Glitches
Finding Media
From Slide Show to Presentation:
PowerPoint, Keynote, or Prezi
Avoid Copyright Infringement

Audience Analysis
Presenting New Information
Increasing Understanding
Subject Matter
Communicating Information
Reducing Confusion
Arranging Points
Sample Informative Speech: Saundra Dixon,
Going Carbon Neutral on Campus
Appealing to Psychology
Classical Persuasive Appeals
37
Contemporary Persuasive Appeals
Claims
Evidence
Warrants
Counterarguments
Avoiding Fallacies
Organization
Sample Persuasive Speech: Jacob Hahn,
Becoming a Socially Conscious Consumer
25. Special Occasions
Functions of Special Occasion Speeches
Types of Special Occasion Speeches
Sample Special Occasion Speech: Will Ferrell, 2017
University of Southern California Commencement
Address by Will Ferrell
Part 8 Online, Group, and Business Contexts

26. Online Presentations
Similarities to FTF Speaking
Unique Demands
Planning the Delivery Mode
Online Presentation Formats
28. Presenting in Teams
29. Business Presentations
38
Part 9 Speaking in Other College Courses
30. Presentations across the Curriculum
Appendices
Glossary
39
2. From A to Z: Overview of a Speech
3. Managing Speech Anxiety
4. Ethical Public Speaking
5. Listeners and Speakers
VIDEO
ACTIVITY
Go to LaunchPad to watch students Melissa and Cecily talk about
the importance of the public speaking course. Visit
launchpadworks.com
LaunchPad includes:
LearningCurve adaptive quizzing
40
A curated collection of video clips and full-length speeches
Additional resources, such as presentation software tutorials and

documentation help.
41
CHAPTER 1 Becoming a Public Speaker
The ability to speak confidently and convincingly in front of
others is a crucial skill for anyone who wants to take an active
role in life. This pocket guide offers the tools you need to create
and deliver effective speeches, from presentations to fellow
students to speeches delivered in virtually any setting—
including those presented online. Here you will find the basic
components of any good speech and acquire the skills to deliver
presentations in a variety of specialized contexts—from the
college classroom to the civic, business, and professional
arenas. You’ll also find proven techniques to build your
confidence by overcoming the anxiety associated with public
speaking.
42
Gain a Vital Life Skill
Public speaking provides a sense of empowerment and
satisfaction rarely found elsewhere. More than ever, it has
become both a vital life skill and a potent weapon in career
development. Business magnate Warren Buffett passionately
extols the role that public speaking has played in his success:
Be sure to do it, whether you like it or not … do it until you

get comfortable with it. … Public speaking is an asset that
will last you 50 or 60 years, and it’s a necessary skill; and if
you don’t like doing it, that will also last you 50 or 60 years.
… Once you tackle the fear and master the skill, you can
run the world. You can walk into rooms, command people,
and get them to listen to you and your great ideas.1
Advance Your Professional Goals

Skill in public speaking will give you an unmistakable edge
professionally. Employers of new college graduates consistently
reveal that ability in oral and written communication is among
the most important skills they look for in new hires—more so
even than leadership, quantitative, technical, or interpersonal
skills. Survey after survey confirms the value of skill in oral
communication, making the public speaking course potentially
the most valuable one you can take during your undergraduate
career.
SKILLS EMPLOYERS RATE AS MOST IMPORTANT
43
1. Ability to work in a team
2. Problem-solving skills
3. Communication skills (written)
4. Strong work ethic
5. Communication skills (verbal)
6. Leadership
7. Initiative
8. Analytical/quantitative skills
9. Flexibility/adaptability
10. Detail-oriented
11. Interpersonal skills (relates well to others)
12. Technical skills
Source: National Association of Colleges and Employers, Job Outlook

2017, www.naceweb.org/about-us/press/2017/employers-seek-
teamwork-problem-solving-skills-on-resumes/
Enhance Your Career as a

Student
Preparing speeches calls upon numerous skills that you will
need in other college courses. As in the speech class, many
courses also require that you research and write about topics,
analyze audiences, outline and organize ideas, and support
claims. These and other skill sets covered in this pocket guide,
including working with presentation media and controlling
voice and body during delivery, are valuable in any course that
includes an oral-presentation component, from English
composition to engineering. Guidelines for speaking across the
curriculum—including speaking in science and mathematics,
44
technical, social science, arts and humanities, education,
nursing and allied health, and business courses—are the focus
of Part 9.
Find New Opportunities for Civic

Engagement
Public speaking also offers you ways to enter the public
conversation about social concerns and become a more
engaged citizen. Public speaking gives you a voice that can be
heard and can be counted.
Climate change, immigration reform, gun violence—such

large civic issues require our considered judgment and action.
Yet today too many of us leave it up to politicians, journalists,
and other “experts” to make decisions about critical issues such
as these. Voter turnout in the United States is much lower than
in most established democracies, with only about 50 percent of
young persons ages 18–29 voting in the 2016 presidential
election.2 This same age group barely shows up at the polls at
all for congressional, state, and local elections. When we as
citizens speak up in sufficient numbers, democracy functions
better and change that truly reflects the will of the people
occurs. For example, the students who survived the 2018 school
shooting in Parkland, Florida, have emerged as powerful voices
in favor of gun control. Speaking passionately at rallies and in
public forums, the Parkland students have made a real impact
on civic discourse: they helped pressure state lawmakers into
45
passing new restrictions on gun purchases.
As you study public speaking, you will have the opportunity

to research topics that are meaningful to you, consider alternate
viewpoints, and choose a course of action.3 You will learn to
distinguish between argument that advances constructive goals
and uncivil speech that serves merely to inflame and demean
others. You will learn, in short, the “rules of engagement” for
effective public discourse.4 As you do, you will gain confidence
in your ability to join your voice with others in pursuit of issues
you care about.
46
The Classical Roots of
Public Speaking
Originally, the practice of giving speeches was known as
rhetoric or oratory. Rhetoric flourished in the Greek city-state
of Athens in the fifth century B.C.E. and referred to making
effective speeches, particularly those of a persuasive nature.
Athens was the site of the world’s first direct democracy, and
public speaking was the vehicle that allowed it to succeed.
Meeting in a public square called the agora, Athenians
routinely spoke with great skill on the issues of public policy;
and their belief that citizenship demands active participation in
public affairs endures in modern democracies to this day.
Greek, and later Roman, teachers divided the process of

preparing a speech into five parts—invention, arrangement,
style, memory, and delivery—called the canons of rhetoric.
These parts correspond to the order in which these teachers
believed a speech should be put together.
Invention refers to discovering the types of evidence and

arguments you will use to make your case (see Chapter 24).
Arrangement is organizing the evidence and arguments in
ways best suited to the topic and audience (see Chapter 12).
Style is the way the speaker uses language to express the
speech ideas (see Chapter 15).
Memory is the practice of the speech until it can be
47
delivered artfully (see Chapter 16).
Delivery is the vocal and nonverbal behavior you use when
speaking (see Chapters 17 and 18).
Although founding scholars such as the great Greek

rhetorician Aristotle (384–322 B.C.E.) and the Roman statesman
and orator Cicero (106–43 B.C.E.) surely did not anticipate the
ever-present PowerPoint or Prezi slideshow that accompanies
contemporary speeches, the speechmaking structure they
bequeathed to us as the canons of rhetoric remains remarkably
intact. Often identified by terms other than the original, these
canons nonetheless continue to be taught in current books on
public speaking, including this pocket guide.
QUICK TIP
Voice Your Ideas in a Public Forum

The Greeks called it the agora; the Romans, the forum. Today, the term
public forum denotes a variety of venues for the discussion of issues of
public interest, including traditional physical spaces such as town halls
as well as virtual forums streamed to listeners online. Participation in
any of these forums offers an excellent opportunity to pose questions
and deliver brief comments, thereby providing you with exposure to an
audience and building confidence. To find a forum in your area, check
with your school or local town government, or online at the National
Issues Forums Institute (www.nifi.org).
48
Learning to Speak in
Public
None of us is born knowing how to deliver a successful speech.
Rather, public speaking is an acquired skill that improves with
practice. It is also a skill that shares many features with other
familiar activities, such as conversing and writing, and it can be
much less daunting when you realize that you can draw on
expertise you already have.
Draw on Conversational Skills

In several respects, planning and delivering a speech resembles
engaging in a particularly important conversation. When
speaking with a friend, you automatically check to make certain
you are understood and adjust your meaning accordingly. You
also discuss issues that are appropriate to the circumstances.
When a stranger is involved, however, you try to get to know his
or her interests and attitudes before revealing any strong
opinions. These instinctive adjustments to audience, topic, and
occasion represent critical steps in creating a speech. Although
public speaking requires more planning, both the
conversationalist and the public speaker try to uncover the
audience’s interests and needs before speaking.
Draw on Skills in Composition

Preparing a speech also has much in common with writing.
49
Both depend on having a focused sense of who the audience is.5
Both speaking and writing often require that you research a
topic, offer credible evidence, employ effective transitions, and
devise persuasive appeals. The principles of organizing a
speech parallel those of organizing an essay, including offering
a compelling introduction, a clear thesis statement, supporting
ideas, and a thoughtful conclusion.
Develop an Effective Oral Style

Although public speaking has much in common with everyday
conversation and with writing, a speech is a unique form of
communication characterized by an oral style of language.
Language as used in a speech is simpler, more rhythmic, more
repetitious, and more interactive than either conversation or
writing.6 Effective speakers use familiar words, easy-to-follow
sentences, and frequent repetition to emphasize ideas and help
listeners follow along.
Language in a speech also is often more interactive and

inclusive of the audience than written language. Audience
members want to know what the speaker thinks and feels and
that he or she recognizes them and relates the message to them.
Speakers accomplish this by making specific references to
themselves and to the audience. Yet in contrast to conversation,
in order to develop an effective oral style you must practice the
words you will say and the way you will say them.
Effective public speakers, engaging conversationalists, and
50
compelling writers share an important quality: They keep their
focus on offering something of value to their audience.
Demonstrate Respect for

Difference
Every audience member wants to feel that the speaker has his
or her particular needs and interests at heart, and to feel
recognized and included in the message. To create this sense of
inclusion, a public speaker must be able to address diverse
audiences with sensitivity, demonstrating respect for
differences in culture and identity. Striving for inclusion and
adopting an audience-centered perspective will bring you closer
to the goal of every public speaker—establishing a genuine
connection with the audience.
51
Public Speaking as a
Form of Communication
Public speaking is one of four categories of human
communication: dyadic, small group, mass, and public
speaking.
Dyadic communication happens between two people, as in

a conversation.
Small group communication involves a small number of
people who can see and speak directly with one another.
Mass communication occurs between a speaker and a
large audience of unknown people who usually are not
present with the speaker, or who are part of such an
immense crowd that there can be little or no interaction
between speaker and listener.
In public speaking, a speaker delivers a message with a
specific purpose to an audience of people who are present
during the delivery of the speech. Public speaking always
includes a speaker who has a reason for speaking, an
audience that gives the speaker its attention, and a message
that is meant to accomplish a specific purpose. Public
speakers address audiences largely without interruption
and take responsibility for the words and ideas being
expressed.
52
Public Speaking as an
Interactive
Communication Process
In any communication event, several elements are present.
These include the source, the receiver, the message, the
channel, and shared meaning (see Figure 1.1).
FIGURE 1.1 The Communication Process
The source, or sender, creates a message. Creating,

organizing, and producing the message is called encoding—the
53
process of converting thoughts into words. The recipient of the
source’s message is the receiver, or audience; interpreting the
message is called decoding. Audience members decode the
meaning of the message selectively, based on their own
experiences and attitudes.
Feedback, the audience’s response to a message, can be

conveyed both verbally and nonverbally. The message is the
content of the communication process: thoughts and ideas put
into meaningful expressions, expressed verbally and
nonverbally.
The medium through which the speaker sends a message is

the channel. If a speaker delivers a message in front of a live
audience, the channel is the air through which sound waves
travel. Among other channels are phones, televisions, and the
internet. Noise is any interference with the message. Noise can
disrupt the communication process through physical sounds
such as cell phones ringing and people talking or texting,
through psychological distractions such as heated emotions, or
through environmental interference such as a too-cold room or
the presence of unexpected people.
Shared meaning is the mutual understanding of a message

between speaker and audience. The lowest level of shared
meaning exists when the speaker has merely caught the
audience’s attention. As the message develops, a higher degree
of shared meaning is possible. Thus listener and speaker
54
together truly make a speech a speech—they “co-create” its
meaning.
Two other factors are critical to consider when preparing and

delivering a speech—context and goals. Context includes
anything that influences the speaker, the audience, or the
occasion—and thus, ultimately, the speech. In classroom
speeches, the context would include (among other things) the
physical setting, the order and timing of speeches, and the
cultural orientations of audience members. Part of the context
of any speech is the situation that created the need for the
speech in the first place. All speeches are delivered in response
to a specific rhetorical situation, or a circumstance calling for a
public response.7 Is the speech in response to a recent event
affecting the audience? Bearing the rhetorical situation in mind
ensures that you maintain an audience-centered perspective—
that is, that you keep the needs, values, attitudes, and wants of
your listeners firmly in focus.
A final prerequisite for any effective speech is a clearly

defined specific speech purpose or goal—what you want the
audience to learn or do as a result of the speech. Establishing a
specific speech purpose early on will help you proceed through
speech preparation and delivery with a clear focus in mind (see
Form a Specific Speech Purpose).
55
CHAPTER 2 From A to Z: Overview of a
Speech
Public speaking is an applied art, and every speaking
opportunity, including that provided by the classroom, offers
you valuable hands-on experience. To help you get started
quickly, this chapter previews the steps involved in putting
together any speech or presentation. Subsequent chapters
expand on these steps. Figure 2.1 illustrates the process of
preparing for a speech.
FIGURE 2.1 Steps in the Speechmaking Process
56
Analyze the Audience
The first step in preparing any speech is to consider the
audience—how their interests, needs, and opinions will
influence their responses toward a given topic, speaker, and
occasion. Audience analysis is a process of learning about
audience members’ attributes and motivations using tools such
as interviews and questionnaires (see Chapter 6). For a brief
first speech, however, especially one delivered in the
classroom, start with your own powers of observation. Consider
some simple demographic characteristics: ratio of males to
females, age ranges, and apparent cultural and socioeconomic
backgrounds. Take these characteristics into account as you
select a topic and draft the speech, focusing on ways you can
relate it meaningfully to this particular audience.
57
Select a Topic
Unless the topic is assigned, the next step is to decide what you
want to speak about. First, consider the speech occasion and
reason for speaking. What topics will be suitable to your
audience’s needs and wants in these circumstances? Using
these parameters, let your interests and expertise guide you in
selecting something to speak about (see Chapter 7 on selecting a
topic and purpose).
58
Determine the Speech
Purpose
A speech without a purpose is like a car without fuel—it won’t
get you anywhere. Actually, a speech requires that you fix two
purposes in your mind. First, for any given topic, you should
direct your speech toward one of three general speech purposes
—to inform, to persuade, or to mark a special occasion. Thus
you need to decide whether your goal is simply to give your
audience information about the topic, to persuade them to
accept one position to the exclusion of other positions, or to
help them memorialize an occasion such as a wedding, a
funeral, or an awards event.
You should also mentally formulate a specific speech

purpose—a statement of what you want the audience to learn,
agree with, or perhaps act upon as a result of your speech. For
example, if your general purpose is to inform, your specific
purpose might be “to inform my audience about how self-
driving cars will impact insurance policies.” If your general
purpose is to persuade, the specific purpose might be “to
persuade my audience that they should support tighter
regulations on insuring self-driving vehicles.”
59
Compose a Thesis
Statement
Next, compose a thesis statement that clearly expresses the
central idea of your speech. While the specific purpose focuses
your attention on the outcome you want to achieve with the
speech, the thesis statement concisely identifies, in a single
sentence, what the speech is about:
General To inform
Purpose:
Specific To inform my audience about three critical steps we can take

Purpose: to combat identity theft
Thesis The best ways to combat identity theft are to review your
Statement: monthly financial statements, periodically check your credit
report, and secure your personal information in both digital
and print form.
From this point forward in the development of your speech,

refer to the thesis statement often to make sure that you are on
track to illustrate or prove it.
QUICK TIP
Speak with Purpose

To ensure that the audience learns or does what you want them to as a
result of your speech, keep your thesis and speech goals in sight. Write
your thesis statement and general and specific speech purposes on a
60
sticky note and place it on the edge of your computer screen. It will be
an important guide in developing your speech.
61
Develop the Main Points
Organize your speech around two or three main points. These
are the primary pieces of knowledge (in an informative speech)
or the key claims (in a persuasive speech). If you create a clear
thesis for your speech, the main points will be easily
identifiable.
Thesis: The best ways to combat identity theft are to review your monthly
financial statements, periodically check your credit report, and
secure your personal information in both digital and print form.
I. Review your monthly bank statements, credit card bills, and
similar financial records to be aware of all transactions.
II. Check your consumer credit report at least twice a year.
III. Keep your personal identifying digital and print information
highly secure.
62
Gather Supporting
Materials
Use supporting material to illustrate or prove your main points.
Supporting material potentially includes the entire world of
information available to you—from personal experiences to
every conceivable kind of credible source. Plan to research your
topic to provide evidence for your assertions and lend
credibility to your message (see Chapter 9).
63
Arrange the Speech into
Its Major Parts
Every speech will have an introduction, a body, and a
conclusion. Develop each part separately, then bring them
together using transition statements (see Chapter 11). The
introduction serves to draw the audience’s interest to the topic,
speaker, and thesis. The speech body contains the speech’s
main points and subpoints. The conclusion restates the speech
thesis and reiterates how the main points confirm it (see
Chapter 14 on the introduction and conclusion).
DEVELOPING SPEECH PARTS
Introduction
Pique the audience’s interest with a quotation, short story,

example, or other means of gaining their attention described in
Chapter 14.
Introduce yourself and your topic.
Preview the thesis and main points.
(Use a transition statement to signal the start of the speech body.)
Body
Develop the main points and illustrate each one with relevant
supporting material.
Organize your ideas and evidence in a structure that suits the
topic, audience, and occasion.
64
(Use transitions to move between main points and to the conclusion.)
Conclusion
Review the thesis and reiterate how the main points confirm it.
Leave the audience with something to think about.
65
Outline the Speech
An outline is a plan for arranging the elements of your speech
in support of your thesis. Outlines are based on the principle of
coordination and subordination—the logical placement of ideas
relative to their importance to one another. Coordinate points
are of equal importance and are indicated by their parallel
alignment. Subordinate points are given less weight than the
points they support and are placed to the right of them. (For a
full discussion of outlining, see Chapter 13.)
Coordinate Points
I. Main Point 1
II. Main Point 2
A. Subpoint 1
B. Subpoint 2
Subordinate Points
I. Main Point 1
A. First level of subordination
1. Second level of subordination
2. Second level of subordination
a. Third level of subordination
b. Third level of subordination
As your speeches become more detailed, you will need to

select an appropriate organizational pattern (see Chapters 12
and 24). You will also need to familiarize yourself with
66
developing both working and speaking outlines (see Chapter
13). To allow for the full development of your ideas, a working
outline generally contains points stated in close-to-complete
sentences. A speaking outline is far briefer and uses either short
phrases or key words.
67
Consider Presentation
Aids
As you prepare your speech, consider whether using visual,
audio, or a combination of different presentation aids will help
the audience understand points. (See Chapters 19–21.)
68
Practice Delivering the
Speech
Preparation and practice are necessary for the success of even
your first speech in class. You will want to feel and appear
natural to your listeners, an effect best achieved by rehearsing
both the verbal and nonverbal delivery of your speech (see
Chapters 17 and 18). So practice your speech at least six times.
For a four- to six-minute speech, that’s only about one-half hour
of actual practice time.
QUICK TIP
Be Aware of Your Nonverbal Delivery

Audiences are highly attuned to a speaker’s facial expressions,
gestures, and general body movement. As you rehearse, practice
smiling and otherwise animating your face in ways that feel natural to
you. Audiences want to feel that you care about what you are saying, so
avoid a deadpan, or blank, expression. Make eye contact with your
practice audience. Doing so will make audience members feel that you
recognize and respect them. Practice gestures that feel natural to you,
steering clear of exaggerated movements.
69
CHAPTER 3 Managing Speech Anxiety
Contrary to what most of us think, feeling nervous about giving
a speech is not only normal but desirable. Channeled properly,
nervousness (or more specifically, the adrenaline that
accompanies it) can actually boost performance. The key is
knowing how to make this state work for rather than against us.
This chapter introduces specific anxiety-reducing techniques
that speakers use to minimize their tension and maximize their
speaking experience.
I focus on the information rather than being graded. I also

practice my speech a ton to really make sure I do not speak
too quickly. I time myself so that I can develop an average
time. This makes me more confident [in dealing] with time
requirements. And, because I know that I am well
prepared, I really try to just relax.
—Kristen Obracay, student
70
Identify What Makes You
Anxious
Anxiety is a state of uneasiness brought on by uncertainty and
fear about the outcome of an event. Lacking positive public-
speaking experience, feeling different from members of the
audience, or feeling uneasy about being the center of attention
—each of these factors can lead to the onset of public-speaking
anxiety (PSA), a situation-specific social anxiety that arises
from anticipating giving an oral presentation.1 Fortunately, we
can learn techniques to tame this anxiety in each of these
situations and make it work for us. An important first step is to
identify what makes us anxious.
Lack of Positive Experience

If you are new to public speaking or have had unpleasant
experiences, anxiety about what to expect is only natural.
Without positive experiences to draw on, it’s hard to put this
anxiety into perspective. It’s a bit of a vicious circle. Some
people react by deciding to avoid speeches altogether, yet
gaining more experience is key to overcoming speech anxiety.
Feeling Different
The prospect of being in front of an audience makes many of us
extra-sensitive to our perceived personal shortcomings, such as
a less-than-perfect haircut or an accent. We may believe that no
71
one could be interested in anything we have to say.
As inexperienced speakers, we become anxious because we

assume that being different somehow means being inferior.
Actually, each of us is different from everyone else. However,
nearly everyone experiences nervousness about giving a
speech.
I control my anxiety by mentally viewing myself as being

100 percent equal to my classmates.
—Lee Morris, student
Being the Center of Attention

Certain audience behaviors—such as chatting with a neighbor
or checking text messages—can cause us as speakers to think
we’ve lost the audience’s attention by doing something wrong;
we wonder about our mistakes and whether others noticed
these supposed flaws. Left unchecked, this kind of thinking can
distract us from the speech itself, with all our attention now
focused on “me.” Our self-consciousness makes us feel even
more conspicuous and sensitive to even the smallest faults,
which increases our anxiety! Actually, an audience rarely
notices anything about us that we don’t want to reveal.
It’s always scary to speak in front of others, but you just

have to remember that everyone is human. … Nobody
wants you to fail; they’re not waiting on you to mess up.
—Mary Parrish, student
72
Pinpoint the Onset of
Anxiety
Different people become anxious at different times during the
speechmaking process.2 Depending on when anxiety strikes,
the consequences can include everything from procrastination
to poor speech performance. But by pinpointing the onset of
speech anxiety, you can manage it promptly with specific
anxiety-reducing techniques.
Pre-Preparation Anxiety
Some people feel anxious the minute they know they will be
giving a speech. Pre-preparation anxiety can be a problem
when we delay planning for the speech, or when it so
preoccupies us that we miss vital information needed to fulfill
the speech assignment. If this form of anxiety affects you, start
very early using the stress-reducing techniques described later
in this chapter.
Preparation Anxiety
For a few people, anxiety arises only when they actually begin
to prepare for the speech. These individuals might feel
overwhelmed by the time and planning required or hit a
roadblock that puts them behind schedule. Preparation
pressures produce a cycle of stress, procrastination, and
outright avoidance, all of which contribute to preparation
73
anxiety. If you find yourself feeling anxious during this stage,
immerse yourself in the speech’s preparation but calm your
nerves by taking short, relaxing breaks to regain your
confidence and focus.
Pre-Performance Anxiety
Some people experience anxiety as they rehearse their speech.
This is when the reality of the situation sets in: They worry that
the audience will be watching and listening only to them, feel
that their ideas aren’t expressed ideally, or sense that time is
short. If this pre-performance anxiety is strong enough, some
may even decide to stop rehearsing. If you experience
heightened anxiety at this point, practice positive self-talk,
turning negative thoughts to positive ones (see “Modify Thought
and Attitudes” below).
I experience anxiety before, during, and after the speech.

My “before speech” anxiety begins the night before my
speech, but then I begin to look over my notecards, and I
start to realize that I am ready for this speech. I practice
one more time and I tell myself I am going to be fine.
—Paige Mease, student
Performance Anxiety
For most people, anxiety is highest just as a speech begins.3
Performance anxiety usually is most pronounced during the
introduction of the speech when we are most aware of the
74
audience’s attention. Audiences we perceive as negative usually
cause us to feel more anxious than those we sense are positive
or neutral.4 But experienced speakers agree that by controlling
their nervousness during the introduction, the rest of the
speech goes quite smoothly.
Regardless of when anxiety about a speech strikes, the

important thing to remember is that you can manage the
anxiety and not let it manage you—by harming your motivation
or by causing you to avoid investing the time and energy
required to deliver a successful speech.
75
Use Proven Strategies to
Build Your Confidence
A number of proven strategies exist to help you rein in your
fears about public speaking, from positive self-talk and
visualization to various relaxation techniques. The first step in
taming speech anxiety is to have a thorough plan for each
presentation.
Prepare and Practice

If you know your material and have adequately rehearsed your
delivery, you’re far more likely to feel confident. Once you have
prepared the speech, be sure to rehearse it several times.
Knowing your material is crucial! The worst anxiety comes

when you feel unprepared. You just can’t help but be
nervous, at least a little. If you are confident about what
you’re speaking, the anxiety fades and you’ll feel more
comfortable.
—Shea Michelle Allen, student
Modify Thoughts and Attitudes

Negative thoughts about speechmaking increase speech
anxiety, but positive thoughts reduce it.5 A positive attitude
actually results in lowered heart rate and reduced anxiety
during the delivery of the speech.6 As you prepare for and
76
deliver your speech, envision it as a valuable, worthwhile, and
challenging activity. Use these steps to challenge negative
beliefs and encourage positive self-talk:
1. Identify your negative self-talk.

2. Examine the beliefs underlying the negative thoughts.
3. Replace negative self-talk and beliefs with positive
statements and mental images.
4. Continue practicing these steps until you feel confident
about your speech.
QUICK TIP
Envision Your Speech as a Conversation

Rather than thinking of your speech as a formal performance where
you will be judged and critiqued, try thinking of it as a kind of ordinary
conversation. In this way, you will feel less threatened and more
relaxed about the process. Here’s what Virgin airlines founder and
entrepreneur Richard Branson recommends:
Close your mind to the fact that you’re on a stage with hundreds of
people watching you and instead imagine yourself in a situation
where you’d be comfortable speaking to a group … in your dining
room at home, telling a story to friends over dinner. … This trick
has certainly removed some of the anxiety for me.7
—Richard Branson, entrepreneur
Visualize Success
77
Visualization—the practice of summoning feelings and actions
consistent with successful performance—is a highly effective
method of reducing speech anxiety.8
Like positive self-talk, visualization is a form of cognitive

restructuring—training your mind to think in a more positive
way about something that makes you anxious. It requires you to
close your eyes and visualize a series of positive feelings and
actions that will occur on the day of your speech.
Visit LaunchPad to listen to an audio file that

guides you through a series of techniques that encourage self-
confidence through positive visualization. Go to
launchpadworks.com
Close your eyes and allow your body to get comfortable in

the chair in which you are sitting. Take a deep, comfortable
breath and hold it … now slowly release it through your
nose. Now take another deep breath and make certain that
you are breathing from the diaphragm … hold it … now
slowly release it and note how you feel while doing this.
Now one more deep breath … hold it … and release it
slowly … and begin your normal breathing pattern.
Now begin to visualize the beginning of a day in which

you are going to give an informative speech. See yourself
getting up in the morning, full of energy, full of
78
confidence, looking forward to the day’s challenges. As you
dress, think about how the clothes you choose make you
look and feel good about yourself. As you are drive, ride, or
walk to the speech setting, note how clear and confident
you feel. You feel thoroughly prepared for the topic you
will be presenting today.
Now you see yourself standing or sitting in the room

where you will present your speech, talking very
comfortably and confidently with others in the room. The
people to whom you will be presenting your speech appear
to be quite friendly and are very cordial in their greetings
and conversations prior to the presentation. You feel
absolutely sure of your material and of your ability to
present the information in a forceful, convincing, positive
manner.
Now you see yourself approaching the area from which

you will present. You are feeling very good about this
presentation and see yourself move eagerly forward. All of
your audiovisual materials are well organized, well
planned, and clearly aid your presentation.9
79
Activate the Relaxation
Response
Before, during, and sometimes after a speech you may
experience rapid heart rate and breathing, dry mouth,
faintness, freezing-up, or other uncomfortable sensations.
These physiological reactions result from the “fight-or-flight”
response—the body’s automatic response to threatening or
fear-inducing events. Research shows that you can counteract
these sensations by activating a relaxation response10 using
techniques such as meditation and controlled breathing.
Briefly Meditate
You can calm yourself considerably before a presentation with
this brief meditation exercise:
1. Sit comfortably in a quiet space.

2. Relax your muscles, moving from neck to shoulders to arms
to back to legs.
3. Choose a word, phrase, or prayer (e.g., “Namaste,” “Om,”
“Hail Mary, full of grace”). Breathe slowly and say it until
you become calm (about ten to twenty minutes).
QUICK TIP
Stretch Away Stress

You can significantly lessen pre-speech jitters by stretching. A half-hour
to one-hour session of whole-body stretches and simple yoga poses,
80
combined with deep breathing, will help discharge nervous energy and
sharpen mental focus.
Use Stress-Control Breathing

When you feel stressed, the center of your breathing tends to
move from the abdomen to the upper chest, leaving you with a
reduced supply of air. The chest and shoulders rise, and you
feel out of breath. Stress-control breathing gives you more
movement in the stomach than in the chest.11 Try it in two
stages.
STAGE ONE
Inhale air and let your abdomen go out. Exhale air and let your
abdomen go in. Do this for a while until you get into the rhythm
of it.
STAGE TWO
As you inhale, use a soothing word such as calm or relax, or use
a personal mantra like this: “Inhale calm, abdomen out, exhale
calm, abdomen in.” Go slowly, taking about three to five
seconds with each inhalation and exhalation.
Begin stress-control breathing several days before a speech.

Then, once the occasion arrives, perform it while awaiting your
turn at the podium and just before you start your speech.
I have two ways to cope with my nervousness before I’m

about to speak. I take a couple of deep breaths from my
81
stomach; I breathe in through my nose and out through my
mouth. This allows more oxygen to the brain so you can
think clearly. I also calm myself down by saying,
“Everything will be okay, and the world is not going to
crumble before me if I mess up.”
—Jenna Sanford, student
82
Use Movement to
Minimize Anxiety
During delivery, you can use controlled movements with your
hands and body to release nervousness (see Chapter 18):
Practice natural gestures, such as holding up your index

finger when stating your first main point. Think about what
you want to say as you do this, instead of thinking about
how you look or feel.
Move as you speak. You don’t have to stand perfectly still
behind the podium when you deliver a speech. Walk
around as you make some of your points. Movement
relieves tension and helps hold the audience’s attention.
QUICK TIP
Enjoy the Occasion

Most people ultimately find that giving speeches can indeed be fun. It’s
satisfying and empowering to influence people, and a good speech is a
sure way to do this. Think of giving a speech in this way, and chances
are you will find much pleasure in it.
83
Learn from Feedback
Speech evaluations help to identify ways to improve what you
do. You can learn a lot through self-evaluation, but self-
perceptions can be distorted,12 so objective evaluations by
others often are more helpful. Ultimately, all speakers rely on
audience feedback to evaluate the effectiveness of their
speeches.
CHECKLIST
Steps in Gaining Confidence

Prepare and practice, early and often.
Modify thoughts and attitudes—practice positive self-talk.
Practice visualization.
Use stress-control breathing, meditation, and other relaxation
techniques.
Incorporate natural, controlled movements.
Learn from the experience of public speaking and enjoy it.
84
CHAPTER 4 Ethical Public Speaking
When we have an audience’s attention, we are in the unusual
position of being able to influence or persuade listeners and, at
times, to move them to act—for better or worse. With this power
to affect the minds and hearts of others comes responsibility
—“a moral obligation to behave correctly towards or in respect
of a person or thing.”1 Taking responsibility for your words lies
at the heart of being an ethical speaker.
Ethics is the study of moral conduct. Applied to public

speaking, communication ethics addresses our responsibilities
when seeking influence over other people and for which there
are positive and negative, or “right” and “wrong,” choices of
action.2 For example, should you show a gory photograph
without warning to convince audience members to support
animal rights? Should you bother to check the credibility of a
suspect source before offering it to the audience? Is it ethical to
present only one side of an argument?
85
Demonstrate
Competence and
Character
Ethics is derived from the Greek word ethos, meaning
“character.” As Aristotle first noted, the foremost duty speakers
have toward their audience is to demonstrate positive ethos, or
good character. Speakers in ancient Greece were regarded
positively when they displayed the “virtues” of competence,
good moral character, and goodwill. Today, surprisingly little
has changed. Modern research on source credibility (a
contemporary term for ethos) reveals that people place their
greatest trust in speakers who
Have a solid grasp of the subject (Aristotle’s competence).

Are honest and straightforward (good moral character).
Are genuinely respectful of and interested in the welfare of
their listeners3 (goodwill).
86
Respect Your Listeners’
Values
Our sense of ethics, of right and wrong actions, is reflected in
our values—our most enduring judgments or standards of
what’s good and bad in life and of what’s important to us.
Values shape how we see the world and form the basis on which
we judge the actions of others.4
Because values are so central to who we are, consideration of

the audience’s values is an important aspect of preparing an
ethical speech. No member of an audience wants his or her
values attacked, treated without respect, or even merely
unacknowledged. Yet conflicting values lie at the heart of many
controversies that today’s public speakers might address,
making it difficult to speak about certain topics without
challenging cherished beliefs. The United States is a country of
immigrants, for example, but a sizable minority (34 percent) of
the population views newcomers as a threat to American
customs and values. Attitudes vary considerably by age—68
percent of young adults ages 18–29 believe immigrants
strengthen the country—and by education, race, religion, and
other variables.5 As you plan speeches on controversial topics,
anticipate that audience members will hold a range of values
that will differ not only from your own, but from each other’s.
Audience analysis is key to discovering and planning for these
differences (see Chapter 6).
87
Contribute to Positive
Public Discourse
An important measure of ethical speaking is whether it
contributes something positive to public discourse—speech
involving issues of importance to the larger community, such as
race relations or immigration reform.
Perhaps the most important contribution you can make to

public debates of this nature is the advancement of constructive
goals. An ethical speech appeals to the greater good rather than
to narrow self-interest. It steers clear of invective, or verbal
attacks, designed to discredit and belittle those with whom you
disagree. Ethical speakers avoid arguments that target a person
instead of the issue at hand (ad hominem attack) or that are
built upon other fallacies of reasoning (see Chapter 23).
88
Use Your Rights of Free
Speech Responsibly
The United States vigorously protects free speech—defined as
the right to be free from unreasonable constraints on
expression6—thereby assuring protection both to speakers who
treat the truth with respect and to those whose words are
inflammatory and offensive. But while offensive speech is often
legally protected under the First Amendment, racist, sexist, or
ageist slurs, gay-bashing, and other forms of negative or hate
speech clearly are unethical. Hate speech is any offensive
communication—verbal or nonverbal—directed against people’s
race, ethnicity, national origin, gender, religion, sexual
orientation, disability, and the like.
Be aware that even under the First Amendment, certain types

of speech are not only unethical but actually illegal:
Speech that incites people to imminent violence, or so-

called “fighting words.”
Speech that expresses blackmail, perjury, child
pornography, or obscenity.7
Speech that can be proved to be defamatory or potentially
harmful to an individual’s reputation at work or in the
community, called slander.
If you are talking about public figures or matters of public

concern, you will not be legally liable for defamation unless it
89
can be shown that you spoke with a reckless disregard for the
truth—that is, if you knew that what you were saying was false
but said it anyway. If your comments refer to private persons, it
will be easier for them to assert a claim against you. You will
have the burden of proving that what you said was true.
QUICK TIP
Beware the Heckler’s Veto

Drowning out a speaker’s message with which you disagree—called a
heckler’s veto—demonstrates disrespect both to the speaker and to
fellow listeners. It robs audience members of the ability to make up
their own minds about an issue and silences the free expression of
ideas. Tolerance for opposing viewpoints is a necessary ingredient of an
ethical—and democratic—society. How is your school community doing
on this score?
90
Observe Ethical Ground
Rules
Ethical speech rests on a foundation of dignity and integrity.
Dignity refers to bearing and conduct that is respectful to self
and others. Integrity signals the speaker’s incorruptibility—that
he or she will avoid compromising the truth for the sake of
personal expediency.8 Speaking ethically also requires that we
adhere to certain moral ground rules, or “pillars of character,”
including being trustworthy, respectful, responsible, fair, and
civic-minded.9
Be Trustworthy
Trustworthiness is a combination of honesty and
dependability. Speakers demonstrate their trustworthiness by
supporting their points truthfully and by not presenting
misleading or false information.
Demonstrate Respect
Speakers demonstrate respect by treating audience members
with civility and courtesy.10 Respectful speakers address
listeners as unique human beings and avoid ethnocentrism and
stereotyping (see Chapter 15). They refrain from any form of
personal attack, and focus on issues rather than on
personalities.
91
Make Responsible Speech
Choices
Responsibility means being accountable for what you say. Ask
yourself: Will learning about my topic in some way benefit my
listeners? Do I use sound evidence and reasoning? (See Chapter
24.) Do I make emotional appeals because they are appropriate,
rather than to shore up otherwise weak arguments? (See
Chapter 23.)
Demonstrate Fairness
Fairness refers to making a genuine effort to see all sides of an
issue and acknowledging the information listeners need in
order to make informed decisions.11 Bear in mind that most
subjects are complicated and multifaceted; rarely is there only
one right or wrong way to view a topic.
Be Civic-Minded
Being civic-minded means caring about your community, as
expressed in your speeches and your deeds. At the broadest
level, being civic-minded is essential to the democratic process
because democracy depends on our participation.
92
Avoid Plagiarism
Crediting sources is a crucial aspect of any speech. Plagiarism—
the use of other people’s ideas or words without acknowledging
the source—is unethical. You are obviously plagiarizing when
you simply “cut and paste” material from sources into your
speech and represent it as your own. But it is also plagiarism to
copy material into your speech draft from a source (such as a
magazine article or website) and then change and rearrange
words and sentence structure here and there to make it appear
as if it were your own.
Orally Acknowledge Your

Sources
The rule for avoiding plagiarism as a public speaker is straight-
forward: Any source that requires credit in written form should
be acknowledged in oral form. These sources include direct
quotations, as well as paraphrased and summarized
information—any facts and statistics, ideas, opinions, or
theories gathered and reported by others (see Chapter 10). More
than any other single action, acknowledging sources lets
listeners know you are trustworthy and will represent both fact
and opinion fairly and responsibly.
Citing Quotations, Paraphrases,

and Summaries
93
When citing other people’s ideas, you can present them in one
of three ways:
Direct quotations are verbatim—or word for word—

presentations of statements made by someone else. Direct
quotes should always be acknowledged in a speech.
A paraphrase is a restatement of someone else’s ideas,
opinions, or theories in the speaker’s own words. Because
paraphrases alter the form but not the substance of another
person’s ideas, you must acknowledge the original source.
A summary is a brief overview of someone else’s ideas,
opinions, or theories. While a paraphrase contains
approximately the same number of words as the original
source material stated in the speaker’s own words, a
summary condenses the same material, distilling only its
essence.
Note how a speaker could paraphrase and summarize, with

credit, the following excerpt from an article published in the
New Yorker titled “Strange Fruit: The Rise and Fall of Açai,” by
John Colapinto.
Original Açai was virtually unknown outside Brazil until 10 years ago, when
Version: Ryan and Jeremy Black, two brothers from Southern California,
and their friend Edmund Nichols began exporting it to the United
States. Since then, the fruit has followed a cycle of popularity
befitting a teenage pop singer: a Miley Cyrus–like trajectory from
obscurity to hype, critical backlash, and eventual ubiquity.
Embraced as a “superfruit”—a potent combination of cholesterol-
reducing fats and anti-aging antioxidants—açai became one of the
94
fastest-growing foods in history. …”
Compare the original version of the excerpt to how it could

be properly quoted, paraphrased, or summarized in a speech.
Oral citation language is bolded for easy identification.
Direct As John Colapinto states in an article titled “Strange Fruit:

Quotation: The Rise and Fall of Açai,” published in the May 30, 2011,
issue of the New Yorker, “The fruit has followed a cycle of
popularity befitting a teenage pop singer: a Miley Cyrus–like
trajectory from obscurity to hype, critical backlash, and
eventual ubiquity.”
Oral In an article titled “Strange Fruit: The Rise and Fall of

Paraphrase: Açai,” published in the May 30, 2011, issue of the New
Yorker, John Colapinto explains that until two brothers from
Southern California named Ryan and Jeremy Black, along with
their friend Edmund Nichols, began exporting açai to the
United States ten years ago, it was unknown here. Now, says
Colapinto, açai is seen as a “superfruit” that can help with
everything from lowering cholesterol to fighting aging through
its antioxidant properties.
Oral In an article titled “Strange Fruit: The Rise and Fall of

Summary: Açai,” published in the May 30, 2011, issue of the New
Yorker, John Colapinto says that açai, a fruit grown in Brazil
that was unknown in this country until ten years ago, is now
marketed as a “superfruit” that has powerful health benefits.
For detailed directions on crediting sources in your speech,

see Chapter 10, “Citing Sources in Your Speech.”
95
CHECKLIST
Correctly Quote, Paraphrase, and

Summarize Information
If directly quoting a source, repeat the source word for word
and acknowledge whose words you are using.
If paraphrasing someone else’s ideas, restate the ideas in your

own words and acknowledge the source.
If summarizing someone else’s ideas, briefly describe their

essence and acknowledge the source.
96
Fair Use, Copyright, and
Ethical Speaking
Copyright is a legal protection afforded the creators of original
literary and artistic works.12 When including copyrighted
materials in your speeches—such as reproductions of graphs or
photographs, a video or sound clip—you must determine when
and if you need permission to use such works.
When a work is copyrighted, you may not reproduce,

distribute, or display it without the permission of the copyright
holder. For any work created from 1978 to the present, a
copyright is good during the author’s lifetime plus fifty years.
After that, unless extended, the work falls into the public
domain, which means anyone may reproduce it. Not subject to
copyright are federal (but not state or local) government
publications, common knowledge, and select other categories.
An exception to the prohibitions of copyright is the doctrine

of fair use, which permits the limited use of copyrighted works
without permission for the purposes of scholarship, criticism,
comment, news reporting, teaching, or research.13 This means
that when preparing speeches for the classroom, you have
much more latitude to use other people’s creative work without
seeking permission, but with credit in all cases, including
display of the copyright symbol (©) on any copyrighted
handouts or presentation aids you include in your speech. (For
97
more information, see www.copyright.gov.)
Creative Commons is an organization that allows creators of

works to decide how they want other people to use their
copyrighted works. It offers creators six types of licenses, three
of which are perhaps most relevant to students in the
classroom: attribution (lets you use the work if you give credit
the way the author requests); noncommercial (lets you use the
work for noncommercial purposes only); and no derivative
works (lets you use only verbatim—exact—versions of the work).
The rules of fair use apply equally to works licensed under

Creative Commons and the laws of copyright. Student speakers
may search the Creative Commons website for suitable
materials for their speech at creativecommons.org.
98
CHAPTER 5 Listeners and Speakers
Imagine giving a speech that no one heard. Merely considering
such a circumstance points to the central role of the listener in a
speech. In fact, all successful communication is two-way,
including that of public speaking.
Connecting with a speaker takes effort and commitment. We

can bring our full attention and critical faculties to bear on the
speech event, tune out, or automatically reject the message. For
the speaker, connecting with audience members also entails
work, requiring that we learn about, or listen to, their concerns
—by analyzing the audience before delivering the speech (see
Chapter 6) and by being responsive to listeners during it. Thus it
is listener and speaker together who truly make a speech
possible.
99
Recognize the Centrality
of Listening
More than any other single communication act, we listen—to
gain understanding, to evaluate and act on information, and to
provide support.1 Many of us assume that these and other
listening acts come naturally, but listening is an intentional act.
While hearing is the physiological, largely involuntary process
of perceiving sound, listening is the conscious act of receiving,
constructing meaning from, and responding to spoken and
nonverbal messages.2 Listening involves consciously selecting
what you will listen to, giving it your attention, processing and
understanding it, remembering the information, and
responding to it—either verbally, nonverbally, or through both
channels.3
QUICK TIP
Succeed by Listening
College students in the United States spend more time listening (about
24 percent) than they do on any other communication activity, such as
speaking (20 percent), using the internet (13 percent), writing (9
percent), or reading (8 percent).4 Listening is also the number one
activity employees do during the work day.5 Managers overwhelmingly
associate listening skills with competence, efficiency, and leadership
potential, and they promote employees who display those skills and
hire new entrants who possess them.6 In both college and work arenas,
skill in listening leads to success.
100
101
Recognize That We
Listen Selectively
In any given situation, no two audience members will process
the information in exactly the same way. The reason lies in
selective perception—people pay attention selectively to
certain messages while ignoring others.7 Two major factors
influence what we listen to and what we ignore:
1. We pay attention to what we hold to be important.

2. We pay attention to information that touches our beliefs
and expectations and we ignore, downplay, or even belittle
messages that contradict them.
To a certain extent, selective perception is simple human

nature, but both as listener and speaker, there are steps you can
take to counter it.
As a listener, evaluate the speaker’s message without

prejudgment and avoid screening out parts of the message
that don’t immediately align with your views.
As a speaker, give the audience good reasons to care about
your message. Demonstrate the topic’s relevance to them,
and anticipate and address audience attitudes and beliefs.
102
Anticipate Obstacles to
Listening
Selective perception is hardly our only obstacle to listening.
Numerous distractions keep us from listening in a way that is
focused and purposeful. In any listening situation, including
that of listening to speeches, try to identify and overcome
common obstacles, whether stemming from the environment
or our own behavior.
Minimize External and Internal

Distractions
A listening distraction is anything that competes for the
attention we are trying to give to something else. External
distractions can originate outside of us, in the environment,
while internal distractions arise from our own thoughts and
feelings.
External listening distractions, such as the din of

jackhammers or competing conversations, can significantly
interfere with our ability to listen, so try to anticipate and plan
for them. If you struggle to see or hear over noise or at a
distance, arrive early and sit in the front. To reduce internal
listening distractions, avoid daydreaming, be well rested,
monitor yourself for lapses in attention, and consciously focus
on listening.
103
CHECKLIST
Dealing with Distractions While Delivering a

Speech
Problem: Passing distractions (chatting, entry of latecomers)
Solution: Pause until distraction recedes
Problem: Ongoing noise (construction)
Solution: Raise speaking volume
Problem: Sudden distraction (collapsing chair, falling object)
Solution: Minimize response and proceed
Problem: Audience interruption (raised hand, prolonged

comment)
Solution: Acknowledge audience reaction and either follow up

or defer response to conclusion of speech
Refrain from Multitasking

You cannot actively listen well while multitasking. Activities
such as checking a cell phone or calendar, finishing an
assignment, or responding to a text divert our attention from
the message and reduce our ability to interpret it accurately.
Guard against Scriptwriting and

Defensive Listening
104
When we, as listeners, engage in scriptwriting, we focus on
what we, rather than the speaker, will say next.8 Similarly,
people who engage in defensive listening decide either that
they won’t like what the speaker is going to say or that they
know better. Remind yourself that effective listening precedes
effective rebuttal. Try waiting for the speaker to finish before
devising your own arguments.
Beware of Laziness and

Overconfidence
Laziness and overconfidence can manifest themselves in
several ways: We may expect too little from speakers, ignore
important information, or display an arrogant attitude. Later,
we discover we missed important information.
Work to Overcome Cultural

Barriers
Differences in dialects or accents, nonverbal cues, word
choices, and even physical appearance can serve as barriers to
listening, but they need not if you keep your focus on the
message rather than the messenger. Refrain from judging a
speaker on the basis of his or her accent, appearance, or
demeanor; focus instead on what is actually being said.
Whenever possible, reveal your needs to him or her by asking
questions.
105
QUICK TIP
Listening Styles and Cultural Differences

Research suggests a link between our listening styles and a culture’s
predominant communication style.9 A study of young adults in the
United States, Germany, and Israel found distinct listening style
preferences that mirrored key value preferences, or preferred states of
being, of each culture. Germans tended toward action-oriented
listening, Israelis displayed a content-oriented style, and Americans
exhibited both people- and time-oriented styles. While preliminary in
nature and not valid as a means of stereotyping a given culture’s group
behavior, these findings confirm the cultural component of all forms of
communication, including listening. They also point to the need to
focus on intercultural understanding as you learn about your audience.
106
Practice Active Listening
Active listening—listening that is focused and purposeful—is a
skill you can cultivate. Setting listening goals, listening for main
ideas, watching for nonverbal cues (see Chapter 18), and using
critical thinking strategies will help you become a more adept
listener.
Set Listening Goals

Determine ahead of time what you need and expect from the
listening situation.
1. Identify your listening needs: “I must know my classmate’s

central idea, purpose in speaking, main points, and
organizational pattern in order to complete a required
written evaluation.”
2. Identify why listening will help you: “I will get a better
grade on the evaluation if I am able to identify and evaluate
the major components of Sara’s speech.”
3. Make an action statement (goal): “I will minimize
distractions, practice the active listening steps during the
speech, take notes, and ask questions about anything I do
not understand.”
4. Assess goal achievement: “I did identify the components of
the speech I decided to focus upon and wrote about them in
class.”
Listen for Main Ideas

107
To ensure that you retain the speaker’s key points, try these
strategies:
Listen for introductions, transitions, and conclusions to

alert you to the main points. Most speakers preview their
main points in the introduction. Transitions often alert you
to an upcoming point. Conclusions often recap main
points.
Take notes on the speaker’s main points. Several different
methods of note taking—bullet, column, and outline—can
be helpful.
QUICK TIP
Listen Responsibly
As listeners, we are ethically bound to refrain from disruptive and
intimidating tactics—such as heckling, name-calling, interrupting out of
turn, and other breaches of civility—as a means of silencing those with
whom we disagree. The ability to dissent is a hallmark of a free society,
but to preserve that freedom, we must refrain from using disruptive
and intimidating tactics in place of civil dialogue.
108
Strive for the Open and
Respectful Exchange of
Ideas
In contrast to monologue, in which we try merely to impose
what we think on another person or group of people, dialogic
communication is the open sharing of ideas in an atmosphere
of respect.10 True dialogue encourages both listener and
speaker to reach conclusions together. For listeners, this means
maintaining an open mind and listening with empathy.11 For
the speaker, this means approaching a speech not as an
argument that must be “won,” but as an opportunity to achieve
understanding with audience members.
109
Evaluate Evidence and
Reasoning
Purposeful, focused listening and critical thinking—the ability
to evaluate claims on the basis of well-supported reasons—go
hand in hand. As you listen to speeches, use your critical
faculties to do the following:
Evaluate the speaker’s evidence. Is it accurate? Are the

sources credible and can they be located?
Analyze the speaker’s assumptions and biases. What lies
behind the assertions? Does the evidence support them?
Assess the speaker’s reasoning. Does it betray faulty logic?
Does it rely on fallacies in reasoning? (See Avoid Fallacies
in Reasoning.)
Consider multiple perspectives. Is there another way to
view the argument? How do other viewpoints compare with
the speaker’s?
Summarize and assess the relevant facts and evidence. If
the speaker asks for action (as in some persuasive
speeches; see Chapter 23), decide how you will act on the
basis of the evidence rather than acting just to “go along”
with what other people do.
110
Offer Constructive and
Compassionate Feedback
Follow these guidelines when evaluating the speeches of others:
Be honest and fair in your evaluation of the speech. Assess

the speech as a whole and remain open to ideas and beliefs
that differ from your own.
Adjust to the speaker’s style. Each of us has a unique
communication style, a way of presenting ourselves
through a mix of verbal and nonverbal signals. Don’t judge
the content of a speaker’s message by his or her style.
Be compassionate in your criticism. Always start by saying
something positive, and focus on the speech, not the
speaker.
Be selective in your criticism. Make specific rather than
global statements. Rather than statements such as, “I just
couldn’t get into your topic,” give the speaker something he
or she can learn from: “I wanted more on why the housing
market is falling. …”
111
Part 2 Development
6. Analyzing the Audience
7. Selecting a Topic and Purpose
8. Developing Supporting Material
9. Finding Credible Sources in Print and Online
10. Citing Sources in Your Speech
VIDEO
ACTIVITY
Go to LaunchPad to watch a video in which an unfortunate
professor fails to analyze his audience. Visit launchpadworks.com
LaunchPad includes:
112
documentation help.
113
CHAPTER 6 Analyzing the Audience
Advertisers are shrewd analysts of people’s needs and wants,
extensively researching our buying habits and lifestyle choices
to identify what motivates us. To engage your listeners and
sustain their involvement in your message, you too must
investigate your audience. Audience analysis is the process of
gathering and analyzing information about audience members’
attributes and motivations with the explicit aim of preparing
your speech in ways that will be meaningful to them. This is the
single most important aspect of preparing for any speech.
Taking the measure of the audience is critical because

audience members, and people in general, tend to evaluate
information in terms of their own—rather than the speaker’s—
point of view, at least until they are convinced to take a second
look.1 You may want listeners to share your enthusiasm about
an issue, but unless you know something about their
perspectives on the topic, you won’t be able to appeal to them
effectively. Thus, assuming an audience-centered perspective
throughout the speech preparation process—from selection and
treatment of the speech topic to making decisions about how
you will organize, word, and deliver it—will help you prepare a
presentation that your audience will want to hear.
114
Adapt to Audience
Psychology: Who Are Your
Listeners?
To analyze an audience, speakers investigate both psychological
and demographic factors. Psychographics focuses on the
audience’s attitudes, beliefs, and values—their feelings and
opinions, including those related to the topic, speaker, and
occasion. (See Adapt Your Message to Audience Demographics
for demographics—the statistical characteristics of an audience,
such as age, ethnic or cultural background, and socioeconomic
status.)
Attitudes, beliefs, and values, while intertwined, reflect

distinct mental states that reveal a great deal about us. Attitudes
are our general evaluations of people, ideas, objects, or events.2
To evaluate something is to judge it as relatively good or bad,
desirable or undesirable. People generally act in accordance
with their attitudes (although the degree to which they do so
depends on many factors).3
Attitudes are based on beliefs—the ways in which people

perceive reality.4 Beliefs are our feelings about what is true or
real. The less faith listeners have that something exists—a UFO,
for instance—the less open they are to hearing about it.
Both attitudes and beliefs are shaped by values—our most
115
enduring judgments about what’s good in life, as shaped by our
culture and our unique experiences within it. We feel our values
strongly and strive to realize them.
As a rule, audience members are more interested in and pay

greater attention to topics toward which they have positive
attitudes and that are in keeping with their values and beliefs.
The less we know about something, the more indifferent we
tend to be. It is easier (though not simple) to spark interest in an
indifferent audience than it is to turn negative attitudes around.
“If the Value Fits, Use It”

Evoking some combination of the audience’s values, attitudes,
and beliefs in the speeches you deliver will make them more
personally relevant and motivating. Many advocacy groups
recognize the power of appealing to their constituents’ values.
For example, the Biodiversity Project, an organization that
helps environmental groups raise public awareness, counsels
speakers to appeal directly to the three foremost values their
audience members hold about the environment (discovered in
nationally representative surveys commissioned by the Project),
offering the following as an example:
You care about your family’s health (value #1 as identified

in survey) and you feel a responsibility to protect your
loved ones’ quality of life (value #2). The local wetland
provides a sanctuary to many plants and animals. It helps
clean our air and water and provides a space of beauty and
116
serenity (value #3). All of this is about to be destroyed by
irresponsible development.5
Gauge Listeners’ Feelings toward

the Topic
Consideration of the audience’s attitudes (and beliefs and
values) about a topic is key to offering a speech that will
resonate with them. Is your topic one with which the audience
is familiar, or is it new to them? Do listeners hold positive,
negative, or neutral attitudes toward the topic? Once you have
this information (using tools such as interviews and surveys;
see Tools for Learning About Your Audience), adjust the speech
accordingly (see also the table Persuasive Strategies for
Appealing to Different Audience Types in Chapter 24).
If the topic is new to listeners,
Start by showing why the topic is relevant to them.

Relate the topic to familiar issues and ideas about which
they already hold positive attitudes.
If listeners know relatively little about the topic,
Stick to the basics and include background information.

Steer clear of jargon, and define unclear terms.
Repeat important points, summarizing information often.
If listeners are negatively disposed toward the topic,
117
Focus on establishing rapport and credibility.
Don’t directly challenge listeners’ attitudes; instead begin
with areas of agreement.
Discover why they have a negative bias in order to tactfully
introduce the other side of the argument.
Offer solid evidence from sources they are likely to accept.
Give good reasons for developing a positive attitude toward
the topic.6
If listeners hold positive attitudes toward the topic,
Stimulate the audience to feel even more strongly by

emphasizing the side of the argument with which they
already agree.
Tell stories with vivid language that reinforce listeners’
attitudes.7
If listeners are a captive audience (see p. 39),
Motivate listeners to pay attention by stressing what is most

relevant to them.
Pay close attention to the length of your speech.

You as the Speaker
How audience members feel about you will also have
significant bearing on their responsiveness to the message. A
speaker who is well liked can gain an initial hearing even when
listeners are unsure what to expect from the message itself.
118
To create positive audience attitudes toward you, first display
the characteristics of speaker credibility (ethos) described in
Chapter 4. Listeners have a natural desire to identify with the
speaker and to feel that he or she shares their perceptions,8 so
establish a feeling of commonality, or identification, with
them. Use eye contact and body movements to include the
audience in your message. Share a personal story, emphasize a
shared role, and otherwise stress mutual bonds. Word your
speech with inclusive language such as the personal pronouns
we, you, I, and me (see Use Personal Pronouns).
CHECKLIST
Appeal to Audience Attitudes, Beliefs, and

Values
Have you …
Investigated audience members’ attitudes, beliefs, and values

toward your topic?
Assessed the audience’s level of knowledge about the topic?
Considered strategies to address positive, negative, and
neutral responses to your speech topic?
Considered appealing directly to audience members’ attitudes
and values in your speech?

the Occasion
119
Depending on the circumstances calling for the speech (the
rhetorical situation), people will bring different sets of
expectations and emotions to it. Members of a captive
audience, who are required to hear the speaker, may be less
positively disposed to the occasion than those of a voluntary
audience who attend of their own free will. Whether planning a
wedding toast or a business presentation, failure to anticipate
and adjust for the audience’s expectations risks alienating them.
QUICK TIP
Rise to the Top of the Applicant Pool with

Audience Analysis
Audience analysis is a potent tool when preparing for job interviews.
Discover how many people will meet with you, their roles in the
organization, and their areas of expertise. Research the company’s
background and its culture. Visit the company’s website, investigate
employees’ LinkedIn profiles, and research news articles on the
company. During the interview, use inclusive language to put the focus
on the company: “Your product saw tremendous growth this year….”
Earn the interviewers’ respect by gathering key details and anticipating
what they will want and need to know from you.
120
Adapt Your Message to
Audience Demographics
Demographics are the statistical characteristics of a given
population. At least eight characteristics are typically
considered when analyzing speech audiences: age, ethnic and
cultural background, socioeconomic status (including income,
occupation, and education), religious and political affiliations,
gender and sexual orientation, and group affiliations. Any
number of other traits—for example, disability or place of
residence—may be important to investigate as well. Knowing
where audience members fall in relation to audience
demographics will help you identify your target audience—
those individuals within the broader audience whom you are
most likely to influence in the direction you seek. You may not
be able to please everyone, but you should be able to establish a
connection with your target audience.
Age
Each age group has its own concerns, psychological drives, and
motivations. Thus being aware of the generational identity of
your audience—such as Generation Z (those born since 2000) or
Generation Y (also called Millennials, those born between 1980
and 1999)—allows you to develop points that are relevant to the
experiences and interests of the widest possible cross section of
your listeners. The table below lists some of the prominent
characteristics of today’s generations.
121
Generational Identity and Today’s Generations
Generation Characteristics
Traditional Respect for authority and duty, disciplined, strong sense of right
1925–1945 and wrong
Baby Idealistic, devoted to career, self-actualizing, values health and
Boomer wellness
1946–1964
Generation Seeks work-life balance, entrepreneurial, technically savvy,
X 1965–1979 flexible, questions authority figures, skeptical
Generation Technically savvy, optimistic, self-confident, appreciative of
Y/Millennials diversity, entrepreneurial
1980–1999
Generation Comfortable with the highest level of technical connectivity,
Z 2000– naturally inclined to collaborate online, boundless faith in power
of technology to make things possible9
Ethnic and Cultural Background

An understanding of and sensitivity to the ethnic and cultural
composition of your listeners are key factors in delivering a
successful (and ethical) speech. Some audience members may
have a great deal in common with you. Others may be fluent in
a language other than yours and must struggle to understand
you. Some members of the audience may belong to a distinct
co-culture, or social community whose perspectives and style
of communicating differ significantly from yours. All will want
to feel recognized by the speaker. (See Adapt to Diverse
Audiences.)
Socioeconomic Status
122
Socioeconomic status (SES) includes income, occupation, and
education. Knowing roughly where an audience falls in terms of
these key variables can be critical in effectively targeting your
message.
INCOME
Income determines people’s experiences on many levels, from
how they are housed, clothed, and fed, to what they can afford.
Beyond this, income has a ripple effect, influencing many other
aspects of life. Given how pervasively income affects people’s
life experiences, insight into this aspect of an audience’s
makeup can be quite important.
OCCUPATION
In many speech situations, the occupation of audience
members can be an important demographic characteristic to
know. Occupational interests often are tied to other areas of
social concern, such as politics, the economy, education, and
social reform. Personal attitudes, beliefs, and goals are also
closely tied to occupational standing.
EDUCATION
Level of education strongly influences people’s perspectives
and range of abilities. Higher levels of education have been
linked to greater flexibility of opinions and often lead to
increased lifetime earnings, better health outcomes, and
greater civic engagement;10 such factors may be important to
consider when preparing a speech. Depending upon audience
123
members’ level of education, your speech may treat topics at a
higher or lower level of sophistication, with fewer or more
clarifying examples.
QUICK TIP
Addressing On-the-Job Audiences

On the job, presentations ranging from business reports to scientific
talks are typically delivered to fellow workers, colleagues, managers,
clients, or others. Audiences include the expert or insider audience,
colleagues within the field, the lay audience, and the mixed audience.
For guidance on analyzing and addressing audiences in the workplace,
see Chapter 29.
Religion
Beliefs, practices, and sometimes social and political views vary
among religious traditions, making religion another key
demographic variable. At least a dozen major religious
traditions coexist in the United States.11 Not all members of the
same religious tradition will agree on all religiously based
issues. Catholics disagree on birth control and divorce, Jews
disagree on whether to recognize same-sex unions, and so
forth. Awareness of an audience’s general religious orientation
can be critical when your speech touches on controversial
topics with religious implications, such as capital punishment,
same-sex marriage, and teaching about the origins of
humankind.
124
Political Affiliation
As with religion, beware of making unwarranted assumptions
about the sensitive issue of an audience’s political values and
beliefs. Some people avoid anything that smacks of politics
while others enjoy a lively debate. Conservative individuals hold
certain views that liberals dispute, and the chasm between far
right and far left is great indeed. If your topic involves politics,
you’ll need to obtain background information on the audience’s
views.
Gender and Sexual Orientation

Distinct from the fixed physical characteristics of biological sex,
gender is our social and psychological sense of ourselves as
males or females.12 Making assumptions about the preferences,
abilities, and behaviors of your audience members based on
their presumed gender or sexual orientation (e.g., their
romantic preferences) can seriously undermine their
receptivity to your message. To ensure that you treat issues of
gender and sexual orientation evenly, use language sensitive to
them (e.g., “spouse or partner”) and avoid gender stereotypes
and sexist language (see Use Inclusive, Unbiased Language).
Group Affiliations
The various groups to which audience members belong—
whether social, civic, work-related, or religiously or politically
affiliated—reflect their interests and values and so provide
insight into what they care about. Investigating the audience
125
members’ group affiliations will help you craft a message that
will appeal to them.
QUICK TIP
Be Sensitive to Disability When Analyzing an

Audience
More than 19 percent of the population have some sort of physical,
mental, or employment disability; more than half of these have a severe
disability.13 About 9 percent of undergraduates (not including veterans)
are counted as disabled.14 Disabilities range from sight and hearing
impairments to constraints on physical mobility and employment.
Keep persons with disabilities (PWD) in mind when you speak, and use
language and examples that afford them respect and dignity.
126
Adapt to Diverse
Audiences
In the United States, one-third of the population, or 116 million
people, belong to a racial or an ethnic minority group,15 and
about 43 million people, or over 13 percent, are foreign born.16
Nationwide, 21 percent of the population speaks a language
other than English in the home; about two-thirds of these speak
Spanish.17 These figures suggest that audience members will
hold different cultural perspectives and employ different styles
of communicating that may or may not mesh with your own.
How might you prepare to speak in front of an ethnically and

culturally diverse audience, including that of your classroom?
In any speaking situation, your foremost concern should be to
treat your listeners with dignity and to act with integrity (see
Chapter 5). As described below, since values are central to who
we are, identifying your listeners’ values with respect to your
topic can help you to avoid ethnocentrism (see Demonstrate
Respect) and deliver your message in a culturally sensitive
manner.
Adapt to Cross-Cultural Values

People in every culture possess cultural values related to their
personal relationships, religion, occupation, and so forth, and
these values can significantly influence how audience members
respond to a speaker’s message. For example, while dominant
127
cultural values in U.S. society include achievement and success,
equal opportunity, material comfort, and democracy,18 in
Mexico, famillismo (family loyalty), respecto (respect), and
fatalismo (fatalism) are strongly held cultural values. Surveys of
several Asian societies identify a spirit of harmony, humility
toward superiors, awe of nature, and desire for prosperity as
important values.19 Becoming familiar with differences, as well
as points of similarity, in cultural values can help you frame
messages effectively and with sensitivity.
Individual audience analysis is always the first step when

seeking to learn about an audience. But public speakers will
also benefit by sensitizing themselves to broader national
differences in cultural values, especially when time and
opportunity constraints make it difficult to gather detailed
information on an audience. Cultural researcher Geert
Hofstede’s wide-ranging research reveals six major “value
dimensions,” or “broad preferences for one state of affairs over
another,” as being significant across all cultures, but in widely
varying degrees. To find out how eighty-six countries rank in
terms of these values and to compare your home culture with
another culture, see www.hofstede-
insights.com/product/compare-countries/.
Several other global surveys can also be extremely useful for

learning about cultural values, including the Pew Global
Attitudes Project (www.pewglobal.org), Gallup World Poll
(worldview.gallup.com), and the World Values Survey
128
(www.worldvaluessurvey.org).
Focus on Universal Values

As much as possible, try to determine the attitudes, beliefs, and
values of audience members. At the same time, you can focus
on certain values that, if not universally shared, are probably
universally aspired to in the human heart. These include love,
truthfulness, fairness, freedom, unity, tolerance, responsibility,
and respect for life.20
CHECKLIST
Reviewing Your Speech in the Light of

Audience Demographics
Does your speech acknowledge potential differences in values
and beliefs and address them sensitively?
Have you reviewed your topic in light of the age range and
generational identity of your listeners? Do you use examples
they will recognize and find relevant?
Have you tried to create a sense of identification between
yourself and audience members?
Are your explanations and examples at a level appropriate to
the audience’s sophistication and education?
Do you make any unwarranted assumptions about the
audience’s political or religious values and beliefs?
Does your topic carry religious or political overtones that are
likely to stir your listeners’ emotions in a negative way?
129
Tools for Learning About
Your Audience
You can discover information about your audience through
personal interviews, surveys, and published sources. Often, it
takes just a few questions to get some idea of audience
members’ opinions and demographic characteristics.
Conduct Interviews
Interviews, even brief ones, can reveal a lot about the
audience’s interests and needs. You can conduct interviews
one-on-one or in a group, in person or by telephone or online.
Consider interviewing a sampling of the audience, or even just
one knowledgeable representative of the group that you will
address. As with questionnaires (see “Survey the Audience,”
which follows), interviews usually consist of a mix of open- and
closed-ended questions. (See also Conduct Interviews.)
Survey the Audience

Surveys can be as informal as a poll of several audience
members or as formal as the pre-speech distribution of a
written survey, or questionnaire—a series of fixed-alternative,
scale, or open-ended questions. Fixed-alternative questions
contain a limited choice of answers, such as “Yes,” “No,” or “For
x years”:
“Do you smoke cigarettes?”
130
Yes
No
I quit, but I smoked for years.
Scale questions—also called attitude scales—measure the

respondents’ level of agreement or disagreement with specific
positions or indicate how important listeners judge something
to be:
“Flag burning should be outlawed.”
Strongly Agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Undecided
“How important is religion in your life?”
Very Important
Important
Moderately Important
Of Minor Importance
Unimportant
Open-ended questions (also called unstructured questions)

begin with a how, what, when, where, or why, and they are
particularly useful for probing beliefs and opinions. This style
of question allows respondents to elaborate as much as they
131
wish:
“How do you feel about using the results of DNA testing to

prove innocence or guilt in criminal proceedings?”
Often, it takes just a few fixed-alternative and scale questions to

draw a fairly clear picture of audience members’ backgrounds
and attitudes and where they fall in demographic categories.
You may wish to use web-based survey software, such as
SurveyMonkey or QuestionPro, to generate surveys
electronically using premade templates and distribute them
online.
Consult Published Sources

Organizations of all kinds publish information describing their
missions, operations, and achievements. Sources include
websites and related online articles, brochures, newspaper and
magazine articles, and annual reports.
Although published opinion polls won’t specifically reflect

your particular listeners’ responses, they too can provide
valuable insight into how a representative state, national, or
international sample feels about the issue in question. Consider
consulting these and other polling organizations:
National Opinion Research Center (NORC):

www.norc.uchicago.edu
Roper Center for Public Opinion Research:
ropercenter.cornell.edu
132
Gallup: www.gallup.com
Pew Research Center U.S. Politics and Policy: www.people-
press.org
133
Analyze the Speech
Setting and Context
As important as analyzing the audience is assessing (and then
preparing for) the setting in which you will give your speech—
size of audience; location; time; length of speech; and rhetorical
situation (the particular circumstances or reasons why you are
delivering the speech about this topic at this time), as seen in
the following checklist.
CHECKLIST
Analyzing the Speech Situation

Where will the speech take place?
How long am I expected to speak?
What special events or circumstances of concern to my
audience should I acknowledge?
How many people will attend?
Will I need a microphone?
How will any projecting equipment I plan to use in my speech,
such as an LCD projector, function in the space?
Where will I stand or sit in relation to the audience?
Will I be able to interact with listeners?
134
CHAPTER 7 Selecting a Topic and Purpose
Perhaps no folk saying was ever truer for the public speaker
than this one: “You’ve got to know where you are going in order
to get there.” That is, unless you can clearly identify what you
want to say and why you want to say it—your topic and purpose
—you won’t be able to get there—giving a speech that works.
Figure 7.1 demonstrates the steps involved in selecting a topic
and purpose and forming a thesis for your speech; this chapter
explains these steps. Once they are completed, you will be ready
to flesh out the speech with the supporting material described
in Chapter 8.
FIGURE 7.1 Selecting a Topic and Purpose
135
Explore Topics for Your
Speech
A good topic must stir the audience’s curiosity as well as your
own. You must feel excited enough about it to devote the
necessary time to research and organization, so allow yourself
the space to discover topics to which you are genuinely drawn.
Focus on topics about which you can speak competently and
bring fresh information to your listeners. At the same time,
consider each potential topic’s appeal to the audience (based on
audience analysis, including psychological and demographic
information; see Chapter 6).
Identify Personal Interests

Personal interests run the gamut from favorite activities and
hobbies to deeply held goals and values. You can translate
personal experiences into powerful topics, especially if sharing
them in some way benefits the audience. “What it’s like” stories,
for example, yield captivating topics: What is it like to be part of
a medical mission team working in Uganda? What have you
learned as a longtime practitioner of spinning, biking, hiking,
or yoga? How have managed your health complications to live a
full life?
Consider Current Events and

Controversial Issues
136
Think about events and issues that most affect you and your
audience, and see if you can make a difference. Black Lives
Matter, opioid addiction, Confederate memorials, Cuba-U.S.
relations, minimum wage laws, the DACA program—the list of
pressing and controversial topics is long. Which ones matter to
you and your audience?
Survey Grassroots Issues: Engage

the Community
Audience members, including college students, respond
enthusiastically to local issues that may affect them directly.
Review your community’s news, including your school’s paper
and press releases, and read news blogs for the local headlines.
What social, environmental, health, political, or other issues
are affecting your community?
Steer Clear of Overused and

Trivial Topics
To avoid boring your classmates and instructor, stay away from
tired issues, such as drunk driving and the health risks of
cigarettes, as well as trite topics such as “how to change a tire.”
Instead, seek out subject matter that yields new information or
different perspectives. For ideas, consult your favorite print or
online publications. One way to find fresh topics is to check
websites that provide information on search trends, hot topics,
and ideas that are trending now, such as Google Trends
137
(www.google.com/trends), Zeitgeist Minds
(www.zeitgeistminds.com), Twitter Trends
(www.twitter.com), and Facebook Trending
(www.facebook.com).
Try Brainstorming to Generate

Ideas
Brainstorming is a method of spontaneously generating ideas
through word association, topic (mind) mapping, or internet
browsing. Brainstorming works! It is a structured and effective
way to identify topic ideas in a relatively brief period of time.
To brainstorm by word association, write down one topic

that might interest you and your listeners. Then jot down the
first thing that comes to mind related to it. Repeat the process
until you have fifteen to twenty items. Narrow the list to two or
three, and then select a final topic:
energy → solar energy → solar panels → Elon Musk’s

SolarCity company
Topic (mind) mapping is a brainstorming technique in

which you lay out words in diagram form to show categorical
relationships among them. Put a potential topic in the middle of
a piece of paper. As related ideas come to you, write them
down, as shown in Figure 7.2.
138
FIGURE 7.2 A Topic Map
Use Internet Tools

Yet other online means for finding (and narrowing) a topic are
the databases available on a library’s home page (see also Use a
Library Portal to Access Credible Sources). Consult general
databases such as Academic OneFile (for browsing and starting
the search process) and subject-specific databases such as
Ethnic NewsWatch (for in-depth research on a topic). Popular
internet search engines such as Google also offer a wealth of
resources to discover and narrow topics. Each search engine
offers options for specialized searches within books, news,
blogs, images, and other sources. You can narrow topics by
limiting searches to within a range of dates (e.g., 1900–1950), to
a geographic region (e.g., Europe), or to a particular language.
QUICK TIP
139
Jump-Start Your Search Using Trusted
Websites
Sites on your library’s home page, such as Opposing Viewpoints in
Context and Issues and Controversies Online, can help you select and
narrow topics on vital issues. In addition, for trustworthy background
information on pressing social, political, environmental, and regional
issues, librarians often refer students to two related online publications
—CQ Researcher (published weekly) and CQ Global Researcher
(published monthly). Each topic entry includes an overview of the
current situation, pro/con statements from opposing positions, and
bibliographies of key sources. Ask your librarian about related
resources.
140
Identify the General
Purpose of Your Speech
Once you have an idea for a topic, you’ll need to refine and
adapt it to your general speech purpose. The general speech
purpose for any speech answers the question, “What is my
objective in speaking on this topic to this audience on this
occasion?” Public speakers typically accomplish one of three
general purposes: to inform, to persuade, or to mark a special
occasion.
Do you aim primarily to educate or inform listeners about

your topic? The general purpose of an informative speech
is to increase the audience’s awareness and understanding
of a topic by defining, describing, explaining, or
demonstrating your knowledge of the subject.
Is your goal to influence listeners to accept your position on
a topic and perhaps to take action (e.g., “only eat
sustainably farmed beef”)? The general purpose of the
persuasive speech is to effect some degree of change in the
audience’s attitudes, beliefs, or even specific behaviors.
Are you there to mark a special occasion, such as an awards
ceremony, funeral, or wedding? The special occasion
speech serves the general purpose of entertaining,
celebrating, commemorating, inspiring, or setting a social
agenda, and includes speeches of introduction, acceptance,
and presentation; roasts and toasts; eulogies; and after-
dinner speeches, among others.
141
Note that there is always some overlap in these three types of
speeches. An informative speech will have aspects of
persuasion in it, and a persuasive speech will also inform. A
special occasion speech will include informational and
persuasive aspects. Nevertheless, identifying the primary
function as one of these three purposes will help you narrow
your topic and meet your speech goals.
QUICK TIP
To Identify the General Speech Purpose,

Consider the Occasion
The speech occasion itself often suggests an appropriate general
speech purpose. A town activist, invited to address a civic group about
installing solar panels in town buildings, may choose a persuasive
purpose to encourage the group to get behind the effort. If invited to
describe the initiative to the town finance committee, the activist may
choose an informative purpose, in which the goal is to help the
committee understand project costs. If asked to speak at an event
celebrating the project’s completion, the speaker will choose a special
occasion purpose. Addressing the same topic, the speaker selects a
different general speech purpose to suit each audience and occasion.
142
Refine the Topic and
Purpose
Once you have an idea for a topic and have established a
general speech purpose, the next step is to narrow the topic,
using your time constraints, audience, occasion, and other
relevant factors as guideposts.
Narrow Your Topic

Just as brainstorming and internet tools can be used to discover
a topic, they can be instrumental in narrowing one. Using topic
mapping, you can brainstorm by category (e.g., subtopic). Say
your general topic is internships. Some related categories are
paid internships, unpaid internships, and cooperative (co-op)
education. Ask yourself, “What questions do I have about the
topic? Am I more interested in cooperative education or one of
the two types of internships? What aspect of internships is my
audience most likely to want to hear about?” You can also use
trend searching (see Steer Clear of Overused and Trivial Topics)
to narrow your topic.
CHECKLIST

What is my audience most likely to know about the subject?
What do my listeners most likely want to learn?
143
What aspects of the topic are most relevant to the occasion?
Can I develop the topic using just two or three main points?
How much can I competently research and report on in the
time I am given to speak?
Form a Specific Speech Purpose

Once you’ve narrowed the topic, you need to refine your speech
goal beyond the general speech purpose. You know you want to
give an informative speech, a persuasive speech, or a special
occasion speech, but now you should be able to identify more
specifically what you want the speech to accomplish. The
specific speech purpose describes in action form what you
want to achieve with the speech. It does this by spelling out, in a
single sentence, what you want the audience to learn, agree
with, or perhaps act upon as a result of your speech.
Formulating the specific speech purpose is straightforward.

Ask yourself, “What is it about my topic that I want the audience
to learn, do, reconsider, or agree with?” Be specific about your
aim, and then state it in action form, as in the following, written
for a persuasive speech:
Topic Binge Drinking

(before
narrowing):
Narrowed Describe the nature and prevalence of binge drinking on U.S.
Topic: campuses and offer solutions to avoid it
General To persuade
Speech
144
Purpose:
Specific To persuade my audience that binge drinking is harmful and
Speech convince listeners to consume alcohol safely or not at all
Purpose:
Although the specific purpose statement need not be

articulated in the actual speech, it is important to formulate it
for yourself in order to keep in mind exactly what you are
working to accomplish. Remember the old saying: You’ve got to
know where you are going in order to get there.
Compose a Thesis Statement

While the specific purpose focuses your attention on the
outcome you want to achieve with the speech, the thesis
statement (also called central idea) concisely identifies what
the speech is about. It states the theme of the speech in a single
declarative statement, succinctly expressing what the speech
will attempt to demonstrate or prove. The main points, the
supporting material, and the conclusion all serve to flesh out
the thesis. By clearly stating your speech thesis (what it’s about),
you set in your mind exactly what outcome you want to
accomplish (the specific purpose).
The difference between the thesis and specific purpose can

be clearly seen in the following examples.
EXAMPLE 1
Speech Blogs
145
Topic:
General To inform
Speech
Purpose:
Specific To inform my audience of three benefits of keeping a blog
Speech
Purpose:
Thesis Maintaining a blog provides the opportunity to practice
Statement: writing, a means of networking with others who share similar
interests, and the chance to develop basic website
management skills.
EXAMPLE 2
Speech Service learning courses
Topic:
General To persuade
Speech
Purpose:
Specific To persuade my audience that service learning courses are
Speech beneficial for gaining employment after schooling.
Purpose:
Thesis Taking service learning courses is a good way to build your
Statement: résumé and increase your chances of gaining employment
after graduation.
In an informative speech, the thesis conveys the scope of the

topic, the steps associated with the topic, or the underlying
elements of it. It describes what the audience will learn.
In a persuasive speech, the thesis represents what you are

going to prove in the address. Notice, too, that in both
examples, after you read the thesis you find yourself asking
146
“Why?” or thinking “Prove it!” This will be accomplished by the
evidence you give in the speech points (see Chapter 11).
CHECKLIST
Identifying the Speech Topic, Purpose, and

Thesis
Is the topic appropriate to the occasion?
Will the topic appeal to the audience’s interests and needs?
Will I be able to offer a fresh perspective on the topic?
Have I identified the general speech purpose—to inform,
persuade, or mark a special occasion?
Have I identified what I want the audience to gain from the
speech—the specific speech purpose?
Have I narrowed my topic in line with how much I can
competently research and then report on in the time I am given
to speak?
Does my thesis statement sum up in a single sentence what my
speech is about?
Does my thesis statement make the claim I intend to make
about my topic?
147
FROM SOURCE TO SPEECH
Narrowing Your Topic to Fit Your Audience

How do you narrow a topic to fit the audience and the speech
occasion? Consider the following case study.
A Case Study
Jenny is a member of the campus animal rights club and a student in a

public speaking class. She is giving two persuasive speeches this
semester: one to her public speaking class and one to the student
council, as a representative of her club. For both presentations, Jenny
plans to speak on the broad topic of animal rights. But she must
narrow this topic considerably to fit each audience and speech
occasion.
First, Jenny draws a topic map to generate ideas.
148
For each presentation, Jenny narrows her topic after considering her
audience and the speech occasion.
Public Speaking Class (25–30 people):
149
Mixed ages, races, and ethnicities, and an even mix of males and
females
Busy with classes, jobs, sports, and clubs
Half live in campus housing, where pets are not allowed
Jenny eliminates vegetarianism because she will be unlikely to

change listeners’ minds in a six-minute speech.
She eliminates animal adoption because it may not be feasible
for many students.
Volunteering at an animal shelter is an option for all animal
lovers, even those who are not allowed to have pets on campus.
Jenny argues that students should donate an hour a week to a
nearby shelter, so that busy students can still participate.
Student Council (8–10 people):
150
Mixed demographic characteristics
Similar interests: government, maintaining a rich campus life, an
investment in ethics and the honor code, and an interest in
keeping student affairs within budget
Jenny eliminates puppy mills—though the student council may

agree that the mills are harmful, they are not in a position to
directly address the problem.
Jenny zeroes in on dining hall practices, which are directly tied
to campus life. Her club’s proposed resolution to use free-range
eggs in the campus dining hall benefits all students and requires
the support of the council—an ideal topic for this audience.
151
CHAPTER 8 Developing Supporting Material
Good speeches contain relevant, motivating, and audience-
centered supporting material in the form of examples, stories,
testimony, facts, and statistics. (In a persuasive speech, these
same supporting materials are referred to as evidence; see
Chapter 25.) Supporting material, such as you might discover in
a magazine or journal article, engages the audience in your
topic, illustrates and elaborates upon your ideas, and provides
evidence for your arguments.
152
Offer Examples
Examples are indispensable tools speakers use to clarify their
ideas. An example is a typical instance of something. Without
examples to illustrate the points a speaker wants to convey,
listeners would get lost in a sea of abstract statements.
Examples can be brief or extended and may be either factual or
hypothetical.
Brief examples offer a single illustration of a point. In a

speech about restrictions on freedom of expression in China,
author Ian McEwan uses the following brief factual example.
In China, state monitoring of free expression is on an

industrial scale. To censor daily the internet alone, the
Chinese government employs as many as fifty thousand
bureaucrats—a level of thought repression unprecedented
in human history.1
Sometimes it takes more than a brief example to effectively

illustrate a point. Extended examples offer extended
illustrations of the idea, item, or event being described, thereby
allowing the speaker to create a more detailed picture for the
audience.
Here, TED speaker Jonathan Drori uses an extended example

to illustrate how pollen (the fertilizing element of plants) can
link criminals to their crimes:
153
[Pollen forensics] is being used now to track where
counterfeit drugs have been made, where banknotes have
come from. … And murder suspects have been tracked
using their clothing. … Some of the people were brought to
trial [in Bosnia] because of the evidence of pollen, which
showed that bodies had been buried, exhumed, and then
reburied somewhere else.2
In some speeches, you may need to make a point about

something that could happen in the future if certain events
were to occur. Since it hasn’t happened yet, you’ll need a
hypothetical example of what you believe the outcome might
be. Republican Representative Vernon Ehlers of Michigan
offered the following hypothetical example at a congressional
hearing on human cloning:
What if in the cloning process you produce someone with

two heads and three arms? Are you simply going to
euthanize and dispose of that person? The answer is no.
We’re talking about human life.3
154
Share Stories
One of the most powerful means of conveying a message and
connecting with an audience is through a story—the telling of a
chain of events. Stories (also called narratives) help us make
sense of our experiences;4 they tell tales, both real and
imaginary, about practically anything under the sun. Stories
can be relatively short and simple descriptions of incidents
worked into the speech or they can form most of the
presentation (see Arranging Speech Points Using the Narrative
Pattern).A successful story will strike a chord with and create an
emotional connection between speaker and audience members.
All stories possess the essential storytelling elements of

character (or “protagonist”), challenge or conflict, and
resolution, or means of dealing with the challenge. Using these
elements, many stories, and especially those that describe
overcoming obstacles, work well when they follow a three-part
trajectory. First, introduce the protagonist (perhaps yourself) in
his or her story setting, or context. Next, recount the challenge
or conflict the character faces. A compelling description of the
challenge or conflict is crucial in storytelling since everyone
can relate to struggle and even failure and how to overcome it.
Finally, reveal how the challenge was either dealt with or
overcome.
In a speech on helping more young Americans earn college

degrees, Melinda French Gates used this format in the following
155
very brief story to illustrate that although some students
encounter many barriers to completing degrees, they
persevere.
Last year, we met a young man named Cornell at Central

Piedmont Community College in Charlotte, North Carolina.
We asked him to describe his typical day. He clocks into
work at 11 P.M. When he gets off at 7 the next morning, he
sleeps for an hour. In his car. Then he goes to class until 2
o’clock. “After that,” Cornell said, “I just crash.”5
QUICK TIP
Share Stories That Make an Impact

When you include a compelling story in a speech, you will reach the
deeper parts of audience members’ brains—the hippocampus and
amygdala—where emotion and memory work together. Audience
members will be more likely to pay attention, remember, and even act
on information conveyed in this way.8
In just six sentences, Gates includes the elements of

character (the student Cornell), challenge (taking classes while
working difficult hours), and resolution (getting enough sleep to
continue).
Many speakers liberally sprinkle their speeches with

anecdotes—brief stories of interesting and often humorous
incidents based on real life, with a recognizable moral—the
156
lesson the speaker wishes to convey. With its offering of
wisdom gained through life experiences, the moral is the most
important part of an anecdote.6 For example, in a speech to
students at Maharishi University, comedian Jim Carrey talked
about how his father’s fear of being impractical led him to
become an accountant instead of the comedian he wanted to be.
This spurred Carrey to take another path:
So many of us choose our path out of fear disguised as

practicality. … I learned many great lessons from my
father, not the least of which was that you can fail at what
you don’t want, so you might as well take a chance on doing
what you love.7
157
Draw on Testimony
Another potentially powerful source of support for your speech
is testimony—firsthand findings, eyewitness accounts, and
people’s opinions. Expert testimony includes information from
trained professionals in the field. Lay testimony is testimony
supplied by nonexperts (such as eyewitnesses).
Credibility plays a key role in the effectiveness of testimony,

so establish the qualifications of the person whose testimony
you use, and inform listeners when and where the testimony
was offered (see Testimony [Lay or Expert] for an example).
QUICK TIP
Use a Variety of Supporting Materials

Listeners respond most favorably to a variety of supporting materials
derived from multiple sources to illustrate each main point.9
Alternating among different types of supporting material—moving from
a story to a statistic, for example—will make the presentation more
interesting and credible while simultaneously appealing to your
audience members’ different learning styles.
158
Provide Facts and
Statistics
Most people require some type of evidence before they will
accept someone else’s claims or position.10 In Western
societies, people especially tend to trust evidence that is based
on facts and statistics. Facts represent documented
occurrences, including actual events, dates, times, people, and
places. Listeners are not likely to accept your statements as
factual unless you back them up with credible sources.
Statistics are quantified evidence that summarizes,

compares, and predicts things. Statistics can clarify complex
information and help make abstract concepts concrete for
listeners. Audience members will appreciate some statistics in
support of your assertions, but they don’t want an endless
parade of them.
Use Statistics Accurately

Statistics add precision to speech claims—if you know what the
numbers actually mean and use terms that describe them
accurately. Following are some basic statistical terms
commonly used in speeches that include statistics.
USE FREQUENCIES TO INDICATE COUNTS

A frequency is simply a count of the number of times something
occurs:
159
On the midterm exam there were 8 A’s, 15 B’s, 7 C’s, 2 D’s,
and 1 F.
Frequencies can indicate size, describe trends, or help

listeners understand comparisons between two or more
categories:
Inside the cabin, the Airbus A380 has room for 525
passengers.11 (shows size)
Deaths due to opioid overdoses rose from 52,404 in 2015 to
roughly 64,000 in 2016.12 (describes a trend)
In July 2016, the population of the state of Colorado was
49.7 percent female and 50.3 percent male.13 (compares two
categories)
USE PERCENTAGES TO EXPRESS

PROPORTION
As informative as counts can be, the similarity or difference in
magnitude between things may be more meaningfully indicated
as a percentage—the quantified portion of a whole. Informing
an audience that deaths due to opioid overdoses rose in the
United States between 2015 and 2016 by nearly 19 percent more
quickly shows them the magnitude of the problem than does
offering a count.14 Percentages also help audience members
easily grasp comparisons between things, such as the
unemployment rate in several states:
In August 2017, Alaska had the highest rate of

unemployment, at 7.2 percent. At 2.3 percent, North
160
Dakota had the lowest rate.15
Audience members cannot take the time to pause and reflect on

the figures as they would with written text, so consider how you
can help listeners interpret the numbers, as in this example:
As you can see, Alaska’s unemployment rate is more than

three times greater than that of North Dakota.
USE TYPES OF AVERAGES ACCURATELY

An average describes information according to its typical
characteristics. Usually we think of the average as the sum of
the scores divided by the number of scores. This is the mean,
the computed average. But there are two other kinds of
averages—the median and the mode.
Consider a teacher whose nine students scored 5, 19, 22, 23,

24, 26, 28, 28, and 30, with 30 points being the highest possible
grade. The following illustrates how she would calculate the
three types of averages:
The mean score is 22.8, the arithmetic average, the sum of

the scores divided by 9.
The median score is 24, the center-most score in a
distribution or the point above and below which 50 percent
of the nine scores fall.
The mode score is 28, the most frequently occurring score
in the distribution.
As a matter of accuracy, in your speeches you should
161
distinguish among these three kinds of averages. Always try to
find out whether “average” refers to the mean, median, or
mode.
Use Statistics Selectively—and

Memorably
Rather than overwhelm the audience with numbers, put a few
figures in context to make your message more compelling. For
example, instead of only mentioning the actual number of
persons using Instagram worldwide (over seven hundred
million active monthly users and counting), use a simple ratio
to drive home the company’s growing reach: “Today, at least 70
percent of businesses in the U.S. use Instagram, nearly double
that of one year ago.”16
Present Statistics Ethically

Offering listeners inaccurate statistics is unethical. Following
are steps you can take to reduce the likelihood of using false or
misleading statistics:
Use only reliable statistics. Include statistics from the most

authoritative source you can locate, and evaluate the
methods used to generate the data.
Present statistics in context. Inform listeners of when the
data were collected and by whom, the method used to
collect the data, and the scope of the research:
These figures represent data collected by the U.S.
162
Department of Education during 2018 from
questionnaires distributed to all public and private
schools in the United States with students in at least
one of grades 9–12 in the fifty states and the District of
Columbia.
Avoid cherry-picking. Politicians are often accused of

cherry-picking—selecting only those statistics that buttress
their own arguments while ignoring competing data.17
Avoid misrepresenting the truth by offering only one-sided
data.
Avoid confusing statistics with “absolute truth.” Even the
most recent data available will change the next time data
are collected. Nor are statistics necessarily any more
accurate than the human who collected them. Offer data as
they appropriately represent your point, but refrain from
declaring that these data are definitive.
163
CHAPTER 9 Finding Credible Sources in Print
and Online
The search for supporting material—for the examples, facts and
statistics, opinions, stories, and testimony described in Chapter
8—can be one of the most enjoyable parts of putting together a
speech. It is at this stage that you can delve into your subject
and select relevant and audience-centered material that
supports your speech points.
164
Assess Your Research
Needs
Before beginning your research, review your thesis statement
(see Compose a Thesis Statement). What do you need to explain,
demonstrate, or prove? What mix of evidence—personal
knowledge, examples, stories, statistics, and testimony—will
help you accomplish this? A little while spent planning a
research strategy will save significant time and energy.
CHECKLIST
Evaluating Your Research Needs

Do you need …
Examples to illustrate, describe, or represent your ideas?

A story or an anecdote to drive your point home?
Firsthand findings, in the form of testimony, to illustrate your
points or strengthen your argument?
Relevant facts, or documented occurrences, to substantiate
your statements?
Statistics to quantify evidence, express proportion, and clarify
and add context to data?
165
Use Library Portals to
Access Credible Sources
Rather than relying on sources you find through general search
engines such as Google, consider beginning, or certainly
continuing, your search at your school library’s home page. You
might use the web to brainstorm and narrow topics, locate
current news on a topic, review reputable blogs, and so forth.
Then switch to your school’s collection of databases to find
peer-reviewed research articles, books, primary source
databases, and other vetted material.
Access to these scholarly and other resources is a key benefit

of searching for materials within library databases. Libraries
purchase access to proprietary databases and other resources
that form part of the deep web—the large portion of the web
that general search engines cannot access because the
information is not indexed by them or is fee-based. When you
select a database by using a library’s portal, you can access its
full contents and be assured that the articles and other
materials have been vetted for reliability and credibility. The
following table lists resources typically found on library portals.
Typical Resources Found on Library Portals
Full-text databases (newspapers, periodicals, journals)

General reference works (dictionaries, encyclopedias, atlases,
almanacs, fact books, biographical reference works, quotation
166
resources, poetry collections)
Books, e-books, and monographs
Archives and special collections (collected papers, objects and
images, scholarly works unique to the institution)
Digital collections (oral histories, letters, old newspapers, image
collections, audio and video recordings)
Video and music collections
167
Recognize Propaganda,
Misinformation, and
Disinformation
Discerning the accuracy of information is not always easy.
Anyone can post material on the web and, with a little bit of
design savvy, make a website look reputable. One way to judge a
source’s trustworthiness is to ask yourself: Is it reliable
information, or is it propaganda, misinformation, or
disinformation?1 (See the table Information, Propaganda,
Misinformation, and Disinformation.)
Information is data that is presented in an understandable

context. Data are raw and unprocessed facts; information
makes sense of data. For example, a patient’s vital signs
(temperature, blood pressure, pulse, etc.) are data.
Interpreting the vital signs in the context of health status is
information. Information is neutral unto itself but is subject
to manipulation, for purposes both good and bad. It then
has the potential to become propaganda, misinformation,
or disinformation.
Propaganda is information represented in such a way as to
provoke a desired response. Propaganda may be based in
fact, but its purpose is to instill a particular attitude or
emotion in order to gain support for a cause or issue.
Usually presented as advertising or publicity, propaganda
encourages you to think or act according to the ideological,
168
political, or commercial perspective of the message source.
Misinformation always refers to something that is not true.
While propaganda may include factual information,
misinformation does not. For example, during the U.S.
presidential campaign of 2016, rumors circulated that the
Pope had endorsed Donald J. Trump, when in fact popes
never endorse candidates, and Pope Francis did not veer
from this policy. This common form of misinformation,
found so often on the internet, is called an urban legend—a
fabricated story passed along by unsuspecting people.
Disinformation is the deliberate falsification of
information. Like misinformation, disinformation thrives
on the internet. Doctored photographs and falsified profit-
and-loss statements are classic examples of disinformation
in action. A contemporary example is ads containing
political content posted on social media by Russian agents
with the aim of influencing U.S. voters.
Ethical speeches are based on sound information on facts put

into context—rather than on misinformation, propaganda, or
disinformation.
Information, Propaganda, Misinformation, and Disinformation
Information Data set in a context for relevance.

Example: A fact
Propaganda Information represented in such a way as to provoke a desired

response.
Example: A military poster encouraging enlistment
Misinformation Something that is not true.
169
Example: An urban legend
Disinformation Deliberate falsification of information.

Example: A falsified profit-and-loss statement
QUICK TIP
Use Watchdog Sites to Check the Facts

Our most trustworthy elected officials occasionally make false
assertions, and even the most reliable news sources publish errors of
fact or omission. So whom should you believe—Congresswoman X’s
dire predictions regarding Social Security or Senator Y’s rosier
assessment? To check the factual accuracy of information offered by
key political players and major journalistic outlets, consult these
websites (bearing in mind that they too are not infallible).
www.factcheck.org, sponsored by the Annenberg Public Policy

Center
www.politifact.com, sponsored by the Tampa Bay Times
Fact Checker (www.washingtonpost.com/news/fact-checker/),
sponsored by the Washington Post
170
Investigate a Mix of
Primary and Secondary
Sources
Nearly all types of speeches can benefit from a mix of the two
broad categories of supporting material: primary and secondary
sources. Primary sources provide firsthand accounts or direct
evidence of events, objects, or people. Secondary sources
provide analysis or commentary about things not directly
observed or created. These include the vast world of news,
commentary, analysis, and scholarship found in books, articles,
and a myriad of sources other than the original.
A speech that contains both primary and secondary sources

can be more compelling and believable than one that relies on
one source type alone. The firsthand nature of a credible
primary source can build trust and engage audience members
emotionally. Secondary sources can help listeners put the topic
in perspective. A speech on an oil spill, for example, can
command more attention if it includes testimony by oil riggers
and other eyewitnesses (primary sources) along with analyses
of the spill from magazines and newspapers (secondary
sources).
Explore Primary Sources

A primary source for a speech may be your own personal
171
experience; government documents and data; a firsthand
account found in letters, diaries, old newspapers, photographs,
or other sources; a blog; or an interview or survey that you
conduct yourself.
CONSIDER PERSONAL KNOWLEDGE AND

EXPERIENCE
Used effectively, your own knowledge and experience about
your topic can serve important functions in a speech, drawing
in listeners and creating a sense of connection with them.
Sharing experiences and observations about work you’ve done,
people you’ve known, or places you’ve visited can add a
dimension of authenticity and credibility that a secondhand
source might not.
CHECKLIST
Finding Speeches Online

Online, you can find numerous videos and audio files of speeches.
These can be useful as models of speeches and primary source
material.
American Rhetoric (www.americanrhetoric.com) contains

5,000+ speeches.
Gifts of Speech (gos.sbc.edu) features speeches by women
from around the world since 1848.
Wake Forest University’s Political Speeches gateway
(www.wfu.edu/~louden/Political%20Communication/
172
Class%20Information/SPEECHES.html) offers links to
collections of political speeches.
The United States Senate (www.senate.gov) includes
speeches by U.S. senators.
Vital Speeches of the Day (www.vsotd.com) features current
speeches delivered in the United States and is published
monthly.
ACCESS GOVERNMENT INFORMATION

Many speeches can benefit from citing a statistic from a census
or other data set, quoting testimony from a hearing or speech,
or otherwise incorporating information discovered in
government documents. Nearly all the information contained in
these wide-ranging documents, relating to virtually all aspects
of social endeavor, comes from highly credible primary
sources, so it’s well worth the effort to consult them.
Start at www.usa.gov, the official portal to all U.S.

government information and services.
To locate reliable statistics related to your topic, go to
FedStats (fedstats.sites.usa.gov) and American Fact-Finder
(factfinder.census.gov).
To access resources in Spanish, use
www.gobiernousa.gov. Translations in other languages
are also available.
EXPLORE DIGITAL COLLECTIONS

Another source of credible primary research may be found
within the online digital collections of libraries, which typically
173
include oral histories, letters, and old newspapers;
photographs, prints, and paintings; and audio and video
recordings. A presentation on early African American actors,
for example, might include a passage from a diary of a
nineteenth-century actor and a photograph of him or her on
stage. One way to discover a digital collection related to your
topic is to enter your topic terms into a general search engine
(e.g., “African American actors” AND “digital collections”).
ACCESS BLOGS
A blog is a site containing journal-type entries maintained by
individuals or groups. Newest entries appear first. Blogs can be
useful sources of information about unfolding events and new
trends and ideas, if the source is reputable. Many reputable
publications, such as Scientific American and The Atlantic,
maintain blog sites for their contributors. If a publication
appears likely to contain information about your topic, search
for [“publication name”] and “blogs.”
CONDUCT INTERVIEWS
Oftentimes you can glean considerably more insight into a
topic, and get more compelling material to bring to your
audience, by speaking personally to someone who has expertise
on the subject. Getting the information you need from a subject
does require research and advance planning, from deciding on
the questions you will ask to how you will record the interview.
Begin by learning about the person you will be interviewing
174
so that you can prepare appropriate and informed
questions for him or her.
Prepare questions for the interview in advance of the
interview date.
Word questions carefully.
Avoid vague questions, those that don’t give the person
being interviewed enough to go on. Vague questions
waste the interviewee’s time and reflect the
interviewer’s lack of preparation.
Avoid leading questions, those that encourage, if not
force, a certain response and reflect the interviewer’s
bias (e.g., “Like most of us, are you going to support
candidate X?”). Likewise, avoid loaded questions, those
that are phrased to reinforce the interviewer’s agenda
or that have a hostile intent (e.g., “Isn’t it true that
you’ve never supported school programs?”).
Focus on asking neutral questions, those that don’t lead
the interviewee to a desired response. Usually, this will
consist of a mix of open, closed, primary, and
secondary questions. See Tools for Learning About
Your Audience for more details on open- and closed-
ended questions.
Establish a spirit of collaboration at the start.
Acknowledge the interviewee and express respect for
his or her expertise.
Briefly summarize your topic and informational needs.
State a (reasonable) goal—what you would like to
accomplish in the interview—and reach agreement on
it.
Establish a time limit for the interview and stick to it.
175
Use active listening strategies (see Chapter 5).
Don’t break in when the subject is speaking or interject
with leading comments.
Paraphrase the interviewee’s answers when you are
unclear about meaning and repeat back to him or her.
Ask for clarification and elaboration when necessary.
End the interview by rechecking and confirming.
Confirm that you have covered all the topics (e.g.,
“Does this cover everything?”).
Briefly offer a positive summary of important things
you learned in the interview.
Offer to send the interviewee the results of the
interview.
CHECKLIST
Preparing for the Interview

Have I researched my interviewee’s background and
accomplishments?
Do I have a written set of questions?
Can the questions be answered within a reasonable time
frame?
Are my questions relevant to the purpose of my speech?
Are my questions posed in a well-thought-out sequence?
Are my questions free of bias or hostile intent?
Are controversial questions reserved until the end of the
interview?
Have I obtained advance permission to record the interview?
Do I have a working writing implement and ample notepaper,
176
or functioning laptop or tablet?
Have I made certain that any recording equipment I plan to use
is in working order?
DISTRIBUTE SURVEYS
A survey can be useful as both a tool to investigate audience
attitudes and a source of primary material for your speech.
Surveys are an especially effective source for speech topics
focused on the attitudes and behavior of people in your
immediate environment, such as fellow students’ opinions on
issues on or off campus or community members’ attitudes
toward local initiatives. For guidelines on creating surveys, see
Chapter 6.
Explore Secondary Sources

Along with possible primary sources, your speeches will also, if
not at times exclusively, rely on secondary sources as found in
books, newspapers, periodicals, and reference works (such as
encyclopedias, books of quotations, and poetry collections).
WIKIPEDIA—DOS AND DON’TS

When it comes to online research, it is impossible to ignore the
presence of Wikipedia, the world’s largest experimental free
encyclopedia, written collaboratively and often anonymously by
anyone who wishes to contribute to it. Though Wikipedia’s
instant accessibility and vast range make it easy to consult, bear
in mind that information may or may not be accurate at any
177
given moment, as people edit material at will. As with any
encyclopedia, Wikipedia provides an initial overview of a topic,
but to ensure accuracy, use it only as a starting point for further
research. The references cited in a Wikipedia article can serve
as potential research leads—if you follow the links provided and
carefully evaluate the information for trustworthiness. Be sure
to compare the information in the article to credible sources not
supplied in the entry itself, and do not offer Wikipedia—or any
encyclopedia entry—as a source to audience members.
178
FROM SOURCE TO SPEECH
Evaluating Web Sources

Check the Most Authoritative Websites First
Seek out the most authoritative websites on your topic. For

information on legislation, government statistics, health, the
environment, and other relevant topics, check government-sponsored
sites at the official U.S. government portal, www.usa.gov.
Government-sponsored sites are free of commercial influence and
contain highly credible primary materials.
179
United States Evironmental Protection Agency
Evaluate Authorship and Sponsorship
Examine the domain in the web address—the suffix at the end of the
address that tells you the nature of the site: educational (.edu),
government (.gov), military (.mil), nonprofit organization (.org),
180
business/commercial (.com), and network (.net). A tilde (~) in the
address usually indicates that it is a personal page rather than part of
an institutional website.
Identify the creator of the information. Is the site operated by an
individual, a company, a government agency, or a nonprofit group? If
an individual operates the site, does the site provide relevant
biographical information, such as links to a résumé or a listing of the
author’s credentials? Look for contact information. A source that
doesn’t want to be found is not a good source to cite.
Find out who sponsors the site. Most credible websites include
information about their sponsorship—that is, who pays for the site—
often in a section called “About” or “Our Sponsors.” Be wary of sites
that do not disclose their sponsorship.
Check for signs of bias. Read critically. Does the author treat all sides
of the issue fairly, or does the author favor one viewpoint? If a website
uses attention-grabbing headlines or loaded language that appeals to
your emotions, the site is likely biased and may even be propaganda.
Check for Currency
Check for a date that indicates when the page was placed on the web
and when it was last updated. Is the date current?
Check That the Site Credits Trustworthy Sources
Check that the website documents its sources. Reputable websites

document their sources. Investigate these sources, and apply the same
criteria to them that you did to the original source document. Verify all
information with at least two other independent, reputable sources.
181
CHAPTER 10 Citing Sources in Your Speech
Alerting the audience to the sources you use and offering ones
that they will find authoritative is a critical aspect of delivering
a presentation. When you credit speech sources, you:
Increase the odds that audience members will believe in

your message.
Demonstrate the quality and range of your research to
listeners.
Demonstrate that reliable sources support your position.
Avoid plagiarism and gain credibility as an ethical speaker
who acknowledges the work of others.
Enhance your own authority by demonstrating how your
own ideas fit into the larger intellectual conversation about
the topic.
Enable listeners to locate your sources and pursue their
own research on the topic.
Ethically you are bound to attribute any information drawn

from other people’s ideas, opinions, and theories—as well as
any facts and statistics gathered by others—to their original
sources. That is, you are bound to be honest. You need not
credit sources for ideas that are common knowledge—
information that is likely to be known by many people and
described in multiple places (though such information must
truly be widely disseminated; see the “Quick Tip” below).
182
QUICK TIP
Common Knowledge and Uncommon Facts

One exception to needing to give credit for material in a speech (or a
written work) is the use of common knowledge. For example, it is
common knowledge that Thomas Jefferson was the third president of
the United States. It is not common knowledge that he had a personal
library of 6,487 books, which he donated to the Library of Congress
after it was attacked and burned down by British troops in 1814. This
fact does require acknowledgment of a source—in this case, an article
entitled “10 Things You Didn’t Know about Thomas Jefferson,”
published (without a byline) on June 30, 2011, in the Washington Post.
183
Alert Listeners to Key
Source Information
An oral citation credits the source of speech material that is
derived from other people’s ideas. For each source, plan on
briefly alerting the audience to the following:
1. The author or origin of the source (“documentary film-

maker Ken Burns …” or “On the National Science
Foundation website …”)
2. The type of source (journal article, book, personal
interview, website, blog, online video, etc.)
3. The title or a description of the source (“In the book
Endangered Minds …”; or “In an article on sharks …”)
4. The date of the source (“The article, published in the
October 10th, 2018, issue …” or “According to a report on
choosing a college major, posted online September 28,
2018, on the Chronicle of Higher Education website …”)
Of course, spoken citations need not include complete

references (exact titles, full names of all authors, volume and
page numbers); doing so will interrupt the flow of your
presentation and distract listeners’ attention. However, do keep
a list of complete references for a bibliography to appear at the
end of your speech. (See Appendix A for guidelines on how to
document sources in a bibliography.)
Establish the Source’s

184
Trustworthiness
Focus on presenting your sources in a way that will encourage
audience members to process and believe in the source
material. Too often, inexperienced speakers credit their sources
in bare-bones fashion, offering a rote recitation of citation
elements. For example, a student might cite a source’s name,
but leave out key details about the source’s background that
could convince the audience to trust the source.
Discerning listeners will only accept the information you

offer if they believe that the sources for it are reliable and
accurate, or credible. Source credibility refers to our level of
trust in a source’s credentials and track record for providing
accurate information. If you support a scientific claim by
crediting it to an unknown student’s personal blog, for example,
listeners won’t find it nearly as reliable as if you credited it to a
scientist affiliated with a reputable institution.
Be aware that while a source that is credible is usually

accurate, this is not always so.1 Sometimes we have information
that contradicts what we are told by a credible source. For
instance, a soldier might read an article in the Washington Post
about a conflict in which he or she participated. The soldier
knows the story contains inaccuracies because the soldier was
there. In general, however, the soldier finds the Washington
Post a credible source. Therefore, since even the most credible
source can sometimes be wrong, it is always better to offer a
variety of sources, rather than a single source, to support a
185
major point. This is especially the case when your claims are
controversial.
QUICK TIP
Consider Audience Perception of Sources

Not every trustworthy source is necessarily appropriate for every
audience. For example, a politically conservative audience may reject
information from a liberal publication. Readers of the Nation, for
example, tend to be liberal, while those who read the National Review
tend to be more conservative. Thus, audience analysis should factor in
your choice of sources. In addition to checking that your sources are
reliable, consider whether they will be seen as credible by your
particular audience.2
Qualify the Source

A simple and straightforward way to demonstrate a source’s
trustworthiness is to include a brief description of the source’s
qualifications to address the topic (a source qualifier), along
with your oral citation—for example, “researcher at Duke
Cancer Institute,” “columnist for the Economist”. This will allow
the audience to put the source in perspective. To see how you
can orally cite sources in ways that listeners will accept and
believe, see “Types of Sources and Sample Oral Citations” (p.
74).
186
Avoid a Mechanical
Delivery
Acknowledging sources need not interrupt the flow of your
speech. On the contrary, audience members will welcome
information that adds backing to your assertions. The key is to
avoid a formulaic, or mechanical, delivery. Audience members
expect a natural style of delivery of your speech, and this
includes delivery of speech sources.
Vary the Wording

Avoid a rote delivery of sources by varying your wording. If you
introduce one source with the phrase “According to …,” switch
to another construction (“As reported by …”) for the next one.
Alternating introductory phrases provides necessary variety.
Vary the Order

Vary the order in which you introduce a citation. Occasionally
discuss the findings first, before citing the source. For example,
you might state that “Caffeine can cause actual intoxication”
and provide evidence to back up this claim before revealing
your source—“A chief source for this argument is a report in the
July 5, 2018, issue of the New England Journal of Medicine. …”
187
Types of Sources and
Sample Oral Citations
Following are common types of sources cited in a speech, the
specific citation elements to mention, and examples of how you
might refer to these elements in a presentation. Each example
includes a boldfaced source qualifier describing the source’s
qualifications to address the topic—for instance, “director of
undergraduate studies for four years” or “research scientist at
Smith-Kline.” Qualifying a source can make the difference
between winning or losing acceptance for your arguments.
Book
If a book has two or fewer authors, state first and last names,
title, and date of publication. If three or more authors, state first
and last name of first author and “co-authors.”
Example: In his book Thinking, Fast and Slow, published in

2011, psychologist and Nobel Prize winner Daniel
Kahneman claims that …
Example: In The Civic Potential of Video Games, published

in 2009, Joseph Kahne, noted professor of education and
director of the Civic Education Research Group at Mills
College, and his two co-authors, both educators, wrote
that …
188
Reference Work
For a reference work (e.g., encyclopedia, almanac, directory),
note title, date of publication, and author or sponsoring
organization.
Example: According to Literary Market Place 2018, the

foremost guide to the U.S. book publishing industry,
Karen Hallard and her co-editors report that …
Article in a Journal, Newspaper,

or Magazine
When citing from an article either online or in print, use the
same guidelines as you do for a book.
Example: In an article titled “The False Promise of DNA

Testing,” published in the June 2016 edition of Atlantic
Monthly magazine, journalist and New York Times
contributing writer Matthew Shaer argues that forensic
testing is becoming ever less reliable.
Website
Name the website, section of website cited (if applicable), and
last update.
Example: On its website, last updated November 8, 2017,

the Society of Interventional Radiology, a national
organization of physicians and scientists, explains that
189
radio waves are harmless to healthy cells. …
If website content is undated or not regularly updated, review

the site for credibility before use, using the criteria listed in
From Source to Speech: Evaluating Web Sources. (If you are
citing an online article, use the guidelines under “Article in a
Journal, Newspaper, or Magazine” above.)
Blog
Name the blogger, affiliated website (if applicable), and date of
posting.
Example: In an April 26, 2017, posting on Talking Points

Memo, a news blog that specializes in original reporting
on government and politics, editor Josh Marshall notes
that …
Television or Radio Program

Name the program, segment, reporter, and date aired.
Example: Judy Woodruff, PBS NewsHour anchor,

described in a segment on sexual harassment aired on
November 14, 2017 …
Online Video
Name the online video source, program, segment, and date
aired (if applicable).
190
Example: In a session on mindfulness delivered at the
University of Miami on October 9, 2015, and broadcast on
YouTube, Jon Kabat-Zinn, scientist, renowned author, and
founding director of the Stress Reduction Clinic …
QUICK TIP
Credit Sources in Presentation Aids

Just as you acknowledge the ideas of others in the verbal portion of
your speech, be sure to credit such material used in any accompanying
presentation aids. When reproducing copyrighted material, such as a
table or photograph, label it with a copyright symbol (©) and the
source information. Even if it is not copyrighted, supporting material
listed on a visual aid may require citation. You may cite this material
orally, print the citation unobtrusively on the aid, or both.
Testimony (Lay or Expert)

Name the person, date, and context in which information was
offered.
Example: On June 7, 2016, in congressional testimony

before the U.S. Senate Foreign Relations Committee,
Victoria Nuland, Assistant Secretary of State for European
and Eurasian Affairs, revealed that Russian violations of
borders …
Interview and Other Personal
191
Communication
Name the person and date of the interview or personal
communication.
Example: In an interview I conducted last week, Tim

Zeutenhorst, chairman of the Orange City Area Health
System Board, at Orange City Hospital in Iowa, said …
Example: In a June 23, 2018, email/Twitter

post/letter/memorandum from Ron Jones, a researcher at
the Cleveland Clinic …
CHECKLIST
Offering Key Source Information

Have I identified the author or origin of the source?
Have I indicated the type of source?
Have I offered the title or description of the source?
Have I noted the date of the source?
Have I qualified the source to establish its reliability and
credibility?
192
Part 3 Organization
11. Organizing the Body of the Speech
12. Selecting an Organizational Pattern
13. Preparing Outlines for the Speech
VIDEO
ACTIVITY
Go to LaunchPad to watch a video in which two students explore
how to outline a speech effectively. Visit launchpadworks.com
LaunchPad includes:

documentation help.
193
194
CHAPTER 11 Organizing the Body of the
Speech
A speech structure is simple, composed of just three basic parts:
an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. The introduction
establishes the purpose of the speech and shows its relevance to
the audience. The body of the speech presents main points that
are intended to fulfill the speech purpose. The conclusion
brings closure to the speech by restating the purpose,
summarizing main points, and reiterating the thesis and its
relevance to the audience. In essence, the introduction of a
speech tells listeners where they are going, the body takes them
there, and the conclusion lets them know the journey has
ended.
Chapter 14 describes how to create effective introductions

and conclusions. Here we focus on the elements of the speech
body—main points, supporting points, and transitions—and
how to arrange them in an outline. In an outline, you separate
main and supporting points—the major speech claims and the
evidence to support them—into larger and smaller divisions and
subdivisions. (See also Chapter 13 on Preparing Outlines for the
Speech.)
195
Use Main Points to Make
Your Major Claims
Main points express the key ideas of the speech. Their function
is to represent each of the major ideas or claims being made in
support of the speech thesis. To create main points, identify the
most important ideas of the speech, as reflected in your thesis.
What ideas can you demonstrate with supporting material?
Each of these ideas or claims should be expressed as a main
point.
Restrict the Number of Main

Points
Research indicates that audiences can comfortably take in only
between two and seven main points.1 For most speeches, and
especially those delivered in the classroom, between two and
five main points should be sufficient. As a rule, the fewer main
points in a speech, the greater the odds that you will maintain
your listeners’ attention. If you have too many main points,
further narrow your topic (see Chapter 7) or check the points
for proper subordination (see Pay Close Attention to
Coordination and Subordination).
QUICK TIP
Save the Best for Last—or First
196
Listeners have the best recall of speech points made at the beginning of
a speech (the “primacy effect”) and at the end of a speech (the “recency
effect”) than of those made in between (unless the ideas made in
between are much more striking than the others).2 If it is especially
important that listeners remember certain ideas, introduce those ideas
near the beginning of the speech and reiterate them at the conclusion.
Restrict Each Main Point to a

Single Idea
A main point should not introduce more than one idea. If it
does, split it into two (or more) main points:
Incorrect: I. We have more free speech on earth than at any previous time
in recorded history, but free speech is under serious threat
from extremes on all sides, even though freedom of speech
sustains all the other freedoms we enjoy.
Correct: I. We have more free speech than at any previous time in
recorded history.
II. Free speech is under serious threat from extremes on all
sides.
III. Freedom of speech sustains all the other freedoms we enjoy.3
Main points should be mutually exclusive of one another. If

they are not, consider whether a main point more properly
serves as a subpoint.
Express each main point as a declarative sentence—one that

asserts or claims something. In addition, state your main points
(and supporting points; see below) in parallel form—that is, in
similar grammatical form and style (see Experiment with
197
Parallelism). Phrasing points in parallel form helps listeners
understand and retain the points (by providing consistency) and
lends power and elegance to your words.
Incorrect: I. After college, female students who were athletes are more
likely to be employed full time than female students who did
not engage in athletics.
II. They are also more likely to thrive physically.
III. Social well-being is another aspect in which female student
athletes score better.
Correct: I. After college, female student athletes are more likely to be

employed full time.
II. Post graduation, female student athletes are also more likely
to thrive in their physical well-being.
III. After they graduate, female student athletes are more likely
to thrive in their social well-being.
Use the Purpose and Thesis

Statements as Guides
Main points should flow directly from your specific purpose
and thesis statements (see Refine the Topic and Purpose), as in
the following example:
Specific Purpose: “I want my audience to understand the

What you want the audience reasons why meditation is helpful for mental
to learn or do as a result of and physical health.”
your speech
Thesis: “Meditation is an effective means of reducing

The central idea of the stress and improving overall mental and
speech physical health.”
Main Points: I. Meditation helps you gain inner peace.
198
II. Meditation helps you increase self-
awareness.
III. Regular meditation can improve heart
health.
199
Use Supporting Points
to Substantiate Your
Claims
Supporting points organize the evidence you have gathered to
explain (in an informative speech) or justify (in a persuasive
speech) the main points. It is here that you substantiate or
prove the main points with examples, narratives, testimony,
facts, and statistics discovered in your research (see Chapter 8).
In an outline, supporting points appear in a subordinate

position to main points. This is indicated by indentation. Just as
with main points, order supporting points according to their
importance or relevance to the main point.
The most common format for outlining points is the roman

numeral outline. Main points are enumerated with uppercase
roman numerals (I, II, III …), supporting points are
enumerated with capital letters (A, B, C …), sub-supporting
points are enumerated with Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3 …), and
sub-subsupporting points are enumerated with lowercase
letters (a, b, c …), as seen in the following:
I. Main point
A. Supporting point
1. Subsupporting point
a. Sub-subsupporting point
200
b. Sub-subsupporting point
2. Subsupporting point
a. Sub-subsupporting point
b. Sub-subsupporting point
B. Supporting point
II. Main point
201
Pay Close Attention to
Coordination and
Subordination
Outlines reflect the principles of coordination and
subordination—the logical placement of ideas relative to their
importance to one another. Ideas that are coordinate are given
equal weight; coordinate points are indicated by their parallel
alignment. An idea that is subordinate to another is given
relatively less weight; subordinate points are indicated by their
indentation below the more important points.
Principles of Coordination and

Subordination
Assign equal weight to ideas that are coordinate.
Assign relatively less weight to ideas that are subordinate.
Indicate coordinate points by their parallel alignment.
Indicate subordinate points by their indentation below the
more important points.
Every point must be supported by at least two points or
none at all (consider how to address one “dangling” point
by including it in the point above it).
202
Strive for a Unified,
Coherent, and Balanced
Organization
A well-organized speech is characterized by unity, coherence,
and balance. Try to adhere to these principles as you arrange
your speech points.
A speech exhibits unity when it contains only those points

implied by the specific purpose and thesis statements. The
thesis is supported by main points, main points are
strengthened by supporting points, and supporting points
consist of carefully chosen evidence and examples.
A speech exhibits coherence when it is organized clearly and

logically, with speech points aligned in order of importance (see
“Principles of Coordination and Subordination”). Main points
should support the thesis statement, and supporting points
should enlarge upon the main points. Transitions serve as
mental bridges that help establish coherence.
The principle of balance suggests that appropriate emphasis

or weight be given to each part of the speech relative to the
other parts and to the thesis. Inexperienced speakers may
devote overly lengthy coverage to one point and insufficient
attention to the others, or may provide scanty evidence in the
body of the speech after presenting an impressive introduction.
203
The body of a speech should always be the longest part, and the
introduction and conclusion should be of roughly the same
length. Stating the main points in parallel form is one aspect of
balance. Assigning each main point at least two supporting
points is another. If you have only one subpoint, consider how
you might incorporate it into the superior point. Think of a
main point as a tabletop and supporting points as table legs;
without at least two legs, the table cannot stand.
CHECKLIST
Reviewing Main and Supporting Points

Do the main points flow directly from the speech goal and
thesis?
Do the main points express the key points of the speech?
Is each main point truly a main point or a subpoint of another
main point?
Is each main point substantiated by at least two supporting
points—or none?
Do you spend roughly the same amount of time on each main
point?
Are the supporting points truly subordinate to the main points?
Does each main point and supporting point focus on a single
idea?
Are the main and supporting points stated in parallel form?
204
Use Transitions to Give
Direction to the Speech
Transitions are words, phrases, or sentences that tie the speech
ideas together and enable the listener to follow the speaker as
he or she moves from one point to the next. Transitions (also
called connectives) are a truly critical component of speeches
because listeners cannot go back and re-read what they might
have missed. Focus on creating transitions to shift listeners
from one point to the next. Transitions can take the form of full
sentences, phrases, or single words.
Use Transitions between Speech

Points
Use transitions to move between speech points—from one main
point to the next, and from one subpoint to another.
When moving from one main point to another, full-sentence

transitions are especially effective. For example, to move from
main point I in a speech about sales contests (“Top
management should sponsor sales contests to halt the decline
in sales”) to main point II (“Sales contests will lead to better
sales presentations”), the speaker might use the following
transition:
Next, let’s look at exactly what sales contests can do for us.
205
Transitions between supporting points can be handled using
single words, phrases, or full sentences as in the following:
Next, …
First, … (second, third, and so forth)
Similarly, …
We now turn …
If you think that’s shocking, consider this …
Use Internal Previews and

Summaries as Transitions
Previews briefly introduce audience members to the ideas that
the speaker will address. In a speech introduction, the preview
statement briefly mentions the main points and thesis of the
speech (see Preview the Main Points.) Within the body itself,
speakers use an internal preview to draw the audience in with
a glimpse of what they will discuss next. An internal summary
draws together ideas to reinforce them before proceeding to
another speech point. Often, a speaker will transition from one
major idea or main point to the next using an internal summary
and internal preview together.
We’ve seen that mountain bikes differ from road bikes in

the design of the tires, the seat, the gears, the suspension
systems, and the handlebars. (internal summary) Now let’s
take a look at the different types of mountain bikes
themselves. As you will see, mountain bikes vary according
to the type of riding they’re designed to handle—downhill,
206
trails, and cross-country. Let’s begin with cross-country.
(internal preview)
See Chapter 13 for guidance on including transitions in the

outline of your speech.
CHECKLIST
Use Transitional Words and Phrases

To show comparisons: similarly; in the same way; likewise; just
as
To contrast ideas: on the other hand; and yet; at the same time;
in spite of; however; in contrast
To illustrate cause and effect: as a result; hence; because;
thus; consequently
To illustrate sequence of time or events: first, second, third
…; following this; later; earlier; at present; in the past
To indicate explanation: for example; to illustrate; in other
words; to simplify; to clarify
To indicate additional examples: not only; in addition to; let’s
look at
To emphasize significance: most important; above all;
remember; keep in mind
To summarize: in conclusion; in summary; finally; let me
conclude by saying
207
FROM POINT TO POINT
Using Transitions to Guide Your Listeners

Transitions direct your listeners from one point to another in your
speech, leading them forward along a logical path while reinforcing key
ideas along the way. Plan on using transitions to move between:
The introduction and the body of the speech

The main points
The subpoints, whenever appropriate
The body of the speech and the conclusion
Introduction
I. Today I’ll explore the steps you can take to help achieve carbon neutrality
on your campus …
(TRANSITION: So how do you go carbon-neutral?)
Body
I. Get informed—examine the steps that other campuses have already

taken toward carbon neutrality
(TRANSITION: Looking at what other campuses have done is only part of carbon
neutrality, however. Perhaps most important, …)
II. Recognize that change starts here, on campus, with you. …
While transitions help guide your listeners from point to point, they can
also do a lot more, including:
Introduce main points

Illustrate cause and effect
208
Signal explanations and examples
Emphasize, repeat, compare, or contrast ideas
Summarize and preview information
Suggest conclusions from evidence
Following is an excerpt from a working outline on a speech about

achieving carbon neutrality on campus. Note how the student edits
himself to ensure that he (1) uses transitions to help listeners follow
along and retain his speech points and (2) uses transitions strategically
to achieve his goal of persuading the audience.
(TRANSITION: Why is it important for college campuses to become carbon-

neutral?)
I. College campuses generate the carbon equivalent of many large towns …
(TRANSITION: As a result …)
A. Colleges have a moral responsibility to their students and their

surrounding communities to reduce carbon emissions …
B. Administrators face decisions about mounting energy costs …
(TRANSITION: Following are some ideas to create a carbon-neutral campus.

First …)
I. Launch a campus-wide campaign to encourage students to reduce their

energy use
(TRANSITION: For example …)
A. Provide energy-efficient lightbulbs to students

B. Encourage students to use bikes and public transit as much as possible,
instead of personal cars
C. Emphasize the importance of shutting off lights and electronic devices
when leaving a room …
(TRANSITION: Pushing students to take action is a critical part of achieving

carbon neutrality. But another key aspect is action by school administrators,
209
who have the power to implement wide-ranging sustainable energy policies …)
II. Lobby administrators to investigate biomass facilities and offshore wind

and solar energy sources …
A. Ensure that new campus buildings meet renewable energy
standards …
B. Take necessary steps to retrofit older campus buildings …
C. Explore alternative heating …
(TRANSITION: So far, we’ve talked about practical actions we can take to move
toward carbon neutrality on campus, but what about beyond the campus?)
III. Get involved at the town government level

A. Town-gown communities …
B. Speak up and voice your concerns …
(TRANSITION: As you can see, we have work to do …)
Conclusion
I. If we want our children and our children’s children to see a healthy earth,
we must take action now …
210
CHAPTER 12 Selecting an Organizational
Pattern
Of all of the aspects of speechmaking, the idea of organizational
arrangements may seem the most confusing. But selecting and
organizing speech points into a pattern is easier and more
natural than it might seem. An organizational pattern helps you
link points together to maximum effect for your topic and
purpose and lets the audience follow your ideas as you wish.
Studies confirm that the way you organize your ideas affects
your audience’s understanding of them, so you’ll want to make
use of a pattern.1 A good time to select one is after you’ve
researched the speech and prepared main points.
Speeches make use of at least a dozen different

organizational arrangements of main and supporting points.
Here we look at six commonly used patterns, five of which are
used for all forms of speeches: chronological, spatial, causal
(cause-effect), topical, and narrative, and one, the problem-
solution pattern, which is typically used for persuasive
speeches. In Chapter 23, you will find three additional patterns
of organization designed solely for persuasive speeches:
Monroe’s motivated sequence, comparative advantage, and
refutation.
211
Arranging Speech Points
Chronologically
Some topics lend themselves well to the arrangement of main
points according to their occurrence in time relative to one
another. The chronological pattern of arrangement (also
called the temporal pattern) follows the natural sequential
order of the main points. Topics that describe a series of events
in time (such as events leading to development of a vaccine) or
develop in line with a set pattern of actions or tasks (such as
steps in installing solar panels) call out for this pattern. A
speech describing the development of the World Wide Web, for
example, immediately calls for a time-ordered sequence of
main points:
Thesis The internet evolved from a small network designed for

Statement: military and academic scientists into a vast array of networks
used by billions of people around the globe.
Main I. The internet was first conceived in 1962 as the ARPANET to

Points: promote the sharing of research among scientists in the
United States.
II. In the 1980s, a team created TCP/IP, a language that could
link networks, and the internet as we know it was born.
III. At the end of the Cold War, the ARPANET was
decommissioned, and the World Wide Web constituted the
bulk of internet traffic.
One Topic (Patterns of Immigration) Organized Six Ways
Chronological Pattern
212
Thesis Statement: “Immigration to the U.S. has ebbed and flowed, from the first
large wave in 1820 to the most recent wave beginning in 1965.”
Sample Main Points:

I. First large wave occurred between 1790 and 1820: English, Scottish, Irish,
Germans, and Spanish.
II. Second wave, largely German, British, and Irish, arrived between 1820 and
1860.
III. Asian immigrants arrived in Western states between 1880 and 1914 in the third
wave.
IV. Fourth wave, 1965-present: Asians, Mexicans, South and Central Americans,
and Europeans.
Spatial Pattern
Thesis Statement: “Border Patrol sectors—from west-ernmost San Diego to

easternmost Brownsville—have highest apprehension rates for undocumented
migrants.”2
Sample Main Points:

I. For many years, highest migrant apprehension rates occurred, from west to
east, for San Diego, Tucson, and El Paso sectors, but these sectors have seen
steep declines in recent years.
II. Along the middle of the border, two Texas sectors—Del Rio and Laredo—have
shown modest increases in migrant apprehensions since 2010.
III. Recently, the Rio Grande Valley Sector, at east end of Texas border, has seen
increased apprehensions, leading all sectors.
Causal Pattern
Thesis Statement: “U.S. children whose parents are unauthorized immigrants

(cause) are exposed to risks, including lower preschool enrollment, poverty, and
reduced socioeconomic progress.” (effects)
Sample Main Points:

I. Children ages 3–4 with unauthorized immigrant parents are less likely to
attend preschool.3
II. Three-quarters of children with unauthorized parents have incomes under 185
percent of the poverty line.4
III. Children with unauthorized parents are more likely to stay in poverty.5
Problem-Solution Pattern
Thesis Statement: “Persons who overstay their visas account for about 40
percent of undocumented immigrants in the U.S.6 (problem) To address the issue,
213
we need a biometric (fingerprint) exit system that will identify visa overstayers.”
(solution)
Sample Main Points:

I. Up to five million persons who entered the United States legally remain here
with expired visas.7
II. The Department of Homeland Security takes fingerprints and photos of
entering visitors with visas but has no similar system to track their exits.
III. DHS plans to launch a biometric exit system at high-volume airports in 2018.8
Topical Pattern
Thesis Statement: “Debates about immigration often focus on immigrants’ role

in the labor force, admissions policies, and enforcement policies.”
Sample Main Points:

I. Immigrants accounted for nearly 17 percent of the civilian labor force in 2014.9
II. Immigration admissions policies are based on reuniting families, admitting
skilled workers, and protecting refugees.10
III. The Criminal Alien Program (CAP) is the primary immigration enforcement
channel.11
Narrative Pattern
Thesis Statement: “I came to the U.S. illegally as the child of undocumented

immigrants. I am about to graduate high school and want to go to college, but
because I am undocumented I cannot apply for aid.”
Sample Main Points:

I. I was brought to the United States at age 3 by undocumented parents.
II. I attended U.S. schools through high school.
III. I remain undocumented and cannot apply for college aid.
214
Using a Spatial Pattern
When describing the physical arrangement of a place, a scene,
or an object, logic suggests that the main points can be arranged
in order of their physical proximity or direction relative to one
another. This calls for a spatial pattern of arrangement. For
example, you can select a spatial arrangement when your
speech provides the audience with a “tour” of a particular place:
Thesis El Morro National Monument in New Mexico is captivating for

Statement: its variety of natural and historical landmarks.
Main I. Visitors first encounter an abundant variety of plant life

Points: native to the high-country desert.
II. Soon visitors come upon an age-old watering hole that has
receded beneath the 200-foot cliffs.
III. Beyond are the famous cliff carvings made by hundreds of
travelers over several centuries of exploration in the
Southwest.
In a speech describing a geothermal heating and cooling

company’s market growth across regions of the country, a
speaker might use the spatial arrangement as follows:
Thesis Sales of geothermal systems have grown in every region of

Statement: the country.
Main Points: I. Sales are strongest in the Eastern Zone.

II. Sales are growing at a rate of 10 percent quarterly in the
Central Zone.
III. Sales are up slightly in the Mountain Zone.
215
Using a Causal (Cause-
Effect) Pattern
Some speech topics represent cause-effect relationships.
Examples include (1) events leading to higher interest rates, (2)
reasons students drop out of college, and (3) causes of a disease.
The main points in a causal (cause-effect) pattern of
arrangement usually take the following form:
I. Cause
II. Effect
Sometimes a topic can be discussed in terms of multiple

causes for a single effect, or a single cause for multiple effects:
Multiple Causes for a Single Effect Single Cause for Multiple Effects
(Reasons Students Drop Out of (Reasons Students Drop Out of
College) College)
I. Cause 1 (lack of funds) I. Cause (lack of funds)

II. Cause 2 (unsatisfactory social life) II. Effect 1 (lowered earnings over
lifetime)
III. Cause 3 (unsatisfactory academic III. Effect 2 (decreased job
performance) satisfaction over lifetime)
IV. Effect (drop out of college) IV. Effect 3 (increased stress level)
Some topics are best understood by presenting listeners with

the effect(s) before the cause(s). In a speech on health care
216
costs, a student speaker arranges his main points as follows:
Thesis In response to rising health care costs, large employers are

Statement: shifting part of the expense to workers.
Main I. (effect) Workers are now seeing higher co-pays and

Points: deductibles.
II. (effect) Raising the amount employees must contribute has
restricted employer costs to just 5 percent this year.
III. (cause) The Affordable Care Act mandates that large
employers offer more of their workers health care plans.
IV. (cause) Rising health care costs have led to more expensive
plans at all levels of coverage.
QUICK TIP
Blend Organizational Patterns

The pattern of organization for your subpoints can differ from the
pattern you select for your main points. Do keep your main points in
one pattern—this will be the predominant pattern for the speech—but
feel free to use other patterns for subpoints when it makes sense to do
so. For instance, for a speech about the history of tattooing in the
United States, you may choose a chronological pattern to organize the
main points but use a cause-effect arrangement for some of your
subpoints regarding why tattooing is so popular today.
217
Using a Problem-Solution
Pattern
The problem-solution pattern organizes main points to
demonstrate the nature and significance of a problem followed
by a proposed solution. Most often used in persuasive speeches,
the problem-solution pattern can be arranged as simply as two
main points:
I. Problem (define what it is)

II. Solution (offer a way to overcome the problem)
But many problem-solution speeches require more than two

points to adequately explain the problem and to substantiate the
recommended solution:
I. The nature of the problem (identify its causes,

incidence, etc.)
II. Effects of the problem (explain why it’s a problem, for
whom, etc.)
III. Unsatisfactory solutions (discuss those that have not
worked)
IV. Proposed solution (explain why it’s expected to work)
Following is a partial outline of a persuasive speech about

cyberbullying arranged in a problem-solution format (for more
on using the problem-solution pattern in persuasive speeches,
218
see Chapter 24).
Thesis To combat cyberbullying, we need to educate the public about

Statement: it, report it when it happens, and punish the offenders.
Main I. Nature of cyberbullying

Point: A. Types of activities involved
1. Name-calling, insults
2. Circulation of embarrassing pictures
3. Sharing of private information
4. Threats
B. Incidence of bullying
C. Profile of offenders
Main II. Effects of cyberbullying on victims

Point: A. Acting out in school
B. Feeling unsafe in school
C. Skipping school
D. Experiencing depression
Main III. Unsuccessful attempts at solving cyberbullying

Point: A. Let offenders and victims work it out on their own
B. Ignore problem, assuming it will go away
Main IV. Ways to solve cyberbullying

Point: A. Educate in schools
B. Report incidents to authorities
C. Suspend or expel offenders
219
Topically
When each of the main points is a subtopic or category of the
speech topic, try the topical pattern of arrangement (also
called categorical pattern). Consider an informative speech
about choosing Chicago as a place to establish a career. You
plan to emphasize three reasons for choosing Chicago: the
strong economic climate of the city, its cultural variety, and its
accessible public transportation. Since these three points are of
relatively equal importance, they can be arranged in any order
without affecting one another or the speech purpose negatively.
For example:
Thesis Statement: Chicago is an excellent place to establish a career.
Main Points: I. Accessible transportation

II. Cultural variety
III. Multiple industries
This is not to say that when using a topical arrangement, you

should arrange the main points without careful consideration.
Any number of considerations can factor into your ordering of
points, not least of which should be the audience’s most
immediate needs and interests. Perhaps you have determined
that listeners’ main concern is the city’s attractions for young
professionals, followed by an interest in its cultural variety and
accessible transportation.
220
QUICK TIP
Find Freedom with the Topical Pattern

Topical arrangements give you the greatest freedom to structure main
points according to the way you wish to present your topic. You can
approach a topic by dividing it into two or more categories, for
example. You can lead with your strongest evidence or leave your most
compelling points until you near the conclusion. If your topic does not
call out for one of the other patterns described in this chapter, be sure
to experiment with the topical pattern.
221
Using a Narrative Pattern
Storytelling is often a natural and effective way to get your
message across. In the narrative pattern, the speech consists of
a story or series of short stories, replete with characters,
conflict or complications, and resolution (see Share Stories).
In practice, a speech built largely upon a story (or series of

stories) is likely to incorporate elements of other designs. You
might organize the main points of the story in an effect-cause
design, in which you first reveal the outcome of what happened
(such as a man-made disaster) and then describe the events that
led up to the accident (the causes).
Whatever the structure, simply telling a story is no guarantee

of giving a good speech. Any speech should include an
introduction with a preview and clear thesis, well-organized
main points, effective transitions, and a conclusion.
CHECKLIST
Determining an Organizational Pattern

Does your speech …
Describe a series of developments in time or a set of actions

that occur sequentially? Use the chronological pattern.
222
Describe or explain the physical arrangement of a place, a
scene, or an object? Use the spatial pattern.
Explain or demonstrate a topic in terms of its underlying
causes or effects? Use the causal pattern.
Demonstrate the nature and significance of a problem and
justify a proposed solution? Use the problem-solution pattern.
Stress natural divisions or categories of a topic, in which points
can be moved to emphasize audience needs and interests? Use
a topical pattern.
Convey ideas through a story, using character, conflict, and
resolution? Use a narrative pattern, perhaps in combination
with another pattern.
223
CHAPTER 13 Preparing Outlines for the
Speech
Outlines are enormously helpful in putting together and
delivering a successful speech, providing a framework for your
speech materials and a blueprint for your presentation. Plotting
points into hierarchical fashion based on their relative
importance to one another and using indentation to visually
represent this hierarchy will allow you to examine the
underlying logic and relationship of ideas to one another.
Speakers can choose among several different types of outline

formats. (For a review of the principles and of the mechanics of
outlining, see Chapter 11.)
224
Plan on Creating Two
Outlines
As you develop a speech, plan on creating two outlines: a
working outline and a speaking, or delivery, outline. Use the
working outline (also called a preparation outline) to organize
and firm up main points and, with the research you’ve
gathered, develop supporting points to substantiate them.
Completed, the working outline should contain your entire
speech, organized and supported to your satisfaction.
Use a speaking outline to practice and actually present the

speech. Speaking outlines contain the working outline in
condensed form and are much briefer. Figure 13.1 provides an
overview of the steps involved in outlining a speech.
225
FIGURE 13.1 Steps in Organizing and Outlining the Speech
Use Sentences, Phrases, or Key

Words
Speeches can be outlined in sentences, phrases, or key words.
226
(Working outlines typically contain partial or full sentences,
reflecting much of the text of the speech; speaking outlines use
key words or short phrases.)
In the sentence outline format, each main and supporting

point is stated in sentence form as a declarative statement (e.g.,
one that states a fact or an argument) in much the same way
you will express the idea during delivery. Following is an
excerpt in sentence format from a speech by Mark B. McClellan
on keeping prescription drugs safe:1
I. The prescription drug supply is under attack from a variety

of increasingly sophisticated threats.
A. Technologies for counterfeiting—ranging from pill
molding to dyes—have improved across the board.
B. Inadequately regulated internet sites have become
major portals for unsafe and illegal drugs.
A phrase outline uses partial construction of the sentence

form of each point. McClellan’s sentence outline would appear
as follows in phrase outline form:
I. Drug supply under attack

A. Counterfeiting technologies more sophisticated
B. Unregulated internet sites
The key-word outline uses the smallest possible units of

understanding to outline the main and supporting points. Key-
word outlines encourage you to become familiar enough with
your speech points that a glance at a few words is enough to
227
remind you of exactly what to say.
I. Threats
A. Counterfeiting
B. Internet
Use a Key-Word Outline for

Optimal Eye Contact
The type of outline you select will affect how you deliver a
speech. The less you rely on reading any outline, the more eye
contact you can have with audience members—an essential
aspect of a successful speech. For this reason, experts
recommend using key-word or phrase outlines over sentence
outlines, with key-word outline often being the preferred
format. Key-word outlines permit not only the greatest degree
of eye contact but also greater freedom of movement and better
control of your thoughts and actions than either sentence or
phrase outlines. With adequate practice, the key words will jog
your memory so that the delivery of your ideas becomes more
natural.
228
Create a Working
Outline First
Begin with a working outline before transferring your ideas to a
speaking outline containing key words or shortened phrases.
Edit and rearrange items in the working outline as necessary as
you work through the mass of information you’ve collected.
Prepare the body of the speech before the introduction,

keeping the introduction (and the conclusion) separate from the
main points (see sample outlines in this chapter). Since
introductions serve to preview main points, you will first need
to finalize the main points in the body. Introductions must also
gain the audience’s attention, introduce the topic and thesis,
and establish the speaker’s credibility (see Chapter 14). To
ensure that you address these elements, use such labels as
Attention Getter, Topic and Thesis, Credibility Statement, and
Preview Statement (see the Sample Working Outline below).
SAMPLE WORKING OUTLINE

The following working outline is from a speech delivered by
public speaking student Zachary Dominque. It includes all
elements of the speech, including transitions and reminders to
show presentation aids (SHOW SLIDE) in red. (In practice,
working outlines may or may not include delivery cues;
speaking outlines do include them. See the Sample Speaking
Outline.) Next to each mention of a source requiring credit is a
229
note in parentheses (e.g., “For bibliography: ABC of Mountain
Biking”). This allows you to maintain a bibliography. The
speech is organized topically, according to natural subdivisions
of a topic (see Arranging Speech Points Topically).
The History and Sport of Mountain Biking
Zachary Dominque
St. Edwards University
Topic: Mountain Biking
General Speech To inform my listeners about the sport of mountain

Purpose: biking
Specific Purpose: To help my audience gain an overview of and

appreciation for mountain biking
Thesis Mountain biking is a relatively new, exciting, and diverse

Statement: sport.
Introduction
(Attention getter)
I. Imagine that you’re on a bike, plunging down a steep, rock-

strewn mountain, yet fully in control.
II. Adrenaline courses through your body as you hurtle
through the air, touch down on glistening pebbled streams
and tangled grasses, and rocket upward again.
III. You should be scared, but you’re not; in fact, you’re having
the time of your life.
IV. Like we say, Nirvana.
V. How many of you like to bike—ride to campus, bike for
230
fitness, or cycle just for fun?
VI. You might own a bike with a lightweight frame and thin
wheels, and use it to log some serious mileage—or possibly
a comfort bike, with a nice soft seat and solid tires.
(Credibility statement:)
VII. Good morning, folks. My name is Zachary Dominque, and

I’m a mountain biker.
VIII. I’ve been racing since I was eight years old and won state
champion three years ago, so this topic is close to my heart.
(Preview)
IX. Today, I’m going to take you on a tour of the exciting sport
of mountain biking: I’ll be your engine—your driver—in
mountain bike–speak.
X. Our ride begins with a brief overview of mountain biking;
then we’ll do a hopturn—a turn in reverse—to learn about
the sport’s colorful history.
XI. Pedalling ahead in this beautiful autumn air, we’ll chat
about the various differences in design and function
between mountain bikes and road bikes.
XII. We’ll conclude our tour at a local bike shop, where you can
compare downhill, trail, and cross-country mountain bikes.
XIII. These are the three main types of mountain bikes, designed
for the three major types of mountain biking.
XIV. I hope by then that you’ll catch a little bit of mountain
biking fever and see why I find it such an exciting, intense,
and physically challenging sport.
231
(TRANSITION) Mountain biking is a sport that can be extreme,
recreational, or somewhere in between. But no matter what
kind of rider you are, it’s always a great way to get out in the
natural world and get the adrenaline going. To start, let me
briefly define mountain biking.
Body
I. The website ABC of Mountain Biking offers a good basic

definition: “Mountain biking is a form of cycling on off-
road or unpaved surfaces such as mountain trails and dirt
roads; the biker uses a bicycle with a sturdy frame and fat
tires.” (For bibliography: ABC of Mountain Biking)
A. The idea behind mountain biking is to go where other
bikes won’t take you.
1. Mountain bikers ride on backcountry roads and on
single-track trails winding through fields or
forests.
2. They climb up steep, rock-strewn hills and race
down over them.
3. The focus is on self-reliance, because these bikers
often venture miles from help.
B. According to the National Bicycle Dealers Association
website, in 2012 mountain bikes accounted for 25
percent of all bikes sold in the United States.
1. If you factor in sales of the comfort bike, which is
actually a mountain bike modified for purely
recreational riders, sales jump to nearly 38 percent
of all bikes sold. (For bibliography: National
Bicycle Dealers Assn)
232
2. Some 50 million Americans love riding their
mountain bikes, according to data collected by the
New England Mountain Bike Association. (For
bibliography: New England Mountain Bike Assn)
(TRANSITION) So you see that mountain biking is popular with

a lot of people. But the sport itself is fairly new.
II. The history of mountain biking is less than 50 years old,

and its founders are still around.
A. The man in this picture is Gary Fisher, one of the
founders of mountain biking. (SHOW GF SLIDE 1)
B. According to The Original Mountain Bike Book, written
in 1998 by pioneering mountain bikers Rob van der
Plas and Charles Kelly, they, along with Fisher, Joe
Breeze, and other members of the founding posse from
the Marin County, California, area, were instrumental
in founding the modern sport of mountain biking in the
early 1970s. (For bibliography: Original MB Book)
C. Mountain bikes—called MTBs or ATBs (for all-terrain
bikes)—didn’t exist then as we now know them, so as
you can see in this picture of Gary Fisher, he’s riding a
modified one-speed Schwinn cruiser. (SHOW
SCHWINN SLIDE 2)
1. Cruisers, or “ballooners,” aren’t made to go off
road at all.
2. Nothing equips them to navigate trails, and their
brakes aren’t remotely equipped to handle stops on
steep descents.
3. But this is the type of bike Fisher and others started
233
out with.
D. By the mid-1970s, growing numbers of bikers in
California got into using modified cruisers to race
downhill on rocky trails.
1. They’d meet at the bottom of Mount Tamalpais, in
Corte Madera, California. (SHOW MT TAM SLIDE
3)
2. They’d walk their bikes a mile or two up its steep
slopes, and hurl on down.
E. As even more people got involved, Charles Kelly and
others organized the famed Repack Downhill Race on
Mt. Tam.
1. Held from 1976 to 1979, the Repack race became a
magnet for enthusiasts and put the sport on the
map, according to The Original Mountain Bike
Book.
(TRANSITION) The reason why the race was called “Repack” is

a story in itself.
2. The trail in the Repack race plummeted 1,300 feet in less

than 2 miles.
a. Such a steep drop meant constant braking, which in
turn required riders to replace, or “repack,” their bikes’
grease after nearly each run, according to the Marin
Museum of Biking website. (For bibliography: Marin
Museum)
b. As Breeze recounts in his own words: “The bikes’
antiquated hub coaster brake would get so hot that the
grease would vaporize, and after a run or two, the hub
234
had to be repacked with new grease.” (SHOW BIKE
SLIDE 4)
(TRANSITION) As you might imagine, these early enthusiasts

eventually tired of the routine.
F. The bikers had tinkered with their bikes from the start,
adding gearing, drum brakes, and suspension systems.
G. In 1979, Joe Breeze designed a new frame—called the
“Breezer”—which became the first actual mountain bike.
H. By 1982, as van der Plas and Kelly write in The Original
Mountain Bike Book, standardized production of mountain
bikes finally took off.
(TRANSITION) Now that you’ve learned a bit of the history of

mountain biking, let’s look at what today’s mountain bike can
do. To make things clearer, I’ll compare them to road bikes.
Road bikes are the class of bikes that cyclists who compete in
the Tour de France use.
III. Mountain bikes and road bikes are built for different
purposes. (SHOW MB & RB SLIDE 5)
A. Mountain bikes are built to tackle rough ground, while
road bikes are designed to ride fast on paved, smooth
surfaces.
1. To accomplish their task, mountain bikes feature
wide tires with tough tread.
2. In contrast, road bike tires are ultrathin and their
frames extremely lightweight.
a. If you take a road bike off-road, chances are
235
you’ll destroy it.
b. Without the knobby tread and thickness found
on mountain bike tires, road bike tires can’t
grip onto the rocks and other obstacles that
cover off-road courses.
B. The handlebars on the bikes also differ, as you can see
here.
1. Mountain bikes feature flat handlebars; these keep
us in an upright stance, so that we don’t flip over
when we hit something.
2. The drop handlebars on road bikes require the
cyclist to lean far forward; this position suits road
cycling, which prizes speed.
C. The gears and suspension systems also differentiate
mountain bikes from road bikes.
1. Mountain bikes use lower gears than road bikes
and are more widely spaced, giving them more
control to ride difficult terrain.
2. As for suspension, road bikes generally don’t have
any kind of suspension system that can absorb
power.
a. That is, they don’t have shock absorbers
because they’re not supposed to hit anything.
b. Imagine riding over rocks and roots without
shocks; it wouldn’t be pretty.
3. Many mountain bikes have at least a great front
shock absorbing suspension system.
a. Some have rear-suspension systems.
b. Some bikes have dual systems.
236
(TRANSITION) I hope by now you have a sense of the mountain
bike design. But there are finer distinctions to draw.
IV. There are actually three different types of mountain bikes,

designed to accommodate the three major kinds of
mountain biking—downhill, trails, and cross-country.
(TRANSITION) Let’s start with downhill. (SHOW DH SLIDE 6)
A. Downhill bikes have the fewest gears of the three types of

mountain bikes and weigh the most.
1. That’s because downhill biking is a daredevil sport—
these bikers are crazy!
2. They slide down hills at insane speeds, and they go off
jumps.
B. As described on the website Trails.com, downhill racers
catch a shuttle going up the mountain, then speed downhill
while chewing up obstacles. (For Bibliography: Trails.com)
C. Think of downhill racing as skiing with a bike.
(TRANSITION) Now let’s swing by trail biking. (SHOW TB

SLIDE 7)
D. Trail bikes look quite different than either downhill or

cross-country bikes.
1. They have very small wheels, measuring either 20, 24,
or 26 inches, and smaller frames.
2. These differences in design help trail bikers do what
they do best: jump over obstacles—cars, rocks, and
large logs.
E. The trail biker’s goal is to not put a foot down on the
237
ground.
F. Trail bike racing is one of the few types of biking that’s
done by time, not all at a mass start.
(TRANSITION) The third major type of mountain biking, cross-

country, or XC cycling, is my sport. (SHOW XC SLIDE 8)
G. Cross-country biking is also the most common type of

mountain biking—and the one sponsored by the Olympics.
1. That’s right. According to Olympic.org, in 1996,
mountain biking became an Olympic sport. (For
Bibliography: Olympic.org)
2. This was just two decades after its inception.
H. With cross-country, you get the best of all worlds, at least in
my humble opinion.
1. The courses are creative, incorporating hills and
valleys and rough to not-so-rough terrain.
2. If done competitively, cross-country biking is like
competing in a marathon.
3. Done recreationally, it offers you the chance to see the
great outdoors while getting, or staying, in great shape.
I. Cross-country bikes come in two forms.
1. XC bikes are very lightweight, with either full or partial
suspension.
2. The Trails/Marathon XC hybrid bikes are a bit heavier,
with full suspension; XC bikes are designed for
seriously long rides.
(TRANSITION) Well, it has been quite a tour, folks. (Signals

close of speech)
238
Conclusion
I. Our course began with an overview of mountain biking and

a hopturn into a brief history of the sport.
II. We also learned about the differences between mountain
bikes and road bikes, and the three major categories of
mountain bikes. (Summarizes main points)
III. To me, mountain biking, and especially cross-country, is
the perfect sport—fulfilling physical, spiritual, and social
needs.
IV. It’s a great sport to take up recreationally. (Leaves audience
with something to think about)
V. And if you decide to mountain bike competitively, just
remember: Ride fast, drive hard, and leave your blood on
every trail. (Memorable close)
Works Cited
International Olympic Committee. 2015. “Cycling, Mountain

Biking.” March 2015.
www.stillmed.olympic.org/AssetsDocs/OSC%20Section/pdf/QR_sports_s
/Sports_Olympiques_VTT_eng.pdf.
Marin Museum of Biking. n.d. “History of Mountain Biking.”
Accessed October 11, 2017. www.mmbhof.org/mtn-bike-hall-
of-fame/history.
National Bicycle Dealers Association. 2015. “Industry Overview,
2015.” Accessed November 28, 2017.
www.nbda.com/articles/industry-overview-2012-pg34.htm.
New England Mountain Bike Association. 2013. “CT NEMBA’s
Trail School.” April 7, 2013. www.nemba.org/news/ct-
nembas-trail-school.
239
Trails.com. n.d. “Mountain Bikes and Biking.” Accessed
October 11, 2017. www.trails.com/mountain-bikes-and-
biking.html.
Van der Plas, Rob, and Charles Kelly. 1998. The Original
Mountain Bike Book. Minneapolis: Motorbooks.
240
Prepare a Speaking
Outline for Delivery
Using the same numbering system as the working outline,
condense long phrases or sentences into key words or short
phrases, including just enough words to jog your memory.
Include any delivery cues that will be part of the speech (see
below). Place the speaking outline on large (at least 4 × 6-inch)
notecards, 8.5 × 11-inch sheets of paper, or in a speaker’s notes
software program or app (see Chapter 21). Print large enough,
or use large enough fonts, so that you can see the words at a
glance. (For accuracy’s sake, even in phrase or key-word
outlines, direct quotations may be written out verbatim, as seen
in this outline.)
Delivery Cue Example
Transitions (TRANSITION)
Timing (PAUSE)
(SLOW DOWN)
Speaking (SLOWLY)
Rate/Volume (LOUDER)
Presentation (SHOW MODEL)

Aids (SLIDE 3)
Source (ATLANTA CONSTITUTION, August 2, 2018)
Statistic (2018, boys to girls = 94,232; U.S. Health & Human Services)
Quotation Eubie Blake, 100: “If I’d known I was gonna live this long, I’d
241
have taken better care of myself.”
SAMPLE SPEAKING OUTLINE

The History and Sport of Mountain Biking
Zachary Dominque
St. Edwards University
Introduction
I. Imagine on bike, plunging rock-strewn, yet control.

II. Adrenaline, hurtle, touch downstream, rocket.
III. Scared, but not—time of life.
IV. Nirvana.
V. How many bike, fitness, fun?
VI. Might own lightweight, thin wheels, serious mileage—or
comfort, soft seat, solid tires.
VII. Morning, Zachary, MTBer.
VIII. Eight; champion, heart.
IX. Today, tour, exciting sport of … engine, driver, MTB-speak.
X. Ride begins brief overview; do hopturn—colorful history.
XI. Pedaling ahead autumn, chat differences between
mountain, road.
XII. Conclude shop, compare MTBs.
XIII. Three types bikes, designed for three …
XIV. Hope catch fever, exciting, intense, and physically.
(TRANSITION) MTB sport extreme … in-between. But no

matter, always great way natural world, adrenaline. Start,
define.
242
Body
I. ABC/MB def: “MTB is a form of cycling on off-road or

unpaved surfaces such as mountain trails and dirt roads;
the biker uses a bicycle with a sturdy frame and fat tires.”
A. The idea—go where others.
1. MTBs ride backcountry, single-track winding
fields, forests.
2. Climb steep, rock-strewn, race down.
3. Self-reliance, miles from help.
B. National Bicycle Dealers Assoc., 2013 MTBs 25 percent
sold.
1. Factor comfort, actually MTB modified
recreational, sales 38 percent.
2. 50 million love riding, data gathered NE MTB Assn.
(TRANSITION) So MTB popular people. But fairly new.
II. History MTB less 50, founders.

A. Gary Fisher, founders MTB. (SHOW GF SLIDE 1)
B. Original Mountain Bike Book, written 1998 by van der
Plas, Kelly; they, along with Fisher, Breeze, other
members posse Marin, instrumental founding modern
sport early 1970s.
C. MTBs or ATBs (terrain)—didn’t exist, so picture Fisher,
modified Schwinn cruiser. (SHOW SCHWINN SLIDE
2)
1. Cruisers, “ballooners,” off-road.
2. Nothing equips navigate, brakes equipped stops
descents.
243
3. But bike Fisher, others started.
D. Mid-1970s, growing numbers using modified race
downhill.
1. Meet bottom Tamalpais, CA. (SHOW MT TAM
SLIDE 3)
2. Walk bikes mile up steep, hurl.
E. Even involved, Kelly, others organized Repack.
1. 1976–1979, magnet enthusiasts, on map, Original
MTB.
(TRANSITION) Reason called “Repack” story itself.
2. Trail plummeted 1,300 feet 2 miles, Breeze article MTB

Fame website.
a. Such drop constant braking, required riders replace,
“repack,” grease each run.
b. Breeze recounts: “The bikes’ antiquated hub coaster
brake would get so hot that the grease would vaporize,
and after a run or two, the hub had to be repacked with
new grease.” (SHOW BIKE SLIDE 4)
(TRANSITION) Might imagine, early enthusiasts tired.
F. Bikers tinkered, gearing, drum, suspension.

G. 1979, Breeze new frame—“Breezer”—first actual MTB.
H. 1982, as van der Plas, Kelly write in Original MTB,
standardized took off.
(TRANSITION) Now learned history, let’s look today’s can do.

Clearer, compare road. Class cyclists Tour de France use.
244
III. MTB, road built different purposes. (SHOW MB & RB
SLIDE 5)
A. MTB tackle rough, road designed fast, paved, smooth.
1. Accomplish task, wide tire, tough tread.
2. In contrast, road ultrathin, frames lightweight.
a. Take off-road, destroy.
b. Without knobby tread, thickness MTB tires,
road can’t grip rocks, obstacles.
B. Handlebars differ.
1. MTB flat; upright stance, don’t flip.
2. Drop handlebars require forward; suits road
cycling, prizes speed.
C. Gears, suspension also differ.
1. MTB lower gears, widely spaced—more control
difficult terrain.
2. As for suspension, road don’t, absorb power.
a. That is, don’t have shock, not supposed to.
b. Imagine without shocks; wouldn’t be pretty.
3. Many MTBs at least a great front.
a. Some rear.
b. Some dual.
(TRANSITION) Hope sense MTB design, but finer distinction …
IV. Actually three types MTB, accommodate three kinds.
(TRANSITION) Let’s start with downhill. (SHOW DH SLIDE 6)
A. Downhill fewest gears, weigh most.

1. Because downhill daredevil—crazy!
245
2. Slide insane, off jumps.
B. Trails.com, downhill racers catch shuttle going up, speed
downhill chewing up.
C. Think racing skiing bike.
(TRANSITION) Now let’s swing by trail biking. (SHOW TB

SLIDE 7)
D. Trail bikes look different than either.

1. Small wheels, 20, 24, or 26, smaller frames.
2. Differences design help trail do best—jump obstacles—
cars, rocks, large logs.
E. Trail goal not foot on ground.
F. Trail racing few types done by time, not mass.
(TRANSITION) Third major type MTB, cross-country, or XC.

(SHOW XC SLIDE 8)
G. Cross-country most common—Olympics.

1. That’s right. In 1996 …
2. Just two decades inception.
H. With XC, best all worlds, humble.
1. Courses creative, incorporating hills, valleys, rough,
not-so.
2. Competitively, XC like marathon.
3. Recreationally, chance see outdoors, shape.
I. XC two forms.
1. Lightweight, full or partial.
2. Trails/Marathon XC hybrids heavier, full suspension;
designed seriously long.
246
(TRANSITION) Quite tour.
Conclusion
I. Course began overview, hopturn history sport.

II. Also learned differences: mountain, road, three major
categories of MTB, three types MTB accommodate fans.
III. To me, MTB, especially XC, perfect—fulfilling physical,
spiritual, social needs.
IV. Great take up recreationally.
V. Decide bike competitively, remember: ride fast, drive hard,
leave blood.
CHECKLIST
Steps in Creating a Speaking Outline

Create the outline on sheets of paper, large notecards, or
software app.
Write large and legibly using at least a 14-point font or easy-to-
read ink and large letters.
For each main and subpoint, choose a key word or phrase that
will jog your memory accurately.
Include delivery cues.
Write out full quotations or other critical information.
Using the speaking outline, practice the speech at least five
times, or as needed.
247
part 4 Starting, Finishing, and
Styling
14. Developing the Introduction and Conclusion
15. Using Language
VIDEO
ACTIVITY
Go to LaunchPad to watch a video about a student who used an
ineffective example in her speech. Visit launchpadworks.com
LaunchPad includes:
248
documentation help.
249
CHAPTER 14 Developing the Introduction
and Conclusion
A compelling introduction and conclusion, although not a
substitute for a well-developed speech body, are nevertheless
essential to the success of any speech. A good opening previews
what’s to come in a way that engages listeners in the topic and
speaker. An effective conclusion ensures that the audience
remembers key points and reacts in a way that the speaker
intends.
250
Preparing the
Introduction
The choices you make about the introduction can affect the
outcome of the entire speech. In the first several minutes (one
speaker pegs it at twenty seconds),1 audience members will
decide whether they are interested in the topic of your speech
and whether they will believe what you say. A speech
introduction serves to:
Arouse the audience’s attention and willingness to listen.

Introduce the topic, purpose, and main points.
Establish your credibility to speak on the topic.
Motivate the audience to accept your speech goals.
CHECKLIST
Guidelines for Preparing the Introduction

Prepare the introduction after you’ve completed the speech
body so you will know exactly what you need to preview.
Keep the introduction brief—as a rule, no more than 10–15
percent of the entire speech.
Practice delivering your introduction until you feel confident
you’ve got it right.
Gain Audience Attention

251
An introduction must first of all win the audience’s attention.
They must believe the speech will interest them and offer them
something of benefit. Techniques for doing this include sharing
a compelling quotation or story, establishing common ground,
providing unusual information, posing a question, and using
humor.
USE A QUOTATION
In a recent commencement address, Twitter executive Wayne
Chang advised graduates: “Make your own rules, hack the
system, and change the world.”2 Quotations such as this, which
touch upon a theme of the speech, will likely arouse interest.
Quotations can be drawn from literature, poetry, and film, or
directly from people you know.
TELL A STORY
Noted speechwriter William Safire once remarked that stories
are “surefire attention getters.”3 Stories, or narratives,
personalize issues by encouraging audience identification and
involvement. Speeches that begin with brief stories of
meaningful and entertaining incidents can boost speaker
credibility and promote greater understanding and retention of
the speaker’s message4 (see also Share Stories). You can relate
an entire story (if brief) in the introduction or, alternatively,
offer part of a longer one, indicating you will return to it further
on in the speech.
QUICK TIP
252
Show Them the Transformation
Stories often feature transformation—how people overcome obstacles
or otherwise experience change.5 One powerful means of gaining
audience involvement is to tell a story in which others were changed by
adopting beliefs and behaviors similar to those you are proposing in
your speech. If you can think of a story that does this, your message is
likely to be doubly persuasive.
ESTABLISH COMMON GROUND

Audiences are won over when speakers express interest in them
and show that they share in the audience’s concerns and goals.
Refer to the occasion that has brought you together, and use
your knowledge of the audience to touch briefly on areas of
shared experience. This creates goodwill and a feeling of
common ground (or identification; see also Chapter 6).
OFFER UNUSUAL INFORMATION

“Nearly one in 100 people are now displaced from their
homes.”6 Surprising audience members with startling facts and
statistics is one of the surest ways to get their attention. Offering
statistics, for example, is a powerful means of illustrating
consequences and relationships that can quickly bring points
into focus, as in this opener by Chef James Oliver: “Sadly, in the
next eighteen minutes when I do our chat, four Americans that
are alive will be dead from the food they eat.”7
POSE QUESTIONS
253
“How long do you think our water supply will last?” Posing
questions such as this can be an effective way to draw the
audience’s attention to what you are about to say. Questions can
be real or rhetorical. Rhetorical questions do not invite actual
responses. Instead, they make the audience think.
USE HUMOR—PERHAPS
Handled well, humor can build rapport and set a positive tone
for the speech. But humor can also easily backfire. Simply
telling a series of unrelated jokes without making a relevant
point will detract from your purpose, and few things turn an
audience off more quickly than tasteless humor. Strictly avoid
humor or sarcasm that belittles others—whether on the basis of
race, sex, ability, or otherwise. A good rule of thumb is that
speech humor should always match the rhetorical situation.
Preview the Topic, Purpose, and

Main Points
Once you’ve gained the audience’s attention, use the
introduction to provide a preview, or brief overview, of the
speech topic, purpose, and main points. First, declare what
your speech is about (topic) and what you hope to accomplish
(purpose).
Topic and purpose are clearly revealed in this introduction

by Marvin Runyon, former postmaster general of the United
States:
254
This afternoon, I want to examine the truth of that
statement—“Nothing moves people like the mail, and no
one moves the mail like the U.S. Postal Service.” I want to
look at where we are today as a communications industry,
and where we intend to be in the days and years ahead.8
Once you’ve revealed the topic and purpose, briefly preview the
main points of the speech. This helps audience members
mentally organize the speech as they follow along. Simply tell
the audience what the main points will be and in what order
you will address them. Save your in-depth discussion of each
one for the body of your speech.
Robert L. Darbelnet, former CEO of the American

Automobile Association, effectively introduces his topic,
purpose, and main points with this preview:
My remarks today are intended to give you a sense of AAA’s

ongoing efforts to improve America’s roads. Our hope is
that you will join your voices to ours as we call on the
federal government to do three things:
Number one: Perhaps the most important, provide

adequate funding for highway maintenance and
improvements.
Number two: Play a strong, responsible, yet flexible role

in transportation programs.
255
And number three: Invest in highway safety.
Let’s see what our strengths are, what the issues are, and
what we can do about them.9
Establish Credibility as a Speaker

During the introduction, audience members make a decision
about whether they are interested not just in your topic but also
in you. They want to feel that they can trust what you have to
say—that they can believe in your ethos, or good character. To
build credibility, offer a simple statement of your qualifications
for speaking on the topic. Briefly emphasize some experience,
knowledge, or perspective you have that is different from or
more extensive than that of your audience: “I’ve felt passionate
about preserving open space ever since I started volunteering
with the Land Trust four summers ago.”
Motivate the Audience to Accept

Your Goals
A final, and critical, function of the introduction is to motivate
the audience to care about your topic and make it relevant to
them. You may choose to convey what the audience stands to
gain by the information you will share or convince audience
members that your speech purpose is consistent with their
motives and values. A student speech about the value of
interview training shows how this can be accomplished:
256
Why do you need interview training? It boils down to
competition. As in sports, when you’re not training,
someone else is out there training to beat you. All things
being equal, the person who has the best interviewing skills
has got the edge.
CHECKLIST
How Effective Is Your Introduction?

Does your introduction …
Capture the audience’s attention?

Stimulate their interest in what’s to come?
Establish a positive bond with listeners?
Alert listeners to the speech topic, purpose, and main points?
Establish your credibility?
Motivate listeners to accept your speech goals?
257
Preparing the
Conclusion
Just as a well-crafted introduction gets your speech effectively
out of the starting gate, a well-constructed conclusion lets you
drive home your purpose and leave the audience inspired to
think about and even to act upon your ideas. The conclusion
serves to:
Signal the end of the speech and provide closure.

Summarize the key points.
Reiterate the thesis or central idea of the speech.
Challenge the audience to remember and possibly act upon
your ideas.
End the speech memorably.
Signal the End of the Speech and

Provide Closure
People who listen to speeches are taking a journey of sorts, and
they want and need the speaker to acknowledge the journey’s
end. They look for logical and emotional closure.
One signal that a speech is about to end is a transitional word

or phrase: finally, looking back, in conclusion, let me close by
saying (see Chapter 11). You can also signal closure by adjusting
your manner of delivery; for example, you can vary your tone,
pitch, rhythm, and rate of speech to indicate that the speech is
258
winding down (see Chapters 17 and 18).
CHECKLIST
Guidelines for Preparing the Conclusion

As with the introduction, prepare the conclusion after you’ve
completed the speech body.
Do not leave the conclusion to chance. Include it with your
speaking outline.
Keep the conclusion brief—as a rule, no more than 10–15
percent, or about one-sixth, of the overall speech. Conclude
soon after you say you are about to end.
Carefully consider your use of language. More than in other
parts of the speech, the conclusion can contain words that
inspire and motivate (see Chapter 15 on use of language).
Practice delivering your conclusion until you feel confident
you’ve got it right.
Once you’ve signaled the end of your speech, conclude in short
order (though not abruptly).
Summarize the Key Points

One bit of age-old advice for giving a speech is “Tell them what
you are going to tell them (in the introduction), tell them (in the
body), and tell them what you told them (in the conclusion).”
The idea is that emphasizing the main points three times will
help the audience remember them. A restatement of points in
the conclusion brings the speech full circle and gives the
259
audience a sense of completion. Consider how executive Holger
Kluge, in a speech titled “Reflections on Diversity,” summarizes
his main points:
I have covered a lot of ground here today. But as I draw to a

close, I’d like to stress three things.
First, diversity is more than equity. …
Second, weaving diversity into the very fabric of your

organization takes time. …
Third, diversity will deliver bottom line results to your

businesses and those results will be substantial. …10
Reiterate the Topic and Speech

Purpose
The conclusion should reiterate the topic and speech purpose—
to imprint it on the audience’s memory. In the conclusion to a
speech about the U.S. immigration debate, civil defense lawyer
Elpidio Villarreal reminds his listeners of his central idea:
Two paths are open to us. One path would keep us true to
our fundamental values as a nation and a people. The other
would lead us down a dark trail; one marked by 700-mile-
long fences, emergency detention centers and vigilante
border patrols. Because I really am an American, heart and
soul, and because that means never being without hope, I
260
still believe we will ultimately choose the right path. We
have to.11
Challenge the Audience to

Respond
A strong conclusion challenges audience members to put to use
what the speaker has shared with them. In an informative
speech, the speaker challenges audience members to use what
they’ve learned in a way that benefits them. In a persuasive
speech, the challenge usually comes in the form of a call to
action. Here the speaker challenges listeners to act in response
to the speech, see the problem in a new way, or change both
their actions and their beliefs about the problem.
Emma Watson, United Nations Women Goodwill

Ambassador, makes a strong call to action at the conclusion of
her speech at a special event for the HeForShe campaign.
We are struggling for a uniting word, but the good news is

we have a uniting movement. It is called HeForShe. I am
inviting you to step forward, to be seen to speak up, to be
the “he” for “she.” And to ask yourself if not me, who? If not
now, when?12
QUICK TIP
Bring Your Speech Full Circle

Picking up on a story or an idea you mentioned in the introduction can
261
be a memorable way to conclude a speech and bring the entire
presentation full circle. You can provide the resolution of the story or
reiterate the link between the moral (lesson) of the story and the
speech theme.
Make the Conclusion Memorable

A speech that makes a lasting impression is one that listeners
are most likely to remember and act on. To accomplish this,
make use of the same devices for capturing attention described
for use in introductions—quotations, stories, startling
statements, questions, references to the audience and the
occasion, and humor.
CHECKLIST
How Effective Is Your Conclusion?

Does your conclusion …
Alert the audience, with a transition, that the speech is ending?

Actually come to an end soon after you say you will finish?
Last no more than about one-sixth of the time spent on the
body of the speech?
Remind listeners of the speech topic, purpose, and main
points?
Include a challenge or call to action to motivate the audience
to respond to your ideas or appeals?
Provide a sense of closure and make a lasting impression?
262
CHAPTER 15 Using Language
Words are the public speaker’s tools of the trade, and the ones
you choose to style your speech will play a crucial role in
creating a dynamic connection with your audience. The right
words and rhetorical devices (techniques of language) will help
your listeners understand, believe in, and retain your message.
263
Use an Oral Style
Speeches require an oral style—the use of language that is
simpler, more repetitious, more rhythmic, and more interactive
than written language.1 As Jayne Benjulian, former chief
speechwriter at Apple, has noted, “Every speech has language
meant to be spoken. They are monologues. … Speeches are an
oral medium.”2 Speeches therefore must be prepared for the
ear—to be heard rather than read. This is particularly important
because unlike readers, listeners have only one chance to get
the message.
Strive for Simplicity

To ensure understanding, express yourself simply, without
pretentious language or unnecessary jargon (the specialized,
“insider” language of a given profession). Speak in commonly
understood terms and choose the simpler of two synonyms:
guess rather than extrapolate; use rather than utilize. Use fewer
rather than more words, and shorter sentences rather than
longer ones. As speechwriter Peggy Noonan notes in her book
Simply Speaking:
Good hard simple words with good hard clear meanings are
good things to use when you speak. They are like pickets in
a fence, slim and unimpressive on their own but sturdy and
effective when strung together.3
Former First Lady Michelle Obama, in a speech at the
264
Democratic Convention, used the simplest, jargon-free
language to describe her party’s response to its opponents:
“When they go low, we go high.”4 Each word contains just one
syllable, yet the audience roared with understanding and
approval.
Make Frequent Use of Repetition

Repetition is key to oral style, serving to compensate for natural
lapses in listening and to reinforce information. Even very brief
speeches repeat key words and phrases. Repetition adds
emphasis to important ideas, helps listeners follow your logic,
and infuses language with rhythm and drama.
QUICK TIP
Experiment with Phrases and Sentence

Fragments
In line with an oral style, experiment with using phrases and sentence
fragments in place of full sentences. This speaker, a physician,
demonstrates how short phrases can add punch to a speech: “I’m just a
simple bone-and-joint guy. I can set your broken bones. Take away
your bunions. Even give you a new hip. But I don’t mess around with
the stuff between the ears. … That’s another specialty.”5
Use Personal Pronouns

Audience members want to know what the speaker thinks and
feels, and to be assured that he or she recognizes them and
265
relates them to the message. The direct form of address, using
the personal pronouns such as we, us, I, and you, helps to
create this feeling of recognition and inclusion. Note how
Sheryl Sandberg, Chief Operating Officer of Facebook, uses
personal pronouns to begin a speech on why there are too few
women leaders (italics added):
So for any of us in this room today, let’s start out by

admitting we’re lucky. We don’t live in the world our
mothers lived in, our grandmothers lived in, where career
choices for women were so limited. … But all that aside, we
still have a problem. … Women are not making it to the top
of any profession anywhere in the world.6
266
Choose Concrete
Language and Vivid
Imagery
Concrete words and vivid imagery engage audience members’
senses, making a speech come alive for listeners. Concrete
language is specific, tangible, and definite. Concrete nouns
such as iceberg, stone, lawn, and butter describe things we can
physically sense (see, hear, taste, smell, and touch). In contrast,
abstract language is general or nonspecific, leaving meaning
open to interpretation. Abstract nouns, such as peace, freedom,
and love, are purely conceptual; they have no physical
reference. Politicians use abstract language to appeal to mass
audiences, or to be noncommittal: “We strive for peace.” In
most speaking situations, however, listeners will appreciate
concrete nouns and verbs.
Note how concrete nouns and adjectives that modify them

add precision and color:
Abstract: The old road needed repair.

Concrete: The rutted road was pitted with muddy craters.
Offer Vivid Imagery

Imagery is concrete language that brings into play the senses of
smell, taste, sight, hearing, and touch to paint mental pictures.
267
Vivid imagery is more easily recalled than colorless language,7
and speeches containing ample imagery also elicit more
positive responses than those that do not.8
Adding imagery into your speech need not be difficult if you

focus on using strong, active verbs and colorful adjectives.
Rather than walk, you can say saunter; in place of look, use
gaze. Replace passive forms of the verb “to be” (e.g., is, are,
was, were, will be …) with more active verb forms. Rather than
“the houses were empty,” use “the houses stood empty.” You
can use descriptive adjectives to modify nouns (as in
“dilapidated house”) and use adverbs to modify verbs. President
Franklin D. Roosevelt famously did this when he characterized
the nation’s struggles during World War II as “this dark hour,”9
conveying with one simple adjective the gravity of the times.
Choose Strong Verbs
Mundane Verb Colorful Alternative
look behold, gaze, glimpse, peek, stare

walk stride, amble, stroll, skulk
throw hurl, fling, pitch
sit sink, plop, settle
eat devour, inhale, gorge
Use Figures of Speech

Figures of speech make striking comparisons that help
listeners visualize, identify with, and understand the speaker’s
268
ideas. Such figures as similes, metaphors, and analogies are key
to making a speech both memorable and persuasive.
A simile explicitly compares one thing to another, using like

or as: “He works like a dog,” and “rusted-out factories scattered
like tombstones across the landscape.”10
A metaphor also compares two things, but does so by

describing one thing as actually being the other: “Time is a
thief” and “Drain the swamp” (with government bureaucracy
being the swamp).
An analogy is simply an extended metaphor or simile that

compares an unfamiliar concept or process to a more familiar
one. For example, African American minister Phil Wilson used
metaphoric language when he preached about the dangers of
AIDS:
Our house is on fire! The fire truck arrives, but we won’t

come out, because we’re afraid the folks from next door
will see that we’re in that burning house. AIDS is a fire
raging in our community and it’s out of control!11
Avoid Clichés, Mixed Metaphors,

and Faulty Analogies
Used properly, similes and metaphors express ideas compactly
and cleverly. However, avoid those that are predictable and
stale, known as clichés, such as “sold like hotcakes” (a clichéd
269
simile) and “pearly white teeth” (a clichéd metaphor). Beware,
too, of using mixed metaphors, or combining two or more
unrelated (and incompatible) images: For example, “Burning
the midnight oil at both ends” incorrectly joins the metaphor
“burning the midnight oil” and “burning the candle at both
ends.”
Analogies, too, can mislead audience members if used

carelessly. A faulty analogy is an inaccurate or misleading
comparison suggesting that because two things are similar in
some ways, they are necessarily similar in others. (See Use
Analogies to Build on Prior Knowledge).
270
Choose Words That
Build Credibility
Audiences expect speakers to be competent and credible. To
project these qualities, use language that is appropriate,
accurate, assertive, and unbiased.
Use Words Appropriately

The language you use in a speech should be appropriate to the
audience, the occasion, and the subject matter. Formal
occasions call for more formal language, but no matter what the
occasion, listeners will expect you to avoid obvious grammatical
errors and substandard usage (as well as any form of suggestive
language, bathroom humor, and obscene references). Done
carefully, it may be appropriate to mix regionalisms or
vernacular language (language specific to particular regions of
a country) or even slang into your speech. Even alternating
between two languages, called code-switching, may be
appropriate. The key is to ensure that your meaning is clear and
your use is suitable for your audience. Consider the following
excerpt:
On the gulf where I was raised, el valle del Rio Grande in

South Texas—that triangular piece of land wedged between
the river y el golfo which serves as the Texas–U.S./Mexican
border—is a Mexican pueblito called Hargill.12
271
Use Words Accurately
Audiences lose confidence in speakers who misuse words.
Check that your words mean what you intend, and beware
especially of malapropisms—the inadvertent, incorrect uses of
a word or phrase in place of one that sounds like it13. (“It’s a
strange receptacle” for “It’s a strange spectacle”).
Use the Active Voice

Voice is the feature of verbs that indicates the subject’s
relationship to the action. Speaking in the active rather than
passive voice will make your statements—and the audience’s
perception of you as the speaker—clear and assertive instead of
indirect and weak. A verb is in the active voice when the subject
performs the action, and in the passive voice when the subject
is acted upon or is the receiver of the action:
Passive: A test was announced by Ms. Carlos for Tuesday.

A president is elected every four years.
Active: Ms. Carlos announced a test for Tuesday.

The voters elect a president every four years.
Use Inclusive, Unbiased

Language
Focus on using language that reflects respect for audience
members’ cultural beliefs, norms, and traditions. Review and
eliminate any language that reflects unfounded assumptions,
272
negative descriptions, or stereotypes of a given group’s age,
class, gender identity, sexual orientation, ability, and ethnic,
racial, or religious characteristics. Consider whether certain
seemingly well-known names and terms may be foreign to
some listeners, and include brief explanations for them.
Sayings specific to a certain region or group of people—termed
colloquial expressions or idioms—such as “back the wrong
horse” and “ballpark figure” can add color and richness to a
speech, but only if listeners understand them.
Word your speech with gender-neutral language: Avoid the

third-person generic masculine pronouns (his, he) in favor of
inclusive pronouns such as his or her, he or she, they, their, we,
our, you, your, or other gender-neutral terms that your
audience will understand.
QUICK TIP
Denotative versus Connotative Meaning

When drafting your speech, choose words that are both denotatively
and connotatively appropriate to the audience. The denotative
meaning of a word is its literal, or dictionary, definition. The
connotative meaning of a word is the special (often emotional)
association that different people bring to bear on it. For example, you
may agree that you are angry but not irate, and thrifty but not cheap.
Consider how the connotative meanings of your word choices might
affect the audience’s response to your message, including those of non-
native speakers of English.
273
Choose Words That
Create a Lasting
Impression
Oral speech that is artfully arranged and infused with rhythm
draws listeners in and leaves a lasting impression on audience
members. It is surprisingly easy to achieve this effect with
rhetorical devices such as repetition, alliteration, and
parallelism.
Use Repetition to Create Rhythm

Repeating key words, phrases, or even sentences at various
intervals throughout a speech creates a distinctive rhythm and
thereby implants important ideas in listeners’ minds. Repetition
works particularly well when delivered with the appropriate
voice inflections and pauses.
In a form of repetition called anaphora, the speaker repeats

a word or phrase at the beginning of successive phrases,
clauses, or sentences. In his speech delivered in 1963 in
Washington, DC, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. repeated the phrase
“I have a dream” eleven times in eight successive sentences,
each with an upward inflection followed by a pause. Speakers
have made use of anaphora since earliest times. For example,
Jesus preached (italics added):
274
Blessed are the poor in spirit …
Blessed are the meek …
Blessed are the peacemakers …14
Repetition can focus attention on the theme of the speech.

Speakers may do this by using both anaphora and epiphora in
the same speech. In epiphora (also called epistrophe), the
repetition of a word or phrase appears at the end of successive
statements. In a speech to his New Hampshire supporters,
former President Barack Obama used both anaphora and
epiphora to establish a theme of empowerment (italics added):
It was a creed written into the founding documents that

declared the destiny of a nation: Yes, we can.
It was whispered by slaves and abolitionists as they blazed

a trail toward freedom through the darkest of nights: Yes,
we can.
It was sung by immigrants as they struck out from distant

shores and pioneers who pushed westward against an
unforgiving wilderness: Yes, we can.15
Use Alliteration for a Poetic

Quality
Alliteration is the repetition of the same sounds, usually initial
consonants, in two or more neighboring words or syllables.
Alliteration lends speeches a poetic, musical rhythm. A classic
275
example is Jesse Jackson’s “Down with dope, up with hope.”
More recently, President Donald J. Trump threatened to
respond to North Korean aggression with “fire and fury.”
Experiment with Parallelism

Parallelism is the arrangement of words, phrases, or sentences
in a similar form. Parallel structure helps emphasize important
ideas, and can be as simple as orally numbering points (“first,
second, and third”). Like repetition, parallelism also creates a
sense of steady or building rhythm. Speakers often make use of
three parallel elements, called a triad, as in Abraham Lincoln’s
famous “… of the people, by the people, and for the people ….”
Parallelism in speeches often makes use of antithesis—

setting off two ideas in balanced (parallel) opposition to each
other to create a powerful effect:
One small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind.
—Neil Armstrong on the moon, 1969
For many are called, but few are chosen.
—Matthew 22:14
CHECKLIST
Using Effective Oral Style

Use familiar words and easy-to-follow sentences.
276
Root out biased language.
Avoid unnecessary jargon.
Use fewer rather than more words to express your thoughts.
Clarify meaning and make memorable comparisons with
similes, metaphors, and analogies.
Use the active voice.
Repeat key words, phrases, or sentences at the beginning of
successive sentences (anaphora) and at their close (epiphora).
Experiment with alliteration—words that repeat the same
sounds, usually initial consonants, in two or more neighboring
words or syllables.
Experiment with parallelism—arranging words, phrases, or
sentences in similar form.
277
part 5 Delivery
VIDEO
ACTIVITY
Go to LaunchPad to watch a video in which a student struggles to
speak at the appropriate rate. Visit launchpadworks.com
LaunchPad includes:
278
documentation help.
279
CHAPTER 16 Methods of Delivery
For most of us, anticipating the actual delivery of a speech feels
unnerving. In fact, effective delivery rests on the same natural
foundation as everyday conversation, except, obviously, that it
is more rehearsed and purposeful. By focusing on four key
qualities of effective delivery, you can reduce your fears and
make your presentations more authentic.
280
Keys to Effective
Delivery
Effective delivery is the controlled use of voice and body to
express the qualities of naturalness, enthusiasm, confidence,
and directness.1 Audiences respond most favorably to speakers
who project these characteristics during delivery. As you
practice delivering your speech, focus on these key qualities:
Strive for naturalness. Rather than behaving theatrically,

act naturally. Think of your speech as a particularly
important conversation.
Show enthusiasm. Inspire your listeners by showing
enthusiasm for your topic and for the occasion. An
enthusiastic delivery helps you feel good about your
speech, and it focuses your audience’s attention on the
message.
Project a sense of confidence. Focus on the ideas you want
to convey rather than on yourself. Inspire the audience’s
confidence in you by appearing confident to them.
Be direct. Engage directly with audience members.
Demonstrate your interest and concern for listeners by
establishing eye contact, using a friendly tone of voice, and
animating your facial expressions, especially positive ones
such as smiling and nodding whenever appropriate. (See
Chapters 17 and 18 on techniques for using voice and body
in a speech.)
281
Select a Method of
Delivery
For virtually any type of speech or presentation, you can choose
from four basic methods of delivery: speaking from
manuscript, speaking from memory, speaking impromptu, and
speaking extemporaneously.
Speaking from Manuscript

When speaking from manuscript, you read a speech verbatim
—that is, from prepared written text that contains the entire
speech, word for word. As a rule, speaking from manuscript
restricts eye contact and body movement, and may also limit
expressiveness in vocal variety and quality. Watching a speaker
read a speech can be monotonous and boring for the audience.
If you must read from prepared text—for example, when you

need to convey a precise message, when you will be quoted and
must avoid misinterpretation, or when addressing an
emergency and conveying exact descriptions and direction—do
what you can to deliver the speech naturally:
Vary the rhythm of your words (see Chapter 17).

Become familiar enough with the speech so that you can
establish some eye contact.
Use a large font and double- or triple-space the manuscript
so that you can read without straining.
282
Consider using some compelling presentation aids (see
Chapter 20).
Speaking from Memory

The formal name for speaking from memory is oratory. In
oratorical style, you put the entire speech, word for word, into
writing and then commit it to memory. Memorization is not a
natural way to present a message. True eye contact with the
audience is unlikely, and the potential for disaster exists
because there is always the possibility of forgetting. Some kinds
of brief speeches, however, such as toasts and introductions,
can be well served by memorization. Sometimes it’s helpful to
memorize a part of the speech, especially when you use direct
quotations as a form of support. If you do use memorization,
practice that portion of your speech so completely that you can
convey enthusiasm and directness.
Speaking Impromptu
Speaking impromptu is a type of delivery that is unpracticed,
spontaneous, or improvised, and involves speaking on
relatively short notice with little time to prepare. Many
occasions require that you make remarks on the spur of the
moment. An instructor may ask you to summarize key points
from an assignment, for example, or a boss may invite you to
take the place of an absent co-worker who was scheduled to
speak on a new project.
283
Try to anticipate situations that may require you to speak
impromptu, and prepare some remarks beforehand. Otherwise,
maximize the time you do have to prepare on the spot:
Think first about your listeners. Consider their interests

and needs, and try to shape your remarks accordingly. For
example, who are the people present, and what are their
views on the topic?
Listen to what others around you are saying. Take notes in a
key-word or phrase format (see Use a Key-word Outline for
Optimal Eye Contact) and arrange them into main points
from which you can speak.
Acknowledge the previous speaker. If your speech follows
someone else’s, acknowledge that person’s statements.
Then make your points.
Stay on the topic. Don’t wander off track.
Use transitions. Use signal words such as first, second, and
third to organize points and help listeners follow them.
As much as possible, try to organize your points into a

discernible pattern. If addressing a problem, for example, such
as a project failure or glitch, consider the problem-solution
pattern—state problem(s), then offer solution(s); or the cause-
effect pattern of organizational arrangement—state cause(s)
first, then address effect(s); see Chapter 12 for various ways of
using these patterns. If called upon to defend one proposal as
superior to another, consider using the comparative advantage
pattern to illustrate various advantages of your favored proposal
284
over the other options (see Comparative Advantage Pattern of
Arrangement).
Speaking Extemporaneously
When speaking extemporaneously, you prepare and practice
in advance, giving full attention to all facets of the speech—
content, arrangement, and delivery alike. However, instead of
memorizing or writing the speech word for word, you speak
from an outline of key words and phrases that isolates the main
ideas that you want to communicate (see Chapter 13).
Because extemporaneous delivery is most conducive to

achieving a natural, conversational quality, most speakers
prefer it among the four types of delivery. Knowing your ideas
well enough to present them without memorization or
manuscript gives you greater flexibility in adapting to the
specific speaking situation. You can modify wording, rearrange
your points, change examples, or omit information in keeping
with the audience and the setting. You can have more eye
contact, more direct body orientation, greater freedom of
movement, and generally better control of your thoughts and
actions than any of the other delivery methods allow.
Speaking extemporaneously does present a possible

drawback. Occasionally, even a glance at your speaking notes
may fail to jog your memory on a point you wanted to cover,
and you find yourself searching for what to say next. The
remedy for this potential pitfall is frequent practice—rehearsing
285
the speech about six times—using a key word or phrase outline
(see Use a Key-word Outline for Optimal Eye Contact).
Choosing a Method of Delivery
When … Method of Delivery
You want to avoid being Consider speaking from manuscript (read

misquoted or misconstrued, or you the part of your speech requiring precise
need to communicate exact wording from fully prepared text).
descriptions and directions …
You must deliver a short special Consider speaking from memory (memorize
occasion speech, such as a toast or part or all of your speech).
an introduction, or you plan on
using direct quotations …
You are called upon to speak By definition, you will be speaking

without prior planning or impromptu— (organizing your thoughts
preparation … with little or no lead time). Follow the
guidelines on p. 129.
You have time to prepare and Consider speaking extemporaneously

practice developing a speech or (develop your speech in working outline
presentation that achieves a and then practice and deliver it with a
natural conversational style … phrase or key-word speaking outline).
CHECKLIST
Tips for Successful Delivery

Strive for naturalness.
Show enthusiasm.
Project a sense of confidence and composure.
Engage your audience by being direct.
286
If you must read from a prepared text, do so naturally.
In general, don’t try to memorize entire speeches.
When speaking impromptu, maximize any preparation time.
287
CHAPTER 17 Your Voice in Delivery
Used properly in the delivery of a speech, your voice is a
powerful instrument of expression that conveys who you are
and delivers your message with confidence. As you practice,
you can learn to control each of the elements of vocal delivery:
volume, pitch, speaking rate, pauses, vocal variety, and
pronunciation and articulation.
288
Adjust Your Speaking
Volume
Volume, the relative loudness of a speaker’s voice while
delivering a speech, is usually the most obvious vocal element
we notice about a speaker, and with good reason. We need to
hear the speaker at a comfortable level. The proper volume for
delivering a speech is somewhat louder than that of normal
conversation. Just how much louder depends on three factors:
(1) the size of the room and of the audience, (2) whether or not
you use a microphone, and (3) the level of background noise.
Speaking at the appropriate volume is critical to how credible
your listeners will perceive you to be, so check that audience
members can hear you. Be alert to signals that your volume is
slipping or is too loud and make the necessary adjustments.
QUICK TIP
Breathe from Your Diaphragm

To project your voice so that it is loud enough to be heard by everyone
in the audience, breathe deeply from your diaphragm rather than more
shallowly from your vocal cords. The reason? The strength of your voice
depends on the amount of air the diaphragm—a large, dome-shaped
muscle encasing the inner rib cage—pushes from the lungs to the vocal
cords. With full but relaxed breaths, the depth of your voice will
improve and help your voice sound more confident.
289
Vary Your Intonation
Pitch is the range of sounds from high to low (or vice versa).
Anatomy determines a person’s natural pitch—a bigger or
smaller voice box produces a lower- or higher-pitched voice.
But within these natural constraints, you can and should control
pitch through intonation—the rising and falling of sound across
phrases and sentences. Intonation is important in
speechmaking because it powerfully affects the meaning
associated with spoken words. For example, say “Stop.” Now,
say “Stop!” Varying intonation conveys two very distinct
meanings.
As you speak, intonation conveys your mood, level of

enthusiasm, and commitment to the audience and occasion.
Without intonation, speaking becomes monotonous—a death
knell to any speech.
To avoid a monotone voice, practice and listen to your

speeches with a recording device, such as a smart phone or
computer. You will readily identify instances that require better
intonation.
290
Adjust Your Speaking
Rate
Speaking rate is the pace at which you convey speech. The
normal rate of speech in face-to-face conversation for native
English-speaking adults is roughly between 120–130 and 160–
170 words per minute, but there is no standard or ideal rate. If
the overall rate is too slow, the audience will get fidgety, bored,
and even sleepy. If too fast, listeners will appear irritated and
confused, because they can’t catch what you’re saying. The
audience may see you as unsure about your control of the
speech.1 If you tend to speak either too quickly or too slowly,
choose 160 words from your speech and time yourself for one
minute as you speak them aloud. If you fall very short of
finishing, increase your pace. If you finish well before the
minute is up, slow down. Practice until you achieve a
comfortable speaking rate.
QUICK TIP
Use a Natural Conversational Pace

Experts recommend using your natural conversational pace when
delivering a speech, but varying the pace and vocal emphasis at
different points.2 Focus on slowing your pace during serious points and
picking it up during lighter ones. Think about “punching” key phrases
with emphatic intonation. Experiment with and practice these
variations in pacing and vocal emphasis until they feel natural.
291
Use Strategic Pauses
Many novice speakers are uncomfortable with pauses. Like
intonation, however, pauses can be important strategic
elements of a speech. Pauses enhance meaning by providing a
type of punctuation, emphasizing a point, drawing attention to
a thought, or just allowing listeners a moment to contemplate
what is being said.
As you practice delivering your speech, focus on avoiding

unnecessary and undesirable vocal fillers such as uh, hmm,
you know, I mean, and it’s like. These so-called disfluencies will
make you appear unprepared and cause audience members to
be distracted from the message. Rather than vocal fillers, use
silent pauses for strategic effect.
292
Strive for Vocal Variety
Rather than operating separately, all the vocal elements
described so far—volume, pitch, speaking rate, and pauses—
work together to create vocal variety. Indeed, the real key to
effective vocal delivery is to vary all these elements with a tone
of enthusiasm. For example, as the great civil rights leader
Martin Luther King Jr. spoke the now famous words “I have a
dream,” his pauses were immediately preceded by a
combination of reduced speech rate and increased volume and
pitch. Vocal variety comes quite naturally when you are excited
about what you are saying to an audience, when you feel it is
important and want to share it with them.
CHECKLIST
Practice Check for Vocal Effectiveness

As you practice, is your vocal delivery effective?
Is your voice too loud? Too soft?
Do you avoid speaking in a monotone? Do you vary the stress
or emphasis you place on words to clearly express your
meaning?
Is your rate of speech comfortable for listeners?
Do you avoid unnecessary vocal fillers, such as uh, hmm, you
know, I mean, and it’s like?
Do you use silent pauses for strategic effect?
Does your voice reflect a variety of emotional expressions? Do
you convey enthusiasm?
293
294
Carefully Pronounce and
Articulate Words
Few things distract an audience more than improper
pronunciation or unclear articulation of words. Pronunciation
is the correct formation of word sounds—examples of
mispronunciation include, aks for asked (askt), and jen-yu-wine
for genuine (jen yu in). Articulation is the clarity or
forcefulness with which the sounds are made, regardless of
whether they are pronounced correctly. Incorrect
pronunciation and poor articulation are largely a matter of
habit.
A common pattern of poor articulation is mumbling—

slurring words together at a low level of volume and pitch so
that they are barely audible. Sometimes the problem is lazy
speech. Common examples are saying fer instead of for and
wanna instead of want to.
Like any habit, poor articulation can be overcome by

unlearning the problem behavior:
If you mumble, practice speaking more loudly and with

emphatic pronunciation.
If you tend toward lazy speech, put more effort into your
articulation.
Consciously try to say each word clearly and correctly.
Practice clear and precise enunciation of proper word
295
sounds. Say articulation several times until it rolls off your
tongue naturally.
Do the same for these words: want to, going to, Atlanta,
chocolate, sophomore, California.
296
Use Dialect (Language
Variation) with Care
Every culture has subcultural variations on the preferred
pronunciation and articulation of its languages, called dialects.
In the United States, there is so-called Standard English, Black
English, regional varieties of Spanglish (a mix of Spanish and
English, such as Tex-Mex), and other regional variations in the
South, New England, and along the Canadian border. Although
dialects are neither superior nor inferior to standard language
patterns, the audience must be able to understand and relate to
the speaker’s language. As you practice your delivery, ensure
that your pronunciation and word usage can be understood by
all audience members, or take the time to share with them any
special meanings you may wish to convey.
CHECKLIST
Tips on Using a Microphone

Learn how to use and perform a sound check with the
microphone well before delivering your speech.
When you first speak into the microphone, ask listeners if they
can hear you clearly.
Speak directly into the microphone; with many mics, if you
turn your head or body, you won’t be heard.
When wearing a hands-free lavaliere microphone (also called a
lapel microphone or personal microphone) clipped to clothing,
297
speak as if you were addressing a small group. The amplifier
will do the rest.
When using a handheld or fixed microphone, beware of
popping, a sound that occurs when you use sharp consonants,
such as p, t, and d, and the air hits the mike. To prevent
popping, move the microphone slightly below your mouth and
several inches away.
298
CHAPTER 18 Your Body in Delivery
As we listen to a speaker, we simultaneously use our eyes and
ears to evaluate messages sent by his or her nonverbal
communication—body movements, physical appearance, and
qualities of voice. As we listen to a speaker’s words, we respond
at the same time to his or her visual and vocal cues. Thus it is
vital to plan not only the words you will say but also the physical
manner in which you will deliver them.
299
Pay Attention to Body
Language
Research confirms the importance of body language—facial
expressions, eye behavior, gestures, and general body
movements during the delivery of a speech. For example,
audiences are more readily persuaded by speakers who
emphasize eye contact, nod at listeners, and stand with an open
body position than by those who minimize these nonverbal
cues.1
Animate Your Facial Expressions

From our facial expressions, audiences can gauge whether we
are excited about, disenchanted by, or indifferent to our speech
—and the audience to whom we are presenting it.
Few behaviors are more effective for building rapport with

an audience than smiling.2 A smile is a sign of mutual welcome
at the start of a speech, of mutual comfort and interest during
the speech, and of mutual goodwill at the close of a speech. In
addition, smiling when you feel nervous or otherwise
uncomfortable can help you relax and gain heightened
composure. Of course, facial expressions need to correspond to
the tenor of the speech. Doing what is natural and normal for
the occasion should be the rule.
300
CHECKLIST
Tips for Using Effective Facial Expressions

Use animated expressions that feel natural and express your
meaning.
Never use expressions that are out of character for you or
inappropriate to the speech occasion.
In practice sessions, loosen your facial features with exercises
such as widening your eyes and moving your mouth.
Establish rapport with the audience by smiling naturally when
appropriate.
Maintain Eye Contact

If smiling is an effective way to build rapport, maintaining eye
contact is mandatory in establishing a positive relationship with
your listeners. Having eye contact with the audience is one of
the most, if not the most, important physical actions in public
speaking, at least in Western cultures. Eye contact does the
following:
Maintains the quality of directness in speech delivery.

Lets people know they are recognized.
Indicates acknowledgment and respect.
Signals to audience members that you see them as unique
human beings.
While it may be impossible to look at every listener, you can
301
make the audience feel recognized by using a technique called
scanning—moving your gaze from one listener to another and
from one section to another, pausing to gaze at one person long
enough to complete one thought. Be certain to give each section
of the room equal attention. Some experienced speakers
recommend that your eyes should focus on the back row, giving
the audience the impression you are taking them all in.
Use Gestures That Feel Natural

Words alone seldom suffice to convey what we want to express.
Physical gestures fill in the gaps, as in illustrating the size or
shape of an object (e.g., by showing the size of it by extending
two hands, palms facing each other), or expressing the depth of
an emotion (e.g., by pounding a fist on a podium). Gestures
should arise from genuine emotions and should conform to
your personality.3
CHECKLIST
Using Gestures Effectively

Use natural, spontaneous gestures.
Avoid exaggerated gestures, but use gestures that are broad
enough to be seen by each audience member.
Eliminate distracting gestures, such as fidgeting with pens,
jingling coins in pockets, drumming your fingers on a podium
or table, or brushing back hair from your eyes.
Analyze your gestures for effectiveness in practice sessions.
302
Practice movements that feel natural to you.
Create a Feeling of Immediacy

In most Western cultures, listeners learn more from and
respond most positively to speakers who create a perception of
physical and psychological closeness, called nonverbal
immediacy, between themselves and audience members.4 The
following behaviors encourage immediacy:
Make frequent eye contact.

Animate your facial expressions.
Smile when appropriate.
Use natural body movements.
Use vocal variety.
Maintain upright but not stiff posture.
Use natural hand and arm gestures.
QUICK TIP
Use Movement to Connect

Audience members soon tire of listening to a talking head who remains
steadily positioned in one place behind a microphone or a podium, so
even in formal situations, use natural body movements. Use your
physical position vis-à-vis audience members to adjust your
relationship with them, establishing a level of familiarity and closeness
that is appropriate to the rhetorical situation. Movement toward
listeners stimulates a sense of informality and closeness; remaining
behind the podium fosters a more formal relationship of speaker to
303
audience.
Maintain Good Posture

A speaker’s posture sends a definite message to the audience.
Listeners perceive speakers who slouch as being sloppy,
unfocused, or even weak. Strive to stand erect, but not ramrod
straight. The goal should be to appear authoritative but not
rigid.
304
Practice the Delivery
Practice is essential to effective delivery. The more you
practice, the greater your comfort level will be when you
actually deliver the speech. More than anything, it is
uncertainty that breeds anxiety. By practicing your speech
using a fully developed speaking outline (see Chapter 13), you
will know what to expect when you actually stand in front of an
audience.
Focus on the Message

The primary purpose of any speech is to get a message across,
not to display extraordinary delivery skills. Keep this goal
foremost in your mind. Psychologically, too, focusing on your
message is likely to make your delivery more natural and
confident.
Plan Ahead and Practice Often

If possible, begin practicing your speech at least several days
before you are scheduled to deliver it.
Practice with your speaking notes, revising those parts of

the speech that aren’t satisfactory, and altering the notes as
you go.
Record the speech (see the Quick Tip below).
Time each part of your speech—introduction, body, and
conclusion (see Chapter 14 for guidelines).
Include any presentation aids you plan to use.
305
Practice the speech about five times in its final form.
Try to simulate the actual speech setting, paying particular
attention to seating arrangement and projecting your voice
to fill the space.
Practice in front of at least one volunteer, and seek
constructive criticism.
Schedule your practice sessions early in the process so that
you have time to prepare.
Dress appropriately for the rhetorical situation.
QUICK TIP
Record Two Practice Sessions

Videorecording two practice sessions can provide valuable feedback. As
you watch your initial recording, make notes of the things you’d like to
change. Before rerecording, practice several more times until you are
comfortable with the changes you’ve incorporated. No one is ever
entirely thrilled with his or her image on video, so try to avoid
unnecessary self-criticism. Videorecord your speech a second time,
paying close attention to the areas of speech delivery that you want to
improve.
306
FROM WEAK TO CONFIDENT DELIVERY
Enhancing Your Delivery with Body Language

Positive and natural nonverbal behaviors—including frequent eye
contact, animated facial expressions (including smiling), natural hand
and arm gestures, relaxed but erect posture, and vocal variety that
avoids a monotone—encourage audience members’ trust and
willingness to seriously consider your message.
307
In her first speech (top), student speaker Teresa stood behind a
podium. The audience couldn’t see her gestures, and her delivery was
stiff and uninspired. After practicing the speech about six times
(bottom), Teresa improved her delivery by assuming a more confident
posture, using open hand and arm gestures, and moving from the
podium.
308
The first time she delivered her speech (top), student speaker Charlotte
read continuously from notecards and failed to make eye contact and
engage nonverbally with the audience. After practice (bottom),
Charlotte effectively connects with her audience with eye contact, a
smile, and a gesture toward her presentation aid. She keeps her hands
and arms around the middle of her body, above the waistline, which
helps speakers project a sense of confidence and authority.
309
part 6 Presentation Aids
19. Speaking with Presentation Aids
21. Using Presentation Software
VIDEO
ACTIVITY
Go to LaunchPad to watch a video about a student speaker who
needs to improve his presentation slides. Visit
launchpadworks.com
LaunchPad includes:
310
documentation help.
311
CHAPTER 19 Speaking with Presentation
Aids
Used judiciously, presentation aids can help listeners to
understand and retain information that is otherwise difficult or
time-consuming to convey in words. Indeed, research confirms
that most people process information best when it is presented
both with words and graphics—a principle dubbed the
multimedia effect.1 However, no matter how powerful a
photograph, chart, or other aid may be, if it is unrelated to a
speech point, is poorly designed, or simply duplicates what the
speaker says, the audience will become distracted and actually
retain less information than without it.2
312
Select an Appropriate
Aid
A presentation aid can be an object, model, picture, graph,
chart, table, audio, video, or multimedia. Choose the aid, or
combination of aids, that will help your audience grasp
information most effectively.
Props and Models

A prop can be any object, inanimate or even live, that helps
demonstrate the speaker’s points. A model is a three-
dimensional, scale-size representation of an object.
Presentations in engineering, architecture, and many other
disciplines often make use these aids. When using a prop or
model:
In most cases, keep the prop or model hidden until you are
ready to use it.
Make sure it is big enough for everyone to see (and read, if
applicable).
Practice your speech using the prop or model.
Pictures
Pictures (two-dimensional representations) include
photographs, line drawings, diagrams, maps, and posters. A
diagram or schematic drawing explains how something works
or is constructed or operated. Maps help listeners visualize
313
geographic areas and understand relationships among them;
they also illustrate the proportion of one thing to something
else in different areas. Pictures, including photographs, can
strengthen many types of presentations, including those using
persuasive appeals, but avoid using shocking images that will
upset viewers.
Graphs, Charts, and Tables

A graph represents relationships among two or more things. A
line graph uses points connected by lines to demonstrate how
something changes or fluctuates in value. A bar and column
graph uses bars of varying lengths to compare quantities or
magnitudes. Pie graphs depict the division of a whole into
slices. Each slice constitutes a percentage of the whole.
Pictograms use picture symbols (icons) to illustrate

relationships and trends; for example, a generic-looking human
figure repeated in a row can demonstrate increasing enrollment
in college over time.
A chart visually organizes complex information into compact

form. A flowchart diagrams the progression of a process or
relationship, helping viewers visualize a sequence or directional
flow. A table (tabular chart) systematically groups data in
column form, allowing viewers to examine and make
comparisons about information quickly.
314
CHECKLIST
Create Effective Line, Bar, and Pie Graphs

Label the axes of line graphs, bar graphs, and pictograms.
Start the numerical axis of the line or bar graph at zero.
Compare only like variables.
Assign a clear title to the graph.
Clearly label all relevant points of information in the graph.
When creating multidimensional bar graphs, do not compare
more than three kinds of information.
In pie graphs, restrict the number of pie slices to a maximum of
seven.
Identify and accurately represent the values or percentages of
each pie slice.
In pictograms, clearly indicate what each icon symbolizes.
Make all pictograms the same size.
Audio, Video, and Multimedia

Audio and video clips—including short recordings of sound,
music, or speech; video clips; and multimedia, which combines
audio, video, stills, animation, and text into a single production
—can powerfully engage audience members and and help them
understand and relate to your message.3 (See Chapter 21 for
guidelines on embedding audio and video into a slide deck.)
When incorporating audio and video into your presentation:
Cue the audio or video clip to the appropriate segment
315
before the presentation.
Keep clips short—total 30–60 seconds per clip.
As with any type of presentation aid, use clips to support
one or more key points, but don’t rely on them to replace
your role as speaker.
Embed video clips directly into your slides.
Alert audience members beforehand to what will be played,
and discuss its relevance to speech points when it
concludes.
Use the audio or video clip in a manner consistent with
copyright.
QUICK TIP
Reasons to Use Video as an Aid

Video adds more drama, engages more senses, and communicates
more information in less time than other media—if it is relevant to the
speech. When deciding to include video as a presentation aid, consider
whether it will serve one or more of these functions:
Encourage audience identification with the topic

Elicit a desired emotional response
Make an idea tangible (by, for example, demonstrating it)
Provide testimony that adds credibility to your claims
316
Options for Showing
Presentation Aids
Today, nearly all presenters generate tables, charts, and other
aids using presentation software programs such as Microsoft
PowerPoint and Apple Keynote (and their online counterparts
such as Prezi). They then project slides using LCD panels and
projectors or a DLP (digital light processing) device. On the
more traditional side, display options include flip charts,
chalkboards and whiteboards, and handouts.
Flip Charts
A flip chart is simply a large pad of paper on which you can
write or draw. This aid is often prepared in advance; then, as
you progress through the speech, you flip through the pad to
the next exhibit. You can also write and draw on the pad as you
speak. Sometimes a simple drawing or word written for
emphasis can be as or more powerful than a highly polished
slide.
Chalkboards and Whiteboards

On the lowest-tech end of the spectrum lies the writing board
on which you can write with chalk (on a chalkboard) or with
nonpermanent markers (on a whiteboard). Reserve the writing
board for impromptu explanations, such as presenting simple
processes that are done in steps, or for engaging the audience in
317
short brainstorming sessions. If you have the time to prepare a
speech properly, however, don’t rely on a writing board. They
force the speaker to turn his or her back to the audience, make
listeners wait while you write, and require legible handwriting
that will be clear to all viewers.
QUICK TIP
Hold the Handouts

A handout conveys information that either is impractical to give to the
audience in another manner or is intended to be kept by audience
members after the presentation. To avoid distracting listeners, unless
you specifically want them to read the information as you speak, wait
until you are finished before you distribute the handout. If you do want
the audience to view a handout during the speech, pass it out only
when you are ready to talk about it.
CHECKLIST
Incorporating Presentation Aids into Your

Speech
Practice with the aids and the equipment used to display them
until you are confident that you can handle them without
causing undue distractions.
Talk to your audience rather than to the screen or object—
avoid turning your back to the audience.
Maintain eye contact with the audience.
Place the aid to one side rather than behind you, so that the
318
entire audience can see it.
Display the aid only when you are ready to discuss it.
If you use a pointer, once you’ve indicated your point, put it
down.
In case problems arise, be prepared to give your presentation
without the aids.
319
CHAPTER 20 Designing Presentation Aids
The quality of a speaker’s presentation aids is a critical factor in
the audience’s perception of his or her credibility, or ethos.
Well-designed aids signal that the speaker is prepared and
professional; poorly designed aids create a negative impression
that is difficult to overcome.
As you prepare aids (such as slides made with Microsoft

PowerPoint or similar programs), focus on keeping elements
easy to view and designed in a consistent manner. Audience
members can follow only one piece of information at a time,
and visuals that are crowded or difficult to decipher will divert
attention from your message.1
320
Keep the Design Simple
Audience members should be able to process the message in
your slides quickly—master presenter Nancy Duarte suggests in
three seconds—so that they can return their attention to the
speaker.2 Thus it is important to restrict text to a minimum and
present only one major idea per slide:
Follow the six-by-six rule. Use no more than six words in a

line and six lines on one slide. This will keep the audience’s
attention on you (see “Buying a Used Car”).
Word text in active verb form. Use the active voice and
parallel grammatical structure, for example “Gather
Necessary Documents; Apply Early” (see Chapter 15 on
language).
Avoid clutter. Allow plenty of white space, or “visual
breathing room” for viewers.3
Create concise titles. Use titles that summarize content and
reinforce your message.
Cluttered Aid
Buying a Used Car
1. Prepare in advance—know the market value of several cars you

are interested in before going to shop.
2. Do not get into a hurry about buying the first car you see—be
patient, there will be others.
3. It is recommended that you shop around for credit before buying
the car.
4. Inspect the car carefully, looking for funny sounds, stains, worn
321
equipment, dents, etc.
5. Ask for proof about the history of the car, including previous
owners.
Easy-to-Read Aid
Buying a Used Car
1. Know the car’s market value.

2. Don’t hurry to buy.
3. Shop for credit before buying.
4. Inspect the car carefully.
5. Get proof of the car’s history.
QUICK TIP
Beware of “Chartjunk”
Certain kinds of information—especially statistical data and sequences
of action—are best understood when visually presented. However,
avoid what design expert Edward Tufte coined as “chartjunk”4—slides
jammed with too many graphs, charts, and meaningless design
elements that obscure rather than illuminate information. Use fewer
rather than more slides and only those design elements that truly
enhance meaning.
322
Use Design Elements
Consistently
Apply the same design decisions you make for one presentation
aid to all of the aids you display; this will ensure that viewers
aren’t distracted by a jumble of unrelated visual elements. Carry
your choice of design elements—color, fonts, upper- and
lowercase letters, styling (boldface, underlining, italics),
general page layout, and repeating elements such as titles and
logos—through each aid.
323
Select Appropriate
Typeface Styles and Fonts
A typeface is a specific style of lettering, such as Arial or Times
New Roman. Typefaces come in a variety of fonts, or sets of
sizes (called the point size), and upper and lower cases.
Designers divide the thousands of available typefaces into two
major categories: serif and sans serif. Serif typefaces include
small flourishes, or strokes, at the tops and bottoms of each
letter. Sans serif typefaces are more blocklike and linear; they
are designed without these tiny strokes.
Consider these design guidelines when selecting type:
Check the lettering for legibility, taking into consideration

the audience’s distance from the visual. On slides,
experiment with 36-point type for major headings, 24-point
type for subheadings, and at least 18-point type for text.
Lettering should stand apart from the background. Use
either dark text on light background or light text on dark
background.
Use a common typeface that is simple and easy to read and
is not distracting.
Use standard upper- and lowercase type rather than all
capitals.
Use no more than two different typefaces in a single aid.
Use boldface, underlining, or italics sparingly.
324
QUICK TIP
Using Serif and Sans Serif Type

For reading a block of text, serif typefaces are easier on the eye. Small
amounts of text, however, such as headings, are best viewed in sans
serif type. Thus, consider a sans serif typeface for the heading and a
serif typeface for the body of the text. If you include only a few lines of
text, use sans serif type throughout.
325
Use Color Carefully
Skillful use of color can draw attention to key points, influence
the mood of a presentation, and make things easier to see.
Conversely, poor color combinations will set the wrong mood,
render an image unattractive, or make it unreadable. Note the
effect of these color combinations:
Effects of Color Combinations
Color Effect in Combination
Yellow Warm on white, harsh on black, fiery on red, soothing on light blue
Blue Warm on white, hard to see on black
Red Bright on white, warm or difficult to see on black
Color affects both the legibility of text and the mood conveyed.
Following are some tips for using color effectively in your
presentation aids:
Keep the background color constant across all slides or

other aids.
Use bold, bright colors to emphasize important points.
For typeface and graphics, use colors that contrast rather
than clash with or blend into the background color; check
for visibility when projecting. Audiences will remember
information just as easily if white text appears on dark
background or dark text on light background, so long as the
design is appealing.5
Limit colors to no more than three, with maximum of four
326
in complex and detailed aids.
327
Consider Subjective
Interpretations of Color
Colors can evoke distinct associations for people, so take care
not to summon an unintended meaning or mood. For example,
control engineers see red and think danger, while a financial
manager will think unprofitability.
Consider, too, that the meanings associated with certain

colors may differ across cultures. Western societies don black
for funerals, while the Chinese use white. If you are presenting
in a cross-cultural context, check the meanings of colors for the
relevant nationalities.
CHECKLIST
Apply the Principles of Simplicity and

Continuity
Concentrate on presenting one major idea per visual aid.
Apply design decisions consistently to each aid.
Use type that is large enough for audience members to read
comfortably.
Use color judiciously to highlight key ideas and enhance
readability.
Check that colors contrast rather than clash.
328
CHAPTER 21 Using Presentation Software
Public speakers can use a variety of powerful software tools to
create and display high-quality visual aids. These programs
include the familiar Microsoft PowerPoint and its Apple
counterpart, Keynote, and online programs such as Prezi.
329
Give a Speech, Not a
Slide Show
Frequently we hear someone say, “I’m giving a PowerPoint (or a
Prezi or Keynote) presentation today,” instead of “I’m giving a
speech.” Some speakers hide behind presentation media,
focusing attention on their aids rather than on the audience.
They might mistakenly believe that the display itself is the
presentation, or that it will somehow save an otherwise poorly
planned speech. It can be easy to become so involved in
generating fancy aids that you forget your primary mission: to
communicate through the spoken word and your physical
presence. Speaker and message must take center stage.
330
Develop a Plan
Often the best place to begin planning your slides is your
speaking outline (see Sample Speaking Outline). Think through
which points might be better explained with some kind of
visual: Decide what the content of your slides should be, how
many slides you’ll need, and how to arrange them. Review and
edit slides as necessary using Slide Sorter view (in PowerPoint),
Light table or Outline view (in Keynote), or path tool (in Prezi).
For detailed guidance on creating presentations in

PowerPoint, Keynote, and Prezi, go to launchpadworks.com
331
Avoid Technical Glitches
Technical errors are always a hazard with presentation software
and any hardware required to run it. Common risks include a
projector malfunctioning, a presentation file being
incompatible with an operating system, an internet connection
failing, or a computer drive freezing. Follow these steps to avoid
such problems.
1. Save all presentation files to a reliable source—flash drive,

CD, DVD, website, or email—that you can access on the
presentation computer.
2. Save all presentation files (images, sound, videos) into the
same folder in the source location.
3. Familiarize yourself with the presentation computer before
you give the speech to facilitate smooth operation during
the presentation.
4. Check that the operating system of the presentation
computer (e.g., Windows 10, Mac OS High Sierra) is
compatible with the the aids.
5. Confirm that the version of the software used to create the
aids corresponds to the software on the presentation
computer; this will prevent distortions in your graphics,
sound, and video.
6. Prepare both a digital backup and a set of printed handouts
of the aids.
332
Find Media for
Presentations
You can import photos, illustrations, clip art, video, or sound
directly into your aids by downloading your own files or those
from the internet. For downloadable digital images, try the
following websites:
Google images (images.google.com)

Getty Images (www.gettyimages.com)
Flickr Creative Commons
(www.flickr.com/creativecommons): access to photographs
shared by amateur and hobbyist photographers
American Memory (memory.loc.gov/ammem/index.html):
free access to still and moving images depicting the history
of the American experience
The following sites offer downloadable music files and audio

clips:
SoundCloud (www.soundcloud.com)
Jamendo (www.jamendo.com)
MP3.com (www.mp3.com)
SoundClick (www.soundclick.com)
Audio Archive (www.archive.org/details/audio)
The Daily.WAV (www.dailywav.com)
The following sites contain useful video clips:
333
YouTube (www.youtube.com)
CNN Video (www.cnn.com/video) and ABC News Video
(abcnews.go.com/video): especially useful for speech topics
on current events or timely social issues
New York Times (www.nytimes.com/video)
Google Videos (video.google.com)
334
Avoid Copyright
Infringement
Abide by copyright restrictions when using visual and audio
materials from the internet or other sources. Some material is
available under fair-use provisions (see Fair Use, Copyright, and
Ethical Speaking). Even if fair use applies, cite the source of the
material in your presentation. Consult your school’s
information technology (IT) office for statements of policy
pertaining to copyrighted and fair-use materials, especially
from undocumented sources such as peer-to-peer (P2P)
sharing.
Cite the source of all copyrighted material in your

presentation. For example, include a bibliographic footnote
on the slide containing the material.
Be wary of sites purporting to offer “royalty free” media
objects; there might actually be other costs associated with
the materials.
When time, resources, and ability allow, create and use
your own pictures, video, or audio for your presentation
slides.
CHECKLIST
Tips for Successfully Using Presentation

Software in Your Speech
335
Don’t let the technology get in the way of relating to your
audience.
Talk to your audience rather than to the screen.
Maintain eye contact as much as possible.
Have a backup plan in case of technical errors.
If you use a pointer (laser or otherwise), turn it off and put it
down as soon as you have made your point.
Incorporate the aids into your practice sessions until you are
confident that they strengthen, rather than detract from, your
core message.
336
FROM SLIDE SHOW TO PRESENTATION
Getting Ready to Deliver a PowerPoint,

Keynote, or Prezi Presentation
To avoid technical glitches, practice delivering your speech with your
presentation software and ensure compatibility with the venue’s
equipment.
Check the Venue
Before your speech, take stock of the equipment and room layout. See
the annotated photo for tips on achieving a smooth delivery with
digital aids.
337
Power sources. Ensure that cords can reach the presentation
equipment, and consider taping them to the floor to keep them out of
the way.
Computer needs and compatibility. Check that you can display all
aids, from the slide show to audio and video clips, on the presentation
computer. If possible, practice at least once on this computer.
Internet access. Have wireless log-in information available and/or a
cable that reaches the internet jack.
Backup plan. Create a contingency plan in case of computer failure;
for example, print overhead transparencies from slide show, prepare to
338
put information on a whiteboard, or create handouts.
Audio. Determine how you will broadcast any audio aids, and check
speaker volume before the speech.
Position Yourself Carefully
Choose a place to stand that gives the audience clear sightlines to you
and your slide show. Stand so that you can face forward even when
changing slides or gesturing toward your aids. This helps you connect
with your audience and project your voice clearly, and it prevents you
from reading off your slides.
Needs improvement: This speaker’s sideways stance discourages eye

contact and indicates that he may be reading off his slides.
339
Good placement: This speaker can access the computer or gesture
toward the slides without blocking the audience’s sightlines.
340
25. Speaking on Special Occasions
VIDEO
ACTIVITY
Go to LaunchPad to watch a video of a student speaker who lacks
credibility with his audience. Visit launchpadworks.com
LaunchPad includes:
341
documentation help.
342
CHAPTER 22 Informative Speaking
To inform is to communicate knowledge. People are naturally
curious about the world, and with its goal of increasing the
audience’s knowledge and deepening their understanding of a
topic, informative speaking is an ideal vehicle for satisfying
this instinct. Informative speeches bring new issues to light,
offer fresh insights on familiar subjects, or provide novel ways
of thinking about a topic. Your speech might be an analysis of
an issue, a report of an event, or a physical demonstration of
how something works. As long as the audience learns
something, the options are nearly limitless.
QUICK TIP
Enlighten Rather Than Advocate

Whereas a persuasive speech explicitly seeks to modify attitudes or
convince an audience to adopt a specific position, an informative
speech stops short of this, focusing instead on sharing knowledge and
deepening understanding.1 Although there are always elements of
persuasion in an informative speech, and vice versa, if you keep this
general speech purpose in mind, you will be able to deliver a speech
whose primary function is to enlighten rather than to advocate.
343
Use Audience Analysis
Audience members must be able to identify with your
informative topic and see how they can benefit from the
information you give them. You therefore need to gauge the
audience’s knowledge of your topic and their likely interests
and needs with respect to it. Then adapt your speech
accordingly. (See Chapter 6.) If speaking about collecting
vintage guitars, for example, you might tell a specialized
audience of collectors the “inside story” of a sale. For a general
audience, you might instead provide an overview of the guitar
brands collectors seek, and the most prized models and prices
they fetch.
344
Present New and
Interesting Information
Audiences want to learn something new from the speaker. To
satisfy this drive, offer information that is fresh and
compelling. Seek out unusual (but credible) sources, novel (but
sound) interpretations, moving stories, compelling examples,
and striking facts. If a speech does not offer audience members
anything new, they will feel that their time has been wasted and
will rightly be offended.2
QUICK TIP
Don’t Overwhelm the Audience

As important as offering new information is not overwhelming
audience members with too much of it. Most people will recall less than
half of the information you tell them, so focus on what you most want
to convey and trim material that is not vital to your central idea.3
345
Look for Ways to
Increase Understanding
Audience members cannot put the speaker on “pause” in order
to digest information, so help them to stay on track with these
basic speechmaking techniques described in previous chapters:
Prepare a well-organized introduction that clearly previews

the thesis and main points and a conclusion that
summarizes them; this will help listeners anticipate and
remember information (see Chapter 14).
Make liberal use of transition words and phrases (first,
next, “I’ll now turn …”) to signal points and verbally map
the flow of ideas. Use internal previews to forecast key
points and internal summaries to reinforce them (see Use
Internal Previews and Summaries as Transitions).
Use rhetorical devices such as repetition and parallelism to
reinforce information and drive home key ideas (see
Chapter 15).
Choose an organizational pattern to help listeners mentally
organize ideas and see relationships among them (see
Chapters 12 and 24).
Use presentation aids selectively to help listeners hear and
see related (but not duplicated) information, as, for
instance, in charts and diagrams (see Chapters 19–21).
QUICK TIP
Make the Introduction Motivating
346
Early on in your informative speech, give audience members a reason
to care about your message. Use the introduction to point out the
topic’s relevance to them and to describe any concrete benefits they
will gain by listening to you. Expand upon these points in the speech
body, and reiterate them once more in the conclusion.
347
Subject Matter of
Informative Speeches
When searching for topics for an informative speech, it can be
useful to brainstorm using the following broad subject
categories: people, events, concepts, issues, processes, or
objects or phenomena. These are not hard-and-fast divisions—a
speech can be about both the process of dance and the people
who perform it, for example—but they do indicate the range of
potential subject matter suited to an informative purpose, as
seen in the table.
Subject Categories of Informative Speeches
Subject Category Sample Topics
Speeches about People
Address impact of individuals or groups of people who Athletes

have made a difference Activists
Authors
You, the speaker
Speeches about Current or Historical Events
Address noteworthy occurrences, past and present Refugee asylum

seekers
The rise and fall of
the Islamic State
The Battle of Britain
Speeches about Concepts
Address abstract or complex ideas, theories, or beliefs Cybersecurity

String theory
Nanotechnology
348
Speeches about Issues
Address social problems or matters in dispute, about Speech codes on

which you want to raise awareness rather than campus
advocate a position Regulating drones
Gun violence
Speeches about Processes
Demonstrate and/or explain how something is done, Production of algae-

how it is made, or how it works based biofuels
Visualization in
sports
Core-power yoga
Speeches about Objects or Phenomena
Address aspects of non-human subjects (their history Self-driving cars

and function, for example) UNESCO World
Heritage Sites in the
United States
The El Niño
phenomenon
349
Decide How to
Communicate Your
Information
Typically, we communicate information by defining,
describing, demonstrating, and/or explaining it. Some speeches
rely on a single approach (e.g., they focus on demonstrating
how something works or explaining what something means).
Many speeches combine strategies. As you prepare your
speech, ask yourself, “How much emphasis should I give to
defining my topic, describing it, demonstrating it, or explaining
its meaning?”
DEFINITION
When your topic is new to the audience and/or addresses a
complex concept (What is a fractal?), or when addressing a
controversial issue such as free speech or the Electoral College,
pay particular attention to providing adequate definitions. Few
things are more frustrating to audience members than spending
the entire speech listening to something they don’t quite grasp
because it was inadequately defined. To define something is to
identify its essential qualities and meanings. You can approach
definition in a number of ways, including the following:
Defining something by what it does (operational

definition): The Electoral College is a system of voting for
the U.S. presidency that includes 538 electors representing
350
the states.
Defining something by describing what it is not (definition
by negation): The Electoral College is not a place but a
process.
Defining something by providing several concrete
examples (definition by example): Electors include elected
officials, state party leaders, or people in the state who have
a personal or political affiliation with their party’s
presidential candidate.4
Defining something by comparing it to something with
which it has something in common (definition by analogy):
The Electoral College is like the World Series in baseball.
Defining something by illustrating its root meaning
(definition by word origin): The word elector derives from
the Latin eligere, “to choose or pick out.”
DESCRIPTION
Whether offering your audience a “virtual tour” of the top of
Mount Everest or describing the physical ravages caused by
drug abuse, the point of description is to provide a mental
picture for the audience. Use concrete words and vivid imagery
to help listeners visualize your depictions (see Chapter 15).
DEMONSTRATION
Sometimes the purpose of an informative speech is to explain
how something works or to provide an actual demonstration,
similar to “how-to” videos and podcasts. A speech may not
include an actual physical demonstration (e.g., how to use
Apple’s Clips App), but the speaker will nevertheless rely on a
351
verbal demonstration of the steps involved.
EXPLANATION
Many informative speech topics are built on explanation—
providing reasons or causes, demonstrating relationships, and
offering interpretation and analysis. The classroom lecture is a
classic example of explanation in an informative context (see
Chapter 30). But numerous kinds of speeches rely on
explanation, from those that address difficult or confusing
theories and processes (What is the relationship between the
glycemic index and glycemic load?) to those that present ideas
that challenge conventional thinking (Why do researchers say
that sometimes emotion makes us more rather than less
logical?). See the checklist Strategies for Explaining Complex
Information for strategies for explaining complex ideas.
352
Take Steps to Reduce
Confusion
New information can be hard to grasp, especially when it
addresses a difficult concept (such as equilibrium in
engineering), a difficult-to-envision process (such as cash-flow
management in business), or a counterintuitive idea—one that
challenges commonsense thinking (such as drinking a glass of
red wine a day can be healthy).
Useful for almost any speech, the following strategies for

communicating information are especially helpful when
attempting to clarify complex information, as in scientific and
technical concepts.
Use Analogies to Build on Prior

Knowledge
Audience members will understand a new concept more easily
if the speaker uses an analogy to relate it to something that they
already know. For example, to explain the unpredictable paths
that satellites often take when they fall to earth, you can liken
the effect to dropping a penny into water: “Sometimes it goes
straight down, and sometimes it turns end over end and
changes direction. The same thing happens when an object hits
the atmosphere.”5
In the following excerpt from a speech about
353
nanotechnology, Wolfgang Porod explains the size of a
nanometer by comparing it to the diameter of the moon. Note
how he attempts to reduce confusion by first defining the root
nano and then comparing it to the size of the moon:
What is a nano and what is special about a nano? Nano is a

prefix derived from the Greek word for dwarf and it means
one billionth of something. So a nanosecond is a billionth
of a second. A nanometer is a billionth of a meter. Now,
just saying that doesn’t really tell you that much. So what
does it mean to have the length scale of a billionth of a
meter? Well, imagine the diameter of the moon. It just
happens to be, roughly … a billion meters. So take that and
shrink it down to the length scale of a meter, which is what
it means to go a billion size scales. So a nanometer is a
billionth of a meter.6
QUICK TIP
Use Analogies Accurately

Linking the unfamiliar with the familiar through analogy aids
understanding. But no analogy can exactly represent another concept;
at a certain point, the similarities will end.7 To ensure accuracy, state
the limits of the comparison. The statement “The heart is like a pump,
except the heart is much more complex” demonstrates that, though
similar, a heart and a pump are not the same.8
CHECKLIST
354
Strategies for Explaining Complex
Information
To explain a concept or term:
Use analogies that link concepts to something familiar.

Define terms in several ways.
Simplify terminology wherever possible.
To explain a process or structure, do all of the above and:
Make ample use of presentation aids, including models and

drawings.
To explain a counterintuitive idea, do all of the above and:
Address the commonly-held assumption first.

Acknowledge its plausibility.
Demonstrate its limitations using familiar examples.
Appeal to Different Learning

Styles
Audience members are more likely to follow your points if you
reinforce them with other media. The reason for this is that
people have different learning styles, or preferred ways of
processing information. One learning theory model suggests
four preferences: visual, aural, read/write, and kinesthetic.9
Few of us are not helped by visual reinforcement, so consider
that most of the audience will appreciate visual aids. Many of us
are multimodal learners, in that we combine two or more
355
preferences.
Audience analysis can sometimes give you a sense of the

types of learners in an audience. For example, mechanics of all
types have strong spatial visualization abilities and thus would
be classified as visual learners; they may also be kinesthetic
learners who want to “test” things for themselves, perhaps by
handling actual models. Often, however, you may not have
enough information to determine your listeners’ learning style,
so plan on conveying and reinforcing information in a variety of
modes as suggested in the following table.
Communicating Information to Different Types of Learners
Type Advice for Communicating Information
Visual Include pictures, charts, tables, or videos.

(Learns through
visual aids)
Aural Use colorful and concrete language and strong examples

(Learns through and stories.
the spoken word)
Read/Write Use text-based slides (but observe the six-by-six rule; see
(Learns through Keep the Design Simple) and perhaps handouts.
written text)
Kinesthetic Use real-life demonstrations, models, simulations, and

(Learns through other hands-on applications.
hands-on contact)
356
Arrange Points in a
Pattern
Informative speeches can be organized using any of the
patterns described in Chapter 12, including the topical,
chronological, spatial, cause-effect, and narrative patterns.
(Note that although the problem-solution pattern may be used
in informative speeches, it is usually a more logical candidate
for persuasive speeches.) A speech about the Impressionist
movement in painting, for example, could be organized
chronologically, in which main points are arranged in sequence
from the movement’s early period to its later falling out of
favor. It could be organized causally (cause-effect), by
demonstrating that Impressionism came about as a reaction to
the art movement that preceded it. It could also be organized
topically (by categories), by focusing on the major figures
associated with the movement, famous paintings linked to it, or
notable contemporary artists who paint in the style.
357
SAMPLE INFORMATIVE
SPEECH
This informative speech by Saundra Dixon describes the quest
to achieve carbon neutrality on college campuses. In terms of
categories of informative subject matter described in this
chapter (see Subject Matter of Informative Speeches), carbon
neutrality is both a concept and a process. To ensure
understanding of this fairly complex idea, which might be
unfamiliar to her audience, Saundra is careful to define
potentially confusing or unknown terms, including, of course,
the topic term. Saundra chose a topic that could easily veer into
persuasive territory. On the whole, however, she avoids
advocacy, focusing instead on increasing the audience’s
awareness of this movement. She introduces her speech with a
powerful quotation and a short but effective preview of her
thesis and main points. Organizationally, the speech follows the
topical pattern, moving from one aspect of the topic to another
(see Arranging Speech Points Topically). With strong
supporting material in the form of real-life examples, as well as
testimony from credible publications and reports, Saundra is
able to convey a good deal of information in an engaging way.
Going Carbon Neutral on

Campus
Saundra Dixon
358
See Saundra deliver her speech in LaunchPad:
launchpadworks.com
Beginning the speech with a quote from a well-known actor and

activist effectively captures the audience’s attention and gets them
interested in the topic.
“Climate change is real. It is happening right now. It is the most

urgent threat facing our entire species, and we need to work
collectively together and stop procrastinating.”
These words, from Leonardo DiCaprio in his 2016 Academy

Awards acceptance speech, reflect the consensus of the
worldwide scientific community, the Catholic Church, and the
U.S. military. Human-caused climate change is indeed one of
the greatest global challenges of our lifetimes. To address this
359
challenge, colleges and universities are engaging in a range of
actions to become carbon neutral.
In her preview statement, Saundra states the thesis and main points.
During this presentation, I will explain the scope of the

campus movement toward carbon neutrality. First I’ll give a
brief overview of carbon neutrality. Second, I’ll describe what
institutions of higher learning are doing to move towards
carbon neutrality. Third, I’ll share with you some specific
means by which colleges and universities are attempting to
achieve carbon neutrality. Led by student involvement, carbon
neutrality at colleges of all sizes is one step in meeting the
challenge of human-caused climate change.
To
With this transition, Saundra moves into the speech body.
begin:
By citing data from authoritative government and other sources,

Saundra boosts her credibility.
What is carbon neutrality, and why is it important? According to

a 2014 assessment by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change, it is 100 percent certain that the Earth’s climate is
warming, and 95–100 percent certain that human-caused
activities are responsible for the warming. The United Nations
Human Rights Council identifies climate change as an
immediate and far-reaching human rights issue due to its likely
360
impact on poor and marginalized countries. A 2016 study by the
think tank Demos estimates that unchecked climate change will
cost the Millennial generation $8.8 trillion dollars in total lost
lifetime income.
These forecasts may sound bleak, but the good news is that
steps can and are being taken to prevent these things from
happening. This is where carbon neutrality comes in.
Carbon neutrality means taking as much carbon-based

pollution out of the atmosphere as we put in. We emit carbon in
the form of carbon dioxide and methane gas, through activities
like burning coal or natural gas for energy and dedicating large
swaths of land to raising livestock. Reducing carbon output
requires the use of renewable energy sources—like wind and
solar—and altering habits of consumption, including eating a
diet that is more plant-based. Carbon neutrality also requires
that we offset or cancel out carbon-based pollution with such
carbon-absorbing activities as, for example, preserving forests
and wetlands. In other words, being carbon neutral means
balancing the carbon equation and not causing additional
carbon pollution.
Saundra carefully defines carbon neutrality.
As I’ve mentioned, individuals can take steps to reduce

carbon-based pollution, such as switching to renewable energy
at home and eating a more plant-based diet. However, the
361
biggest impacts will come from actions by groups and
institutions, including colleges. If just one large school shifts to
carbon neutrality, it can do more to reduce the impact of
climate change than thousands of carbon-neutral individuals.
Here Saundra approaches persuasive territory, yet still she mostly

informs, rather than advocates.
Saundra supports her topic with excellent examples of colleges that

are achieving carbon neutrality.
In fact, many colleges in the United States and around the

world are already taking big steps towards carbon neutrality.
Over 500 U.S. colleges have signed the American College and
University Presidents’ Climate Commitment and have actively
pledged to become carbon neutral by a specific date, which
varies by school. According to Second Nature, the nonprofit
organization overseeing this Climate Commitment, some
colleges have already become 100 percent carbon neutral, such
as College of the Atlantic, Green Mountain College, Colby
College, and Middlebury College.
Those four schools have something in common: They are all

relatively small liberal arts colleges, mostly located in rural
areas. Some of the methods that these schools have successfully
implemented to reduce carbon are difficult to scale up at larger
schools. For example, Middlebury College uses a biomass
gasification plant that superheats wood chips to create steam
362
for heating, air conditioning, and hot water. The Middlebury
campus in Vermont has a total enrollment of just over 2,500
students. The amount of wood chips that would be needed to
power such a plant at a larger school would be prohibitive,
forcing larger schools to seek other solutions to reduce their
carbon footprint.
That’s not to say that larger schools are getting left behind in
the race for carbon neutrality. Colorado State University, a
campus of over 30,000 students, is also home to a 30-acre field
of solar panels—which the university claims generate enough
electricity to power 949 homes—as well as a steam turbine that
cuts the school’s carbon emissions by 2,600 tons every year.
Meanwhile, Stanford University successfully met its goal of
reducing carbon emissions by 68 percent by the end of 2016 and
pledged to meet even more ambitious emission goals in
subsequent years. Finally, the entire ten-campus University of
California system has pledged to become carbon neutral by
2025. Whether small or large, and whether early or recent
adopters, colleges nationwide have begun doing their part to
reduce their carbon outputs.
In this transition, Saundra internally summarizes previous points and

previews her next point.
So far, we’ve seen that carbon neutrality is important and

that there is a widespread commitment to moving towards
carbon neutrality on college campuses. Let’s look now at more
363
specific ways in which students and administrators are
achieving carbon neutrality.
First and foremost, energy efficiency is the key to reducing

emissions. Energy efficiency requirements for new buildings
and retrofits for aging ones can go a long way towards this end.
Colleges are switching to locally appropriate renewable energy,
and some are even generating their own energy using solar
arrays or wind farms. Additionally, administrators can choose
to bring locally sourced food to campus dining halls, which cuts
down on carbon emitted during food transportation. Speaking
of transportation, another easy step that students can take is to
use public transit and campus shuttles instead of personal cars
whenever possible.
Saundra fails to offer a needed definition for carbon offsets. Clearly

defining potentially unfamiliar terms is crucial in any speech.
The other side of carbon neutrality is absorbing existing

carbon emissions. To do this, some colleges are turning to off-
site options. Preserving undeveloped land, for example,
provides a natural system to absorb emissions. Meanwhile,
purchasing carbon offsets pays for carbon-reducing projects
elsewhere, such as reforestation, carbon dioxide or methane
capture, and clean energy development. For example, Green
Mountain College partners with local energy company Native
Energy and with the Seneca Meadows Landfill in upstate New
York to obtain carbon offsets.
364
Saundra supports her point with evidence from a source she
establishes as credible.
Perhaps the biggest barrier to carbon neutrality is the up-

front cost. Building energy-efficient cafeterias, lecture halls,
and dormitories isn’t cheap, but it can be a smart business
investment. In a 2015 New York Times commentary, journalist
David Bornstein observed that the University of New
Hampshire invested $600,000 in energy efficiency projects that
resulted in $1.3 million in savings in just five years. Colleges are
finding ways to implement these projects not only because it
saves the environment, but also because it saves them money in
the long run.
Finally, students and administrators committed to carbon

neutrality are taking other steps right now without spending a
cent. Energy-saving competitions between dormitories on
campus—like those sponsored by the nonprofit group Alliance
to Save Energy—reduce energy costs, cut carbon emissions, and
increase clean energy awareness and engagement among
students. So do student groups tasked with turning off lights in
unoccupied rooms, and coalitions between students, staff, and
administration to reduce food waste. Schools are using all of
these strategies as they to move toward carbon neutrality.
Today we’ve
Saundra uses this transition to signal the conclusion.
explored what
carbon
365
neutrality is and how it can be achieved. We learned about the
steps college communities are taking to work towards carbon
neutrality. Human-caused climate change isn’t just about our
future. It is happening right now. As I’ve described today, so too
are efforts by students and educators to curb it. Carbon
neutrality—the balancing of carbon-based pollution with carbon
absorption—can help to address human-caused climate change.
In the words of Bob Best, Head of Energy and Sustainability at
the investment management company JLL: “From students and
faculty to parents and alumni, environmental sustainability is
now one of the pillars of a university’s public image.” Colleges
and universities recognize this reality and overwhelmingly
support carbon neutrality initiatives. Through a mixture of
emissions reduction and emissions capture, on- and off-site,
small and large colleges have already been successful in moving
towards a greener tomorrow.
By concluding with a quotation, Saundra reinforces her thesis and

makes the speech memorable.
Works Cited
Bornstein, David. 2015. “Investing in Energy Efficiency Pays

Off.” New York Times, February 6, 2015.
http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/02/06/investing-
in-energy-efficiency-pays-off/.
Colorado State University. “Sustainability in Facilities
Management.” Accessed January 24, 2018.
366
http://www.fm.colostate.edu/sustain/energy.html.
Core Writing Team. 2014. Climate Change 2014 Synthesis
Report. Geneva: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change.
Demos. 2016. “The Price Tag of Being Young: Climate Change
and Millennials’ Economic Future.” August 22, 2016.
http://www.demos.org/publication/price-tag-being-young-
climate-change-and-millennials-economic-future.
Jones Lang LaSalle. 2017. “Carbon-Neutral Campus: Navigating
the Road to Zero.” April 13, 2017.
http://www.us.jll.com/united-states/en-
us/news/4487/lessons-for-higher-education-carbon-
neutral-goals.
Second Nature. 2018. “Reporting Platform.” Accessed January
24, 2018.
http://reporting.secondnature.org/institution/data/.
Stanford University. “Sustainable Stanford 2016–17 Year in
Review.” Accessed January 24, 2018. https://sustainability-
year-in-review.stanford.edu/2017/.
United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner.
“Human Rights and Climate Change.” Accessed January 24,
2018.
http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/HRAndClimateChange/Pages/HRCli
Woodside, Ruby. 2016. “New England Colleges Demonstrate
Excellence.” Second Nature, December 9, 2016.
http://secondnature.org/2016/12/09/new-england-colleges-
demonstrate-excellence/.
367
CHAPTER 23 Principles of Persuasive
Speaking
To persuade is to advocate, to ask others to accept your views. A
persuasive speech is meant to influence audience members’
attitudes, beliefs, values, and/or behavior by appealing to some
combination of their needs, desires, interests, and even fears.
When you speak persuasively, you aim to produce some shift

in the audience’s emotions and reasoning about an issue—to
arouse involvement and perhaps motivate action for an issue or
a cause, or to strengthen (or weaken) beliefs about a certain
controversy. Whatever the topic, the goal is to reinforce,
stimulate, or change the audience’s attitudes and beliefs about
the issue in question to more closely match your own.
368
Persuasive Speeches
Appeal to Human
Psychology
Success in persuasive speaking requires attention to human
psychology—to what motivates people. Audience analysis is
therefore extremely important in persuasive appeals, both to
identify what your target audience cares about and to build
common ground (see Chapter 6). But persuasion is a complex
process, and getting people to change their minds, even a little,
is challenging.
Research confirms that you can increase the odds of

influencing the audience in your direction if you:
Set modest goals. Expect minor rather than major changes

in your listeners’ attitudes and behavior.1
Establish your credibility and build common bonds to
encourage the audience’s trust in and identification with
you (see Gauge Listeners’ Feelings toward You as the
Speaker).
Make your message personally relevant to the audience.
Expect to be more successful when addressing an audience
whose position differs only moderately from your own.2
The more strongly audience members feel about a given
issue, the less likely they are to be persuaded of an
alternative viewpoint.3
369
If asking for the audience to support a position or cause,
demonstrate positive consequences of your position.
Consider using stories. Audiences react positively to them,
both cognitively and behaviorally.4
Persuasion is both ancient art and modern science, with roots

in Greek and Roman rhetoric, as persuasion was first named,
and branches in contemporary social science. Both classical
and contemporary perspectives recognize that successful
persuasion requires a balance of reason and emotion, and that
audience members must be well disposed toward the speaker.
370
Classical Persuasive
Appeals: Ethos, Pathos,
and Logos
Aristotle explained that persuasion could be brought about by
the speaker’s use of three types of persuasive appeals or
“proofs”—termed logos, pathos, and ethos. The first appeal uses
reason and logic, the second targets listeners’ emotions, and the
third enlists the ethical character of the speaker. According to
Aristotle, and generations who followed him to the present day,
effective persuasive speeches make use of all of these appeals.
Appeal to Reason
Many persuasive speeches focus on issues that require
considerable thought. Aristotle used the term logos to refer to
persuasive appeals directed at the audience’s systematic
reasoning on a topic. Does lowering the federal corporate
income tax rate create jobs? Should community colleges be
tuition-free? When you ask audience members to reach a
conclusion regarding a complicated issue, they will look to you
to provide factual evidence and logical reasons—to offer appeals
to logos. You can evoke logos in a speech with evidence and
reasoning within the framework of an argument. Persuasive
speeches contain one or more arguments (see Chapter 24 on
constructing arguments).
371
Appeal to Emotion
A second powerful means of persuasion is pathos—appealing to
listeners’ emotions. Feelings such as love, compassion, anger,
and fear underlie many of our actions and motivate us to think
and feel as we do. Appealing to these emotions helps establish a
personal connection with the audience and makes your claims
more relatable.
One means of evoking emotion or pathos in a speech is to

appeal to the audience’s physical senses through the use of vivid
imagery. Another way to stir feeling is to call upon shared
values, such as patriotism, selflessness, faith, and hope.
Infusing parts of the speech with repetition and parallelism,
which creates rhythm and drama, also arouses emotion (see
Chapter 15 on Using Language).
You can see how these techniques operate in the following

excerpt from the famous “Fight on the Beaches” speech by
Winston Churchill, delivered on June 4, 1940, to the British
House of Commons. Here Churchill sought to motivate the
nation for the battles ahead through his use of vivid
descriptions of the enemy (“odious apparatus of Nazi rule”) and
of where he would take the battles (“on the seas and the
oceans”; “in the fields and in the streets”); through his appeals
to the values of patriotism and hope (“we shall not flag or fail”;
“we shall never surrender”) and through his unforgettable use
of repetition and parallelism (“We shall…”):
372
Even though large tracts of Europe and many old and
famous States have fallen or may fall into the grip of the
Gestapo and all the odious apparatus of Nazi rule, we shall
not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end, we shall fight in
France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight
with growing confidence and growing strength in the air,
we shall defend our Island, whatever the cost may be, we
shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing
grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we
shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender….5
QUICK TIP
Base Emotional Appeals on Sound Reasoning

Although emotion is a powerful means of moving an audience, relying
solely on naked emotion to persuade will fail most of the time. What
actually persuades is the interplay between emotion and logic.6
Emotion gets the audience’s attention and arouses their feelings—
either positive or negative—about the issue in question. Reason
provides the justification for these feelings, and emotion and reason
together may dispose audience members to believe in or act upon your
suggestions.
Appeal to Credibility
No matter how well-reasoned a message is or which strong
emotions its words target, if audience members have little
regard for you as the speaker, they won’t respond positively to
your appeals. Aristotle termed this effect of the speaker ethos,
373
or ethical character. Ethos is about establishing your authority
as a speaker and person.
A persuasive appeal based on ethos contains three elements.

The first is competence, or demonstrating mastery of the
subject matter. Second is moral character, as reflected in an
honest presentation of the message. Third is goodwill, as
demonstrated by the speaker’s interest in and concern for the
needs of the audience relative to the speech.
Applying Aristotle’s Three Persuasive Appeals
Appeal to Logos Targets audience members’ rationality using factual evidence

and logical reasoning
Appeal to Targets audience members’ emotions using dramatic

Pathos storytelling and techniques of language such as vivid imagery,
repetition, and parallelism, and figures of speech such as
metaphor
Appeal to Ethos Targets audience members’ feelings about the speaker’s

character through demonstrations of trustworthiness,
competence, and concern for their welfare
374
Contemporary
Persuasive Appeals:
Needs and Motivations
Current research confirms the persuasive power of ethos,
pathos, and logos in persuasive appeals.7 Advertisers
consciously create ads aimed at evoking an emotional response
(pathos) in consumers, that convince us that their company or
product is reliable or credible (ethos), and that offer factual
reasons (logos) for why we should buy something.8 At the same
time, modern-day scholars have developed additional strategies
for reinforcing or changing attitudes, including (1) targeting
audience members’ motivations for feeling and acting as they
do, (2) appealing to audience members’ needs, and (3)
appealing to how they are likely to mentally process the
persuasive message.
Appeal to What Motivates

Audience Members
Winning over audience members to your point of view requires
appealing to their motives, or predispositions to behave in
certain ways.9 Motives arise from needs and desires that we
seek to satisfy (see below). If as a speaker you can convince
listeners that taking an action you propose will reward them in
some way, you are likely to encourage receptivity to change.
375
Appeal to Audience Members’
Needs
Our multibillion-dollar advertising industry focuses on one
goal: appealing to consumers’ needs. Likewise, one very
effective way to persuade audience members is to point to some
need they want fulfilled and show them a way to fulfill it.
According to psychologist Abraham Maslow’s classic hierarchy
of needs, each of us has a set of basic needs ranging from
essential, life-sustaining ones to less critical, self-improvement
ones.10 Our needs at the lower, essential levels (physiological
and safety needs) must be fulfilled before the higher levels
(social, self-esteem, and self-actualization needs) become
important and motivating. Using Maslow’s hierarchy to
persuade your listeners to to refrain from texting while driving,
for example, you would appeal to their need for safety.
Following are Maslow’s five basic needs, along with

suggested actions a speaker can take to appeal to them.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Need Speech Action
Physiological needs (to have Plan for and accommodate the audience’s
access to basic sustenance, physiological needs—are listeners likely to
be hot, cold, hungry, or thirsty?
including food, water, and air)
Safety needs (to feel protected Appeal to safety benefits—voting for a

and secure) clean air bill will remove a threat or protect
audience members from harm.
376
Social needs (to find Appeal to social benefits—adopting a
acceptance; to have lasting, healthier diet will lead to being more
physically fit and attractive to peers.
meaningful relationships)
Self-esteem needs (to feel good Appeal to emotional benefits—

about ourselves; self-worth) volunteering as a high school mentor will
make listeners feel better about
themselves.
Self-actualization needs (to Appeal to your listeners’ need to fulfill their

achieve goals; to reach our potential—daily meditation reduces stress
and increases self-awareness.
highest potential)
Encourage Mental Engagement

Audience members will mentally process your persuasive
message by one of two routes, depending on the degree of their
involvement in the message.11 According to the elaboration
likelihood model of persuasion (ELM), when listeners are
motivated and able to think critically about a message, they
engage in central processing. That is, listeners who seriously
consider what your message means to them are the ones most
likely to act on it. When audience members lack the motivation
or ability to judge your argument based on its merits, they
engage in peripheral processing of information—they pay little
attention and respond to the message as being irrelevant, too
complex to follow, or just plain unimportant. Listeners may buy
into your message, but they do so not on the strength of the
arguments but on the basis of such superficial factors as
reputation, entertainment value, or the speaker’s personal style.
These listeners are unlikely to experience any meaningful
changes in attitudes or behavior. Central processing produces
377
more long-lasting changes in audience perspective.
Do You Encourage Central Processing?
Do you: Example
Link your argument to “Hybrid cars may not be the best-looking or

listeners’ concerns and fastest cars on the market, but when gas prices
emphasize direct rise, they save you money.”
consequences?
Present your message at an For a general audience: “The technology behind

appropriate level of hybrid cars is simple.”
understanding? For an expert audience: “To save even more gas,
you can turn an EV into a PHEV with a generator
and additional batteries.”
Do you demonstrate common “It took me a while to convince myself to buy a

bonds and stress your hybrid, but once I did, I found I saved nearly
credibility? $3,000 this year.”
Demonstrate Speaker Credibility

You’ve seen the qualities of speaker competence, moral
character, and goodwill that the ancients described in terms of
ethos (see Stress Your Credibility). A contemporary term for
ethos is speaker credibility. Research verifies the vital
importance of ethos, or speaker credibility, in gaining an
audience’s trust. For example, studies confirm a direct
relationship between attitude change and listeners’ perceptions
of the speaker’s level of competence and preparation.12
Speakers perceived as high in credibility will also be regarded
as more truthful than those perceived to have low credibility.13
378
STAGES IN SPEAKER CREDIBILITY
For audience members, credibility builds in phases as the
speaker moves through the speech. It begins with the
impressions audience members form even before the speaker
begins to speak.
Initial credibility is based on factors such as information

provided about the speaker ahead of the event and, as the
speech begins, on his or her physical appearance and
nonverbal behavior. Listeners assign more credibility to
speakers who dress appropriately and establish eye contact
than to those who do not take these steps.
Once into the speech, audience members will assign

speakers more or less credibility based on their actual message,
including the quality of evidence and the skill with which the
speech is delivered. This is called derived credibility, since it
derives from actual performance. Here is where competence
plays a major role.
Listeners continue to make judgments about credibility up

until and even after the conclusion of the speech. Terminal
credibility encompasses the totality of the audience’s
impressions, including that of the strength of the speaker’s
conclusion as well as the overall speech performance. Ending
abruptly, without a good summation, and hurrying away from
the venue will negatively impact terminal credibility.14
379
CHECKLIST
Tips for Increasing Speaker Credibility

Strive to make a positive first impression.
Enlighten your audience with new and relevant information.
For topics that involve a lot of facts and analysis, emphasize
your expertise.
For topics of a more personal nature, emphasize your
commonality with the audience.
Consider Cultural Orientation

The audience’s cultural orientation—its core values, cultural
norms, cultural premises, and emotions—will significantly
affect their responses to persuasion.
To learn more about the role of culture in persuasion,

see the section on Cultural Orientation in LaunchPad:
launchpadworks.com
380
CHAPTER 24 Constructing the Persuasive
Speech
In persuasive speeches, one or more arguments serve as the
framework for the speaker’s appeals. An argument is a stated
position, with support for or against an idea or issue. In an
argument, you ask listeners to accept a conclusion about some
state of affairs, support it with evidence, and provide reasons
demonstrating that the evidence supports the claim. The core
elements of an argument consist of a claim, evidence, and
warrants:1
1. The claim (also called a proposition) states the speaker’s

conclusion about some state of affairs. The claim answers
the question: “What are you trying to prove?”
2. The evidence substantiates the claim, answering the
question: “What is your proof for the claim?”
3. The warrant provides reasons or justifications for why the
evidence supports the claim. It is a line of reasoning that
provides a rationale for accepting that the evidence for the
claim is valid, or warranted.
381
FIGURE 24.1 Core Components of Argument
382
Identify the Nature of
Your Claims
You can construct arguments for a persuasive speech based on
three different kinds of claims: of fact, of value, and of policy.
Your speech may contain only one type of claim or, often,
consist of several arguments addressing different kinds of
claims.
Claims of fact focus on whether something is or is not true

or whether something will or will not happen. They usually
address issues for which two or more competing answers
exist, or those for which an answer does not yet exist (called
a speculative claim). An example of the first is “Global
warming is causing more extreme weather patterns.” An
example of the second is “Drones will deliver groceries to
most homes in the United States by 2025.”
Claims of value address issues of judgment. Speakers
arguing claims of value try to show that something is right
or wrong, good or bad, worthy or unworthy. Examples
include “Is assisted suicide ethical?” and “Is any painting
worth $100 million?” Evidence in support of a value claim
tends to be more subjective than for a fact claim.
Claims of policy recommend that a specific course of
action be taken or approved. Legislators regularly construct
arguments based on claims of policy: “Should we pass a law
restricting the use of assault weapons/genetically modified
foods/firecrackers?” Anyone can argue for a claim of policy
383
as long as he or she advocates for or against a given plan. In
claims of policy the word should appears; it speaks to an
“ought” condition, proposing that certain better outcomes
would be realized if the proposed condition were met.
CHECKLIST
Identify the Nature of Your Claim

When addressing whether something is or is not true, or
whether something will or will not happen, frame your
conclusion as a claim of fact.
When addressing issues that rely upon individual judgment of
right and wrong for their resolution, frame your conclusion as a
claim of value.
When proposing a specific outcome or solution to an issue,
frame your conclusion as a claim of policy.
384
Use Convincing
Evidence
As in claims, you can choose among different types of evidence
to support these claims.
Offer Secondary Sources

(“External Evidence”)
The most common form of evidence is secondary sources—the
examples, narratives, testimony, facts, and statistics described
in Chapter 8. Sometimes called “external evidence” because the
knowledge comes from outside the speaker’s own experience,
secondary or external sources are most powerful when they
impart new information that the audience has not previously
used in forming an opinion.2
Offer Speaker Expertise as

Evidence
When the audience will find your opinions credible, consider
using your own experience and knowledge as evidence. Offered
along with other forms of evidence, speaker expertise can
encourage audience identification and add credibility to a
claim. Following is an example:
Claim: Young adults need the protection of a health insurance

plan.
385
Speaker Being young and healthy, I didn’t believe I needed
Expertise as insurance … until I required surgery costing thousands of
Evidence: dollars.
Warrant: The young and healthy are also vulnerable and need to
protect themselves against unforeseen events.
Note that in this example, the warrant could just as easily be

implied as stated. Some claims require carefully stated
warrants; others can be implied.
Offer Evidence That Appeals to

Audience Needs and Motivations
Even seemingly overwhelming evidence may not be enough to
convince audience members of certain claims unless they see
how it relates to their own needs and motivations. This is
especially important when asking the audience to act on your
suggestions, but it can be important for many different kind of
claims. When urging changes in a health behavior such as diet,
for example, offer evidence that listeners are likely to find
personally useful and motivating. If making a claim of policy
that your college administration should change its free speech
policies, you might cite evidence that relates directly to the
students: “In our college, the administration’s Student Code of
Conduct infringes on your First Amendment rights of freedom
of expression by …”
386
Select Warrants
As with claims and evidence, you can use different types of
warrants or lines of reasoning to justify the links you make
between claim and evidence.
Motivational warrants offer reasons targeted at the

audience’s needs and emotions. In Aristotle’s terms, the
motivational warrant makes use of pathos, or emotional
appeals. Motivational warrants often are implied rather
than stated outright:
Claim: You can easily afford to join Organization X dedicated to

ending the hunger of thousands of children.
Evidence: The price of one soft drink can feed a child for a week.
Motivational You don’t want any child to starve or go without proper

Warrant: medical care.
Authoritative warrants rely on the audience’s beliefs about

the credibility of the source of the evidence; this appeal is
based on ethos. The success or failure of authoritative
warrants rests on how highly the audience regards the
authority figure.
Claim: We should contribute financially to an agency that

feeds hungry children.
Evidence: Any amount we give, however small, will go far in

meeting the agency’s objectives.
Authoritative The agency is sponsored by Senator X.

Warrant:
387
Substantive warrants target the audience’s faith in the
speaker’s factual evidence as justification for the argument;
this warrant is based on logos and appeals to the audience’s
rational thinking on a matter:
Claim: Climate change is linked to stronger hurricanes.
Evidence: We have seen a consistent pattern of stronger

hurricanes and warmer oceans.
Substantive Hurricanes and tropical storms get their energy from

Warrant: warm water.
Substantive warrants frequently make use of two types of

reasoning: causation and analogy. In causal reasoning, the
speaker argues that one event, circumstance, or idea (the cause)
is the reason (effect) for the other. The example above about
climate change offers an instance of causal reasoning, or
warrant by cause. The warrant proves the relationship of cause
(climate change) to effect (stronger hurricanes) on the factual
basis of the process of hurricane formation.
A second type of reasoning used in substantive warrants,

reasoning by analogy, compares two similar cases and implies
that what is true in one case is true in the other. The assumption
is that the characteristics of Case A and Case B are similar, if not
the same, and that what is true for B must also be true for A.
Arguments based on warrant by analogy occur frequently in
persuasive speeches, especially those addressing claims of
policy.
388
Claim: Lifting economic sanctions on Iran in exchange for a suspension
in its pursuit of nuclear weapons risks creating another North
Korea.
Evidence: North Korea used the loosening of sanctions to redouble its

nuclear program, just as the Iranians are doing now.
Warrant Iran, like North Korea, is an anti-American regime and sponsor

by of terror that cannot be trusted to do as they say.
analogy:
QUICK TIP
Include a Call to Action

In any speech asking audience members to do something, be sure to
include a call to action in the conclusion of your speech (see Challenge
the Audience to Respond). Make an explicit appeal to take the specific
action—buy only those products that meet fair-trade conditions,
register to vote, join a charity, and so forth. Lower barriers to action by
telling the audience precisely what they need to do to accomplish the
act, and remind them of the benefits to themselves of taking the action.
389
Counterarguments:
Addressing the Other Side
All attempts at persuasion are subject to counterargument. A
persuasive speaker can choose to offer only one side of the
argument(s) or acknowledge opposing views. A one-sided
message does not mention opposing claims; a two-sided
message mentions opposing points of view and sometimes
refutes them. Research suggests that two-sided messages
generally are more persuasive than one-sided messages, as long
as the speaker adequately refutes opposing claims.3
If listeners are aware of opposing claims and you ignore

them, you risk a loss of credibility. This is especially the case
when speaking with people who disagree with your position.
Yet you need not painstakingly acknowledge and refute all
opposing claims. Instead, raise and refute the most important
counterclaims and evidence that the audience would know
about. Ethically, you can ignore counterclaims that don’t
significantly weaken your argument.4
Persuasion scholar Herbert Simons describes four types of

potential audiences, from hostile to critical to sympathetic to
uninformed. Following are various counterargument strategies
for appealing to each type.5
Counterargument Strategies for Appealing to Different Audience Types
390
Audience Type Counterargument Strategy
Hostile audience or Raise counterarguments, focusing on those the

those who strongly audience is most likely to disagree with and try to
win support.
disagree
Critical and/or Address major counterarguments and refute them;

conflicted audience introduce new evidence.
Sympathetic audience If time permits, briefly address only most important

counterarguments.
Uninformed, less Briefly raise and refute only key counterarguments

educated, or apathetic the audience may hear in future.
audience
*Audience types based on Herbert Simons, Persuasion in Society, 2nd ed. (New
York: Routledge, 2011).
CHECKLIST
Strategies for Addressing

Counterarguments
Gently challenge preconceptions associated with the
counterarguments, but do not insult the audience.
Acknowledge counterclaims the audience is most likely to
disagree with and demonstrate why those claims are weaker
than your argument.
If you can introduce new evidence to demonstrate that the
counterclaim is outdated or inaccurate, do so.
Consider where in the speech to introduce the counterclaims.
When addressing a hostile audience about a controversial
topic, addressing the counterclaim early in the speech and
revisiting it just before the conclusion works well; otherwise,
391
you can address counterclaims just before the conclusion.
392
Avoid Fallacies in
Reasoning
A logical fallacy is either a false or erroneous statement or an
invalid or deceptive line of reasoning.6 In either case, you need
to be aware of fallacies in order to avoid making them in your
own speeches and to be able to identify them in the speeches of
others. Many fallacies of reasoning exist; the following table
lists several that occur frequently in communication.
Common Logical Fallacies
Logical Fallacy Examples
Begging the question “Intelligent Design is the correct

An argument that is stated in such a way explanation for biological change over
that it cannot help but be true, even time because we can see godly
though no evidence has been evidence in our complex natural
presented. world.”
Ad hominem argument “How can you accept my opponent’s

An argument that targets a person position on education when he has
instead of the issue at hand in an been divorced?”
attempt to incite an audience’s dislike
for that person.
Bandwagoning “Nikes are superior to other brands of

An argument that uses shoes because everyone wears Nikes.”
(unsubstantiated) general opinion as its
(false) basis for asserting the truth of
something.
Either-or fallacy (“false dichotomy”) “Either you’re with us or against us.”

An argument stated in terms of only two
393
alternatives, even though there may be
many additional alternatives.
Red herring “The previous speaker suggests that

An argument that introduces an Medicare is in shambles. I disagree
irrelevant or unrelated topic into the and recommend that we study why
discussion to divert attention from the the young don’t respect their elders.”
issue at hand.
Hasty generalization “My neighbor who works at Walmart is

An argument that uses an isolated untrustworthy; therefore, Walmart is
instance to make an unwarranted not a trustworthy company.”
general conclusion.
Post hoc ergo propter hoc (also called “The child was vaccinated in June and
post hoc and fallacy of false cause) became ill the following week, clearly
An argument suggesting a causal as a result of the vaccine.”
relationship between two states or
events due to the order in which the
event occurred, rather than taking other
factors into consideration.
Faulty analogy “Banning guns for law-abiding citizens

An argument claiming that two because criminals use them to kill
phenomena are alike when in fact the people is like banning cars because
things compared are not similar enough some people use them to drive drunk
to warrant the comparison. and kill people.”7
Non sequitur (“does not follow”) “Because they live in the richest
An argument in which the conclusion country in the world, they must be
does not follow from the evidence. extremely wealthy.”
Slippery slope “Helping refugees from Syria today

A faulty assumption that one case will will force us to help refugees across
lead to a series of events or actions. the Middle East and worldwide.”
Appeal to tradition “A marriage should be between a man

An argument which bases its and a woman because that is how it
acceptance on historical tradition—on has always been.”
the fact that if something has
traditionally been done, it must be done
394
“right.”
395
Strengthen Your Case
with Organization
Once you’ve developed your arguments, with claims as main
points, focus on structuring your speech using one of the
organizational patterns described in Chapter 12 and those
designed specifically for persuasive speeches (see this chapter).
There is no one “right” way to organize a persuasive speech—or
any kind of speech—only choices that will be more or less
effective for your topic and purpose (see also the table on One
Topic (Patterns of Immigration) Organized Six Ways).
Following are some criteria to consider when choosing an

organizational pattern.
What Do Your Claims and

Evidence Suggest?
The nature of your claims and evidence may make a suitable
pattern easy to spot. A claim of policy arguing that “junk” foods
in school cafeterias should be limited implies that unrestricted
sales of these foods represent a problem and that limiting them
represents a solution; many such claims of policy fit naturally
into the problem-solution pattern. However, perhaps your
research convincingly points to several advantages associated
with limiting junk food and several disadvantages associated
with not doing so. In this event, the comparative advantage
396
pattern, in which you offer a series of compelling advantages
associated with limiting junk food over not doing so (see
Comparative Advantage Pattern of Arrangement in this chapter)
might serve your topic and purpose well. It is up to you to
determine which pattern will best suit the speech.
What Response Do You Seek?

You can also hone in on a pattern by considering the response
you seek from the audience. Do you want them to actually do
something—buy a product, donate to a cause? If so, you may
select the action-oriented Monroe’s motivated sequence (see
Monroe’s Motivated Sequence). If your goal is to strengthen
attitudes regarding solving a certain issue, you might select the
problem-solution or cause-effect pattern.
What is the Audience’s

Disposition?
Considering audience attitudes can also help you select a
pattern. How receptive to or critical of your claims is the
audience likely to be? Where does your target audience stand
relative to your topic? The refutation pattern, for example (see
Refutation Pattern of Arrangement), is particularly effective
when persuading audience members hostile to your position.
Each of these criteria can help in selecting a pattern, as can

simple experimention. Often an effective choice will become
apparent fairly quickly.
397
Problem-Solution Pattern of
Arrangement
One commonly used design for persuasive speeches, especially
(but not restricted to) those based on claims of policy, is the
problem-solution pattern. Here you organize speech points to
demonstrate the nature and significance of a problem and then
to provide justification for a proposed solution:
I. Problem (define what it is)

II. Solution (offer a way to overcome the problem)
But many problem-solution speeches require more than two

points to adequately explain the problem and to support the
recommended solution. Thus a problem-cause-solution
pattern may be in order:
I. The nature of the problem (define what it is)

II. Reasons for the problem (explain why it’s a problem, for
whom, etc.)
III. Proposed solution (explain why it’s expected to work)
When arguing a claim of policy, it may be important to

demonstrate the proposal’s feasibility using a four-point
problem-cause-solution-feasibility pattern. This organization
can be seen in the following claim of policy about the Social
Security program:
Thesis Serious financial challenges to our nation’s Social Security

Stated as program require that we take steps to ensure it will be able
398
Need or meet its obligations to citizens.
Problem:
Main Points: I. To keep Social Security funded, we need to raise both the
full benefits age and early eligibility age. (Need/problem)
II. People are living longer in retirement, thus collecting
Social Security over a longer period. (Causes of the
problem; can offer single or multiple causes)
III. Congress should raise early eligibility age from 62 to 67
and normal retirement age from 67 to 70. (Solution to the
problem)
IV. Social Security programs in countries X and Y have done
this successfully. (Evidence of solution’s feasibility)
Comparative Advantage Pattern

of Arrangement
Another way to organize speech points is to show how your
viewpoint or proposal is superior to one or more alternative
viewpoints or proposals. The comparative advantage pattern is
most effective when your audience is already aware of the issue
or problem and agrees that a need for a solution (or an
alternative view) exists.
Using the comparative advantage pattern, the main points in

a speech addressing the best way to control the deer population
might look like these:
Thesis: Rather than hunting, fencing, or contraception alone, the best way
to reduce the deer population is by a dual strategy of hunting and
contraception.
I. A combination strategy is superior to hunting alone because
many areas are too densely populated by humans to permit
399
hunting; in such cases, contraceptive darts and vaccines can
address the problem. (Advantage over alternative #1)
II. A combination strategy is superior to relying solely on fencing
because fencing is too expensive for widespread use. (Advantage
over alternative #2)
III. A dual strategy is superior to relying solely on contraception
because only a limited number of deer are candidates for
contraceptive darts and vaccines. (Advantage over alternative
#3)
Monroe’s Motivated Sequence

The motivated sequence pattern, developed in the mid-1930s
by Alan Monroe,8 is a five-step sequence that begins with
arousing listeners’ attention and ends with calling for action.
This pattern is particularly effective when you want the
audience to do something—buy a product, donate to a cause,
and so forth.
STEP 1: ATTENTION
The attention step addresses listeners’ core concerns, making
the speech highly relevant to them.
STEP 2: NEED
The need step isolates the issue to be addressed. If you can
show the members of an audience that they have an important
need that must be satisfied or a problem that must be solved,
they will have a reason to listen to your propositions.
STEP 3: SATISFACTION
The satisfaction step identifies the solution. This step begins the
crux of the speech, offering the audience a proposal to
400
reinforce or change their attitudes, beliefs, and values
regarding the need at hand.
STEP 4: VISUALIZATION
The visualization step provides the audience with a vision of
anticipated outcomes associated with the solution. The purpose
of this step is to carry audience members beyond accepting the
feasibility of your proposal to seeing how it will actually benefit
them.
STEP 5: ACTION
Finally, in the action step the speaker asks audience members
to act according to their acceptance of the message. This may
involve reconsidering their present way of thinking about
something, continuing to believe as they do but with greater
commitment, or implementing a new set of behaviors.
For an example of using Monroe’s motivated sequence in a

speech, see “Becoming a Socially Conscious Consumer” on p.
192.
Refutation Pattern of
Arrangement
Similar to debate, the refutation pattern addresses each main
point and then refutes (disproves) an opposing claim to your
position. This pattern can effectively address counterarguments
(see Counterarguments: Addressing the Other Side).
401
Refutation may influence audience members who either
disagree with you or are conflicted about where they stand.
Note that it is important to refute strong rather than weak
objections to the claim, since weak objections won’t sway the
audience.9 Consider this pattern when you are confident that
the opposing argument is weak and vulnerable to attack.
Main points in a refutation pattern are arranged in a format

similar to this:
Main Point I: State the opposing position.
Main Point II: Describe the implications or ramifications of the opposing

claim.
Main Point III: Offer arguments and evidence for your position.
Main Point IV: Contrast your position with the opposing claim to drive
home the superiority of your position.
For more details on the refutation pattern of

arrangement, see the section “Refutation Pattern of Arrangement”
in LaunchPad: launchpadworks.com
402
SAMPLE PERSUASIVE
SPEECH
In this carefully planned persuasive speech, Jacob Hahn offers
strong evidence and reasons for his claims in support of socially
responsible consumerism. Jacob organizes the speech using
Monroe’s five-step motivated sequence. He begins with the
attention step, making the speech relevant to listeners, and
ends with the action step, demonstrating clearly what audience
members can do. Note Jacob’s persuasive use of language
throughout, especially in the strong imagery that helps listeners
visualize the tragedy that occurred in a factory in Bangladesh
(“bodies, bricks, and garments left in the rubble”) and use of
personal pronouns to involve audience members personally.
Becoming a Socially Conscious

Consumer
Jacob Hahn
See Jacob deliver his speech in LaunchPad:

launchpadworks.com
403
Jacob starts the persuasive speech with a dramatic story line (“a few
cracks …”) that serves as an effective attention-getter.
It started with a few cracks in the wall. But then, on April 24,
2013, it became the worst disaster in the history of the garment
industry. According to BBC News, on that day the Rana Plaza
garment factory in Dhaka, Bangladesh, completely collapsed,
leading to the deaths of over 1,100 people.
Continuing with the “story” keeps the audience involved and wanting
to know more.
Along with the bodies, bricks, and garments left in the

rubble, questions remained about who was to blame for the
404
tragedy. Sure, there were the obvious culprits—the plaza owner,
the construction company. But there were other suspects too.
What about the companies whose goods were manufactured
there? As Emran Hossain and Dave Jamieson pointed out in
their May 2, 2013, Huffington Post article, garment industry
insiders partially blame Western retailers for the tragedy. They
claim that it is retailer demand for low-priced labor that creates
these poorly constructed and unsafe work factories, which then
leads to disasters like the factory collapse.
Step 1, the attention step of Monroe’s sequence, demonstrates the

topic’s relevance to audience members.
The thousands of miles that separate us from tragedies like

this can make them seem unrelated to our everyday lives. But
what if they are not? What if, by purchasing the products these
companies make, individuals such as you and I are also
somewhat responsible for what happened?
As we’ll see today, there is evidence to support the idea that

consumers and companies share a responsibility to ensure safer
conditions for factory workers. This is why I encourage all of
you to become socially conscious consumers and help convince
companies to adopt ethical manufacturing standards. Being a
socially conscious consumer means being aware of the issues
communities face worldwide and actively trying to correct
them.
405
Jacob states his thesis.
Why would companies do business with factories that allow

dangerous working conditions? It’s actually quite simple:
Corporations want bigger profit margins. The cheaper the
production costs, the more money they make when the product
sells. And since consumers show more interest in buying lower-
priced products than in thinking about how such items are
produced, the pressure is on to provide inexpensive goods. The
only way to do this and still make money is to make the goods at
the lowest cost possible.
Step 2, the need step, shows listeners why they should listen to the
speaker’s propositions—in this case, to help factory workers obtain
safer working conditions.
But there is a way to break this cycle of cheap labor and

deadly working conditions. You, me, all of us as consumers,
must be willing to step up and take an active role in the system.
We
Step 3, the satisfaction step, identifies how to meet the need.
can do
this in
two ways: First, we can pressure companies to improve working
conditions for factory laborers, and second, we can pay fairer
prices. Some consumer groups are now signaling their
willingness to do this, and corporations are responding.
406
Jacob clearly defines a potentially confusing term, offering an
explanation from a credible source.
The force behind this new kind of partnership is called

cause-related marketing. According to the Financial Times,
cause-related marketing is when a company and a charity (or a
consumer group) tackle a social or an environmental problem
and create business value for the company at the same time.
In
Jacob provides convincing evidence from credible sources.
March
2012, the
global marketing firm Nielsen conducted a worldwide study on
consumer responses to cause marketing. The poll found that
two-thirds of consumers around the world say they prefer to
buy products and services from companies that give back to
society. Nearly 50 percent of consumers said that they were,
and I’m quoting here, “willing to pay more for goods and
services from companies that are giving back.”
The fact that large numbers of consumers are concerned

enough about fairness to pay more for products is key to solving
the problems that surround the ethical manufacture of clothing.
Corporations can appeal to this group of socially conscious
consumers, as they are called, by addressing concerns about
ethical manufacturing. What do corporations gain by meeting
these concerns? It allows them to charge more for their
products while also raising their profit margins and improving
their brand image. This means that as socially conscious
407
consumers, we can set the standards that corporations must
meet if they wish to maximize their profit from our purchasing
power.
In Step 4, the visualization step, Jacob offers a vision of outcomes

associated with the proposed solution.
You may find yourself asking, “Can this actually work?” The
answer is a simple yes. In both the food and apparel industries,
calls for changes in working conditions led to the now widely
known nonprofit organization Fair Trade USA. According to its
website, Fair Trade USA is an organization that seeks “to inspire
the rise of the [socially] conscious consumer and eliminate
exploitation” worldwide. If products are stamped with the Fair
Trade logo, it means the farmers and workers who created
those products were fairly treated and justly compensated
through an internationally established price.
Fair Trade USA made its mark in the food industry through
its relationship to coffee production in third-world nations. Its
success helped major companies such as Starbucks and Whole
Foods recognize the strength of cause marketing: If you appeal
to the high ethical standards of socially conscious consumers,
they will pay more for your product.
Appealing to high ethical standards is often directly related to

tragedies like the one that occurred in Bangladesh. After the
factory collapsed, the major apparel sellers faced intense
408
criticism over their lax labor practices. In response, these
companies are now much more interested in establishing their
products as Fair Trade to meet socially conscious consumer
standards. For example, as Jason Burke, Saad Hammadi, and
Simon Neville report in the May 13, 2013, edition of the
Guardian, major fashion chains like H&M, Zara, C&A, Tesco,
and Primark have pledged to help raise the standards for
working conditions. According to the article, they will be
helping to “finance fire safety and building improvements in
the factories they use in Bangladesh.”
Note that Jacob provides evidence in support of his claim.
Step 5 of Monroe’s motivated sequence—the action step—is a direct

request of listeners (“call to action”) to act on the speaker’s
suggestions and concrete directions for doing so.
So, what exactly can you do to help bring about ethical labor
practices within the clothing industry? The two steps I
encourage you to take are these: Become informed, and ask
questions about what you’re buying—whether it’s shoes, a t-
shirt, or any other type of apparel.
To be informed, go to websites such as fairtradeusa.org,

thirdworldtraveler.com, and tenthousandvillages.com, which
list and sell products from clothing manufacturers who have
worked to meet the Fair Trade conditions. This list grows
monthly, and by supporting these companies through your
409
purchases, you can become a socially conscious consumer.
Additionally, ask questions of other retailers. Whether you

shop online or at local retail stores, ask direct questions before
purchasing clothes—for example: Where are your products
made? Do you have proof of Fair Trade practices? Where can I
find this information before I make my purchase? Such
questions define the socially conscious consumer, and they
ensure that you will not be directly contributing to unsafe and
unfair labor practices.
Jacob concludes by reinforcing his call to action and leaves the

audience with a new perspective to consider.
Although several factors contributed to the tragedy in

Bangladesh, there is one clear way to help prevent future
disasters: Become a socially conscious consumer. By being
informed and asking questions, you, too, can make a difference
in the lives of workers around the world.
410
CHAPTER 25 Speaking on Special Occasions
Special occasions stand out from the ordinary rhythm of life,
marking passages, celebrating life’s highlights, and
commemorating events. Such occasions often feature the
observance of important ceremonies and rituals as well as
speeches.
411
Functions of Special
Occasion Speeches
A special occasion speech is one that is prepared for a specific
occasion and for a purpose dictated by that occasion. Awards
ceremonies call for remarks that acknowledge
accomplishments, for example, and acceptance speeches that
display gratitude. Special occasion speeches can be either
informative or persuasive or, often, a mix of both. However,
neither of these functions is the main goal; the underlying
function of a special occasion speech is to entertain, celebrate,
commemorate, inspire, or set a social agenda:
In speeches that entertain, listeners expect a lighthearted,

amusing speech; they may also expect the speaker to offer a
certain degree of insight into the topic at hand. Venues
such as banquets, awards dinners, and roasts frequently
feature speakers whose main purpose is to entertain.
In speeches that celebrate a person, a place, or an event,
listeners look to the speaker to praise the subject of the
celebration; they also anticipate a degree of ceremony in
accordance with the norms of the occasion. Weddings,
anniversaries, retirement parties, and awards ceremonies
call for speeches that celebrate.
In speeches that commemorate an event or a person (at
dedications of memorials or at gatherings held in
someone’s honor), listeners expect the speaker to offer
remembrance and tribute.
412
In speeches that inspire (including inaugural addresses,
keynote speeches, and commencement speeches), listeners
expect to be motivated by examples of achievement and
heroism.
In speeches that set social agendas (such as occur at
gatherings of cause-oriented organizations, fund-raisers,
campaign banquets, conferences, and conventions),
listeners expect the articulation and reinforcement of the
goals and values of the group.
413
Types of Special
Occasion Speeches
Special occasion speeches include (but are not limited to)
introductions, speeches of acceptance, award presentations,
roasts and toasts, eulogies and other speeches of tribute, after-
dinner speeches, and speeches of inspiration.
Speeches of Introduction
A speech of introduction is a short speech with two goals: to
prepare or “warm up” the audience for the speaker and to
motivate audience members to listen to what the main speaker
has to say. A good speech of introduction balances four
elements: the speaker’s background, the subject of the speaker’s
message, the occasion, and the audience.
Describe the speaker’s background and qualifications for

speaking. Relate something about the speaker’s
achievements, offices held, and other facts to demonstrate
why the speaker is relevant to the occasion. The object is to
heighten audience interest and build the speaker’s
credibility.
Briefly preview the speaker’s topic. Give the audience a
sense of why the subject is of interest, bearing in mind that
it is not the introducer’s job to evaluate the speech. The rule
is: Get in and out quickly with a few well-chosen remarks.
Ask the audience to welcome the speaker. This can be done
simply by saying something like “Please welcome Cesar
414
Cruz.”
Be brief. Speak just long enough to accomplish the goals of
preparation and motivation. One well-known speaker
recommends a two-minute maximum.1
CHECKLIST
Guidelines for Introducing Other Speakers

Identify the speaker correctly. Assign him or her the proper
title, such as “vice president for public relations” or “professor
emeritus.”
Practice a difficult-to-pronounce name beforehand.
Contact the speaker ahead of time to verify any facts about
him or her that you plan to cite.
Speeches of Acceptance
A speech of acceptance is made in response to receiving an
award. Its purpose is to express gratitude for the honor
bestowed on the speaker. The speech should reflect that
gratitude.
Prepare in advance. If you know or even suspect that you

are to receive an award, decide before the event what you
will say.
Express what the award means to you. Convey to the
audience the value you place on the award. Express
yourself genuinely and with humility.
Express gratitude. Thank by name each of the relevant
415
persons or organizations involved in giving you the award.
Acknowledge any team players or others who helped you
attain the achievement for which you are being honored.
QUICK TIP
Respond to the Introduction

Whenever you are introduced by another speaker, acknowledge and
thank him or her for the introduction. Common methods of responding
include “I appreciate those kind words” and “Thank you for making me
feel welcome.” Accept praise with humility and perhaps even with
humor: “Your description was so gracious that I did not realize you were
speaking about me.”
Speeches of Presentation
The goal of the speech of presentation is twofold: to
communicate the meaning of the award and to explain why the
recipient is receiving it.
Convey the meaning of the award. Describe what the award

is for and what it represents. Mention the sponsors and
describe the link between the sponsors’ goals and values
and the award.
Explain why the recipient is receiving the award. Describe
the recipient’s achievements and special attributes that
qualify him or her as deserving of the award.
Roasts and Toasts

416
A roast is a humorous tribute to a person, one in which a series
of speakers jokingly poke fun at him or her. A toast is a brief
tribute to a person or an event being celebrated. Both roasts and
toasts call for short speeches whose goal is to celebrate an
individual and his or her achievements.
Prepare. Impromptu though they might appear, the best

roasts and toasts reflect time spent drafting and,
importantly, rehearsing. As you practice, time the speech.
Highlight remarkable traits of the person being honored.
Restrict your remarks to one or two of the person’s most
unusual or recognizable attributes. Convey the qualities
that have made him or her worthy of celebrating.
Be positive and be brief. Even if the speech is poking fun at
someone, as in a roast, keep the tone positive. Remember,
your overall purpose is to pay tribute to the honoree. For
example, at the 2015 annual White House Correspondents’
Dinner roast, Saturday Night Live cast member Cecily
Strong struck the right balance of humor and social satire
when she joked to then-President Barack Obama: “Your
hair is so white now, it can talk back to the police.”2
Eulogies and Other Tributes

The word eulogy derives from the Greek word meaning “to
praise.” Those delivering eulogies, usually close friends or
family members of the deceased, are charged with celebrating
and commemorating the life of someone while consoling those
who have been left behind.
417
Balance delivery and emotions. The audience looks to the
speaker for guidance in dealing with the loss and for a
sense of closure, so stay in control. If you do feel that you
are about to break down, pause, take a breath, and focus on
your next thought.
Refer to the family of the deceased. Families suffer the
greatest loss, and a funeral is primarily for their benefit.
Show respect for the family, mentioning each member by
name.
Be positive but realistic. Emphasize the deceased’s positive
qualities while avoiding excessive praise.
QUICK TIP
Commemorate Life—Not Death

A eulogy should pay tribute to the deceased as an individual and
remind the audience that he or she is still alive, in a sense, in our
memories. Rather than focus on the circumstances of death, focus on
the life of the person. Talk about the person’s contributions and
achievements, and demonstrate the person’s character. Consider
telling an anecdote that illustrates the type of person you are
eulogizing. Even humorous anecdotes may be appropriate if they
effectively humanize the deceased.
After-Dinner Speeches
Its name notwithstanding, the contemporary after-dinner
speech is just as likely to occur before, during, or after a lunch
seminar or other type of business, professional, or civic
418
meeting as it is to follow a formal dinner. In general, an after-
dinner speech is expected to be lighthearted and entertaining.
At the same time, listeners expect to gain insight into the topic
at hand and/or to hear an outline of priorities and goals for the
group. Thus social agenda-setting is a simultaneous goal of
many after-dinner speeches.
Recognize the occasion. Connect the speech with the

occasion. Delivering remarks unrelated to the event may
leave the impression that it is a canned speech—that is, one
that the speaker uses again and again in different settings.
Balance seriousness with lightheartedness. Even when
charged with addressing a serious topic, the after-dinner
speaker should make an effort to keep his or her remarks
low-key enough to accompany the digestion of a meal.
Avoid stand-up comedy. Many speakers treat the after-
dinner speech as an opportunity to string together a series
of jokes only loosely centered on a theme. However, the
after-dinner speech is still a speech. If you are naturally
very funny, use that skill, but in the context of a speech.
Speeches of Inspiration
While many special occasion speeches may well be inspiring, a
speech of inspiration deliberately seeks to uplift members of
the audience and to help them see things in a positive light.
Sermons, commencement addresses, “pep talks,” and
nomination speeches are all inspirational in nature. Effective
speeches of inspiration touch on deep feelings in the audience.
Through emotional force, they urge us toward purer motives
419
and harder effort and remind us of a common good.
Appeal to audience members’ emotions (pathos). Three

means of evoking emotion are touching upon shared
values, using vivid imagery, and telling stories (see Appeal
to Emotion). Techniques of language, such as repetition,
alliteration, and parallelism can also help transport the
audience from the mundane to a loftier level (see Chapter
15).
Use real-life stories. Few things move us as much as the
ordinary person who achieves the extraordinary, whose
struggles result in triumph over adversity and the
realization of a dream. Recognizing this, many U.S.
presidents have taken to weaving stories about “ordinary
American heroes” into their State of the Union addresses.
Be dynamic. If it fits your personality, use a dynamic
speaking style to inspire through delivery. Combining an
energetic style with a powerful message can be one of the
most successful strategies for inspirational speaking.
Make your goal clear. Inspirational speeches run the risk of
being vague, leaving the audience unsure what the message
was. Whatever you are trying to motivate your listeners to
do, let them know.
Close with a dramatic ending. Use a dramatic ending to
inspire your audience to feel or act. Recall from Chapter 14
the various methods of concluding a speech, including a
quotation, story, or call to action.
420
SAMPLE SPECIAL
OCCASION SPEECH
Following is a commencement speech delivered by actor and
comedian Will Ferrell at his alma mater, the University of
Southern California. Ferrell weaves real-life anecdotes into his
speech and uses self-deprecating humor to build common
ground with the new graduates. As he shares his hard-won life
lessons, he focuses on uplifting audience members and
arousing their better instincts, and he ends with a uniquely
memorable conclusion—all key components of a speech of
inspiration.
2017 University of Southern

California Commencement
Address
Will Ferrell
It is such an honor to deliver this year’s commencement
address to the University of Southern California’s graduating
class of 2017…
Humor can easily backfire, but Ferrell uses it effectively here and
throughout his speech. His self-deprecating humor creates easy
bonds of identification between himself and the graduates.
421
I graduated [from USC] in 1990 with a degree in Sports
Information. Yes. You heard me, Sports Information. A
program so difficult, so arduous, that they discontinued the
major eight years after I left. Those of us with Sports
Information degrees are an elite group. We are like the Navy
Seals of USC graduates. There are very few of us and there was a
high dropout rate.
So I graduate and I immediately get a job right out of college

working for ESPN, right? Wrong. No, I moved right back home.
Back home to the mean streets of Irvine, California … Pretty
great success story, right? Yeah, I moved back home for a solid
two years, I might add. And I was lucky, actually. Lucky that I
had a very supportive and understanding mother. And she
recognized that while I had an interest in pursuing
sportscasting, my gut was telling me that I really wanted to
pursue something else. And that something else was comedy.
For you see, the seeds for this journey were planted right
here on this campus. This campus was a theater or testing lab, if
you will. I was always trying to make my friends laugh
whenever I could find a moment. I had a work-study job at the
humanities audiovisual department that would allow me to take
off from time to time. By allow me, I mean I would just leave
and they didn’t notice. So I would literally leave my job if I knew
friends were attending class close by and crash a lecture while
in character. My good buddy Emil, who’s also here today … told
me one day that I should crash his Thematic Options literature
422
class. So I cobbled together a janitor’s outfit complete with work
gloves, safety goggles, a dangling lit cigarette, and a bucket full
of cleaning supplies. And then I proceeded to walk into the
class, interrupting the lecture, informing the professor that I’d
just been sent from Physical Plant to clean up a student’s vomit.
True story.
Ferrell paints a vivid picture with these specific, concrete details,

allowing the audience to easily visualize the scene.
What Emil neglected to tell me was that the professor of his

class was Ronald Gottesman, a professor who co-edited the
Norton Anthology of American Literature. Needless to say, a
big-time guy. A month after visiting my friend’s class as a
janitor, I was walking through the campus when someone
grabbed me by the shoulder and it was Ron Gottesman. I
thought for sure he was going to tell me to never do that again.
Instead what he told me was that he loved my barging in on his
class and that he thought it was one of the funniest things he’d
ever seen and would I please do it again? So on invitation from
Professor Gottesman, I would barge in on his lecture class from
time to time as the guy from Physical Plant coming by to check
on things, and the professor would joyfully play along.
One time I got my hands on a power drill and I just stood

outside the classroom door operating the drill for a good
minute. Unbeknownst to me, Professor Gottesman was
wondering aloud to his class, “I wonder if we’re about to get a
423
visit from our Physical Plant guy?” I then walked in as if on cue
and the whole class erupted in laughter. After leaving, Professor
Gottesman then weaved the surprise visit into his lecture on
Walt Whitman and Leaves of Grass. Moments like these
encouraged me to think maybe I was funny to whole groups of
people who didn’t know me, and this wonderful professor had
no idea how his encouragement of me—to come and interrupt
his class no less—was enough to give myself permission to be
silly and weird.
Ferrell’s storytelling includes important points of identification with

his audience, who are also discovering what they want to become.
My senior year I would discover a comedy and improv troupe

called the Groundlings located on Melrose Avenue. This was the
theater company and school that gave the starts to Laraine
Newman, Phil Hartman, John Lovitz, Pee-wee Herman, Conan
O’Brien, and Lisa Kudrow, to name a few. Later it would
become my home where I would meet the likes of Chris Kattan,
Cheri O’Teri, Ana Gasteyer, Chris Parnell, Maya Rudolph, Will
Forte, and Kristin Wiig. I went to one of their shows during the
spring semester of my senior year and in fact got pulled up
onstage during an audience participation sketch. I was so afraid
and awestruck at what the actors were doing that I didn’t utter a
word. And even in this moment of abject fear and total failure I
found it to be thrilling to be on that stage. I then knew I wanted
to be a comedic actor.
424
So starting in the fall of 1991, for the next three and a half
years I was taking classes and performing in various shows at
the Groundlings and around Los Angeles. I was even trying my
hand at stand-up comedy. Not great stand-up, mind you, but
enough material to get myself up in front of strangers. … My
stand-up act was based mostly on material derived from
watching old episodes of Star Trek. My opening joke was to sing
the opening theme to Star Trek. Not even funny, just weird.
But I didn’t care. I was just trying to throw as many darts at

the dartboard, hoping that one would eventually stick. Now
don’t get me wrong, I wasn’t extremely confident that I would
succeed during this time period, and after moving back to LA
there was many a night where in my LA apartment, I would sit
down to a meal of spaghetti topped with mustard, with only $20
in my checking account and I would think to myself, “Oh well, I
can always be a substitute schoolteacher.” And yes, I was afraid.
You’re never not afraid. I’m still afraid. I was afraid to write this
speech. And now, I’m just realizing how many people are
watching me right now, and it’s scary. Can you please look away
while I deliver the rest of the speech?
Everyone has speech anxiety, even famous comedians. Here again

Ferrell creates identification with his audience.
But my fear of failure never approached in magnitude my

fear of what if. What if I never tried at all?
425
By the spring of 1995 producers from Saturday Night Live had
come to see the current show at the Groundlings. After two
harrowing auditions and two meetings with executive producer
Lorne Michaels, which all took place over the course of six
weeks, I got the word I was hired to the cast of Saturday Night
Live for the ’95–’96 season.
I couldn’t believe it. And even though I went on to enjoy

seven seasons on the show, it was rocky beginning for me. After
my first show, one reviewer referred to me as “the most
annoying newcomer of the new cast.” Someone showed this to
me and I promptly put it up on the wall in my office, reminding
myself that to some people I will be annoying. Some people will
not think I’m funny, and that that’s okay. One woman wrote to
me and said she hated my portrayal of George W. Bush. It was
mean-spirited, not funny and besides you have a fat face. I
wrote her back and I said, I appreciate your letter and she was
entitled to her opinion, but that my job as a comedian especially
on a show like Saturday Night Live was to hold up a mirror to
our political leaders and engage from time to time in satirical
reflection. As for my fat face, you are 100% right. I’m trying to
work on that. Please don’t hesitate to write me again if you feel
like I’ve lost some weight in my face…
Even as I left SNL, none of the studios were willing to take a

chance on me as a comedy star. It took us three years of
shopping Anchorman around before anyone would make it.
When I left SNL, all I really had was a movie called Old School
426
that wouldn’t be released for another year, and a subpar script
that needed a huge rewrite about a man raised by elves at the
North Pole.
Now one may look at me as having great success, which I

have in the strictest sense of the word, and don’t get me wrong:
I love what I do and I feel so fortunate to get to entertain people.
But to me, my definition of success is my sixteen-and-a-half-
year marriage to my beautiful and talented wife, Vivica. Success
are my three amazing sons, Magnus, 13, Matthias, 10, and Axel,
age 7. Right there, stand up guys, take a bow, there you go.
Success to me is my involvement in the charity Cancer for

College, which gives college scholarships to cancer survivors,
started by my great friend and SC alum Craig Pollard, a two-
time cancer survivor himself, who thought of the charity while
we were fraternity brothers at the Delt house, up on West
Adams…
A speech of inspiration urges the audience toward purer motives, as

Ferrell does here with his emphasis on the values of love of family and
generosity of spirit.
No matter how cliché it may sound, you will never truly be

successful until you learn to give beyond yourself. Empathy and
kindness are the true signs of emotional intelligence, and that’s
what Viv and I try to teach our boys. Hey Matthias, get your
hands off Axel right now! Stop it. I can see you. Okay? Dr.
Ferrell’s watching you.
427
To those of you graduates sitting out there who have a pretty
good idea of what you’d like to do with your life,
congratulations. For many of you who maybe don’t have it all
figured out, it’s okay. That’s the same chair that I sat in. Enjoy
the process of your search without succumbing to the pressure
of the result. Trust your gut, keep throwing darts at the
dartboard. Don’t listen to the critics and you will figure it out.
Class of 2017, I just want you to know you will never be alone
on whatever path you may choose. If you do have a moment
where you feel a little down just think of the support you have
from this great Trojan family and imagine me, literally picture
my face, singing this song gently into your ear:
Who but Will Ferrell would end a speech by breaking into song? This
conclusion is sure to create a lasting impression on his audience.
“If I should stay, I would only be in your way. So I’ll go, but I
know, I’ll think of you every step of the way. And I will always
love you, will always love you, will always love you, Class of
2017. And I will always love you.”
Thank you. Fight on!
428
part 8 Online, Group, and
Business Contexts
26. Preparing Online Presentations
28. Delivering Group Presentations
29. Business and Professional Presentations
VIDEO
ACTIVITY
Go to LaunchPad to watch a video of a group that is disrupted by
unproductive personal conflict. Visit launchpadworks.com
LaunchPad includes:
429

documentation help.
430
CHAPTER 26 Preparing Online Presentations
The demand for people skilled in delivering presentations
online continues to grow as use of digital media becomes
routine. In this environment, competence in speaking online
will help you to qualify for many work and civic roles.
431
Apply Your Knowledge
of Face-to-Face Speaking
Online presentations require the same basic elements of
planning and delivery as in-person presentations. As in
traditional public speaking, an online speaker will select among
the three general speech purposes of informing, persuading, or
marking a special occasion (see Identify the General Purpose of
Your Speech). Both traditional and online speaking call for
careful audience analysis, credible supporting materials, a clear
organizational structure, and a natural delivery style. And
whether presenting online or in person, as a speaker you must
continually engage the audience; when separated physically,
this focus becomes all the more critical.
432
Plan for the Unique
Demands of Online
Delivery
While much is similar, important differences exist between
online and in-person speaking, in both the means of delivery
and the nature of the audience. As you plan your presentations,
follow the fundamental techniques of public speaking you
already know while making the necessary adjustments to
transmit your message effectively online.
Go to LaunchPad to watch a video of the online speech

Preventing Cyberbullying at launchpadworks.com
Know the Equipment

Online presentations require some familiarity with digital
communication tools. Well before your actual delivery, review
the equipment you’ll be using and rehearse with it several
times.
Tools used to produce and display online presentations

include:
Website or app for distribution to audience (e.g., Facebook

Live, Google Meet, WebEx, GoToMeeting, Adobe Connect)
433
Hardware for recording audio and video (webcam/video
camera, microphone)
Software for recording and editing audio and video (e.g.,
Adobe Audition)
Video capture software (e.g., ScreenFlow, Camtasia)
Web-based presentation software (e.g., Prezi)
Podcasting software (e.g., GarageBand, Audacity)
Popular commercial websites (e.g., YouTube)
Online conferencing tools (e.g., Skype, Huddle, GoTo-
Meeting)
Focus on Vocal Variety

In an online presentation, the audience cannot interact with
your physical presence, making your voice an even more
critical conduit of communication. In place of body movement,
vocal variety—alterations in volume, pitch, speaking rate,
pauses, and pronunciation and articulation—must hold
audience interest. Especially important to eliminate are vocal
fillers such as “umm” and “aah.” Instead, strategically use
pauses to help audience members process information.
QUICK TIP
Focus on Projecting Enthusiasm and

Naturalness
Staring into a computer screen rather than listeners’ eyes makes it
difficult to infuse your voice with the enthusiasm and naturalness that
eye contact encourages. But a lively conversational style is key for most
online presentations. Consider delivering your first presentation with
434
someone else in the room, talking to that person rather than to the
screen. Alternatively, experiment with addressing your remarks to a
picture, photograph, or even your own reflection in a mirror.1
Provide Superior Visual Aids

The audience might not see you in person, but with
presentation aids you can still provide them with a compelling
visual experience. Consider how you can illustrate talking
points in eye-catching text form or with photos, animations,
and video clips (see Chapters 19–21). Software and web
platforms can help you easily create slides, screencasts, and
video for online presentations (see later in this chapter).
435
Plan the Delivery Mode
Online presentations can be streamed in real time or recorded
for distribution later, whenever an audience wants to access
them. Understanding the advantages and limitations of both
delivery modes can help you plan more effectively.
Real-Time Presentations
Real-time presentations connect the presenter and audience in
live, or synchronous communication. Interactivity is a chief
advantage of this type of presentation: Speaker and audience
can respond to one another in real time either orally or via chat
or text. As in traditional speaking, audience feedback allows
you to adapt topic coverage according to audience input and
questions, for example, or adjust technical issues as they occur.
A chief limitation of real-time presentations is scheduling

them around people’s available time and conflicting time zones.
The more geographically dispersed the audience, the greater
the logistical challenge. As such, many speakers reserve real-
time presentations for occasions when they are in time zones
close to the audience.
Recorded Presentations
In a recorded presentation, transmission and reception occur
at different times, in asynchronous communication. The
audience can access the presentation at their convenience, such
as listening to a podcast at night. Lack of direct interaction with
436
the audience poses challenges, however. Without immediate
feedback from the audience to enliven the presentation, you
must work harder to create engagement by providing
compelling content, delivery style, and presentation aids.
437
Choose an Online
Presentation Format
Online presentation formats include videos, podcasts, vodcasts,
and webinars, any of which may be streamed in real time or
recorded for later delivery.
Video
Many people use video to present online: from individuals
using a smartphone camera or webcam, to professional
companies sending out messages using high definition digital
video cameras. With video capture software, such as Camtasia
or Adobe Audition, you can seamlessly incorporate video clips
into an online presentation. The “Record Slideshow” feature in
the Tools menu of PowerPoint can serve a similar purpose.
You can also use video capture software or dedicated

screencasting software to create screencasts. A screencast
captures whatever is displayed on your computer screen, from
text to slides to streaming video. Screencasts can be streamed in
real time, recorded for playback, or exported to a hosting
website. The screencast format is especially useful for training
purposes.
Podcasts and Vodcasts

A podcast is a digital audio recording of a presentation captured
and stored in a form that is accessible via the web or an app. A
438
vodcast (also called vidcast and video podcasting) is a podcast
containing video. Both podcasts and vodcasts can played on
apps such as Audacity, Stitcher, iTunes, Google Play Music, and
Soundcloud.
Recording, storing, and delivering a speech via podcast

requires a microphone; simple, free digital audio recording
software (e.g., Audacity); and a website to host the podcast.
Using PowerPoint, you can use the “Record Audio” feature to
produce a podcast-like presentation file; the file can be used
and distributed as you would any PowerPoint file, even via
email.
439
FIGURE 26.1 Podcast Offerings from the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention
CHECKLIST
Creating a Podcast
440
The basic equipment and software needed to create a podcast are
included on most current personal computers, tablets, and
smartphones. The only other pieces you may need are an external
microphone and audio recording software such as Audacity. Then
try these steps:
Plan what you want to say.

Seat yourself in an upright position directly facing your
computer, with the microphone no more than 8 inches from
your mouth.
Make sure that your external microphone is plugged into your
computer, or that your built-in microphone is operational.
Open your audio recording software. Be familiar with how to
start, pause, and stop a recording.
Activate the recording software and begin speaking into the
microphone. You’re now making your presentation.
At the conclusion of your presentation, stop the recording.
Save the new recording as an audio file, such as .mp3.
Close your audio recording software and disengage the
microphone.
Go to the new audio file saved to your computer, and open and
play it. Now you are listening to your recorded presentation.
Transfer the saved file to a website, blog, or podcast hosting
site.
Webinars
Webinars are real-time seminars, meetings, training sessions,
or other presentations that connect presenters and audiences
from their computers or mobile devices.2 Webinars typically
441
include live video conversation; video capture and
screencasting; and functions such as chat, instant messaging,
and polling.
As in any presentation, planning a webinar starts with

considering the audience. Many webinars are team
presentations, so use the guidelines on Group Presentation Tips
during the planning stages.3
1. Start with a title that indicates what the webinar will do for
the audience (e.g., “How New Graduation Requirements
Will Affect You”).
2. Time each aspect of the webinar and distribute the
following information to each presenter:
Introduction of speaker(s) and purpose
Length and order of each speaker’s remarks
Length of question-and-answer session, if separate
3. Rehearse the webinar (remotely if necessary).
4. Check meeting room for noise and visual distractions;
check equipment.
5. Create a backup plan in case of technical problems.
QUICK TIP
Put a Face to the Speaker(s)

To encourage a feeling of connection between yourself and the
audience during a webinar, consider displaying a headshot of yourself,
with your name and title. A second slide might announce start and
finish times; a third, a list of speech objectives.4 During the
presentation, you can alternate displays of text and graphic slides with
442
views of your photograph (and/or other presenters), or in some cases,
place photographs side-by-side with the aids.
CHECKLIST
Online Presentation Planning

Keeping in mind both the fundamental guidelines for preparing and
presenting an in-person speech as well as those unique
considerations of online presentations, here are some additional
tips to follow.5
Be well organized. Offer a clear statement of purpose and

preview of main points. Proceed with a solid structure that the
audience can easily follow. Conclude by restating your
purpose, reviewing the main points, and encouraging the
audience to watch or listen for more.
Design powerful presentation aids. For video and webcasts,
plan for meaningful graphics and images that properly convey
your ideas.
Keep your audience engaged. In real-time presentations,
encourage audience interaction by incorporating chat, instant
messaging, or polling features. In recorded presentations, offer
an email address, Twitter address, or URL where audience
members can submit comments and questions. Use these tools
to gather feedback, much the way you would use eye contact
in a face-to-face presentation.
Prepare a contingency plan in case of technology glitches. For
example, have a backup computer running simultaneously
with the one used to deliver the presentation. Provide a list of
443
FAQs or a web page with instructions for audience members to
manage technology problems.
Maintain ethical standards. Use the same degree of decorum as
you would in an in-person speech, bearing in mind that online
presentations have the potential to go viral.
Get in plenty of practice time. Rehearse, record, and listen to
yourself as many times as needed.
444
CHAPTER 27 Communicating in Groups
Most of us will spend a substantial portion of our educational
and professional lives participating in small groups or teams
(usually between three and twenty people); and many of the
experiences we have as speakers, including preparing and
delivering group presentations (see Chapter 28) occur in
groups. Thus, as with public speaking itself, understanding how
to work cooperatively within a group setting is an important life
skill.
445
Focus on Goals
How well or poorly you meet the objectives of the group —
whether to coordinate a team presentation or to accomplish
some other purpose—is largely a function of how closely you
keep sight of the group’s goals and avoid behaviors that detract
from them. Setting an agenda can help participants stay on
track by identifying items to be accomplished during a meeting;
often it will specify time limits for each item.
446
Plan on Assuming Dual
Roles
In a work group, you will generally assume a task role and a
social role, and sometimes both.1 Task roles are the hands-on
roles that directly relate to the group’s accomplishment of its
objectives. Examples include recording secretary (takes notes)
and moderator (facilitates discussion).
Members also adopt various social roles reflecting individual

members’ personality traits. Social roles function to help
facilitate effective group interaction, such as the harmonizer
(smoothes over tension by settling differences) and gatekeeper
(keeps the discussion moving and gets everyone’s input).
Sometimes, group members focus on individual needs

irrelevant to the task at hand. Antigroup roles such as floor
hogger (not allowing others to speak), blocker (being overly
negative about group ideas; raising issues that have been
settled), and recognition seeker (calling attention to oneself
rather than to group tasks) do not further the group’s goals and
should be avoided.
447
Center Disagreements
around Issues
Whenever people come together to consider an important
issue, conflict is inevitable. But conflict doesn’t have to be
destructive. In fact, the best decisions are usually those that
emerge from productive conflict.2 In productive conflict, group
members clarify questions, challenge ideas, present
counterexamples, consider worst-case scenarios, and
reformulate proposals. Productive conflict centers
disagreements around issues rather than personalities. Rather
than wasting time arguing with one another over personal
motives or perceived shortcomings, productive conflict
encourages members to rigorously test and debate ideas and
potential solutions.
448
Resist Groupthink
For groups to be truly effective, its members need to form a
cohesive unit with a common goal. At the same time, they must
avoid groupthink, the tendency to minimize conflict by
refusing to examine ideas critically or test solutions.3 Groups
prone to groupthink typically exhibit these behaviors:
Participants reach a consensus and avoid conflict in order

not to hurt others’ feelings, but without genuinely agreeing.
Members who do not agree with the majority feel pressured
to conform.
Disagreement, tough questions, and counterproposals are
discouraged.
More effort is spent justifying the decision than testing it.
449
Adopt an Effective
Leadership Style
When called upon to lead a group, bear in mind the four broad
styles of leadership, and mix and match the leadership styles
that best suit your group’s needs.4
Directive: Leader controls group communication by

conveying specific instructions to members
Supportive: Leader attends to group members’ emotional
needs, stressing positive relationships
Achievement-oriented: Leader sets challenging goals and
high standards
Participative: Leader views members as equals, welcoming
their opinions, summarizing points, and identifying
problems that must be solved rather than dictating
solutions
Whatever style or styles of leadership you adopt, remember that

the most effective leaders (1) remain focused on their group’s
goals; (2) hold themselves and the group accountable for
achieving results; (3) treat all group members in an ethical
manner; and (4) inspire members to contribute their best.5
Set Goals
As a leader, aim to be a catalyst in setting and reaching goals in
collaboration with other group members. It is the leader’s
responsibility to ensure that each group member can clearly
450
identify the group’s purpose(s) and goal(s).
QUICK TIP
Optimize Decision Making in Groups

Research suggests that groups can reach the best decisions by
adopting two methods of argument: devil’s advocacy (arguing for the
sake of raising issues or concerns about the idea under discussion) and
dialectical inquiry (devil’s advocacy that goes a step further by
proposing a countersolution to the idea).6 Both approaches help
expose underlying assumptions that may be preventing participants
from making the best decision. As you lead a group, consider how you
can encourage both methods of argument.
Encourage Active Participation

Groups tend to adopt solutions that receive the largest number
of favorable comments, whether these comments emanate
from one individual or many. If only one or two members
participate, it is their input that sets the agenda, whether or not
their solution is optimal.7
When you lead a group, take these steps to encourage group

participation:
Directly ask members to contribute. Sometimes one

person, or a few people, dominate the discussion.
Encourage others to contribute by redirecting the
discussion in their direction (“Patrice, we haven’t heard
from you yet” or “Juan, what do you think about this?”).
451
Set a positive tone. Some people are reluctant to express
their views because they fear ridicule or attack. Minimize
such fears by setting a positive tone, stressing fairness, and
encouraging politeness and active listening.
Make use of devil’s advocacy and dialectical inquiry (see
Quick Tip above). Raise pertinent issues or concerns, and
entertain solutions other than the one under consideration.
Use Reflective Thinking

To reach a decision or solution that all participants understand
and are committed to, guide participants through the six-step
process of reflective thinking shown in Figure 27.1, which is
based on the work of educator John Dewey.8
452
453
FIGURE 27.1 Making Decisions in Groups: John Dewey’s Six-Step Process of
Reflective Thinking
454
CHAPTER 28 Delivering Group Presentations
Group presentations are oral presentations prepared and
delivered by a group of three or more individuals. Regularly
assigned in the classroom and frequently delivered in the
workplace, successful group presentations of the types
described in Chapters 29–36 require close cooperation and
planning.
455
Use Group
Communication
Guidelines
Preparing and delivering a successful group presentation
depends on effective communication among members. Use the
guidelines in Chapter 27 on collaborating in groups to set goals,
assign roles and tasks, and manage conflict.
Analyze the Audience and Set

Goals
Even if the topic is assigned and the audience consists solely of
the instructor and classmates (perhaps in an online setting),
consider the audience’s interests and needs with respect to the
topic and how you can meet them. For example, if the
presentation is a business report or proposal, be certain to
address the specific concerns of the employees, clients,
customers, or others the presentation is meant for. Just as you
would prepare an individual speech, brainstorm and set down
in writing the central idea and goals for the presentation.
Assign Roles and Tasks

Start by designating a group leader to help guide coordination
among members, beginning with the selection of roles and
tasks. Decide what parts of the presentation team members will
456
present and set firm time limits for each portion.
Establish Information Needs

Establish the scope and type of research needed—for example,
surveys your team does itself, scholarly articles, government
data, or other sources? Assign members to various aspects of
the research.
Establish Transitions between

Speakers
Work out transitions between speakers ahead of time—for
example, whether a designated group member will introduce
every speaker or whether each speaker will introduce the next
speaker upon the close of his or her presentation. The quality of
the presentation will depend in large part on smooth transitions
between speakers.
Consider the Presenters’

Strengths
Audiences become distracted by marked differences in style,
such as hearing a captivating speaker followed by an extremely
dull one. If you are concerned about an uneven delivery,
consider choosing the person with the strongest presentation
style and credibility level for the opening. Put the more cautious
presenters in the middle of the presentation. Select another
strong speaker to conclude the presentation.1
457
QUICK TIP
Be Mindful of Your Nonverbal Behavior

During a team presentation, the audience’s eyes will fall on everyone
involved, not just the person speaking. Thus any signs of disinterest or
boredom by a team member will be easily noticed. Give your full
attention to the other speakers on the team, and project an attitude of
interest toward audience members.
Coordinate the Presentation Aids

To ensure design consistency, consider assigning one person
the job of coordinating templates for slides, video, and/or audio
(see Chapter 20). The team can also assign a single individual
the task of presenting the aids as the other team members
speak. If this is done, be sure to position the person presenting
the aids unobtrusively so as not to distract the audience from
the speaker.
Rehearse the Presentation

Several Times
Together with the whole group, members should practice their
portions of the presentation, with any presentation aids they
will use, in the order they will be given in the final form.
Rehearse with all members several times, until the presentation
proceeds smoothly. Assign at least one member to set up and
check any equipment needed to display the aids.
458
Presenting in Panels,
Symposia, and Forums
Panels, symposia, and forums are group discussions in which
multiple speakers share their expertise with an audience;
forums are convened specifically to discuss issues of public
interest. Members of panels, symposia, and forums often may
not meet beforehand to coordinate their remarks.
Panel Discussions
In a panel discussion, a group of people (at least three, and
generally not more than nine) discusses a topic in the presence
of an audience. Panel discussions do not feature formally
prepared speeches. Instead, a skilled chairperson or moderator
directs a discussion. The moderator begins by describing the
purpose of the panel and introducing panel members, then
launches the discussion by directing a question to one or more
of the participants. At the conclusion of the panel, the
moderator summarizes the discussion and directs questions
from the audience.
If serving as a moderator, plan on circulating an agenda and

list of ground rules to the participants ahead of the
presentation. When preparing remarks for a panel discussion,
either as the moderator or as a discussant, gather the following
information:
459
Who is your audience, and what do they know about the
topic? What ideas can be emphasized to encourage greater
understanding?
What aspects of the topic will the other participants
address? What are their areas of expertise?
How much time is allotted for the question-and-answer
session? You will need to plan accordingly.
Which key points should be reviewed in conclusion?
Symposia
A symposium is a meeting or conference at which several
speakers deliver prepared remarks on different aspects of the
same topic. Symposia provide audiences with in-depth and
varied perspectives on a topic. Sometimes the symposium
concludes with a question-and-answer period; at other times, it
is followed by a panel discussion among symposium
participants. Following symposia, the presentations may be
published.
When preparing a presentation for a symposium, consider

the following:
Who is your audience?

What aspects of the topic will the other participants
address?
In what order will the speakers address the audience?
What are your time constraints for your prepared remarks?
Will you engage in questions and answers with the other
speakers, or just with the audience?
460
Public Forums
A forum is an assembly for the discussion of issues of public
interest. Public forums often are convened to help
policymakers and voters alike deliberate about key policy
issues. These forums can take place in a physical space, such as
a town hall, on television, or online.
Forums may feature a panel or a symposium, followed by an

extensive question-and-answer period with the audience. One
well-known forum is the town hall meeting, in which citizens
deliberate on issues of importance to the community. City and
state governments sponsor town hall meetings to gather citizen
input about issues that affect them, using this input to
formulate policy.
When participating in public forums as a member of the

audience, consider the following:
Organize your thoughts as much as possible in advance by

jotting down your question or comment on a piece of paper.
Use the guidelines for impromptu speaking described in
Chapter 16.
Do not duplicate someone else’s questions or comments
unless it adds to the discussion.
Use no more time than necessary to make your points.
If appropriate, include a call to action at the conclusion of
your comments (see Include a Call to Action).
461
CHECKLIST
Group Presentation Tips

Establish in writing the specific purpose and goals of the
presentation.
Decide on the scope and types of research needed.
Specify each team member’s responsibilities regarding content
and presentation aids.
Determine how introductions will be made—all at once at the
beginning or by having each speaker introduce the next one.
Practice introductions and transitions to create a seamless
presentation.
Assign someone to manage the question-and-answer session.
Rehearse the presentation with all group members and with
presentation aids several times from start to finish.
462
CHAPTER 29 Business and Professional
Presentations
In many business and professional positions, delivering
presentations is part of the job. Whether pitching a service to
customers or informing managers of a project’s progress, your
skill as a speaker will get you noticed and, often, promoted.
Rather than being formal public speeches, business and

professional presentations are forms of presentational
speaking—oral presentations delivered by individuals or teams
addressing people in the classroom, workplace, or other group
settings. Presentational speaking has much in common with
formal public speaking, yet important differences exist:1
Degree of formality. Presentational speaking is less formal

than public speaking; on a continuum, it would lie midway
between public speaking at one end and conversational
speaking at the other.
Audience factors. Public-speaking audiences tend to be
self-selected or voluntary participants, and they regard the
speech as a onetime event. Attendees of oral presentations
are more likely to be part of a captive audience, as in the
workplace or classroom, and may be required to attend
frequent presentations. Due to the ongoing relationship
among the participants, attendees also share more
information with one another than those who attend a
public speech and thus can be considered to have a
463
common knowledge base.
Speaker expertise. Listeners generally assume that a public
speaker has more expertise or firsthand knowledge than
they do on a topic. Presentational speakers, by contrast, are
more properly thought of as “first among equals.”
Apart from these differences, the guidelines described

throughout this Pocket Guide apply equally to oral
presentations and public speeches.
464
Become Familiar with
Reports and Proposals
The majority of business and professional presentations (both
oral and written) take the form of reports or proposals.
Corporations and nonprofit, educational, and government
organizations alike depend on reports and proposals, both
formal and informal, to supply information and shape
decisions.
A report is a systematic and objective description of facts and

observations related to business or professional interests; it
may or may not contain recommendations. Reports without
recommendations are strictly informative; those that offer
analysis and recommendations combine both informative and
persuasive intent.
Reports address literally thousands of different topics,

audiences, and objectives; some require extensive research and
offer lengthy analyses while others may simply summarize
weekly changes in personnel or projects. Formats for reports
vary accordingly, but many reports include the following:
1. Preview/summary of reasons for the report; including its

scope, methods, and limitations; and main conclusions and
recommendations
2. Discussion of the findings/presentation of evidence
3. Key conclusions drawn from evidence
465
4. Recommendations based on evidence
A proposal recommends a product, procedure, or policy to a

client or company. Organizations must constantly make
decisions such as whether to switch to a new health plan or
implement a new employee grievance procedure, and proposals
offer a plan on how to proceed. Usually, proposals advocate for
a specific solution. Careful adaptation to the audience is
therefore critical to an effective presentation (see Chapter 6).
Proposals may be assigned by a superior, solicited by a

potential client (by a written request for proposal or “RFP”), or
offered unsolicited to either superiors or clients. Frequently,
proposals incorporate or respond to information
communicated in reports. The audience for a proposal can be a
single individual or a group; in either event the audience will
have primary or sole responsibility for evaluating the proposal.
Proposals can be quite lengthy and formally organized or

relatively brief and loosely structured. As in reports, individual
organizations have their own templates for organizing
proposals, but many proposals follow these general steps:
1. Introduce the issue.

2. State the problem.
3. Describe the method by which the problem was
investigated.
4. Describe the facts learned.
5. Offer explanations and an interpretation of the findings.
466
6. Offer recommendations, including time lines and budgets.
7. End with a call to action, reiterating your recommendation
persuasively.
Sample Types of Reports and Proposals in Business and the Professions
Reports Proposals
Progress report Sales proposal

Audit report Business plan proposal
Market research Request for funding (see Request for funding)
report Research proposal
Quality testing Quality improvement proposal (see Quality
report improvement proposal)
Staff report Policy proposal (see Policy proposal)
Committee report
The table above lists some of the many types of reports and
proposals. Following are guidelines for preparing the sales
proposal, staff report, and progress report.
The Sales Proposal

A sales proposal or sales pitch attempts to lead a potential
buyer to purchase a service or a product. Successful sales
pitches, which are persuasive by nature, clearly show how the
product or service meets the needs of the potential buyer and
demonstrate how it surpasses other options available. In fact,
studies have shown that exceptional salespeople uncover and
expose unrecognized needs and help customers pinpoint
solutions.2
467
AUDIENCE
The target audience for a sales proposal depends on who has
the authority to make the purchase. Some proposals are invited
by the potential buyer; others are “cold sales” in which the
presenter approaches a potential buyer with a product or a
service. In some cases, the audience might be an intermediary—
a firm’s office manager, for example, who then makes a
recommendation to the company’s director.
ORGANIZATION
Plan on organizing a sales proposal as you would a persuasive
speech, selecting among the motivated sequence, problem-
solution, problem-cause-solution, or comparative advantage
patterns (see Chapter 24). The comparative advantage pattern
works well when the buyer must choose between competing
products and seeks reassurance that the product being
presented is indeed superior. The problem-solution or problem-
cause-solution pattern is especially effective when selling to a
buyer who needs a product to solve a problem.
Sometimes called the basic sales technique, the motivated

sequence, with its focus on audience needs, offers an excellent
means of appealing to buyer psychology. To use it to organize a
sales proposal, do the following:
1. Draw the potential buyer’s attention to the product.

2. Isolate and clarify the buyer’s need for the product.
3. Describe how the product will satisfy the buyer’s need.
468
4. Illustrate the beneficial effects that will result from buying
the product.
5. Invite the buyer to purchase the product.
CHECKLIST
Using Monroe’s Motivated Sequence in a

Sales Proposal
Identify the potential buyer’s needs and wants and appeal to
them.
Using the product’s features, match its benefits to the
customer’s needs and wants.
Stress what the product can do for the customer.
Engage the customer’s senses, using sight, sound, smell, and
touch.
Do not leave the sales encounter without making the ask.2
Get the buyer to do something (look something up, promise to
call someone, or schedule a meeting). Buyers who invest their
time are more likely to invest in what you are selling.3
The Staff Report

A staff report informs managers and other employees of new
developments that affect them and their work, or reports on the
completion of a project or task.
AUDIENCE
The audience for a staff report is usually a group, but it can be
469
an individual. The recipients of a staff report then use the
information to implement new policy, to coordinate other
plans, or to make other reports to other groups.
ORGANIZATION
Organize a formal staff report as follows:
1. State the problem or question under consideration

(sometimes called a charge to a committee or a
subcommittee).
2. Provide a description of procedures and facts used to
address the issue.
3. Discuss and analyze the facts that are most pertinent to the
issue.
4. Provide a concluding statement.
5. Offer recommendations.
The Progress Report

A progress report updates clients or principals on
developments in an ongoing project. It is similar to a staff
report, with the exception that the audience can include people
outside the organization as well as within it. Progress reports
help managers determine the value of employees and uncover
hidden costs of doing business.4 On long-term projects,
progress reports may be given at designated intervals or at the
time of specific task completions. On short-term projects,
reports can occur daily.
470
AUDIENCE
The audience for a progress report might be supervisors,
clients, or customers; developers and investors; company
officers; media representatives; or same-level co-workers.
Progress reports are commonplace in staff and committee
meetings in which subcommittees report on their designated
tasks.
ORGANIZATION
Different audiences may want different kinds of reports, so
establish the expectations of your intended audience, then
modify the following accordingly:
1. Briefly review progress made up to the time of the previous

report.
2. Describe new developments since the previous report.
3. Describe the personnel involved and their activities.
4. Detail the time spent on tasks.
5. Explain supplies used and costs incurred.
6. Explain any problems and make recommendations for their
resolution.
7. Provide an estimate of tasks to be completed for the next
reporting period.
471
part 9 Speaking in Other College
Courses
30. Presentations Assigned across the Curriculum
472
Chapter 30 Presentations Assigned across
the Curriculum
No matter which major you select, oral presentations will be
part of your academic career. Chapters 31–36 describe various
course-specific presentations, from the scientific talk to the
design review. This chapter contains guidelines for preparing
five types of presentations frequently assigned across the
curriculum, including the journal article review, service
learning presentation, poster presentation, debate, and case
study.
473
Journal Article Review
A frequent speaking assignment in many courses is the journal
article review. A biology instructor might ask you to provide an
overview of a peer-reviewed study on cell regulation, for
example, or a psychology teacher might require that you talk
about a study on fetal alcohol syndrome. Typically, when
delivering a presentation on a journal article, your instructor
will expect you to do the following, in this order.
1. Identify the author’s thesis or hypothesis.

2. Explain the methods by which the author arrived at the
conclusions.
3. Explain the results of the study.
4. Identify the author’s methods and, if applicable, theoretical
perspective.
5. Evaluate the study’s quality, originality, and validity.
6. Describe the author’s sources, and evaluate their
credibility.
7. Show how the findings advance knowledge in the field.
474
The Service Learning
Presentation
Many courses offer the opportunity to engage in service
learning projects, in which students learn about and help
address a need or problem in a community agency or nonprofit
organization, such as may exist in a mental-health facility, an
economic development agency, or antipoverty organization.
Typically, the service learning presentation describes your
participation in the project and includes the following
information.
1. Description of the service task

a. What organization, group, or agency did your project
serve?
b. What is the problem or issue, and how did you address
it?
2. Description of what the service task taught you about those
you served
a. How were they affected by the problem or issue?
b. How did your solution help them? What differences did
you observe?
3. Explanation of how the service task and outcome related to
your service learning course
a. What course concepts, principles, or theory relate to
your service project, and how?
b. What observations give you evidence that the
principles apply to your project?
475
4. Application of what was learned to future understanding
and practice
a. How was your understanding of the course subject
improved or expanded?
b. How was your interest in or motivation for working in
this capacity affected by the project?
c. What do you most want to tell others about the
experience and how it could affect them?
476
The Poster Presentation
Another common speaking assignment across the curriculum is
the poster presentation, which displays information about a
study, an issue, or a concept on a large (usually roughly 4′ × 3′ or
4′ × 6′) poster. Poster presentations typically follow the
structure of a scientific journal article, including an abstract,
introduction, description of methods, results, conclusion, and
references. Presenters display their key findings on posters,
arranged so session participants can examine them freely; on
hand are copies of the written report, with full details of the
study. The presenter is prepared to answer questions as they
arise.
A good poster presenter considers his or her audience,

understanding that with so much competing information, the
poster must be concise, visually appealing, and focused on the
most important points of the study.
When preparing the poster, follow these guidelines.
Select a succinct and informative title; make it 84-point type

or larger.
Arrange blocks of text in columns beginning from the
upper left to lower right side of the poster.
Include an abstract (a brief summary of the study)
describing the essence of the report and how it relates to
other research in the field. Offer compelling and “must
know” points to hook viewers, and summarize information
477
for those who will only read the abstract.
Ensure a logical and easy-to-follow flow from one part of
the poster to another.
Edit text to a minimum, using clear graphics wherever
possible.
Select a muted color for the poster itself, such as gray,
beige, light blue, or white, and use a contrasting, clear font
color (usually black).
Make sure your font size is large enough to be read
comfortably from at least three feet away.
Design figures and diagrams to be viewed from a distance,
and label each one.
Label and include a concise summary of each figure in a
legend below each one.
Be prepared to provide brief descriptions of your poster
and to answer questions; keep your explanations short.1
Address your audience while presenting and explain your

research without reading verbatim from the poster; if needed,
prepare a speaking outline (see Chapter 13). Rehearse your
poster presentation as you would any other speech.
478
The Debate
Debates are a popular oral presentation format in many college
courses, calling upon skills in persuasion (especially the
reasoned use of evidence; see Chapter 24) and the ability to
think quickly and critically. In a debate, opposing sides
alternate turns at presenting arguments affirming or negating a
claim or proposition. Careful research of the topic under
consideration is paramount.
Debate Sides, Resolutions, and

Formats
Classroom debates may be either individual debates, in which
one person takes a side against another person, or team debates
in which each side consists of two or more debaters. In either
case, the affirmative (“pro”) side supports a proposition with a
resolution—a statement asking for change or consideration of a
controversial issue (for example, “Resolved, that colleges
should abolish the SAT and the ACT”). The negative (“con”) side
opposes the resolution.
Depending on the type of debate selected, resolutions can

address propositions of fact, of value, and of policy (see Identify
the Nature of Your Claims). For example, in the Lincoln-
Douglas (L-D) format, two individuals argue the resolution as a
proposition of value (“Resolved, euthanasia should be
legalized”). In the team policy debate format, opposing teams
479
argue resolutions as propositions of policy (as in the whether or
not colleges should use standardized tests).
Many classroom debates follow a sequence similar to this:

The first speech introduces the argument of each team. The
second speech, or “rebuttal,” critically analyzes the opposing
team’s argument. The third speech summarizes the strongest
arguments for the audience.
Advance Strong Arguments

Whether you take the affirmative or negative side, you must
advance strong arguments in support of your position. Credible
evidence and reasoning are key to arguing for or against a
debate proposition (see Chapter 24). Equally important is using
this evidence and reasoning to refute weaknesses in these
elements put forth by your opponents.
When constructing your response to the resolution, be sure

to formulate a pro or con thesis that does not merely agree or
disagree but includes concrete reasons for your position. For
example, a pro side thesis for the resolution that colleges should
abolish the SAT and the ACT might be: “Colleges should abolish
the SAT and the ACT because grades and extracurricular
activities provide a better, and fairer, student profile.” A con
side thesis might be: “Colleges should use the SAT and ACT
because the tests accurately reflect the knowledge the student
has mastered.” In the debate, offer strong evidence in support
of these reasons.
480
QUICK TIP
Flowing the Debate

In a formal debate, debaters must attack and defend each argument.
Even in a less formal classroom debate, “dropping” or ignoring an
argument can seriously compromise your credibility. To keep track of
your opposition’s claims, try using a note-taking method called
“flowing the debate.” On a sheet of paper or spreadsheet, note points
that you want to challenge and why. Write checkmarks next to points
you have addressed.
481
The Case Study
A case study documents a real (or realistic) situation, relating to
business, law, medicine, science, or another discipline, which
poses difficult problems requiring solutions. Students read a
detailed account and then apply what they have studied to
analyze and resolve the problems. Instructors typically ask
students to report orally on the case study, either alone or in
teams. Students are expected to consider the case carefully and
then report on the following items.
1. Description/overview of the major issues involved in the

case
2. Statement of the major problems and issues involved
3. Identification of any relevant alternatives to the case
4. Presentation of the best solutions to the case, with a brief
explanation of the logic behind them
5. Recommendations for implementing the solutions, along
with acknowledgment of any impediments
482
Prepare for Different
Types of Audiences
In the workplace, presentations may be delivered to fellow
workers, colleagues, managers, clients, or others. Knowing this,
instructors may ask that you tailor your oral presentations to a
mock (practice) on-the-job audience, with your classmates
serving as stand-ins. As seen in the table below, audiences
include the expert or insider audience, colleagues within the
field, the lay audience, and the mixed audience.
Types of Audiences in the Working World
Type of Characteristics
Audience
Expert or People who have intimate knowledge of the topic, issue, product,
insider or idea being discussed (e.g., an investment analyst presents a
audience financial plan to a group of portfolio managers)
Colleagues People who share the speaker’s knowledge of the general field
within the under question (e.g., psychology or computer science), but who
field may not be familiar with the specific topic under discussion (e.g.,
short-term memory or voice recognition systems, respectively)
Lay People who have no specialized knowledge of the field related to
audience the speaker’s topic or of the topic itself (e.g., a city engineer
describes failure of water treatment system to the finance
department)
Mixed An audience composed of a combination of people—some with
audience expert knowledge of the field and topic and others with no
specialized knowledge. This is perhaps the most difficult audience
to satisfy (e.g., an attending surgeon describes experimental cancer
treatment to a hospital board comprised of medical professionals,
financial supporters, and administrative personnel).
483
CHECKLIST
Tips on Presenting to a Mixed Audience

Research the audience and gear your talk to the appropriate
level of knowledge and interests.
Avoid technical or specialized terms and explain any that you
must use.
Carefully construct the introduction and clearly identify the
central idea and main points of the talk. If possible, present a
compelling “story” listeners can learn about if they stay the
course.
Alert the audience to the order of your coverage: “I will first
focus on the big picture and on marketing/sales issues. I will
then present design specifications and data analysis.” In this
way, each audience segment will know what to expect and
when.
Devote half to two-thirds of your time to an introduction or
overview of your subject and save the highly technical material
for the remaining time.2
Include everyone. Try to address different levels of knowledge
and different perspectives in turn.
Be clear about the level at which you are speaking: “I am going
to present the primary results of this project with minimal
detailed information, but I’m happy to review the statistics or
experimental results in more detail following the
presentation.”
Be alert to audience reactions. If you notice that your listeners
are experiencing discomfort, consider stopping and asking for
feedback about what they want. You might then change course
484
and opt for a more in-depth, high-level approach, depending
on what they say.
485
CHAPTER 31 Science and Mathematics
Courses
The purpose of many science and math presentations is to
inform the audience of the results of original or replicated
research or problem solving. Instructors and classmates want to
know the processes by which you arrived at your experimental
results or how you solved a particular problem. For example,
your biology instructor may assign an oral report on the extent
to which you were able to replicate an experiment on cell
mitosis. A math instructor may ask you to apply a concept to an
experiment or an issue facing the field. A key challenge of these
presentations is clearly and accurately communicating complex
information to audiences with varying levels of knowledge.
QUICK TIP
What Do Science-Related Courses Include?

Known for their focus on exacting processes, science-related disciplines
include the physical sciences (e.g., chemistry and physics), the natural
sciences (e.g., biology and medicine), and the earth sciences (e.g.,
geology, meteorology, and oceanography). Fields related to
mathematics include accounting, statistics, and applied mathematics
subfields.
486
Preparing Effective
Presentations in Science
and Mathematics
Presentations in the sciences and mathematics must first of all
be grounded in the scientific method. Presentations must
clearly illustrate the nature of the research question, describe
the methods used in gathering and analyzing data, and explain
the results. However, presentations need not be—nor should
they be—dry and merely factual. Experimentation is a process
of discovery, and the fits and starts that often accompany its
completion can make for compelling stories during your talk.
Typically, instructors will expect you to do the following in a

scientific or mathematics presentation:
Use observation, proofs, theorems, and experiments as

support for your points.
Clearly explain scientific or mathematical terms at a level
appropriate to the audience.
Be selective in your focus on details, highlighting critical
information but not overwhelming listeners with
information they can refer to in the written paper.
Use analogies to build on prior knowledge and demonstrate
underlying causes (see Take Steps to Reduce Confusion for
guidelines on explaining difficult concepts).
Use well-executed aids, from slides to equations drawn on a
487
whiteboard, to illustrate important concepts (see Chapters
19–21 for detailed guidelines).
488
Research Presentation
In the research presentation (also called the scientific talk or
oral scientific presentation), you describe research you
conducted, either alone or as part of agroup. You may deliver
this information as a stand-alone oral presentation or as a
poster session (see The Poster Presentation).
A research presentation usually follows the standard model

used in scientific investigation and includes the following
elements:
1. An introduction that includes the research question, the

hypothesis, the scope of the study, and the objective
2. A description of methods used to investigate the research
question, including where the study took place and the
conditions under which it was carried out
3. The results of the study, summarizing key findings and
highlighting insights regarding the questions/hypotheses
investigated; this is the body of the presentation.
4. Discussion and conclusions, in which the speaker
interprets the data or results and discusses their
significance. As in any speech, the conclusion should link
back to the introduction, reiterating the research question
and highlighting the key findings.
489
Process Analysis
Presentation
A process analysis presentation explains how an experimental
or a mathematical process works and under what conditions it
can be used. This is generally a ten- to fifteen-minute individual
presentation. In a theoretical math class, for example, your
assignment might be to describe an approach to solving a
problem, such as the Baum–Welch algorithm, including
examples of how this approach has been used, either
inappropriately or appropriately. This type of presentation
generally does the following:
1. Identifies the conditions under which the process should be

used
2. Offers a detailed description of the process (at times
including a demonstration)
3. Discusses the benefits and shortcomings of the process
QUICK TIP
Get to the Point

If you lose the audience at the beginning of your scientific talk, chances
are slim that you’ll regain their attention. Listeners want to know what
the talk is about—that is, what key question you investigated—so make
certain that you communicate the research question in the first few
minutes of your scientific talk. Follow this by stating why you believe
the question is important and why addressing it is relevant.
490
491
Field Study Presentation
A field study presentation describes research conducted in
natural settings, using methods such as direct observation,
surveys, and interviews. For example, a biology major might
research links between soil erosion and hiking activity in a
public park, or an environmental studies major might describe
animal behavior in an oil spill. Field study presentations may be
assigned as individual, team, or poster-session presentations.
Whatever the topic under investigation and methods of data
collection, field study presentations address the following:
1. Overview and scope of the field research (e.g., if explaining

animal behavior in an oil spill, describe the prevalence of
oil spills and the effects on environment and wildlife)
2. Description of the site (e.g., describe the habitat before and
after the spill, noting ecological interactions)
3. Methods used in the research (e.g., participant observation,
type of sample collection, measurement techniques; how
were the behaviors observed? Who provided the
observations? When and for how long?)1
4. Interpretation/analysis of the data
5. Future directions for the research
CHECKLIST
Steps in Preparing a Focused Scientific

Presentation
492
Create an informative title that describes the research.
Place your presentation in the context of a major scientific
principle.
Focus on a single issue and adjust it to the interests and
knowledge level of your audience.
Identify the underlying question you will address, divide it into
subquestions, and answer each question.
Follow a logical line of thought.
Explain scientific concepts unambiguously, with a minimum of
jargon.
Use analogies to increase understanding.
End with a clearly formulated conclusion related to your
chosen scientific principle.2
493
CHAPTER 32 Technical Courses
Oral presentations in technical courses often focus on the
design of a product or system—whether it is a set of plans for a
building, a prototype robot, or an innovative computer circuit
design. Technical presentations include reports and proposals
that provide instructions, advocate a product or service, update
progress, make recommendations, or request funding. (See
Chapter 29 on reports and proposals and the progress report;
see this chapter for requests for funding.) Assignments in
engineering, architecture, and other technical courses also
typically include the design review, described below.
QUICK TIP
What Are the Technical Disciplines?

Technical disciplines include, but are not limited to, the STEM fields
(science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) as well as the
design-oriented disciplines of graphic design, architecture, and
industrial design.
494
Preparing Effective
Technical Presentations
The technical presenter faces the challenge of scaling complex
information and processes to audience members with differing
levels of technical expertise. Carefully conceived presentation
aids—including diagrams, prototypes, drawings, computer
simulations, design specifications, and spreadsheets—are key to
the technical presentation, yet the aids must not overwhelm the
presentation itself. Presentations are often delivered in teams,
so close coordination among members is essential (see Chapter
28).
Typically, people who attend technical presentations possess

a range of technical knowledge, and effective technical
speakers gear the presentation to the appropriate level for the
audience, using accessible language, avoiding jargon (see
Chapter 15), and offering analogies to clarify hard-to-
understand concepts and processes (see Chapter 22).
Both informative and persuasive strategies come into play in

technical presentations, and the best technical presenters know
how to appeal to their audiences’ needs and motivations to gain
agreement for a proposal or design1 (see Contemporary
Persuasive Appeals: Needs and Motivations).
Effective technical presentations sell ideas. The technical

presenter must persuade clients, managers, or classmates that a
495
design, an idea, or a product is a good one. As one instructor
notes, “You can never assume that your product or design will
just sell—you have to do that.”2
Effective technical presentations are also detailed and

specific and use numbers as evidence. Instead of offering
general, sweeping statements, they provide hard data and
clearly stated experimental results.
496
Engineering Design
Review
The engineering design review explains problem-solving steps
in devising a product or system in response to an identified
need. Virtually all capstone engineering courses require that
students prepare design reviews, which are generally
informative in nature, although their purpose may include
convincing the audience that the design decisions are sound.
(In varying formats, design reviews are also assigned in basic
science and mathematics courses.) Design reviews may
incorporate a prototype (model) demonstration and are usually
delivered as team presentations. Design reviews typically
include the following:
1. Identification of the problem to be solved/need to be met

and overview of objectives
2. Description of the design concept and specifications
3. Discussion of why the proposed design will solve the
problem
4. Discussion of any experimental testing that has been
completed on the design
5. Discussion of future plans and unresolved problems
6. Discussion of schedule, budget, and marketing issues
497
Architecture Design
Review
The architecture design review combines two functions: It
enables the audience to visualize the design, and it sells the
design. Using a narrative structure, in which you tell the “story”
of the design, combined in places with a spatial organizational
pattern, in which you arrange main points in order of physical
proximity of the design (see Chapter 12), can help you do this.
At a minimum, architecture design reviews typically cover:
1. Background on the site

2. Discussion of the design concept
3. Description and interpretation of the design
498
Request for Funding
In the request for funding presentation, a team member or the
entire team provides evidence that a project, a proposal, or a
design idea is worth funding. Requests for funding, which are
persuasive in nature, cover the following ground:
1. Overview of customer specifications and needs

2. Analysis of the market and its needs
3. Overview of the design idea or project and how it meets
those needs
4. Projected costs for the project
5. Specific reasons why the project should be funded
QUICK TIP
Avoid These Technical Presentation Pitfalls

Professionals working in technical fields point to three major obstacles
to designing and delivering a successful technical presentation: (1) too
much information crammed into aids and failure to construct and
practice with them early in the process, (2) insufficient preparation and
practice with fellow team members, and (3) failure to select an
appropriate organization and structure for the presentation.3 Bearing
these pitfalls in mind during preparation will set you on a winning path.
499
CHAPTER 33 Social Science Courses
Students taking social science courses (including psychology,
sociology, political science, economics, and anthropology) learn
to evaluate and conduct both qualitative research, in which the
emphasis is on observing, describing, and interpreting
behavior, as well as quantitative research, in which the
emphasis is on statistical measurement. Often the focus of
inquiry is explaining or predicting human behavior or social
forces, answering questions such as what, how, and why?1
Oral presentation assignments in social science courses

frequently include the literature review presentation,
theoretical research presentation, program evaluation
presentation, and policy proposal (see this chapter). Other
commonly assigned presentations are described elsewhere in
this guide: see The Poster Presentation, The Case Study,
Research Presentation, Process Analysis Presentation, Field
Study Presentation, and Evidence-Based Practice Presentation.
500
Preparing Effective
Presentations in the
Social Sciences
Good social scientific presentations clearly explain the research
question, refer to current research, support arguments with
evidence, use theory to build explanations, and use timely data.
Illustrate the research question. Pay special attention to

illustrating the nature of the research question and the
methods used to investigate it.
Refer to current research. Credible social scientific
presentations refer to recent findings in the field.
Instructors are more likely to accept experimental evidence
if it is replicable over time and is supported by current
research.
Use theory to build explanations. Theory is central to social
scientific research, informing the types of questions asked,
the research methods used, and means by which evidence
is interpreted. Thus your discussion of the research should
reflect the theoretical framework within which the
research was conducted.2
Support arguments with evidence. Each of your assertions
or claims must be accompanied by evidence for or against
it and which can be used by others to evaluate the claims.
501
Literature Review
Presentation
Frequently, instructors ask students to summarize and evaluate
the existing research related to a given topic. A communications
student, for example, might review the literature on gender bias
in the promotion of newspaper reporters into management.
After considering the key studies related to the topic, the
student would describe the conclusions uncovered by the
research and suggest directions for future work. A literature
review presentation typically includes the following:
1. Statement of the topic under review

2. Description of the available research, including specific
points of agreement and disagreement among sources
3. Evaluation of the strengths and weaknesses of the research,
including the methodology used and whether findings can
be generalized to other studies
4. Conclusions that can be drawn from the research
5. Suggested directions for future study
When including a literature review in conjunction with your

own research study, follow these broad guidelines:
1. Introduce your topic.

2. Review the literature pertinent to your topic.
3. State your research question or hypothesis and describe
how it relates to the literature.
4. Discuss your research methods.
502
5. Discuss your results, including shortcomings and
implications for future research.
QUICK TIP
Narrow Your Topic

Since most of your social scientific presentations will be relatively brief,
make sure to sufficiently narrow your topic or research question and
scale your findings to fit the time allotted (see Chapter 7). For example,
rather than selecting an overly broad topic such as “substance abuse,”
consider “frequency of alcohol-related deaths among U.S. college
students in year X.”
503
Program Evaluation
Presentation
In addition to explaining social phenomena, social scientists
often measure the effectiveness of programs developed to
address these issues. Instructors may ask you to evaluate a
program or policy, perhaps one you observed in a service
learning assignment. Typically, the program evaluation
presentation includes the following:
1. Explanation of the program’s mission

2. Description of the program’s accomplishments
3. Discussion of how the accomplishments were measured
(e.g., the evaluation methods and questions), including any
problems in collecting and/or assessing the evaluation
research
4. Conclusions regarding how well or poorly the program has
met its stated objectives
504
Policy Proposal
Presentation
As well as evaluating programs and policies, you may be asked
to recommend a course of action on an issue or a problem. A
policy proposal presentation typically includes the following:
1. Definition and background review of the current policy and

its shortcomings
2. Discussion of alternatives to policy, including the pros and
cons of each
3. Recommendation of a specific policy with clear argument
for why this option is better than each of the alternatives
4. Application of forecasting methods to show likely results of
the recommended policy
5. Plan for implementation of the recommendations
6. Discussion of future needs or parameters to monitor and
evaluate the policy option.
505
CHAPTER 34 Arts and Humanities Courses
Speaking assignments in arts and humanities courses often
require that you analyze and interpret the meaning of a
particular idea, event, person, story, or artifact. Instructors
expect that these interpretations will be grounded in the
conventions of the field and build on the research within it. An
instructor of literature may ask you to explain the theme of a
novel or a poem, for example, or an art history professor may
ask you to identify the various artistic and historical influences
on a sculpture or a painting. Some presentations may be
performative in nature, with students expressing artistic
content. Assignments include summaries of works;
presentations of interpretation and analysis; presentations that
compare and contrast an idea, an event, or a work; and
individual and team debates (see The Debate).
QUICK TIP
Disciplines in the Arts and Humanities

What fields are included in the arts and humanities? Typically included
are English, literature, history, religion, philosophy, foreign languages,
art history, theater, and music.
506
Preparing Effective Arts
and Humanities
Presentations
Good presentations in the arts and humanities help audiences
understand and put into context the meaning of original works
or scholarship. Working from within the conventions of the
discipline, the presenter identifies the work’s key themes and
the means by which the author or creator communicates them.
Instructors will expect you to investigate the following:
What is the thesis or central message in the text or work?

What questions/issues/themes does the author address?
How does the author or creator organize or structure the
work?
Who is the audience for the work?
What influences or sources inform the work?
507
Presentations of
Interpretation and
Analysis
Often in the arts and humanities, instructors assign
presentations requiring students to interpret the relevance of a
historical or a contemporary person or event; a genre or school
of philosophical thought; or a piece of literature, music, or art.
Instructors look to students to think of topics in new ways by
providing original interpretations. A presentation on the
historical significance of Reconstruction after the Civil War of
1861–1865, for example, will be more effective if you offer a new
way of viewing the topic rather than reiterating what other
people have said or what is already generally accepted
knowledge. A debate on two philosophical ideas will be most
effective when you assert issues and arguments that are
different from those that the audience has thought of before.
The more original the interpretation (while remaining logical
and supported by evidence), the more compelling the
presentation will be for the audience.
508
Presentations That
Compare and Contrast
A common assignment in the arts and humanities is to compare
and contrast events, stories, people, or artifacts in order to
highlight similarities or differences. For example, you might
compare two works of literature from different time periods or
two historical figures or works of art. These presentations may
be informative or persuasive; if the latter, the student will argue
in favor of one figure or period over another. Presentations that
compare and contrast include the following elements:
1. Thesis statement outlining the connection between the

events, stories, people, or artifacts
2. Discussion of main points, including several examples that
highlight similarities and differences
3. Concluding evaluative statement about the comparison
(e.g., if the presentation is persuasive, why one piece of
literature was more effective than another; if informative, a
restatement of similarities and differences)
509
Debates
Often, students will engage in debates on opposing ideas,
historical figures, or philosophical positions. In a history class,
students might argue whether women in sixteenth-century
Western Europe experienced a Renaissance. The speaker must
present a brief argument (two to three minutes) about the topic;
the opposing speaker then responds with another point of view.
Whatever side of an issue you address, prepare a well-
composed argument with strong supporting evidence (see The
Debate in Chapter 30).
QUICK TIP
Be Prepared to Lead a Discussion

Many students taking arts and humanities courses will research a
question and then lead a classroom discussion on it. For example, a
student of literature may lead a discussion on Anton Chekhov’s play
The Cherry Orchard. The speaker would be expected to provide a
synopsis of the plot, theme, and characters and offer an analysis of the
play’s meaning. For directions on leading a discussion, see Facilitating
a Classroom Discussion.
510
CHAPTER 35 Education Courses
In education courses, the most common speaking assignments
focus on teaching and related instructional tasks, such as giving
a lecture or demonstrating an activity. In a mathematics
education course, you may give a mini-lecture on a particular
geometric theorem. In a learning-styles course, you may tailor
an activity to a variety of different learners.
Education courses include subfields such as curriculum and

instruction, physical education, secondary and elementary
education, and education administration.
511
Preparing Effective
Education Presentations
Good presentations in education are marked by clear
organization, integration of the material into the broader course
content, two-way communication, and student-friendly
supporting material. Above all, effective educational
presentations succeed in fostering understanding. Follow these
strategies as you prepare your presentations.
Use a learning framework. Select one or more cognitive

learning frameworks, such as the Bloom or Marazano
taxonomy, and frame the information accordingly.
Organize material logically. Presentations in education
must be tightly organized so that the audience can easily
access information. The simpler the organizational
structure, the better (see Chapters 12 and 24). Use
organizing devices such as preview statements, internal
summaries, and transitions to help listeners follow ideas in
a lecture, for example (see Chapter 11).
Integrate discussion into overall course content. Describe
how the lecture for the day relates to the previous day’s
lecture, and articulate learning objectives for the
presentation. In a discussion or group activity, make clear
connections between students’ comments and other topics
that have been raised or will be raised later in the course.
Tailor examples and evidence to the audience. Use familiar
examples and evidence that the audience can grasp easily.
512
Using familiar examples will enhance learning; try to
choose ones that are close to the students’ experiences.
513
Delivering a Lecture
A lecture is an informational speech for an audience of student
learners. Standard lectures range from thirty minutes to one
hour in length; a mini-lecture generally lasts about ten to fifteen
minutes. Typically, lectures include the following:
1. A clear introduction of the topic (see Chapter 14)

2. Statement of the central idea of the lecture
3. Statement of the connection to previous topics covered
4. Discussion of the main points
5. Summary of the lecture and preview of the next assigned
topic
6. Question-and-answer period
QUICK TIP
Focus on Interactive Learning

Good lecturers actively engage students in the learning process,
pausing to pose questions about the topic, allowing time for discussion,
and incorporating short activities into the mix.1 Rather than delivering
a monologue, they encourage student participation.
514
Facilitating a Group
Activity
In the group activity presentation, you describe an activity to
be completed following a lecture. Typically this short
presentation includes the following:
1. A brief review of the main idea of the lecture

2. An explanation of the goal of the activity
3. Directions on carrying out the activity
4. A preview of what students will gain from the activity and
what the discussion following it will cover
515
Facilitating a Classroom
Discussion
In a classroom discussion, you will lead a discussion following
a lecture, offering brief remarks and then guiding the
discussion as it proceeds.
1. Begin by outlining critical points to be covered.

2. Prepare several general guiding questions to launch the
discussion.
3. Prepare relevant questions and examples for use during the
discussion.
516
CHAPTER 36 Nursing and Allied Health
Courses
Speaking assignments in nursing and allied health courses
(including physical therapy, occupational therapy, radiology,
pharmacy, and other areas of health care) range from the
service learning presentation, poster presentation, and journal
article review (see Chapter 30) to those described in this
chapter.1 Students are assigned a mix of individual and group
presentations.
517
Preparing Effective
Presentations in Nursing
and Allied Health Courses
Good presentations in health-related courses accurately
communicate scientific knowledge while reviewing the
patient’s clinical status and potential treatment options. The
presenter will support any assertions and recommendations
with relevant scientific literature supporting evidence-based
clinical practice. Instructors will expect you to do the following:
1. Use evidence-based guidelines.

2. Demonstrate a solid grasp of the relevant scientific data.
3. Organize the presentation in order of severity of patient
problems.
4. Present the patient as well as the illness—that is, remember
that the patient is not merely a collection of symptoms, but
a human being, so present him or her as such.
5. Include only essential facts, but be prepared to answer any
questions about all aspects of the patient and care.
518
Evidence-Based Practice
Presentation
The evidence-based practice (EBP) presentation reviews
scientific literature on a clinical problem, critically evaluates
the findings, and suggests best practices for standards of care.
To fulfill these criteria, EBP presentations do the following:
1. Define the research problem (e.g., the clinical issue).

2. Critically review the scientific literature on a practice
related to the clinical issue, describing method/design,
sample size, and reliability.
3. Discuss the strength of the evidence and indicate whether
or not the practice should be adopted into clinical practice.2
519
Clinical Case Study
Presentation
A clinical case study is a detailed analysis of a person or group
with a particular disease or condition. Clinical case studies
inform medical teams or other audiences about the following:
1. Overview of patient information (presentation and

background)
2. Description of pre-treatment workup, including results
3. Review of treatment options/plan of care
4. Outcome of treatment plan
5. Surveillance plan (follow-up patient care based on
evidence-based practice)
520
Quality Improvement
Proposal
In the quality improvement proposal, the speaker
recommends the adoption of a new (or modified) health
practice or policy, such as introducing an improved treatment
regimen at a burn center. This report (sometimes assigned as
part of a capstone course) addresses the following:
1. Review of existing practice

2. Description of proposed quality improvement
3. Review of the scientific literature on the proposed practice
4. Plan of action for implementation
521
Treatment Plan Report
The ability to communicate information about patients or
clients is important for all health care providers. Either
individually or as part of a health care team, people in the
helping professions routinely report patients’ conditions and
outline plans of treatment to other health care providers. One
form of treatment plan report, called the case conference,
includes the following:
1. Description of patient status

2. Explanation of the disease process
3. Steps in the treatment regimen
4. Goals for patient and family
5. Plans for patient’s care at home
6. Review of financial needs
7. Assessment of resources available
The shift report is a concise overview of the patient’s status and

needs, delivered to the oncoming caregiver. It includes the
following information:
1. Patient name, location, and reason for care

2. Current physical status
3. Day on clinical pathway for particular diagnosis
4. Pertinent psychosocial data, including plans for discharge
and involvement of caregivers
5. Care needs (physical, hygiene, activity, medication,
nutritional).
522
APPENDICES
523
APPENDIX A Citation Guidelines
Instructors will often require that you include a bibliography of
sources with your speech (see Chapters 4 and 9). You can
document sources by following documentation systems such as
Chicago, APA, MLA, CSE, and IEEE.
524
Chicago Documentation
Two widely used systems of documentation are outlined in The
Chicago Manual of Style, Seventeenth Edition (2017). The first
provides for bibliographic citations in endnotes or footnotes.
The second form, typically used by public speakers in a variety
of disciplines, employs an author-date system: Sources are cited
in the text, with full bibliographic information given in a
concluding list of references. This method is illustrated below.
The author-date method is also used in works cited lists in both
the sample working outline in Chapter 13 (sample working
outline) and the informative speech in Chapter 22 (Colleges and
Carbon Neutrality). For information about the author-date
system—and more general information about Chicago-style
documentation—consult the Chicago Manual, Chapters 14 and
15.
1. BOOK BY A SINGLE AUTHOR

Give the author’s last name, followed by a comma and the
author's first name. Then give the year of publication; the
book’s title, in italics; and the city of publication followed by a
colon and the publisher’s name.
Alterman, Eric. 2003. What Liberal Media? The Truth about Bias
and the News. New York: Basic Books.
2. BOOK BY TWO OR MORE AUTHORS

Give the first author’s last name followed by a comma and his or
525
her first name. Insert the word “and” followed by the rest of the
authors, with first name(s) listed before last name(s).
Kovach, Bill, and Tom Rosenstiel. 2014. The Elements of

Journalism: What Newspeople Should Know and the Public
Should Expect. 3rd ed. New York: Three Rivers Press.
3. EDITED WORK
Follow the guidelines in Examples 1 and 2 above, except add a
comma and “ed.” (or “eds.” if the work cited has more than one
editor) after the last editor’s name, before the year of
publication.
Atkins, Joseph B., ed. 2002. The Mission: Journalism, Ethics,

and the World. Ames: Iowa State University Press.
4. WORK WITHIN AN EDITED COLLECTION

Give the author of the work you are citing, last name first. Then
give the year of publication; and the title of the work cited, in
quotation marks. Next, insert the word “In” followed by the
name of the edited collection, in italics, ending with a comma.
Insert “edited by,” followed by the editor’s name. Finally, list
the city of publication followed by a colon and the publisher’s
name.
Dube, Jonathan. 2003. “Writing News Online.” In The Making of

the American Essay, edited by Jan Winburn. Boston:
Bedford/St. Martin’s.
5. ENTRY IN A REFERENCE WORK

526
Use this format when you need to cite, for example, an entry in
a dictionary or encyclopedia, either in print or online. List the
title of the reference work, followed by “s.v.” (Latin sub verbo,
“under the word”) and the term you looked up. If the citation is
from an online reference work, add the URL (internet address)
and the publication date or date of last revision; if neither is
available, use your access date.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online, s.v. “Yellow Journalism.”

Accessed October 17, 2007.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9077903/yellow-
journalism.
6. ARTICLE IN A MAGAZINE
List the author, last name first; the year of publication; the
article title, in quotation marks; the name of the publication, in
italics; and the full publication date or, if no date is given, the
full date on which you accessed the material. If you are citing a
print article, give the page number. If you are citing an online
article, give the URL.
Foer, Franklin. 2017. “When Silicon Valley Took Over

Journalism.” The Atlantic, September 2017.
https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2017/09/when-
silicon-valley-took-over-journalism/534195/.
7. ARTICLE IN A JOURNAL
Give the first author’s last name, followed by his or her first
name. If there is an additional author or authors, list them with
527
first name(s) followed by last name(s). If you are citing a journal
article with more than ten authors, list only the first seven
authors followed by “et al.” (“and others”).
Next, list the year of publication; the title of the article, in

quotation marks; the title of the journal, in italics; the volume
and issue numbers; and the pages cited, if applicable. If the
journal article was found online, list the DOI (digital object
identifier). If no DOI is available, you may list the complete
URL.
Goldstein, Tom. 2001. “Wanted: More Outspoken Views;

Coverage of the Press Is Up, but Criticism Is Down.”
Columbia Journalism Review 40, no. 4: 144–45.
Lowrey, Wilson, and Zhou Shan. 2016. “Journalism’s Fortune
Tellers: Constructing the Future of News.” Journalism 19, no.
2: 129–45. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884916670931.
8. ARTICLE IN A NEWSPAPER
Follow the guidelines in Example 6, “Article in a Magazine.”
Wampole, Christy. 2018. “What Is the Future of Speculative

Journalism?” New York Times, January 22, 2018.
https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/22/opinion/speculative-
journalism-future.html.
9. ARTICLE IN AN ELECTRONIC DATABASE

Follow the guidelines in Example 7 above. Provide the DOI, if
available (see the second model in Example 7). If no DOI is
528
available, it is acceptable to simply list the name of the database
in which you found the article.
Martin, William C. 2004. “People of Faith: Religious Conviction

in American Journalism and Higher Education.” Social
Forces 82, no. 3: 1214–16, Project MUSE.
10. WEBSITE
Give the author’s last name, followed by his or her first name. If
the author’s name is not listed on the website, use the name of
the site sponsor instead. Next, list the date of publication or
modification; if no date is listed on the website, write “n.d.”
Give the title of the page or section of the website that you are
citing. Give the full publication date; if no date is listed on the
website, give the full date on which you accessed the material.
Finally, give the complete URL.
Johnson, Adam. 2018. “WaPo Editor Blames Lack of US

Leadership for Famine Caused by US Leadership.” January
23, 2018. https://fair.org/home/wapo-editor-blames-lack-of-
us-leadership-for-famine-caused-by-us-leadership/.
11. BLOG POST

Follow the guidelines in Examples 6 and 8 above. Give the name
of the blog in place of the publication’s name.
Flynn, Kerry. 2018. “As Billionaires Call for Regulation,

Facebook Throws Money at Journalism Scholarships,”
Mashable, accessed January 29, 2018.
https://mashable.com/2018/01/26/facebook-journalism-
529
scholarships-billionaires-regulation-news/#C_Jlsb74kOqh
12. ONLINE VIDEO OR AUDIO

Give the last name of the author, uploader, or creator, followed
by his or her first name. List the year in which the video or
audio was recorded or the year in which the material was
uploaded to the web; if unknown, write “n.d.” Next, list the
work’s title in quotation marks. List the full original filming
date, if given on the website; otherwise, include the full date on
which the video or audio was uploaded. If no date is given,
include the date on which you accessed the material. If
applicable, you may also list the location where the material
was originally recorded. Write “Video” or “Audio,” followed by
the length of the video or audio clip in minutes and seconds.
Finally, include the complete URL.
Maza, Carlos. 2017. “The ‘This Is Fine’ Bias in Cable News.”

August 4, 2017. Video, 5:02.
https://www.vox.com/videos/2017/8/4/16089558/strikethrough-
this-is-fine-bias-cable-news
13. INTERVIEW
Include the first name of the person being interviewed,
followed by his or her last name, a comma, the words
“interview by,” and the interviewer’s name. If the interview
aired as part of a television or radio program, include the name
of the program and the network. If the interview aired online—
for example, in a podcast or simply as a text interview in an
online article—include the name of the program and the
530
website (if applicable) and the complete URL. When possible,
include the format (e.g., “Audio” or “Video”) and the length of
the interview in minutes and seconds.
Cronkite, Walter. 1996. Interview by Daniel Schorr. Frontline,

PBS, April 2, 1996.
Schlichtman, John. 2018. Interview by Lulu Garcia-Navarro.
Weekend Edition Sunday, NPR, January 28, 2018. Audio,
11:01. https://www.npr.org/2018/01/28/581280992/there-isn-t-
a-just-housing-choice-how-we-ve-enabled-the-pains-of-
gentrification.
14. GOVERNMENT DOCUMENT

List the name of the government body or agency that produced
the document. If applicable, also list the name of the specific
committee that produced the document. Next, give the
document’s title, in italics. If you are citing a United States
Congressional hearing or testimony, include the number of the
Congress, abbreviated “Cong.”; and the number of the session,
abbreviated “sess.” Finally, include the city of publication,
followed by a colon and the publisher’s name.
United States Senate. Committee on Foreign Relations. 2015.

The U.S. Role in the Middle East: Hearing before the
Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate. 114th
Cong., 1st sess. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 2015.
15. PERSONAL COMMUNICATION

In most cases, personal communication—which includes
531
emails, text messages, posts on social media, and handwritten
letters—are cited in the text only. They are not typically
included in the works cited list.
532
APA Documentation
Most disciplines in the social sciences—psychology,
anthropology, sociology, political science, education, and
economics—use the author-date system of documentation
established by the American Psychological Association (APA).
This citation style highlights dates of publication because the
currency of published material is of primary importance in
these fields.
In the author-date system, use an author or organization’s

name in a signal phrase or parenthetical reference within the
main text to cite a source.
For example, you could cite Example 1 in this section with

the author’s name in a signal phrase as follows:
Nakazawa (2009) states that stress hormones like cortisol

can dramatically alter how immune cells work.
or with a parenthetical reference as follows:
Stress hormones such as cortisol travel to the immune

system and can dramatically alter how immune cells work
(Nakazawa, 2009).
Each in-text citation refers to an alphabetical references list that

you must create.
For more information about APA format, see the Publication
533
Manual of the American Psychological Association, Sixth
Edition (2010). The manual advises users to omit retrieval dates
for content that is unlikely to change, such as published journal
articles, and to omit the database from which material is
retrieved as long as an identifier such as a URL (internet
address) or DOI (digital object identifier) is included.
The numbered entries that follow introduce and explain

some conventions of this citation style using examples related
to the topic of stress management. Note that in the titles of
books and articles, only the first word of the title and subtitle
and proper nouns are capitalized.
1. BOOK BY A SINGLE AUTHOR

Begin with the author’s last name and initials, followed by the
date of publication in parentheses. Next, italicize the book’s
title, and end with the place of publication, including city and
state or country, and the publisher.
Nakazawa, D. J. (2009). The autoimmune epidemic. New York,

NY: Simon & Schuster.
2. BOOK BY MULTIPLE AUTHORS OR

EDITORS
Williams, S., & Cooper, L. (2002). Managing workplace stress: A
best practice blueprint. New York, NY: Wiley.
3. ARTICLE IN A REFERENCE WORK
534
If an online edition of the reference work is cited, give the
retrieval date and the URL. Omit end punctuation after the URL.
Beins, B. C. (2010). Barnum effect. In I. B. Weiner & W. E.

Craighead (Eds.), The Corsini encyclopedia of psychology
(4th ed., Vol. 4, pp. 203–204). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Biofeedback. (2007). In Encyclopaedia Britannica online. Re-
trieved from
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/65856/biofeedback
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (1997).
Violence in the workplace: Guidelines for understanding and
response. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
5. JOURNAL ARTICLE
Begin with the author’s last name and initials followed by the
date of publication in parentheses. Next, list the title of the
article and italicize the title of the journal in which it is printed.
Then give the volume number, italicized, and the issue number
in parentheses if the journal is paginated by issue. End with the
inclusive page numbers of the article. For an article found
online, if a DOI number is given, add “doi:” and the number
after the publication information. Otherwise, add “Retrieved
from” and the URL of the journal home page. Omit the end
period after a DOI or URL.
Dollard, M. F., & Metzer, J. C. (1999). Psychological research,

practice, and production: The occupational stress problem.
535
International Journal of Stress Management, 6(4), 241–253.
Christian, M. S., Bradley, J. C., Wallace, J. C., & Burke, M. J.
(2009, September). Workplace safety: A meta-analysis of the
roles of person and situation factors. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 94, 1103–1127. doi:10.1037/a0016172
6. MAGAZINE ARTICLE
Cobb, K. (2002, July 20). Sleepy heads: Low fuel may drive
brain’s need to sleep. Science News, 162, 38.
7. NEWSPAPER ARTICLE
Zimmerman, E. (2010, December 19). Learning to tame your
office anxiety. The New York Times, p. BU8.
Zimmerman, E. (2010, December 19). Learning to tame your
office anxiety. The New York Times. Retrieved from
http://www.nytimes.com
8. UNSIGNED NEWSPAPER ARTICLE

Stress less: It’s time to wrap it up. (2002, December 18). Houston
Chronicle, p. A1.
9. DOCUMENT FROM A WEBSITE

List the author, the date of publication (use “n.d.” if there is no
date), the title of the document, italicized, the words “Retrieved
from,” and the URL for the document. If there is no author,
begin the entry with the document title. Do not include a
retrieval date unless the content is likely to change. Omit
536
punctuation at the end of the URL.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1999). Stress … at

work (NIOSH Publication No. 99–101). Retrieved from
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/99–101
10. PERSONAL WEBSITE

Simply note the site in your speech:
Dr. Wesley Sime’s stress management page is an excellent

resource (http://www.unl.edu/stress/mgmt/).
11. BLOG POST

Lippin, R. (2007, July 31). US corporate EAP programs:
Oversight, Orwellian or Soviet psychiatry redux? [Blog post].
Retrieved from
http://medicalcrises.blogspot.com/2007/07/us-corporate-eap-
programs-oversight.html
12. EMAIL
Simply note the message in your speech:
An email message from the staff of AltaVista clarifies this point

(D. Emanuel, personal communication, May 12, 2005).
13. MATERIAL FROM AN ONLINE DATABASE

Waring, T. (2002). Stress management: A balanced life is good
for business. Law Society Journal, 40, 66–68. Retrieved from
537
http://www.lawsociety.com.au
14. ABSTRACT FROM AN INFORMATION

SERVICE OR ONLINE DATABASE
Begin the entry with the publication information as for a print
article. End the entry with “Abstract retrieved from” followed by
the URL of the database or the name of the database and any
identifying number.
Viswesvaran, C., Sanchez, J., & Fisher, J. (1999). The role of

social support in the process of work stress: A meta-analysis.
Journal of Vocational Behavior, 54, 314–334. Abstract
retrieved from ERIC database. (EJ581024)
15. PERSONAL INTERVIEW

Simply note the interview in your speech:
During her interview, Senator Cole revealed her

enthusiasm for the new state-funded stress management
center (M. Cole, personal communication, October 7, 2005).
538
MLA Documentation
Created by the Modern Language Association, MLA
documentation style is fully outlined in the MLA Handbook for
Writers of Research Papers, Eighth Edition (2016). Disciplines
that use MLA style include English literature, the humanities,
and various foreign languages.
In MLA format, you document materials from other sources

with in-text citations that incorporate signal phrases and
parenthetical references. For example, you could cite Example
1 in this section with the author’s name in a signal phrase as
follows:
Berg notes that “ ‘Chicano’ is the term made popular by the

Mexican American civil rights movement in the 1960s and
1970s” (6).
Or with a parenthetical reference as follows:
The term “Chicano” was “made popular by the Mexican

American civil rights movement in the 1960s and 1970s”
(Berg 6).
Each in-text citation refers to an alphabetical works-cited list

that you must create.
The sample citations given here all relate to a single topic:

film appreciation and criticism.
539
1. BOOK BY A SINGLE AUTHOR OR A SINGLE
EDITOR
Citations for most books are arranged as follows: (1) the
author’s name, last name first; (2) the title and subtitle,
italicized; and (3) the city of publication, an abbreviated form of
the publisher’s name, and the date of publication. Each of these
three pieces of information is followed by a period and one
space.
For a book with a single editor, follow the same guidelines,

but add a comma and “ed.” after the editor’s name.
Berg, Charles Ramírez. Latino Images in Film: Stereotypes,

Subversion, and Resistance. Austin: U of Texas P, 2002.
2. BOOK BY MULTIPLE AUTHORS OR

EDITORS
Give the first author’s name, last name first; then list the
name(s) of the other author(s) in regular order with a comma
between authors and the word “and” before the last one.
For a book with multiple editors (or a book with one author
and one editor), follow the same guidelines, but add a comma
and “ed.” or “eds.” after the final editor’s name.
Grieveson, Lee, and Haidee Wasson, eds. Inventing Film

Studies. Durham: Duke UP, 2008.
3. ARTICLE IN A REFERENCE WORK

540
If you are citing an online version of a reference work, give the
author (if there is one), title of the entry, name of the
publication, date of publication (if available), and the URL.
If you are citing a print version of a reference work, include

the publisher’s name.
“Auteur Theory.” Encyclopaedia Britannica, 27 Dec. 2017,

https://www.britannica.com/art/auteur-theory.
Katz, Ephraim. “Film Noir.” The Film Encyclopedia, 7th ed.,
HarperCollins, 2012.
United States, House Committee on the Judiciary. National Film
Preservation Act of 1996. 104th Cong., 2nd sess. H. Rept. 104–
558. Washington: GPO, 1996.
United States, House Committee on House Administration.
Library of Congress Sound Recording and Film Preservation
Programs Reauthorization Act of 2008. 110th Cong., 2nd sess.
H. Rept. 110–683. GPO, 2 Oct. 2008,
https://www.congress.gov/110/plaws/publ336/PLAW-
110publ336.pdf.
5. MAGAZINE ARTICLE
List the author, last name first; the title of the article, in
quotation marks; the title of the publication, in italics; and the
publication date. If you are citing an online article, include the
URL. If you are citing a print article, include the page
number(s) on which the article appears.
541
Horn, Robert. “From Bangkok to Cannes, Thai Political
Tensions Remain.” Time, 24 May 2010,
http://content.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1991310,00.html
Ansen, David. “Shock and Yawn.” Newsweek, 26 Oct. 2009, p.
48.
6. JOURNAL ARTICLE
If an article is accessed online through a database service, after
the publication information, add the name of the database in
italics, followed by the DOI.
Skrebels, Paul. “All Night Long: Jazzing around with Othello.”

Literature/Film Quarterly, vol. 36, no. 2, 2008, pp. 147–56.
Holcomb, Mark. “A Classic Revisited: To Kill a Mockingbird.”
Film Quarterly, vol. 55, no. 4, summer 2002, pp. 34–40.
JSTOR, doi:10.1525/fq.2002.55.4.34.
If you are citing a newspaper article found online, include the
complete URL. If you are citing a print newspaper article,
include the page number(s). If the article is an editorial, insert
the word “Editorial” after the URL or page number.
Dargis, Manohla. “Unblinking Eye, Visual Diary: Warhol’s

Films.” New York Times, 21 Oct. 2007,
http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/21/movies/21darg.html.
Peers, Martin. “HBO Could Draw True Blood Online.” Wall
Street Journal, 23 Oct. 2010, pp. B16+.
“Avatars Don’t Smoke.” New York Times, 8 Jan. 2010, p. A26.
Editorial.
542
8. ENTIRE WEBSITE
Railton, Stephen. Mark Twain in His Times. Stephen Railton / U
of Virginia Library, 2012, twain.lib.virginia.edu/.
9. ARTICLE OR OTHER SHORT WORK ON A

WEBSITE
Gallagher, Sean. “The Last Nomads of the Tibetan Plateau.”
Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting, 25 Oct. 2012,
pulitzercenter.org/reporting/china-glaciers-global-warming-
climate-change-ecosystem-tibetan-plateau-grasslands-
nomads.
10. BLOG POST

Give the author’s name; the title of the post or comment in
quotation marks (if there is no title, use the description “Blog
post” or “Blog comment”); the title of the blog, italicized; the
date of the post or comment; and the complete URL.
Scola, Nancy. “And the White House Tweets Back.”

TechPresident, Personal Democracy Media, 5 May 2009,
http://techpresident.com/blog-entry/and-white-house-tweets-
back.
mitchellfreedman. Comment on “Cloud Atlas’s Theory of
Everything,” by Emily Eakin. NYR Daily, NYREV, 3 Nov. 2012,
www.nybooks.com/daily/2012/11/02/ken-wilber-cloud-atlas/.
11. EMAIL MESSAGE
543
Boothe, Jeanna. “Re: Top 100 Movies.” Received by Will Hurst,
16 Feb. 2012.
12. PODCAST
Accomando, Beth. “Horror Movies As Spiritual Practice.”
Cinema Junkie, NPR, 22 Dec. 2017,
https://www.npr.org/podcasts/442951456/cinema-junkie.
13. WORK OF ART OR PHOTOGRAPH

Christenberry, William. Coleman’s Café. 1971, Hunter Museum
of Art, Chattanooga. Ektacolor Brownie Print.
14. INTERVIEW
Sanderson, Andrew. Personal interview. 12 June 2011.
544
CSE Documentation
The CSE (Council of Science Editors) style is most frequently
used in the fields of biology and environmental science. The
current CSE style guide is Scientific Style and Format: The CSE
Manual for Authors, Editors, and Publishers, Eighth Edition
(2014). Publishers and instructors who require the CSE style do
so in three possible formats: a citation-sequence superscript
format, a name-year format, or a citation-name format, which
combines aspects of the other two systems.
Citation-sequence superscript format: Use superscript

numbers for in-text references. In the references list,
number and arrange the references in the sequence in
which they are first cited in the speech.
Name-year format: Use the name and year, in parentheses,
for the in-text reference. In the references list, give the
references, unnumbered, in alphabetical order.
Citation-name format: Use superscript numbers for in-text
references. In the references list, arrange the references in
alphabetical order and number the list sequentially.
In the following examples, all of which refer to

environmental issues, you will see that the citation-sequence
format calls for listing the date after the publisher’s name in
references for books and after the name of the periodical in
references for articles. The name-year format calls for listing
the date immediately after the author’s name in any kind of
reference. Notice also the absence of a comma after the
545
author’s last name, the absence of a period after an initial, and
the absence of italics in titles of books or journals.
1. BOOK BY ONE AUTHOR

Be sure to list the total number of pages in the book.
Citation-Sequence and Citation-Name
1
Houghton JT. Global warming: the complete briefing. 4th ed.
Cambridge (UK): Cambridge University Press; 2009. 456 p.
Name-Year
Houghton JT. 2009. Global warming: the complete briefing. 4th

ed. Cambridge (UK): Cambridge University Press. 456 p.
2. BOOK BY TWO OR MORE AUTHORS

2
Harf JE, Lombardi MO. Taking sides: clashing views on global
issues. 6th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2010. 432 p.
Name-Year
Harf JE, Lombardi MO. 2010. Taking sides: clashing views on

global issues. 6th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. 432 p.
3. JOURNAL ARTICLE
If citing a journal on the internet, add the medium, date cited,
and the URL. Also give the DOI code if available. Omit end
punctuation after a URL or DOI.
546
3
Brussard PF, Tull JC. Conservation biology and four types of
advocacy. Conserv Biol. 2007; 21(1):21–24.
3
Brussard PF, Tull JC. Conservation biology and four types of
advocacy. Conserv Biol [Internet]. 2007 [cited 2010 Oct 22];
21(1):21–24. Available from: http://www.blackwell-
synergy.com/toc/cbi/21/1 doi:10.1111/j.1523-
1739.2006.00640.x
Name-Year
Brussard PF, Tull JC. 2007. Conservation biology and four types
of advocacy. Conserv Biol. 21(1):21–24.
Brussard PF, Tull JC. 2007. Conservation biology and four types
of advocacy. Conserv Biol [Internet]. [cited 2010 Oct 22];
21(1):21–24. Available from: http://www.blackwell-
synergy.com/toc/cbi/21/1 doi:10.1111/j.1523-
1739.2006.00640.x
4. MAGAZINE ARTICLE
4
Sheppard K. Bad breakup: why BP doesn’t have to tell the EPA
—or the public—what’s in its toxic dispersants. Mother Jones.
2010 Sep-Oct:41.
Name-Year
Sheppard K. 2010 Sep-Oct. Bad breakup: why BP doesn’t have to
547
tell the EPA—or the public—what’s in its toxic dispersants.
Mother Jones. 41.
5
Zeller T Jr. Negotiators at climate talks face deep set of fault
lines. New York Times. 2009 Dec 6; Sect. WK:3 (col. 1).
Name-Year
Zeller T Jr. 2009 Dec 6. Negotiators at climate talks face deep set
of fault lines. New York Times. Sect. WK:3 (col. 1).
6. WEBSITE
For material found on a website, give the author’s name (if any)
and the title of the material, followed by “Internet” in brackets.
Add the place of publication, the publisher, date of publication,
followed by the date of citation in brackets. Add “Available
from:” and the URL.
6
Coastal Programs: The Barnegat Bay Estuary Program
[Internet]. Trenton (NJ): Department of Environmental
Protection, Division of Watershed Management. c1996-2004
[updated 2010 Feb 18; cited 2011 Oct 23]. Available from:
http://www.nj.gov/dep/watershedmgt/bbep.htm
Name-Year
548
Coastal Programs: The Barnegat Bay Estuary Program
[Internet]. c1996-2004. Trenton (NJ): Department of
Environmental Protection, Division of Watershed
Management. [updated 2010 Feb 18; cited 2011 Oct 23].
Available from:
http://www.nj.gov/dep/watershedmgt/bbep.htm
7. EMAIL MESSAGE
CSE recommends mentioning personal communications in text,
but not listing them in the list of references. An explanation of
the material should go in the “Notes.”
… (2012 email from Maura O’Brien to me; unreferenced,

see “Notes”).
8. EMAIL DISCUSSION LIST OR NEWSGROUP

MESSAGE
8
Affleck-Asch W. Lawncare methods causing heavy damage to
environment [discussion list on the internet]. 2004 Aug 17,
2:30 pm [cited 2011 Dec 2]. [about 10 paragraphs]. Available
from: http://www.mail-
archive.com/ecofem%40csf.colorado.edu
549
IEEE Documentation
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) style
requires that references appear at the end of the text, not in
alphabetical order but in the order in which the references are
cited in the text or speech. A bracketed reference number
precedes each entry. For more information on IEEE
documentation, check the IEEE Standards Style Manual online
at https://www.ieee.org/documents/style_manual.pdf.
1. BOOK
[1] Thomas, R. E., Albert, R. J., and Toussaint G. J., The Analysis
and Design of Linear Circuits, 6th ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley,
2009, p. 652.
2. PERIODICAL
[2] Melfi, M., Evon, S., and McElveen R., “Induction versus
permanent magnet motors,” IEEE Industry Applications
Magazine, vol. 15, no. 6, pp. 28–35, Nov./Dec. 2009. doi:
10.1109/MIAS.2009.934443
3. WEB PAGE
[3] National Academy of Engineering, “Lasers and fiber optics
timeline,” Greatest Engineering Achievements of the 20th
Century, n.d. [Online]. Available:
http://www.greatachievements.org/?id=3706
550
APPENDIX B Question-and-Answer Sessions
Deftly fielding questions is a final critical component of making
a speech or a presentation. As the last step in preparing your
speech, anticipate and prepare for questions the audience is
likely to pose to you. Write these questions down, and practice
answering them. Spend time preparing an answer to the most
difficult question that you are likely to face. The confidence you
will gain from smoothly handling a difficult question should
spill over to other questions.1
551
Protocol during the
Session
As a matter of courtesy, call on audience members in the order
in which they raise their hands. Consider the following
guidelines:
Repeat or paraphrase the question (“The question is ‘Did

the mayor really vote against …’”). This will ensure that
you’ve heard it correctly, that others in the audience know
what you are responding to, and that you have time to
reflect upon and formulate an answer. Note that there are a
few exceptions to repeating the question, especially when
the question is hostile. One expert suggests that you should
always repeat the question when speaking to a large group;
when you’re in a small group or a training seminar,
however, doing so isn’t necessary.2
Initially make eye contact with the questioner; then move
your gaze to other audience members. This makes all
audience members feel as though you are responding not
only to the questioner but to them as well.
Remember your listening skills. Give questioners your full
attention, and don’t interrupt them.
Don’t be afraid to pause while formulating an answer.
Many speakers feel they must feed the audience
instantaneous responses; this belief sometimes causes
them to say things that they later regret. This is especially
the case in media interviews (see Appendix C). Pauses that
seem long to you may not appear lengthy to listeners.
552
Keep answers concise. The question-and-answer session is
not the time to launch into a lengthy treatise on your
favorite aspect of a topic.
553
Handling Hostile and
Otherwise Troubling
Questions
When handling hostile questions, do not get defensive. Doing so
will only damage your credibility and encourage the other
person. Maintain an attitude of respect, and stay cool and in
control. Attempt to defuse the hostile questioner with respect
and goodwill. Similarly, never give the impression that you
think a question is stupid or irrelevant.
Do not repeat or paraphrase a hostile question. This only

lends the question more credibility than it is worth.
Instead, try to rephrase it more positively3 (e.g., in response
to the question “Didn’t your department botch the launch of
product X?,” you might respond, “The question was ‘Why
did product X experience a difficult market entry?’ To that I
would say that …”).
If someone asks you a seemingly stupid question, do not
point that out. Instead, respond graciously.4
554
Ending the Session
Never end a question-and-answer session abruptly. As time
runs out, alert the audience that you will take one or two more
questions and then must end. The session represents one final
opportunity to reinforce your message, so take the opportunity
to do so. As you summarize your message, thank your listeners
for their time. Leave an air of goodwill behind you.
555
APPENDIX C Preparing for TV and Radio
Communication
The underlying principles described throughout this guide will
stand you in good stead as you prepare to communicate online,
as discussed in Chapter 26, or on television or radio. These
latter speaking situations do present some unique challenges,
however.
556
Speaking on Television
On television, you are at the mercy of reporters and producers
who will edit your remarks to fit their time frame. Therefore,
before your televised appearance, find out as much as you can
about the speech situation—for example, how long you will be
on camera and whether the show will be aired live or taped.
You may need to convey your message in sound bite form—
succinct statements that summarize your key points in twenty
seconds or less.
Eye Contact, Body Movements, and Voice

Knowing where to direct your gaze is critical in televised
appearances, as is controlling body movement and voice. The
following are some guidelines:
Don’t play to the camera. In a one-on-one interview, focus

on the interviewer. Do not look up or down or tilt your head
sideways; these movements will make you look uncertain
or evasive.1
If there is an audience, treat the camera as just another
audience member, glancing at it only as often as you would
at any other individual during your remarks.
If there is only the camera, direct your gaze at it as you
speak.
Keep your posture erect.
Exaggerate your gestures slightly.
Project your voice, and avoid speaking in a monotone.
557
Dress and Makeup
To compensate for the glare of studio lights and distortions
caused by the camera, give careful consideration to dress and
grooming:
Choose dark rather than light-colored clothing. Dark colors

such as blue, gray, green, and brown photograph better
than lighter shades.
Avoid stark white, because it produces glare.
Avoid plaids, dots, and other busy patterns because they
tend to jump around on the screen.
Avoid glittering jewelry, including tie bars.
If you use makeup, wear a little more makeup than usual
because bright studio lights tend to make you look washed
out.
558
Speaking on Radio: The
Media Interview
The following are guidelines for preparing for media interviews
on the radio. These same guidelines can be applied to the
television interview.
Know the audience and the focus of the program. What

subjects does the broadcast cover? How long will the
interview be? Will it be aired in real-time or recorded?
Brush up on background information, and have your facts
ready. Assume that the audience knows little or nothing
about the subject matter.
Use the interviewer’s name during the interview.
Prepare a speaking outline on notecards for the interview.
Remember that the microphone will pick up the sound of
papers being shuffled.
Remember that taped interviews may be edited. Make key
points in short sentences, and repeat them using different
words.2 Think in terms of sound bites.
Anticipate questions that might arise, and decide how you
will answer them.
Use transition points to acknowledge the interviewer’s
questions and to bridge your key message points, such as “I
am not familiar with that, but what I can tell you is …”;
“You raise an interesting question, but I think the more
important matter is….”3
Avoid the phrase “No comment.” It will only exaggerate a
point you are trying to minimize. Instead, say, “I am not at
559
liberty to comment/discuss….”
560
APPENDIX D Tips for Non-Native Speakers of
English
In addition to the normal fear of speaking in front of a group,
non-native English speakers face the added challenges of giving
a presentation in a language that is not their own. To help
reduce your anxiety if English is not your native language,
preparation and practice are extremely valuable. There are
several helpful and effective steps you can take to minimize fear
and to produce a high-quality presentation.
561
Think Positively
Research shows that thinking positively about preparing and
delivering an oral presentation actually decreases your anxiety
and helps you prepare more effectively. Public speaking will
provide many opportunities to improve your English and to
help you become a more proficient communicator in English.
As you listen to your classmates’ speeches, you will gain
valuable exposure to spoken English. You can also learn what to
do and what not to do from the positive—and negative—features
of your classmates’ presentations. In addition, by spending time
writing and outlining your speech, you will gain confidence in
your organizational and written language skills. Finally, the
extra motivation of speaking in front of a group will encourage
you to focus on some language skills that may need
improvement, such as pronunciation.
562
Consider Your Context
and Audience
As you are preparing your presentation, be aware that
presentation styles differ greatly from one country to another.
Therefore, it is very important that you consider the cultural
context of your presentation as well as the expectations of your
audience. An American academic audience expects the main
points to be presented clearly in the introduction and then
explained in more detail throughout the presentation. This
differs from some cultures in which the support or evidence is
presented first, and sometimes the audience is expected to draw
their own conclusions. An unfamiliar presentation style or
organization may confuse and distract an American audience,
and they may be trying to figure out your main points instead of
paying attention to what you are saying.1
563
Capitalize on Your
Language Uniqueness
It will probably be clear to your audience that you are not a
native English speaker, but apologizing for your English ability
will only result in negative attention. However, instead of
ignoring this obvious fact, take advantage of your uniqueness.
When appropriate, explain and use words from your native
language to emphasize your points. This will help the audience
better appreciate your native language and accent. For
example, the Spanish word corazón has a lyrical quality that
makes it sound much better than its English counterpart,
“heart.” Take advantage of the beauty of your native language.
If appropriate, consider sharing a personal experience with

the audience. Stories from other countries and cultures often
fascinate listeners. Unique cultural traditions, eyewitness
accounts of newsworthy events, or stories passed down orally
from one generation to the next are just some of the
possibilities. Depending on the goal of your speech, you may be
able to use your experiences as supporting material for a related
topic or even as the topic itself.
564
Practice, Practice,
Practice
There is no substitute for preparation and practice. Whether
you are a native or non-native English speaker, you should
prepare your presentation early so that you have plenty of time
to practice, get feedback, and work on your organization and
pronunciation. Of course, you should make both a working
outline and a speaking outline to make sure you present all of
the important and necessary information (see Chapter 13). In
addition, you can practice with a friend or make a video and
watch it with a friend who will give you good, honest advice. A
native speaker or your instructor can probably give the best
feedback. Practice will give you a chance to develop comfort
and confidence with your information and organization, to
figure out the best way to put your information into sentences,
and to work on the length and timing of the presentation. When
you are practicing, take your time and speak slowly. Speaking
slowly during your presentation will give your listeners time to
get used to your voice and to be able to focus on your message.
565
Focus on Your
Pronunciation
Because languages vary in the speech sounds they use, virtually
everyone who learns to speak another language will speak that
language with an accent. Even native speakers have different
accents, so you should not be overly concerned about having an
accent. However, it is important to determine whether specific
features of your pronunciation significantly interfere with your
ability to be understood. There are several ways that you can
improve your pronunciation.
First, from your own experience or through a little research,

you can learn about the types of challenges that English
presents to speakers of your home language. You may have
difficulty recognizing and producing certain sounds in English.
For example, if your first language doesn’t differentiate
between the /sh/ sound and the /ch/ sound, you may say share
instead of chair or shoes instead of choose.2 More importantly,
pronunciation involves more than just the sounds of the vowels
and consonants; correct pronunciation also requires that you
pay attention to word and syllable stress, rhythm, and
intonation.3 Some sounds or syllables are emphasized more
than others by making them longer or louder, and the meaning
of a sentence is communicated not just with words, but by
raising and lowering the pitch of your voice. Inaccurate stress,
rhythm, and intonation may actually be more confusing than
566
the incorrect pronunciation of vowels and consonants, so it is
vital to pay attention to all of these speech factors.
As mentioned above, recording your presentation and

listening to it in the presence of a native speaker, a friend, or
even your instructor can be helpful. Once you have identified
which words you have difficulty pronouncing, you can work to
improve your pronunciation. Many online dictionary tools
provide audio recordings of words, so you can hear how they
should be pronounced. Listen and repeat difficult words several
times. Take a break and then repeat them several more times.
Even with this practice, you may forget the correct
pronunciation when you are nervous and in front of your
classmates. To remind yourself of the correct pronunciation
during your presentation, you can include the pronunciations
of difficult words as part of your speaking outline.
Finally, if you have significant difficulty with the

pronuciation of a specific word, you can use a thesaurus to find
a synonym that is simpler and easier to pronounce. Again,
check with a friend or your instructor to make sure that you are
using the correct meaning of the words you have selected for
your speech.
567
Final Suggestions
In the long term, interacting with native English speakers in
everyday life will help enormously. Making friends with native
speakers outside the classroom will give you examples of
correct pronunciation and ways of communicating and help
you to start thinking in English rather than translating in your
mind from one language to the other. If your experience with
English is limited and you must give an oral presentation,
Robert Anholt, a scientist and the author of Dazzle ’Em with
Style: The Art of Oral Scientific Presentation, suggests the
following:
Practice the presentation often, preferably with a friend

who is a native English speaker.
Learn the presentation almost by heart.
Create strong presentation visual aids that will convey most
of the story by themselves.4
568
Glossary
abstract language
Language that is general or non-specific. See also concrete language.
active listening
A multistep, focused, and purposeful process of gathering and evaluating
information.
ad hominem fallacy
A fallacy of reasoning in which a speaker targets a person instead of the issue at
hand.
after-dinner speech
A speech that is likely to occur before, after, or during a formal dinner, a breakfast or
lunch seminar, or a business, professional, or civic meeting.
agora
In ancient Greece, a public square or marketplace. See also forum and public forum.
alliteration
The repetition of the same sounds, usually initial consonants, in two or more
neighboring words or syllables.
analogy
An extended metaphor or simile that compares an unfamiliar concept or process with
a more familiar one in order to help the listener understand the one that is
unfamiliar.
anaphora
A rhetorical device in which a speaker repeats a word or phrase at the beginning of
successive phrases or sentences.
anecdote
A brief story, often humorous, of a real-life incident that links back to the speaker’s
569
theme.
antigroup role
A disruptive role, such as “floor hogger” and “blocker,” that detracts from a group’s
purpose and so should be avoided.
antithesis
A rhetorical device in which two ideas are set off in balanced (parallel) opposition to
each other.
architecture design review

An oral presentation that enables the audience to visualize and judge the feasibility
and appeal of an architectural design.
argument
A stated position with support, for or against an idea or issue; contains the core
elements of claim, evidence, and warrants.
articulation
The clarity or forcefulness with which sounds are made, regardless of whether they
are pronounced correctly.
asynchronous communication
Communication in which interaction between speaker and receiver does not occur
simultaneously. See also recorded presentation and synchronous communication.
attitudes
Our general evaluations of people, ideas, objects, or events.
audience analysis
The process of gathering and analyzing demographic and psychological information
about audience members.
audience-centered perspective
An approach to speech preparation in which each phase of the speech preparation
process—from selection and treatment of the topic to deciding about organization,
language, and method of delivery—is geared toward communicating a message the
audience will find meaningful.
570
authoritative warrant
A warrant that appeals to the credibility (ethos) that the audience assigns to the
source of the evidence. See also warrant.
bandwagoning
A fallacy of reasoning in which the speaker offers an argument as true because
general opinion supports it.
begging the question

A fallacy of reasoning in which an argument is presented as necessarily true, even
though no evidence is offered in support of it.
beliefs
The ways in which people perceive reality or determine the very existence or validity
of something.
body (of speech)

The part of the speech in which the speaker develops the main points intended to
fulfill the speech purpose.
body language
Facial expressions, eye behavior, gestures, and general body movements. Audiences
are sensitive to a speaker’s body language.
brainstorming
A problem-solving technique, useful for developing speech topics, that involves the
spontaneous generation of ideas through word association, topic mapping, and
other techniques.
brief example
A single illustration of a point.
call to action
A challenge to audience members to act in response to a speech—see the problem in
a new way, change their beliefs about the problem, or change both their actions and
their beliefs with respect to the problem. Placed at the conclusion of a speech.
canned speech
571
A speech used repeatedly and without sufficient adaptation to the rhetorical
situation.
canons of rhetoric
A classical approach to speechmaking in which the speaker divides a speechmaking
process into five parts: invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery.
captive audience
An audience required to attend a speech. See also voluntary audience.
case conference
An oral report prepared by health care professionals evaluating a patient’s condition
and outlining a treatment plan.
case study
A detailed illustration of a real (or realistic) situation, relating to business, law, or
other disciplines, which poses dilemmas or problems requiring solutions.
categorical pattern
See topical pattern of arrangement.
causal (cause-effect) pattern

A pattern of organizing speech points in order of causes and then of effects, or vice
versa.
causal reasoning
A line of reasoning (“warrant”) offering a cause-and-effect relationship as proof of a
claim.
central processing
A mode of processing a persuasive message that involves thinking critically about
the contents of the message and the strength and quality of the speaker’s
arguments; described in the elaboration likelihood model of persuasion (ELM). See
also peripheral processing.
channel
The medium through which the speaker sends a message (e.g., sound or air waves,
and electronic transmission).
572
chart
A visual representation of data and its relationship to other data in compact form.
Charts useful for speakers include flow charts, organization charts, and tables.
cherry-picking
Selectively presenting only those facts and statistics that buttress one point of view
while ignoring competing data.
chronological pattern of arrangement

A pattern of organizing speech points in a natural sequential order; used when
describing a series of events in time or when the topic develops in line with a set
pattern of actions or tasks.
civic-mindedness
A ground rule of ethical public speaking in which the speaker demonstrates caring
about his or her community, as expressed in the speech.
claim (proposition)
The declaration of a state of affairs, in which a speaker attempts to prove something
by providing evidence and reasons (warrants).
claim of fact
An argument that focuses on whether something is or is not true or whether
something will or will not happen.
claim of policy
An argument that recommends that a specific course of action be taken, or
approved, by an audience.
claim of value
An argument that addresses issues of judgment.
classroom discussion presentation

A presentation in which the speaker provides a brief overview of the topic under
discussion and introduces a series of questions to guide students through the topic.
cliché
An overused phrase such as “works like a dog.”
573
clinical case study
A presentation that provides medical personnel with a detailed analysis of a person
or group with a particular disease or condition and reviews plans for treatment.
closed-ended question
Question designed to elicit a small range of specific answers. See also open-ended
question.
co-culture
A community of people whose perceptions and beliefs differ significantly from those
of other groups within the larger culture.
cognitive restructuring
A speech anxiety-reduction technique in which you train your mind to think about
something that makes you anxious (such as public speaking) in a more positive way.
colleagues within the field

An audience of persons who share the speaker’s knowledge of the general field
under discussion but who may not be familiar with the specific topic.
colloquial expression
An informal expression, often with regional variations of speech.
common knowledge
Information that is likely to be known by many people and is therefore in the public
domain and does not need attribution.
communication ethics
Our ethical responsibilities when seeking influence over other people and for which
there are positive and negative, or “right”or “wrong,”choices of action.
comparative advantage pattern

A pattern of organizing speech points so that the speaker’s viewpoint or proposal is
shown to be superior to one or more alternative viewpoints or proposals.
conclusion (of speech)

The part of the speech in which the speaker reiterates the speech thesis, summarizes
main points, and leaves the audience with something to think about or act upon.
574
concrete language
Nouns and verbs that convey specific and tangible (as opposed to abstract) meaning.
See also abstract language.
connotative meaning
The individual associations that different people bring to bear on a word. See also
denotative meaning.
coordinate points
Ideas that are given the same weight in an outline and are aligned with one another;
thus Main Point II is coordinate with Main Point I. See also subordinate points.
coordination and subordination

The logical placement of ideas (speech points) in an outline relative to their
importance to one another. Ideas that are coordinate are given equal weight; an idea
that is subordinate to another is given relatively less weight.
copyright
A legal protection afforded original creators of literary or artistic works.
critical thinking
The ability to evaluate claims on the basis of well-supported reasons.
cultural values
The dominant values in a given culture. See also values.
debate
An oral presentation in which two individuals or groups argue an issue from
opposing viewpoints.
decoding
The process of interpreting a message. See also encoding.
deep web
The large portion of the web that general search engines cannot access because the
information is licensed and/or fee-based.
defensive listening
A poor listening behavior in which the listener reacts defensively to a speaker’s
575
message.
delivery
The vocal and nonverbal behavior that a speaker uses in a public speech; one of the
five canons of rhetoric.
delivery cue
A brief reminder note or prompt placed in the speaking outline that can refer to
transitions, timing, speaking rate and volume, presentation aids, quotations,
statistics, and difficult-to-pronounce or remember names or words.
demographics
The statistical characteristics of a given population considered in analysis of
audience members; typically includes age, gender, ethnic or cultural background,
socioeconomic status (including income, occupation, and education), and religious
and political affiliation; other factors such as group membership, geographic
location, and disability may also be important to consider.
denotative meaning
The literal or dictionary definition of a word. See also connotative meaning.
derived credibility
A stage of speaker credibility in which audience members assign the speaker
credibility based on the actual message, including the quality of evidence and the
skill with which the speech is delivered. See also initial credibility and terminal
credibility.
dialect
A distinctive way of speaking associated with a particular region or social group.
dialogic communication
The sharing of ideas and open discussion through civil discourse.
dignity
The feeling that one is worthy, honored, or respected as a person; audience
members want to feel that the speaker accords them dignity.
direct quotation
576
A statement made verbatim, or word for word, from a source. Direct quotations
should always be acknowledged in a speech. See also paraphrase and summary.
disinformation
The deliberate falsification of information.
dyadic communication
Communication between two people, as in a conversation.
effective delivery
Skillful application of natural conversational behavior to a speech in a way that is
relaxed, enthusiastic, and direct.
either-or fallacy
A fallacy of reasoning in which the speaker offers only two alternatives, even though
there are multiple ways of viewing the issue.
elaboration likelihood model of persuasion (ELM)

A model of persuasion that states that people process persuasive messages by one
of two routes—either central processing or peripheral processing—depending on their
degree of involvement in the message.
encoding
The process of organizing a message, choosing words and sentence structure, and
verbalizing the message. See also decoding.
engineering design review

An oral presentation on the results of a design project.
epiphora
A rhetorical device in which the speaker repeats a word or phrase at the end of
successive statements.
ethnocentrism
The belief that the ways of one’s own culture are superior to those of other cultures.
ethos
The Greek word for “character.” According to classical rhetoricians such as Aristotle,
577
audiences listen to and trust speakers if they exhibit competence (as demonstrated
by the speaker’s grasp of the subject matter) and good moral character. See also
logos and pathos.
eulogy
A speech whose purpose is to celebrate and commemorate the life of someone while
consoling those who are left behind.
evidence
Supporting material that provides grounds for belief. See also claim and warrant.
evidence-based practice (EBP) presentation

A presentation that reviews the scientific literature on a clinical problem, critically
evaluates the findings, and suggests best practices for standards of care.
example (as form of support)

An illustration of a speech point whose purpose is to aid understanding by making
ideas more concrete and by clarifying and amplifying meaning. See also extended
example and hypothetical example.
expert audience
(also called insider audience) An audience of persons with an intimate knowledge of
the topic, issue, product, or idea being discussed.
expert testimony
Any findings, eyewitness accounts, or opinions by professionals who are trained to
evaluate or report on a given topic; a form of supporting material.
extended example
A multifaceted illustration of the idea, item, or event being described, thereby
getting the point across and reiterating it effectively. See also example and
hypothetical example.
fact
A documented occurrence, including actual events, dates, times, places, and people
involved; a form of supporting material in a speech.
fair use doctrine
578
The legal guidelines permitting the limited use of copyrighted works without
permission for the purposes of scholarship and research.
fairness
A ground rule of ethical public speaking; the act on the part of the speaker to make a
genuine effort to see all sides of an issue and to be open-minded.
faulty analogy
An inaccurate or misleading comparison suggesting that because two things are
similar in some ways, they are necessarily similar in others. See also logical fallacy.
feedback
Audience response to a message, which can be conveyed both verbally and
nonverbally. Feedback from the audience often indicates whether a speaker’s
message has been understood and well or poorly received.
field study presentation

An oral presentation typically delivered in the context of science-related disciplines,
in which the speaker provides (1) an overview of the field research, (2) methods used
in the research, (3) analysis of results of the research, (4) time line indicated how
results will be used going forward.
“fighting words”
Speech that provokes people to violence; not protected under the First Amendment.
“fight-or-flight” response
The body’s automatic physiological reaction in response to threatening or fear-
inducing events, including public speaking.
figure of speech
An expression, such as a metaphor, simile, or analogy, in which words are used in a
nonliteral fashion.
First Amendment
The amendment to the U.S. Constitution that guarantees freedom of speech
(“Congress shall make no law abridging the freedom of speech …”).
fixed-alternative question
579
A closed-ended question that contains a limited choice of answers, such as “Yes,”
“No,” or “Sometimes.”
flip chart
A large (27–34 inch) pad of paper on which a speaker can illustrate speech points.
flowchart
A diagram that shows the step-by-step progression through a procedure,
relationship, or process.
forum
In ancient Rome, a public space in which people gathered to deliberate about the
issues of the day. See also agora and public forum.
free speech
The right to be free from unreasonable constraints on expression.
gender
Social or psychological sense of self as corresponding with societal norms associated
with masculine or feminine traits.
general speech purpose

A statement of the broad speech purpose that answers the question, “Why am I
speaking on this topic for this particular audience and occasion?” Usually the
general speech purpose is to inform, to persuade, or to celebrate or commemorate a
special occasion. See also specific speech purpose.
generational identity
The collective cultural identity of a generation or cohort.
graph
A visual representation of numerical data. Speakers use graphs to illustrate
relationships among components or units and to demonstrate trends. Four major
types of graphs are line graphs, bar graphs, pie graphs, and pictograms.
group activity presentation

An oral presentation that introduces students to an activity and provides them with
clear directions for its completion.
580
group presentation
A type of oral presentation prepared and delivered by a group of three or more
people.
groupthink
The tendency of a group to accept information and ideas without subjecting them to
critical analysis.
handout
Printed material that conveys information that is either impractical to give to the
audience in another manner or intended to be kept by audience members after a
presentation.
hasty generalization
A fallacy of reasoning in which a speaker attempts to support a claim by asserting
that a particular piece of evidence (an isolated instance) is true for all conditions
concerned.
hate speech
Any offensive communication—verbal or nonverbal—directed against people’s race,
ethnicity, religion, gender, disability, or other characteristics.
hearing
The physiological, largely passive process of perceiving sound. See also listening.
heckler’s veto
Speech meant to drown out a speaker’s message; such speech silences freedom of
expression.
hierarchy of needs
A classic model of human action developed by Abraham Maslow built on the
principle that people are motivated to act first on the basis of their elemental needs.
hypothetical example
An illustration of something that could happen in the future if certain events were to
occur. See also example and extended example.
identification
581
A feeling of commonality with another; when appropriate, speakers attempt to foster
a sense of identification between themselves and audience members.
imagery
Colorful and concrete words that appeal to the senses. See also analogy, metaphor,
and simile.
indentation
In an outline, the plotting of speech points to indicate their weight relative to one
another; subordinate points are placed underneath and to the right of higher-order
points.
information
Data set in a context for relevance.
informative speaking
See informative speech.
informative speech
A speech providing new information, new insights, or new ways of thinking about a
topic.The general purpose of informative speaking is to increase the audience’s
understanding and awareness of a topic.
initial credibility
A stage of speaker credibility in which audience members assign credibility to a
speaker based on initial impressions, formed by such factors as the speaker’s
reputation, physical appearance, and nonverbal behavior. See also derived credibility
and terminal credibility.
insider audience
See expert audience.
integrity
The quality of being incorruptible; the unwillingness to compromise for the sake of
personal expediency; a component of ethos or speaker credibility.
internal preview
An extended transition that alerts audience members to ensuing speech content.
582
internal summary
An extended transition that draws together important ideas before proceeding to the
next speech point.
intonation
The rising and falling of voice pitch across phrases and sentences.
introduction (of speech)

The first part of a speech, in which the speaker establishes the speech purpose and
its relevance to the audience and previews the topic and main points.
invective
Abusive speech: accusatory and attacking speech.
jargon
Specialized terminology developed within a given endeavor or field of study and
which must be translated for lay audiences.
journal article review

A presentation (or written report) that reviews and critically assesses the article’s
ideas for an audience of knowledgeable persons in the discipline.
key-word outline
The briefest form of outline; uses the smallest possible units of understanding
associated with a specific point to outline the main and supporting points.
lay audience
An audience of persons lacking specialized knowledge of the general field related to
the speaker’s topic and of the topic itself.
lay testimony
Firsthand findings, accounts, or opinions from nonexperts such as eyewitnesses.
lazy speech
A poor speech habit in which the speaker fails to properly articulate words.
learning style
A preferred way of processing information; one learning theory model suggests that
there are visual, aural, read/write, and kinesthetic modes of learning.
583
lecture
An informational speech to an audience of student learners.
listening
The conscious act of receiving, comprehending, interpreting, and responding to
messages. See also hearing.
listening distraction
Anything that competes for a listener’s attention; the source of the distraction may
be internal or external. See also noise.
literature review presentation

An oral presentation in which the speaker reviews the body of research related to a
given topic or issue and offers conclusions about the topic based on this research.
logical fallacy
A statement that is based on an invalid or a deceptive line of reasoning. See also ad
hominem fallacy, bandwagoning, begging the question, either-or fallacy, faulty
analogy, hasty generalization, non sequitur, and slippery slope.
logos
The Greek rhetorician Aristotle used this term to refer to persuasive appeals to
reason and logic. See also ethos and pathos.
main points
Statements that express the key ideas and major themes of a speech. Their function
is to make claims in support of the thesis statement. See also supporting points.
malapropism
The inadvertent use of a word or phrase in place of one that sounds like it.
mass communication
Communication that occurs between a speaker and a large audience of unknown
people. The receivers of the message are not present with the speaker or are part of
such an immense crowd that there can be little or no interaction between speaker
and listener.Television, radio news broadcasts, and mass rallies are examples of
mass communication.
584
message
The content of the communication process— thoughts and ideas put into meaningful
expressions.
metaphor
A figure of speech used to make implicit comparisons without the use of “like” or
“as” (e.g., “Love is a rose”). See also analogy and simile.
misinformation
Information that is false.
mixed audience
An audience composed of a combination of persons—some with expert knowledge
of the field and topic and others with no specialized knowledge.
mixed metaphor
A comparison that juxtaposes two unlike, often clichéd, expressions, such as “He
went off the deep end like a bull in a china shop.”
model
A three-dimensional, scale-size representation of an object such as a building.
moderator
A person who presides over a discussion or meeting.
motivated sequence pattern

An organizational pattern for a persuasive speech based on a five-step process
developed by Alan Monroe that begins with arousing attention and ends with calling
for action.
motivational warrant
A line of reasoning that appeals to the needs, desires, emotions, and values of
audience members as the basis for accepting evidence in support of a claim.
motive
A predisposition to behave in certain ways.
multimedia effect
A learning principle that suggests that we learn better from words and pictures than
585
from words alone, provided that the aids complement, or add to, the information
rather than simply match the spoken point.
mumbling
Slurring words together at low volume and pitch so they are barely audible.
narrative
A story based on personal experiences or imaginary incidents. See also story.
narrative pattern
A pattern of organizing speech points so that the speech unfolds as a story, with
characters, plot, and setting. In practice, this pattern often is combined with other
organizational patterns.
noise
Anything that interferes with the communication process between a speaker and an
audience so that the message cannot be understood; the source may be external (in
the environment) or internal (psychological or physical factors).
non sequitur
An argument in which the conclusion does not connect to the reasoning.
nonverbal communication
Communication other than the spoken word, including body language, voice, and
appearance.
nonverbal immediacy
Acts that create the perception of psychological closeness between the speaker and
audience members.
one-sided message
In persuasive speaking, a message that does not mention opposing claims. See also
two-sided message.
online presentation
A presentation delivered over any distance via the internet; can include both real-
time and recorded presentations.
586
open-ended question
A survey or interview question designed to allow respondents to elaborate as much
as they want. See also closed-ended question.
oral citation
A speaker’s oral acknowledgement of the source of speech material that is derived
from other people’s ideas.
oral style
The specific word choice, sentence structure, and rhetorical devices (techniques of
language) that speakers use to express their ideas.
oratory
In classical terms, the art of public speaking.
organizational pattern
A structure used to organize main points to obtain the speaker’s intended purpose.
Patterns described in this guide include topical, causal, chronological, spatial,
problem-solution, narrative, Monroe’s Motivated Sequence, refutation, and
comparative advantage.
outline
An organizing device that separates main and supporting points—the major speech
claims and the evidence to support them—into larger and smaller divisions and
subdivisions.
panel discussion
A type of oral presentation in which a group of persons (at least three, and generally
not more than nine) discusses a topic in the presence of an audience and under the
direction of a moderator.
parallelism
The arrangement of words, phrases, or sentences in similar grammatical and stylistic
form. Parallel structure can help the speaker emphasize important ideas in the
speech.
paraphrase
A restatement of someone else’s statements or written work that alters the form or
587
phrasing but not the substance of that person’s ideas. See also direct quotation and
summary.
pathos
The Greek rhetoritician used this term to refer to persuasive appeals based on
emotion. See also ethos and logos.
pause
A strategic element of a speech used to enhance meaning by providing a type of
punctuation, emphasizing a point, drawing attention to a key thought, or just
allowing listeners a moment to contemplate what is being said.
performance anxiety
A feeling of anxiety that occurs the moment one begins to perform.
peripheral processing
A mode of processing a persuasive message that does not consider the quality of the
speaker’s message but is influenced by such non-content issues as the speaker’s
appearance or reputation, certain slogans or one-liners, or obvious attempts to
manipulate emotions. Peripheral processing of messages occurs when people lack
the motivation or the ability to pay close attention to the issues. See also elaboration
likelihood model of persuasion (ELM) and central processing.
persuasive speech
A speech whose general purpose is to effect some degree of change in the audience’s
beliefs, attitudes, values, or behavior.
phrase outline
A delivery outline that uses a partial construction of the sentence form of each point,
instead of using complete sentences that present the precise wording for each point.
pitch
The range of sounds from high to low (or vice versa) determined by the number of
vibrations per unit of time; the more vibrations per unit (also called “frequency”), the
higher the pitch, and vice versa.
plagiarism
The act of using other people’s ideas or words without acknowledging the source.
588
podcast
A digital audio recording of a presentation captured and stored in a form accessible
via the internet.
policy proposal presentation

An oral presentation that offers recommendations for solving a problem or
addressing an issue.
positive self-talk
A speech anxiety reduction technique of turning negative thoughts to positive ones.
poster presentation
A visual presentation on a poster, arranged on a freestanding board, containing a
display summarizing a study or an issue for viewing by participants at professional
conferences.The speaker prepares brief remarks and remains on hand to answer
questions as needed.
preparation anxiety
A form of public speaking anxiety (PSA) that arises when the speaker begins to
prepare for a speech, at which point he or she might feel overwhelmed at the
amount of time and planning required. See also performance anxiety.
pre-performance anxiety
A form of public speaking anxiety (PSA) that occurs when a speaker begins to
rehearse a speech.
pre-preparation anxiety
A form of public speaking anxiety (PSA) that arises when a speaker learns he or she
must give a speech.
presentation aid
A prop, model, picture, graph, chart, video, audio, or multimedia used alone or in
combination to illustrate speech points.
presentational speaking
A form of speaking in which individuals or groups deliver reports addressing
colleagues, clients, or customers within a business or professional environment.
589
preview
A statement included in the introduction of a speech in which the speaker identifies
the main speech points.
primary source
Firsthand account or direct evidence of the information involved. See also secondary
source.
problem-cause-solution pattern
A pattern of organizing speech points so that they demonstrate (1) the nature of the
problem, (2) reasons for the problem, and (3) proposed solution(s).
problem-solution pattern
A pattern of organizing speech points so that they demonstrate the nature and
significance of a problem first, and then provide justification for a proposed solution.
process analysis presentation

A presentation that describes how an experimental or a mathematical process works
and under what conditions it can be used.
program evaluation presentation

A report on a program’s mission with a description of its accomplishments and how
they were measured, and conclusions on how well or poorly the program has met its
stated objectives.
progress report
A report that updates clients or principals on developments in an ongoing project.
pronunciation
The correct formation of word sounds.
prop
Any live or inanimate object used by a speaker as a presentation aid.
propaganda
Information represented in such a way as to provoke a desired response.
proposal
A type of business or professional presentation in which the speaker provides
590
information needed for decisions related to modifying or adopting a product,
procedure, or policy.
proposition
See claim.
prototype
A model of a design.
psychographics
The study and analysis of audience members’ attitudes, beliefs, values, and behavior
as they relate to a topic.
public discourse
Open conversation or discussion in a public forum.
public domain
Bodies of work, including publications and processes, available for public use
without permission; not protected by copyright or patent.
public forum
Any space (physical or virtual) in which people gather to voice their ideas about
public issues.
public speaking
A type of communication in which a speaker delivers a message with a specific
purpose to an audience of people who are present during the delivery of the speech.
Public speaking always includes a speaker who has a reason for speaking, an
audience that gives the speaker its attention, and a message that is meant to
accomplish a purpose.
public-speaking anxiety (PSA)

Fear or anxiety associated with a speaker’s actual or anticipated communication to
an audience.
quality improvement proposal

A report that recommends the adoption of a new (or modified) health practice or
policy.
591
questionnaire
A written survey designed to gather information from a large pool of respondents.
See also open-ended question and closed-ended question.
real-time presentation
A presentation broadcast at the time of delivery; real-time presentations connect the
presenter and the audience live and at the same time. See also synchronous
communication.
reasoning by analogy
Comparing two similar cases to imply that what is true in one case is true in the
other. See also warrant by analogy.
receiver
The recipient(s) of a source’s message.
reckless disregard for the truth

A quality of statements made with the awareness that they are false; this form of
speech is illegal. See also slander.
recorded presentation
A presentation in which speaker and audience are separated by time and space and
the presentation is stored and played back from a digital medium. See also
asynchronous communication.
refutation pattern
A pattern of organizing speech points in which each main point addresses and then
refutes an opposing claim to a speaker’s position.
report
A presentation that includes a systematic and objective description of facts and
observations related to business or professional interests.
request for funding presentation

An oral presentation providing evidence that a project, proposal, or design idea is
worth funding; frequently delivered in technical fields such as engineering, computer
science, and architecture.
592
research presentation
A type of oral presentation following the model used in scientific investigations,
including an introduction, description of methods, results, and conclusion.
respect
To feel or show deferential regard; one of five “ethical ground rules” in public
speaking.
responsibility
A charge, trust, or duty for which one is accountable.
rhetoric
The practice of oratory, or public speaking. More broadly, a term with multiple
meanings, all of which relate to aspects of human communication.
rhetorical device
A technique of language to achieve a desired effect.
rhetorical question
A question that does not invite an actual response but is used to make the audience
think.
rhetorical situation
The circumstances that call for a public response and for the speech itself; in broad
terms, consideration of the audience, occasion, and overall speech context when
planning a speech.
roast
A humorous tribute to a person; one in which a series of speakers jokingly poke fun
at the individual being honored.
roman numeral outline

An outline format in which main points are enumerated with roman numerals (I, II,
III); supporting points with capital letters (A, B, C); third-level points with Arabic
numerals (1, 2, 3); and fourth-level points with lowercase letters (a, b, c).
sales proposal (sales pitch)

A type of oral presentation that attempts to lead a potential buyer to purchase a
593
service or product described by the presenter.
scale question
A closed-ended question that measures the respondent’s level of agreement or
disagreement with specific issues. See also closed-ended question.
scanning
A technique for creating eye contact with audiences; the speaker moves his or her
gaze across an audience from one listener to another and from one section to
another, pausing to gaze briefly at individual listeners.
screencast
(also called “video screen capture”) An online presentation that relies on software
that captures whatever is displayed on a computer, from text to slides to streaming
video.
secondary source
Analysis or commentary about things not directly observed or created; news,
commentary, and scholarship found in books, articles, and a myriad of sources other
than the original. See also primary source.
selective perception
A psychological principle that posits that listeners pay attention selectively to certain
messages and ignore others.
sentence outline
An outline in which each main and supporting point is stated in sentence form and in
precisely the way the speaker wants to express the idea; generally used for working
outlines.
service learning presentation

A presentation in which students report on how, as part of their coursework, they
helped to address a need or problem in a community agency or nonprofit
organization.
shared meaning
The mutual understanding of a message between speaker and audience.
594
shift report
An oral report by a health care worker that concisely relays patient status and needs
to incoming caregivers.
simile
A figure of speech used to compare one thing with another by using the words “like”
or “as” (e.g., “He works like a dog”). See also figure of speech.
six-by-six rule
A rule of design that suggests using no more than six words per line and six lines or
bullet points per slide or other visual aid.
slander
Defamatory speech.
slippery slope
A fallacy of reasoning in which one instance of an event or one small step will
necessarily lead to a series of unwanted events or actions.
small group
A collection of between three and twenty people.
small group communication

Communication involving a small number of people who can see and speak directly
with one another, as in a business meeting.
social role
In groups, a role that helps facilitate effective group interaction, such as the
“harmonizer” or the “gatekeeper.” See also task role.
socioeconomic status (SES)

A cluster of demographic characteristics of audience members, including income,
occupation, and education.
source
The source, or sender, is the person who creates the message.
source credibility
A contemporary term for ethos; refers to our level of belief in a source’s credentials
595
and track record for providing accurate information.
source qualifier
A brief description of the source’s qualifications to address the topic (e.g., “Pulitzer-
Prize-winning author,” “researcher at the Mayo Clinic”).
spatial pattern of arrangement

A pattern of organizing main points in order of their physical proximity or direction
relative to each other; used when the purpose of a speech is to describe or explain
the physical arrangement of a place, a scene, or an object.
speaker credibility
A modern version of ethos; the quality that reveals that a speaker has a good grasp of
the subject, displays sound reasoning skills, is honest and nonmanipulative, and is
genuinely interested in the welfare of audience members. See also derived credibility,
initial credibility and terminal credibility.
speaking extemporaneously
A type of delivery that falls somewhere between impromptu and written or
memorized delivery. Speakers delivering an extemporaneous speech prepare well
and practice in advance, giving full attention to all facets of the speech—content,
arrangement, and delivery. Instead of memorizing or writing the speech word for
word, they speak from a key-word outline or phrase outline.
speaking from manuscript

A type of delivery in which the speaker reads the speech verbatim—that is, from
prepared written text that contains the entire speech, word for word.
speaking from memory

A type of delivery in which the speaker puts the entire speech, word for word, into
writing and then commits it to memory.
speaking impromptu
A type of delivery that is unpracticed, spontaneous, or improvised.
speaking outline
A delivery outline to be used when practicing and actually presenting a speech.
596
speaking rate
The pace at which a speech is delivered. The typical public speech occurs at a rate
slightly less than between 120–170 words per minute.
special occasion speech

A speech whose general purpose is to entertain, celebrate, commemorate, inspire, or
set a social agenda.
specific speech purpose

A statement of precisely what you want the audience to gain from the speech: “To
inform (or persuade) my audience about the factors to consider when purchasing an
electric car.” See also general speech purpose.
speech of acceptance
A special occasion speech made in response to receiving an award with the purpose
of expressing gratitude for the honor bestowed on the speaker.
speech of inspiration
A special occasion speech whose purpose is to inspire or motivate the audience to
consider positively, reflect on, and sometimes even to act on the speaker’s words.
speech of introduction
A short special occasion speech defined by two goals: to prepare or “warm up”
audience members for the main speaker and to motivate them to listen to what the
speaker has to say.
speech of presentation
A special occasion speech whose purpose is twofold: to communicate the meaning of
the award and to explain why the recipient is receiving it.
staff report
A presentation that informs managers and other employees of new developments
relating to personnel that affect them and their work.
statistic
Quantified evidence; data that measure the size or magnitude of something,
demonstrate trends, or show relationships with the purpose of summarizing
information, demonstrating proof, and making points memorable.
597
stereotyping
The act of generalizing about an apparent characteristic of a person or a group’s
culture or ethnicity that falsely claims to define all of its members.
story
An account of events. See also narrative.
subordinate points
Speech points subordinate to others are given relatively less weight. In an outline,
they are indicated by their indentation below the more important points. See also
coordinate points and supporting points.
substantive warrant
A warrant that relies on factual evidence to link a claim to evidence. See also warrant
by analogy and warrant by cause.
summary (of supporting material)

A brief overview of someone else’s ideas, opinions, or theories. See also direct
quotation and paraphrase.
supporting material
Examples, narratives, testimony, facts, and statistics that support the speech thesis
and form the speech.
supporting points
Subordinate speech points which elaborate on and verify the speaker’s main points.
symposium
A formal meeting at which several speakers deliver short speeches on different
aspects of the same topic.
synchronous communication
Communication in which interaction between speaker and receiver occurs
simultaneously. See also asynchronous communication.
table
A systematic grouping of data or other information in column form.
talking head
598
A speaker who remains static, standing stiffly behind a podium, and so resembles a
televised shot of a speaker’s head and shoulders.
target audience
Those individuals within the broader audience who are most likely to be influenced
in the direction the speaker seeks.
task role
A type of role that directly relates to the accomplishment of the objectives and
missions of a group. Examples include “recording secretary” and “moderator.” See
also social role.
terminal credibility
A stage of speaker credibility in which the audience assigns the speaker credibility
based on the totality of the audience’s impressions of the speaker’s performance,
from start to finish. See also derived credibility and initial credibility.
testimony
Firsthand findings, eyewitness accounts, and opinions by people, both lay
(nonexpert) and expert.
thesis statement
The theme, or central idea, of a speech that serves to connect all the parts of the
speech in a single line. The main points, supporting material, and conclusion all bear
upon the thesis.
toast
A brief tribute to a person or an event being celebrated.
topic (mind) mapping

A brainstorming technique in which you lay out words in diagram form to show
categorical relationships among them; useful for selecting and narrowing a speech
topic.
topical pattern of arrangement

(also called categorical pattern) A pattern of organizing main points as subtopics or
categories of the speech topic.
599
town hall meeting
A public forum in which citizens deliberate on issues of importance to the
community.
transition
A word, phrase, or sentence that ties speech ideas together and enables a speaker to
move smoothly from one point to the next.
trustworthiness
The quality in public speaking of displaying both honesty and dependability.
two-sided message
An argument in which the speaker mentions opposing points of view and sometimes
refutes them. See also one-sided message.
values
Our most enduring judgments or standards about what is good and bad in life, as
shaped by our culture and our unique experiences within it.
vernacular language
Language specific to particular regions of a country.
video capture software

Software used to incorporate video clips into an online presentation.
visualization
The practice of summoning feelings and actions consistent with successful
performance; useful for speakers in overcoming speech anxiety.
vocal filler
Unnecessary and undesirable sound or word used by a speaker to cover pauses in a
speech or conversation, such as “uh,” “hmm,” “you know,” “I mean,” and “it’s like.”
vocal variety
The variation of volume, pitch, rate, and pauses to create an effective vocal delivery.
vodcast
(also called “vidcast” and “video podcasting”) A podcast containing video clips.
600
voice
A feature of verbs in written and spoken text indicating the subject’s relationship to
the action; verbs can be in either active voice or passive voice.
volume
The relative loudness of a speaker’s voice while giving a speech.
voluntary audience
As opposed to a captive audience, an audience whose members have chosen to
attend.
warrant
A line of reasoning that justifies the link between a claim and evidence in the minds
of the audience. See also authoritative warrant and reasoning.
warrant by analogy
(also called reasoning by analogy) A means of justifying the link between claim and
evidence by comparing two similar cases and implying that what is true for one case
is true for the other.
warrant by cause
(also called causal reasoning) A means of justifying the link between claim and
evidence by providing a cause-effect relationship as proof of the claim.
webinar
A real-time presentation, including training sessions, seminars, and other
presentations that connect presenters and audiences from their desktops,
regardless of where they are in the world.
word association
A brainstorming technique used to generate and narrow speech topics in which one
writes down ideas as they come to mind, beginning with a single word.
working outline
A preparation or rough outline, often using full sentences, in which the speaker firms
up and organizes speech points and incorporates material to support them.
601
Notes
CHAPTER 1
1. “Why Warren Buffett’s Most Valuable Skill Wasn’t from a
Diploma,” Fox on Stocks, December 19, 2012,
www.foxonstocks.com/why-warrenbuffetts-most-
valuable0skill-wasn’t-from-a-diploma/.
2. “Youth Voting,” Center for Information and Research on
Civic Learning and Engagement (CIRCLE), accessed
November 8, 2017, civicyouth.org/quick-facts/youth-voting.
3. For a discussion of Daniel Yankelovich’s three-step process
by which public judgments occur, see Yankelovich, Coming
to Public Judgment: Making Democracy Work in a Complex
World (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1991).
4. For a discussion of conversation stoppers and rules of
engagement, see W. Barnett Pearce, “Toward a National
Conversation about Public Issues,” in The Changing
Conversation in America: Lectures from the Smithsonian,
eds. William F. Eadie and Paul E. Nelson (Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage, 2002), 16.
5. Robert Perrin, “The Speaking-Writing Connection: Enhancing
the Symbiotic Relationship,” Contemporary Education 65
(1994): 62–64.
6. Kristine Bruss, “Writing for the Ear: Strengthening Oral Style
in Manuscript Speeches,” Communication Teacher 26, no. 2
602
(April 2012): 76–81.
7. Lloyd F. Bitzer, “The Rhetorical Situation,” Philosophy and
Rhetoric (Winter 1968): 1–14.
CHAPTER 3
1. Michael J. Beatty, “Situational and Predispositional Correlates
of Public Speaking Anxiety,” Communication Education 37
(1988): 28−39; Ralph Behnke and Chris R. Sawyer,
“Milestones of Anticipatory Public Speaking Anxiety,”
Communication Education 48 (1999): 165–72; Graham D.
Bodie, “A Racing Heart, Rattling Knees, and Ruminative
Thoughts: Defining, Explaining, and Treating Public
Speaking Anxiety,” Communication Education 59 (2010): 70–
105.
2. Behnke and Sawyer, “Milestones of Anticipatory Public
Speaking Anxiety.”
3. Behnke and Sawyer, “Milestones of Anticipatory Public
Speaking Anxiety.”
4. David-Paul Pertaub, Mel Slater, and Chris Barker, “An
Experiment on Public Speaking Anxiety in Response to Three
Different Types of Virtual Audience,” Presence:
Teleoperators and Virtual Environments 11 (2002): 670–78.
5. Joe Ayres, “Coping with Speech Anxiety: The Power of
Positive Thinking,” Communication Education 37 (1988): 289–
96; Joe Ayres, “An Examination of the Impact of Anticipated
Communication and Communication Apprehension on
Negative Thinking, Task-Relevant Thinking, and Recall,”
603
Communication Research Reports 9 (1992): 3–11.
6. Pamela J. Feldman, Sheldon Cohen, Natalie Hamrick, and
Stephen J. Lepore, “Psychological Stress, Appraisal, Emotion,
and Cardiovascular Response in a Public Speaking Task,”
Psychology and Health 19 (2004): 353–68; Senqi Hu and
Juong-Min Romans-Kroll, “Effects of Positive Attitude toward
Giving a Speech on Cardiovascular and Subjective Fear
Responses during Speech on Anxious Subjects,” Perceptual
and Motor Skills 81 (1995): 609–10.
7. Richard Branson, “Richard Branson on How to Calm Public
Speaking Jitters,” Fortune, January 12, 2015,
fortune.com/2015/01/12/richard-branson-on-how-to-calm-
public-speaking-jitters/.
8. Joe Ayres and Tim Hopf, “Visualization: Is It More Than Extra
Attention?”Communication Education 38 (1989): 1–5; Joe
Ayers and Tim Hopf, Coping with Speech Anxiety (Norwood,
NJ: Ablex, 1993); Joe Ayres, Chia-Fang “Sandy” Hsu, and Tim
Hopf, “Does Exposure to Visualization Alter Speech
Preparation Processes?”Communication Research Reports 17
(2000): 366–74.
9. Ayres and Hopf, “Visualization,” 2–3.
10. Herbert Benson and Miriam Z. Klipper, The Relaxation
Response (New York: HarperCollins, 2000).
11. Laurie Schloff and Marcia Yudkin, Smart Speaking (New
York: Plume, 1991), 91–92.
12. Lars-Gunnar Lundh, Britta Berg, Helena Johansson, Linda
Kjellén Nilsson, Jenny Sandberg, and Anna Segerstedt,
“Social Anxiety Is Associated with a Negatively Distorted
604
Perception of One’s Own Voice,” Cognitive Behavior Therapy
31 (2002): 25–30.
CHAPTER 4
1. Oxford English Dictionary, s. v. “responsibility,” accessed
September 26, 2017, www.oed.com/view/Entry/163862?
redirectedFrom=responsibility.
2. Richard L. Johannesen, Kathleen S. Valde, and Karen E.
Whedbee, Ethics in Human Communication, 6th ed. (Long
Grove, IL: Waveland Press, 2007).
3. Edward P. J. Corbett, Classical Rhetoric for the Modern
Student (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990).
4. Shalom H. Schwartz, “An Overview of the Schwartz Theory of
Basic Values,” Online Readings in Psychology and Culture 2,
no. 1 (2012), dx.doi.org/10.9707/2307-0919.1116.
5. Betsy Cooper et al., “How Americans View Immigrants and
What They Want from Immigration Reform: Findings from
the 2015 American Values Atlas,” Public Religion Research
Institute, March 29, 2016, www.prri.org/research/poll-
immigration-reform-views-on-immigrants/.
6. Douglas M. Fraleigh and Joseph S. Tuman, Freedom of
Speech in the Marketplace of Ideas (New York: Bedford/St.
Martin’s, 1997).
7. Newseum Institute, “First Amendment
FAQ,”www.newseuminstitute.org/first-amendment-
center/first-amendment-faq/#speech.
8. William B. Gudykunst et al., Building Bridges: Interpersonal
605
Skills for a Changing World (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1995),
92.
9. Michael Josephson, Making Ethical Decisions: The Six Pillars
of Character (Josephson Institute of Ethics, 2002).
10. Josephson, Making Ethical Decisions.
11. Josephson, Making Ethical Decisions.
12. U.S. Copyright Office, accessed September 26, 2017,
www.copyright.gov.
13. U.S. Copyright Office, “Fair Use,” accessed September 26,
2017, www.copyright.gov/fair-use/more-info.html.
CHAPTER 5
1. Andrew D. Wolvin and Carolyn G. Coakley, “A Listening
Taxonomy,” in Perspectives on Listening, eds. Andrew D.
Wolvin and Carolyn G. Coakley (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1993),
15–22.
2. “An ILA Definition of Listening,” Listening Post 53, no. 1
(1995): 4–5.
3. Ethel Glenn, “A Content Analysis of Fifty Definitions of
Listening,” Journal of the International Listening Association
3 (1989): 21–31.
4. Laura A. Janusik and Andrew D. Wolvin, “24 Hours in a Day:
Listening Update to the Time Studies,” International Journal
of Listening 23 (2009): 104–20; see also Richard Emanuel et
al., “How College Students Spend Their Time
Communicating,” International Journal of Listening 22
(2008): 13–28.
606
5. Janusik and Wolvin, “24 Hours in a Day.”
6. Avraham N. Kluger and Keren Zaidel, “Are Listeners
Perceived as Leaders?”International Journal of Listening 27,
no. 2 (2013): 73–84; S. A. Welch and William T. Mickelson, “A
Listening Competence Comparison of Working
Professionals,” International Journal of Listening 27, no. 2
(2013): 85–99.
7. Albert H. Hastorf and Hadley Cantril, “They Saw a Game: A
Case Study,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 49,
no. 1 (1954): 129–34;Gordon W. Allport and Lee J. Postman,
“The Basic Psychology of Rumor,” Transactions of the New
York Academy of Sciences 8 (1945): 61–81.
8. Thomas E. Anastasi Jr., Listen! Techniques for Improving
Communication Skills (Boston: CBI Publishing, 1982).
9. Christian Kiewitz et al., “Cultural Differences in Listening
Style Preferences: A Comparison of Young Adults in
Germany, Israel, and the United States,” International
Journal of Public Opinion Research 9, no. 3 (1997): 233–47,
search.proquest.com/docview/60068159?accountid=10965; M.
Imhof and L. A. Janusik, “Development and Validation of the
Imhof Janusik Listening Concepts Inventory to Measure
Listening Conceptualization Differences between Cultures,”
Journal of Intercultural Communication Research 35, no. 2
(2006): 79–98.
10. Ronald D. Gordon, “Communication, Dialogue, and
Transformation,” Human Communication 9, no. 1 (2006): 17–
30.
11. James Floyd, “Provocation: Dialogic Listening as Reachable
607
Goal,” International Journal of Listening 24 (2010): 170–73.
CHAPTER 6
1. Pablo Briñol and Richard E. Petty, “The History of Attitudes
and Persuasion Research,” Handbook of the History of Social
Psychology, eds. Arie Kruglanski and Wolfgang Stroebe (New
York: Psychology Press, 2011).
2. Richard E. Petty and John T. Cacioppo, Attitudes and
Persuasion: Classic and Contemporary Approaches
(Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown, 1981); M. Fishbein and I.
Ajzen, Belief, Attitude, Intention, and Behavior: An
Introduction to Theory and Research (Reading, MA: Addison-
Wesley, 1975); I. Ajzen and M. Fishbein, “The Influence of
Attitudes on Behavior,” The Handbook of Attitudes, eds.
Dolores Albarracín, Blair T. Johnson, and Mark P. Zanna
(Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 2005), 173–221.
3. Richard E. Petty, S. Christian Wheeler, and Zakary L.
Tormala, “Persuasion and Attitude Change,” Handbook of
Psychology, Personality, and Social Psychology, Vol. 5, eds.
Theodore Millon, Melvin Lerner, and Irving B. Weiner (New
York: John Wiley & Sons, 2003).
4. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, s.v. “Belief,”
Winter 2011 edition,
plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2011/entries/belief/.
5. N. Belden, J. Russonello, and V. Breglio, “Human Values and
Nature’s Future: Americans’ Attitudes on Biological
Diversity,” 1995, public opinion survey analysis conducted
608
for the Communications Consortium Media Center.
6. Herbert Simon, Persuasion in Society, 2nd ed. (New York:
Routledge, 2011).
7. Simon, Persuasion in Society.
8. Kenneth Burke, A Rhetoric of Motives (Berkeley, CA:
University of California Press, 1969).
9. See, for example, “Millennials, Gen X and Baby Boomers:
Who’s Working at Your Company and What Do They Think
about Ethics?” Ethics Resource Center, 2009 National
Business Ethics Survey Supplemental Research Brief,
http://observgo.uquebec.ca/observgo/fichiers/53123_DAEPI%202.pdf
Dennis McCafferty, “Workforce Preview: What to Expect
from Gen Z,” Baseline Magazine, April 4, 2013,
www.baselinemag.com/it-
management/slideshows/workforce-preview-what-to-expect-
from-gen-z; “Generations: Demographic Trends in
Population and Workforce,” Catalyst, May 1, 2012,
www.catalyst.org/knowledge/generations-demographic-
trends-population-and-workforce.
10. Jere R. Behrman and Nevzer Stacey, eds., The Social
Benefits of Education (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan
Press, 2000).
11. “America’s Changing Religious Landscape,” Pew Research
Center, May 12, 2015,
www.pewforum.org/2015/05/12/americas-changing-religious-
landscape/.
12. Daniel Canary and Kathryn Dindia, eds., Sex Differences and
Similarities in Communication, 2nd ed. (Mahwah, NJ:
609
Erlbaum, 2006).
13. U.S. Census Bureau Newsroom, June 2, 2016, accessed
September 6, 2016, www.census.gov/newsroom/facts-for-
features/2016/cb16-ff12.html.
14. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for
Education Statistics, April 2016, “Digest of Education
Statistics, 2014,”nces.ed.gov/pubs2016/2016006.pdf.
15. U.S. Census Bureau, June 2, 2016, accessed January 25, 2018,
www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/US/PST045217.
16. “Facts on U.S. Immigrants, 2015,” Pew Research Center, May
3, 2017, www.pewhispanic.org/2017/05/03/facts-on-u-s-
immigrants/.
17. Steven A. Camarota and Karen Zeigler, “Nearly 65 Million
U.S. Residents Spoke a Foreign Language at Home in 2015,”
Center for Immigration Studies, October 18, 2016,
https://cis.org/Report/Nearly-65-Million-US-Residents-Spoke-
Foreign-Language-Home-2015.
18. Edward D. Steele and W. Charles Redding, “The American
Value System: Premises for Persuasion,” Western Speech 26
(1962): 83–91; Robin M. Williams Jr., American Society: A
Sociological Interpretation, 3rd ed. (New York: Alfred A.
Knopf, 1970).
19. World Values Survey Wave 2 1990-1994 OFFICIAL
AGGREGATE v.20140429. World Values Survey Association
(www.worldvaluessurvey.org). Aggregate File Producer:
Asep/JDS, Madrid SPAIN.
20. Rushworth M. Kidder, Shared Values for a Troubled World:
Conversations with Men and Women of Conscience (San
610
Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1994).
CHAPTER 8
1. Ian McEwan, “Freedom of Expression Sustains All Other
Freedoms We Enjoy,” Vital Speeches of the Day, Vol. XXXI,
No. 8, August 2015, pp. 245–47.
2. Jonathan Drori, “Every Pollen Grain Has a Story,” TED Talks,
February 2010,
www.ted.com/talks/jonathan_drori_every_pollen_grain_has_a_story.htm
3. Quoted in Katharine Q. Seelye, “Congressman Offers Bill to
Ban Cloning of Humans,” New York Times, March 6, 1997,
sec. A.
4. Mark Turner, The Literary Mind (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1996).
5. Melinda French Gates, “Raising the Bar on College
Completion,” Keynote Address, American Association of
Community Colleges, April 20, 2010,
www.gatesfoundation.org/media-
center/speeches/2010/04/raising-the-bar-on-college-
completion.
6. Steven D. Cohen, “The Art of Public Narrative: Teaching
Students How to Construct Memorable Anecdotes,”
Communication Teacher 25, no. 4, (2011): 197–204, doi:
10.1080/17404622.2011.601726.
7. Jim Carrey, Commencement Address, Maharishi University
of Management, May 24, 2014, www.mum.edu/whats-
happening/graduation-2014/full-jim-carrey-address-video-
611
and-transcript/.
8. Nick Morgan, “Why You Must Tell Stories, Not Dump
Information, in Your Presentations,” Forbes, May 9, 2013,
www.forbes.com/sites/nickmorgan/2013/05/09/why-you-
must-tell-stories-not-dump-information-in-your-
presentations/#426926dd78bb; Kurt Braddock and James
Price Dillard, “Meta-analytic Evidence for the Persuasive
Effect of Narratives on Beliefs, Attitudes, Intentions, and
Behaviors,” Communication Monographs, 2016,
doi:10.1080/03637.
9. Yaacov Schul and Ruth Mayo, “Two Sources Are Better Than
One: The Effects of Ignoring One Message on Using a
Different Message from the Same Source,” Journal of
Experimental Social Psychology 35 (1999): 327–45; Mike Allen
et al., “Testing the Persuasiveness of Evidence: Combining
Narrative and Statistical Forms,” Communication Research
Reports 17 (2000): 331–36, cited in Rodney A. Reynolds and J.
Lynn Reynolds, “Evidence,” in The Persuasion Handbook:
Developments in Theory and Practice, eds. James Price
Dillard and Michael Pfau (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2002),
427–44, doi: 10.4135/9781412976046.n22.
10. Reynolds and Reynolds, “Evidence.”
11. “Airbus delivers 110th A380,” Airbus, March 14, 2013,
http://www.airbus.com/newsroom/press-
releases/en/2013/03/airbus-delivers-100th-a380.html.
12. Josh Katz, “Drug Deaths in America Are Rising Faster Than
Ever,” New York Times, June 5, 2017,
www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/06/05/upshot/opioid-
612
epidemic-drug-overdose-deaths-are-rising-faster-than-
ever.html.
13. “State and County QuickFacts,” U.S. Census Bureau,
accessed October 3, 2017,
https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/CO/PST045217#viewtop
14. Katz, “Drug Deaths in America Are Rising Faster Than Ever.”
15. Bureau of Labor Statistics, “State Employment and
Unemployment Summary,” Sept. 15, 2017,
www.bls.gov/news.release/laus.nr0.htm.
16. Maddy Osman, “18 Instagram Stats Every Marketer Should
Know for 2017,” Sprout Social, August 2, 2017,
sproutsocial.com/insights/instagram-stats/.
17. Roger Pielke Jr., “The Cherry Pick,” Ogmius: Newsletter for
the Center for Science and Technology Research 8 (2004),
sciencepolicy.colorado.edu/ogmius/archives/issue_8/intro.html
CHAPTER 9
1. Elizabeth Kirk (original author), “Information and Its
Counterfeits,” Sheridan Libraries of Johns Hopkins
University, August 10, 2017, guides.library.jhu.edu/c.php?
g=202581&p=1334961; Man-pui Sally Chan et al.,“Debunking:
A Meta-Analysis of the Psychological Efficacy of Messages
Countering Misinformation,” Psychological Science,
September 2017, doi:10.1177/0956797617714579.
CHAPTER 10
1. Ralph Underwager and Hollida Wakefield, “The Taint
613
Hearing,” paper presented at the 13th Annual Symposium in
Forensic Psychology, Vancouver, BC, April 17, 1997,
www.ipt-forensics.com/journal/volume10/j10_7.htm#en0.
2. Institute for Writing and Rhetoric, “Sources and Citation at
Dartmouth College,” produced by the Committee on Sources,
May 2008, writing-
speech.dartmouth.edu/learning/materials/sources-and-
citations-dartmouth#3A.
CHAPTER 11
1. Gordon H. Bower, “Organizational Factors in Memory,”
Cognitive Psychology 1 (1970): 18–46.
2. Ian McEwan, “Freedom of Expression Sustains All the Other
Freedoms We Enjoy,” Vital Speeches of the Day, Vol. LXXXI,
No. 8, August 2015.
3. Hermann Ebbinghaus, On Memory: A Contribution to
Experimental Psychology (New York: Teachers College,
1813); Murray Glanzer and Anita R. Cunitz, “Two Storage
Mechanisms in Free Recall,” Journal of Verbal Learning and
Verbal Behavior 5 (1966): 351–60.
CHAPTER 12
1. Raymond G. Smith, “Effects of Speech Organization upon
Attitudes of College Students,” Speech Monographs 18 (1951):
547–49; Ernest Thompson, “An Experimental Investigation of
the Relative Effectiveness of Organizational Structure in Oral
Communication,” Southern Speech Journal 26 (1960): 59–69.
614
2. Melissa Del Bosque, “Beyond the Border: Into the
Wilderness,” The Guardian, August 6, 2014,
www.theguardian.com/world/ng-interactive/2014/aug/06/-sp-
texas-border-deadliest-state-undocumented-migrants.
3. Randy Capps, Michael Fix, and Jie Zong, “A Profile of U.S.
Children with Unauthorized Immigrant Parents,” Migration
Policy Institute Fact Sheet, January, 2016,
www.migrationpolicy.org/research/profile-us-children-
unauthorized-immigrant-parents.
4. Capps, Fix, and Zong, “A Profile of U.S. Children with
Unauthorized Immigrant Parents.”
5. Capps, Fix, and Zong, “A Profile of U.S. Children with
Unauthorized Immigrant Parents.”
6. Brian Eakin, “Homeland Security Grilled on Visa Overstays,”
Courthouse News Service, June 14, 2016,
www.courthousenews.com/2016/06/14/homeland-security-
grilled-on-visa-overstays.htm.
7. Eakin, “Homeland Security Grilled on Visa Overstays.”
8. Joe Davidson, “Visa Overstays a Security Risk When 99% of
Foreigners Leave U.S. on Time?”Washington Post, June 15,
2016,
www.washingtonpost.com/news/powerpost/wp/2016/06/15/visa-
overstays-a-security-risk-when-99-of-foreigners-leave-u-s-on-
time/.
9. Jie Zong and Jeanne Batalova, “Frequently Requested
Statistics on Immigrants and Immigration in the United
States,” Migration Policy Institute, March 8, 2017,
www.migrationpolicy.org/article/frequently-requested-
615
statistics-immigrants-and-immigration-united-states.
10. “How the United States Immigration System Works: A Fact
Sheet,” American Immigration Council, August 12, 2016,
www.immigrationpolicy.org/just-facts/how-united-states-
immigration-system-works-fact-sheet.
11. Guillermo Cantor, Mark Noferi, and Daniel E. Martinez,
“Enforcement Overdrive: A Comprehensive Assessment of
ICE’s Criminal Alien Program,”American Immigration
Council, November 1, 2015,
www.immigrationpolicy.org/special-reports/enforcement-
overdrive-comprehensive-assessment-criminal-alien-
program.
12. “Life on the Internet Timeline,” Public Broadcasting System,
accessed April 3, 2000,
www.pbs.org/internet/timeline/index.html.
CHAPTER 13
1. Mark B. McClellan, fifth annual David A. Winston lecture,
National Press Club, Washington, DC, October 20, 2003,
www.fda.gov/newsevents/speeches/speecharchives/ucm053609.htm
CHAPTER 14
1. Jeremey Donovan, How to Deliver a TED Talk (CreateSpace
Independent Publishing Platform, 2012).
2. Laurie Loisel, “Twitter Exec tells UMASS Amherst Grads to
‘Hack the System,’”Boston Globe, May 6, 2016,
www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2016/05/06/twitter-exec-tells-
616
umass-amherst-grads-hack-
system/uAYypkmN3v1QlHMSsaIyaJ/story.html.
3. William Safire, Lend Me Your Ears: Great Speeches in History
(New York: Norton, 1992), 676.
4. Bas Andeweg and Jap de Jong, “May I Have Your Attention?
Exordial Techniques in Informative Oral Presentations,”
Technical Communication Quarterly 7, no. 3 (Summer 1998):
271–84.
5. Nancy Duarte, Harvard Business Review Guide to Persuasive
Presentations (Boston: Harvard Business Review Press, 2012).
6. Phillip Connor and Jens Manuel Krogstad, “Key Facts About
the World’s Refugees,” Pew Research Center FactTank,
October 5, 2016, www.pewresearch.org/fact-
tank/2016/10/05/key-facts-about-the-worlds-refugees/.
7. Jamie Oliver, “Teach Every Child about Food,” filmed
February 2010, TED video, www.ted.com/talks/jamie_oliver.
8. Marvin Runyon, “No One Moves the Mail Like the U.S. Postal
Service,” Vital Speeches of the Day 61, no. 2 (1994): 52–55.
9. Robert L. Darbelnet, “U.S. Roads and Bridges: Highway
Funding at a Crossroads,” Vital Speeches of the Day 63, no. 12
(1997): 379.
10. Holger Kluge, “Reflections on Diversity,” Vital Speeches of
the Day 63, no. 6 (1997): 171–72.
11. Elpidio Villarreal, “Choosing the Right Path,” Vital Speeches
of the Day 72, no. 26 (2007): 784–86.
12. Emma Watson, “Gender Equality Is Your Issue Too,” UN
Women, September 20, 2014,
www.unwomen.org/en/news/stories/2014/9/emma-watson-
617
gender-equality-is-your-issue-too.
CHAPTER 15
1. Kristine Bruss, “Writing for the Ear: Strengthening Oral Style
in Manuscript Speeches,” Communication Teacher 26, no.2
(April 2012): 76–81.
2. Bourree Lam, “What It Was Like to Write Speeches for Apple
Executives,” The Atlantic, June 10, 2016,
www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2016/06/speechwriter-
poet/486329/.
3. Peggy Noonan, Simply Speaking: How to Communicate Your
Ideas with Style, Substance, and Clarity (New York: Regan
Books, 1998), 51.
4. Michelle Obama, “Remarks by the First Lady at the
Democratic National Convention,” delivered at the Wells
Fargo Center, Philadelphia, PA. The White House Briefing
Room, July 25, 2016.
5. Dan Hooley, “The Lessons of the Ring,” Vital Speeches of the
Day 70, no. 20 (2004): 660–63.
6. Sheryl Sandberg, “Why We Have Too Few Women Leaders,”
TED Talks, December 2010,
www.ted.com/talks/sheryl_sandberg_why_we_have_too_few_women_le
7. Susan T. Fiske and Shelley E. Taylor, “Vivid Information Is
More Easily Recalled Than Dull or Pallid Stimuli,” Social
Cognition, 2nd ed. (New York: McGraw Hill), quoted in
Jennifer Jerit and Jason Barabas, “Bankrupt Rhetoric: How
Misleading Information Affects Knowledge about Social
618
Security,” Public Opinion Quarterly 70, no. 3 (2006): 278–304.
8. Loren J. Naidoo and Robert G. Lord, “Speech Imagery and
Perceptions of Charisma: The Mediating Role of Positive
Affect,” Leadership Quarterly 19, no. 3 (2008): 283–96.
9. Franklin D. Roosevelt, address delivered on July 4, 1942,
Fourth of July Celebrations Database,
gurukul.american.edu/heintze/Roosevelt.htm.
10. Donald J. Trump, Inaugural Address, January 20, 2017,
www.whitehouse.gov/inaugural-address.
11. L. Clemetson and J. Gordon-Thomas, “Our House Is on
Fire,” Newsweek, June 11, 2001, 50.
12. Gloria Anzaldúa, “Entering into the Serpent,” in The St.
Martin’s Handbook, eds. Andrea Lunsford and Robert
Connors, 3rd ed. (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1995), 25.
13. P. H. Matthews, The Concise Oxford Dictionary of
Linguistics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997).
14. Cited in William Safire, Lend Me Your Ears: Great Speeches
in History (New York: Norton, 1992), 22.
15. “Barack Obama’s New Hampshire Primary Speech,” New
York Times, January 8, 2008,
www.nytimes.com/2008/01/08/us/politics/08text-
obama.html?r=0.
CHAPTER 16
1. James A. Winans, Public Speaking (New York: Century, 1925).
Professor Winans was among the first Americans to
contribute significantly to the study of rhetoric. His
619
explanation of delivery is considered by many to be the best
coverage of the topic in the English language. His perspective
infuses this chapter.
CHAPTER 17
1. Kyle James Tusing and James Price Dillard, “The Sounds of
Dominance: Vocal Precursors of Perceived Dominance
during Interpersonal Influence,” Human Communication
Research 26 (2000): 148–71.
2. Carmine Gallo, Talk Like TED (New York: St Martin’s Press,
2014), 97.
CHAPTER 18
1. C. F. Bond and the Global Deception Research Team, “A
World of Lies,” Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 37
(2006): 60–74; Timothy R. Levine, Kelli Jean K. Asada, and
Hee Sun Park, “The Lying Chicken and the Gaze Avoidant
Egg: Eye Contact, Deception, and Causal Order,” Southern
Communication Journal 71 (2006): 401–11.
2. Eva Krumburger, “Effects of Dynamic Attributes of Smiles in
Human and Synthetic Faces: A Simulated Job Interview
Setting,” Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 33 (2009): 1–15.
3. Alissa Melinger and Willem M. Levelt, “Gesture and the
Communicative Intention of the Speaker,” Gesture 4 (2004):
119–41.
4. Virginia P. Richmond, James C. McCroskly, and Aaron D.
Johnson, “Development of the Nonverbal Immediacy Scale
620
(NIS): Measures of Self- and Other-Perceived Nonverbal
Immediacy,” Communication Quarterly 51, no. 4 (2003): 504–
17.
CHAPTER 19
1. Richard E. Mayer, The Multimedia Principle (New York:
Cambridge University Press, 2001).
2. See discussion of the redundancy effect in Richard E. Mayer,
ed., The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning (New
York: Cambridge University Press, 2005).
3. Gary Jones, “Message First: Using Films to Power the Point,”
Business Communication Quarterly 67, no. 1 (2004): 88–91.
CHAPTER 20
1. Nancy Duarte, “Avoiding the Road to PowerPoint Hell,” Wall
Street Journal, January 22, 2011,
https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703954004576090053995
2. Nancy Duarte, slide:ology: The Art and Science of Creating
Great Presentations (Sebastopol, CA: O’Reilly Media, 2008),
140.
3. Duarte, “Avoiding the Road to PowerPoint Hell.”
4. Edward Tufte, The Visual Display of Quantitative Information
(Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press, 2001); Edward Tufte,
“PowerPoint Is Evil,” Wired 11 (2003),
www.wired.com/wired/archive/11.09/ppt2_pr.html.
5. Ronald Larson, “Slide Composition for Electronic
Presentations,” Journal of Educational Computing Research,
621
31, no. 1 (2004): 61–76.
CHAPTER 22
1. Katherine E. Rowan subdivides informative communication
into informatory discourse, in which the primary aim is to
represent reality by increasing an audience’s awareness of
some phenomenon; and explanatory discourse, with the aim
to represent reality by deepening understanding. See
Katherine E. Rowan, “Informing and Explaining Skills:
Theory and Research on Informative Communication,” in
Handbook of Communication and Social Interaction Skills,
eds. John O. Greene and Brant R. Burleson (Mahwah, NJ:
Erlbaum, 2003), 403–38.
2. Vickie K. Sullivan, “Public Speaking: The Secret Weapon in
Career Development,” USA Today 113, no. 2720 (May 2005):
24.
3. Nick Morgan, “Two Rules for a Successful Presentation,”
Harvard Business Review Blog (“Communication”), May 14,
2010, hbr.org/2010/05/two-rules-for-a-successful-pre; Harry
E. Chambers, Effective Communication Skills for Scientific
and Technical Professionals (Cambridge, MA: Perseus
Publishing, 2001).
4. United States National Archives and Record Administration,
“U.S. Electoral College: About the Electors,” accessed
October 27, 2017, www.archives.gov/federal-
register/electoral-college/electors.html.
5. Shawn M. Glynn et al., “Teaching Science with Analogies: A
622
Resource for Teachers and Textbook Authors,” National
Reading Research Center: Instructional Resource, 7 (Fall
1994).
6. Wolfgang Porod, “Nanotechnology,” Vital Speeches of the
Day 71, no. 4 (2004): 125–28.
7. Shawn M. Glynn et al., “Teaching Science,” 19.
8. Helen Osborne, “It’s Like What You Already Know: Using
Analogies to Help Patients Understand,” January 1, 2003,
healthliteracy.com/2003/01/01/analogies/.
9. Neil D. Fleming and Colleen Mills, “Helping Students
Understand How They Learn,” Teaching Professor 7, no. 4
(1992).
CHAPTER 23
1. Carolyn W. Sherif, Muzafer Sherif, and Roger E. Nebergall,
Attitude and Attitude Change: The Social Judgment-
Involvement Approach (Philadelphia:W. B. Saunders, 1965).
2. W. Hart et al., “Feeling Validated versus Being Correct: A
Meta-Analysis of Selective Exposure to Information,”
Psychological Bulletin 135 (2009): 555–88.
3. Russel H. Fazio, “How Do Attitudes Guide Behavior?” in The
Handbook of Motivation and Cognition: Foundations of
Social Behavior, eds. Richard M. Sorrentino and E. Tory
Higgins (New York: Guilford Press, 1986).
4. Kurt Braddock and James Price Dillard, “Meta-Analytic
Evidence for the Persuasive Effect of Narratives on Beliefs,
Attitudes, Intentions, and Behaviors,” Communication
623
Monographs 83 (2016): 1–24.
5. Winston Churchill, “We Shall Fight on the Beaches,” speech
delivered to the House of Commons, June 4, 1940, The
Churchill Centre and Museum at the Churchill War Rooms,
www.winstonchurchill.org/resources/speeches/1940-the-
finest-hour/we-shall-fight-on-the-beaches.
6. John S. Nelson, “Emotions as Reasons in Public Arguments,”
Poroi 4, no. 1 (2005): 1–26, doi: 10.13008/2151-2957.1028.
7. For an extensive review of the history of the field of
communication from the classical period to the present era,
see Dominic A. Infante, Andrew S. Rancer, and Deanna F.
Womack, Building Communication Theory, 4th ed. (Prospect
Heights, IL: Waveland Press, 2003).
8. Ojenike Bolatito, “Linkage between Persuasion Principles and
Advertising,” New Media and Mass Communication 8 (2012):
7–11.
9. Susan T. Fiske, “Core Social Motivations: Views from the
Couch, Consciousness, Classroom, Computers, and
Collectives,” in Handbook of Motivation Science, eds. James
Y. Shah and Wendi L. Garner (New York: Guilford Press,
2008).
10. Abraham H. Maslow, “A Theory of Human Motivation,”
Psychological Review 50 (1943): 370–96.
11. Richard Petty and John T. Cacioppo, “The Elaboration
Likelihood Model of Persuasion,” in Advances in
Experimental Social Psychology, ed. L. Berkowitz (San Diego,
CA: Academic Press, 1986), vol. 19: 123–205; Richard Petty
and Duane T. Wegener, “Matching versus Mismatching
624
Attitude Functions: Implications for Scrutiny of Persuasive
Messages,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 24
(1998): 227–40.
12. For good reviews of the literature on source credibility in
general, see Richard M. Perloff, The Dynamics of Persuasion
(Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1993); and Infante, Rancer, and
Womack, Building Communication Theory; see also Joseph
R. Priester and Richard E. Petty, “Source Attributions and
Persuasion: Perceived Honesty as a Determinant of Message
Scrutiny,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 21
(1995): 637–54.
13. Priester and Petty, “Source Attributions and Persuasion.”
14. James A. McCroskey, An Introduction to Rhetorical
Communication, 9th ed. (Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon,
2006), 84–97.
CHAPTER 24
1. The model of argument presented here follows Stephen
Toulmin, The Uses of Argument (New York: Cambridge
University Press, 1958), as described in James C. McCroskey,
An Introduction to Rhetorical Communication, 6th ed.
(Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1993).
2. Annette T. Rottenberg and Donna Haisty Winchell, Elements
of Argument, 10th ed. (New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2012),
24–25.
3. Mike Allen, “Comparing the Persuasive Effectiveness of One-
and Two-Sided Messages,” in Persuasion: Advances through
625
Meta-Analysis, eds. Mike Allen and Raymond W. Preiss
(Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press, 1998), 87–98.
4. James C. McCroskey, An Introduction to Rhetorical
Communication, 9th ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall,
2005).
5. Herbert W. Simons, Persuasion in Society, 2nd ed. (New
York: Routledge, 2011).
6. S. Morris Engel, With Good Reason: An Introduction to
Informal Fallacies, 6th ed. (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s,
2000), 191.
7. Elizabeth Sheld, “A Gun Control Analogy,” Breitbart, January
11, 2013, www.breitbart.com/blog/2013/01/11/a-gun-control-
analogy/.
8. Alan H. Monroe, Principles and Types of Speeches (Chicago:
Scott, Foresman, 1935).
9. C. Ilie, “Strategies of Refutation by Definition: A Pragma-
Rhetorical Approach to Refutations in a Public Speech,” in
Pondering on Problems of Argumentation: Twenty Essays on
Theoretical Issues, eds. F. H. van Eemeren and B. Garssen
(New York: Springer Science+Business Media, 2009), doi:
10.1007/978-1-4020-9165-0_4.
CHAPTER 25
1. Roger E. Axtell, Do’s and Taboos of Public Speaking: How to
Get Those Butterflies Flying in Formation (New York: Wiley,
1992), 150.
2. “Obama, Cecily Strong Joke Around at White House
626
Correspondents’ Dinner,” NBC News Online, April 26, 2015,
www.nbcnews.com/storyline/white-house-correspondents-
dinner/watch-live-white-house-correspondents-dinner-
n348366.
CHAPTER 26
1. Sheri Jeavons, “Webinars That Wow: How to Deliver a
Dynamic Webinar,” Webinar hosted by Citrix GoToMeeting,
December 12, 2011.
2. Kami Griffiths and Chris Peters, “10 Steps for Planning a
Successful Webinar,” TechSoup, January 27, 2009,
www.techsoup.org/learningcenter/training/page/1252.cfm;
Chris Peters and Kami Griffiths, “10 Steps for Planning a
Successful Webinar,” TechSoup, January 31, 2012,
www.techsoup.org/support/articles-and-how-tos/10-steps-
for-planning-a-successful-webinar.
3. Ken Molay, “Best Practices for Webinars,” Adobe Connect,
www.images.adobe.com/www.adobe.com/content/dam/Adobe/en/produ
conferencing/best-practices-webinars-wp.pdf.
4. Patricia Fripp, “15 Tips for Webinars: How to Add Impact
When You Present Online,” eLearn Magazine, July 7, 2009,
elearnmag.acm.org/featured.cfm?aid=1595445.
5. Fripp, “15 Tips for Webinars.”
CHAPTER 27
1. Discussion of group roles based on Dan O’Hair and Mary
Wiemann, Real Communication, 4th ed. (New York:
627
Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2018), 265;C. M. Anderson, B. L. Riddle,
and M. M. Martin, “Socialization in Groups,” in Handbook of
Group Communication Theory and Research, ed. Lawrence
R. Frey, Dennis S. Gouran, and Marshall Scott Poole
(Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1999), 139–63; A. J. Salazar, “An
Analysis of the Development and Evolution of Roles in the
Small Group,” Small Group Research 27 (1996): 475–503; K. D.
Benne and P. Sheats, “Functional Roles of Group Members,”
Journal of Social Issues 4 (1948): 41–49.
2. W. Park, “A Comprehensive Empirical Investigation of the
Relationships among Variables of the Groupthink Model,”
Journal of Organizational Behavior 21 (2000): 874–87; D. T.
Miller and K. R. Morrison, “Expressing Deviant Opinions:
Believing You Are in the Majority Helps,” Journal of
Experimental Social Psychology 45, no. 4 (2009): 740–47.
3. Irving Lester Janis, Groupthink: Psychological Studies of
Policy Decisions and Fiascoes (Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1982).
4. C. Pavitt, “Theorizing about the Group Communication-
Leadership Relationship,” in Handbook of Group
Communication Theory and Research, ed. Frey, Gouran, and
Poole, 313–34; D. S. Gouran, “Communication Skills for
Group Decision Making,” in Handbook of Communication
and Social Interaction Skills, ed. J. O. Greene and B. R.
Burleson (Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 2003), 835–70.
5. Pavitt, “Theorizing about the Group Communication-
Leadership Relationship”; Gouran, “Communication Skills
for Group Decision Making.”
628
6. Charles R. Schwenk, Organizational Behavior and Human
Decision Processes 47, no. 1 (October 1990): 161–76.
7. L. Richard Hoffman and Norman R. F. Maier, “Valence in the
Adoption of Solutions by Problem-Solving Groups: Concept,
Method, and Results,” Journal of Abnormal and Social
Psychology 69 (1964): 264–71.
8. John Dewey, How We Think (Boston: D.C. Heath, 1950).
CHAPTER 28
1. Lin Kroeger, The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Successful
Business Presentations (New York: Alpha Books, 1997), 113.
CHAPTER 29
1. For a review, see Priscilla S. Rogers, “Distinguishing Public
and Presentational Speaking,” Management Communication
Quarterly 2 (1988): 102–15; Frank E. X. Dance, “What Do You
Mean ‘Presentational’ Speaking?”Management
Communication Quarterly 1 (1987): 270–81.
2. Stephen Shiffman, “Ten Tips Guaranteed to Improve Sales,”
American Salesman 55 (2010): 28–30.
3. Shiffman, “Ten Tips Guaranteed to Improve Sales.”
4. Sharon Cunningham, “Progress Reports,” Best’s Review
(November 2010): 54.
CHAPTER 30
1. Several points are derived from Robert Anholt, Dazzle ’Em
629
with Style: The Art of Oral Scientific Presentation, 2nd ed.
(New York: Academic Press, 2005).
2. Office of Naval Research, “Tips for Preparing and Delivering
Scientific Talks and Using Visual Aids,” modified January 1,
2001,
www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/navy/onr_navyspeakingtips.pdf
CHAPTER 31
1. With thanks to Professor Calvin Young, Fullerton College, for
his input.
2. Robert Anholt, Dazzle ’Em with Style: The Art of Oral
Scientific Presentation, 2nd ed. (New York: Academic Press,
2005).
CHAPTER 32
1. Deanna P. Daniels, “Communicating across the Curriculum
and in the Disciplines: Speaking in Engineering,”
Communication Education 51 (July 2002): 3.
2. Deanna P. Dannels, “Features of Success in Engineering
Design Presentations: A Call for Relational Genre
Knowledge,” Journal of Business and Technical
Communication 23, no. 4 (2009): 399–427, doi:
10.1177/1050651909338790.
3. H. J. Scheiber, “The Nature of Oral Presentations: A Survey of
Scientific, Technical, and Managerial Presentations,” IPCC 92
Santa Fe. Crossing Frontiers. Conference Record (September
29–October 3, 1992): 95–98, doi: 10.1109/IPCC.1992.672998.
630
CHAPTER 33
1. James M. Henslin, Sociology: A Down-to-Earth Approach,
12th ed. (Boston: Pearson, 2013).
2. Peter Redman and Wendy Maples, Good Essay Writing: A
Social Sciences Guide, 4th ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage,
2011).
CHAPTER 35
1. Richard L. Sullivan and Noel McIntosh, “Delivering Effective
Lectures,” U.S. Agency for International Development,
December 1996,
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?
doi=10.1.1.168.184&rep=rep1&type=pdf.
CHAPTER 36
1. With thanks to Patricia Gowland, RN, MSN, OCN, CCRC,
Executive Director of Cancer Research and Patient
Navigation, Vanguard Health, Chicago, and Associate
Director of Clinical Research, University of Illinois at Chicago
Cancer Center, for her expert counsel and review of
presentation types.
2. J. M. Brown and N. A. Schmidt, “Strategies for Making Oral
Presentations about Clinical Issues: Part I. At the
Workplace,” Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing 40,
no. 4 (2009): 152–53, EBSCOhost.
631
APPENDIX B
1. Patricia Nelson, “Handling Questions and Answers,”
Toastmasters International, Edmonton and Area, revised
November 3, 1999, www.ecn.ab.ca/toast/qa.html.
2. Diane DiResta, Knockout Presentations: How to Deliver Your
Message with Power, Punch, and Pizzazz (Worcester, MA:
Chandler House Press, 1998), 236.
3. DiResta, Knockout Presentations, 237.
4. Lillian Wilder, Talk Your Way to Success (New York: Eastside
Publishing, 1986), 279.
APPENDIX C
1. Patricia Nelson, “Handling Questions and Answers,”
Toastmasters International, Edmonton and Area, revised
November 3, 1999, www.ecn.ab.ca/toast/qa.html.
2. Daria Price Bowman, Presentations: Proven Techniques for
Creating Presentations that Get Results (Holbrook, MA:
Adams Media, 1998), 177.
3. Oklahoma Society of CPAs (OSCPA), “Tips for Successful
Media Interviewing,” accessed June 10, 2006,
www.oscpa.com/Content/page757.
APPENDIX D
1. Erin Meyer, “Tailor Your Presentation to Fit the Culture,”
Harvard Business Review, October 29, 2014,
hbr.org/2014/10/tailor-your-presentation-to-fit-different-
632
cultures.
2. MaryAnn Cunningham Florez, “Improving Adult ESL
Learners’ Pronunciation Skills,” National Center for ESL
Literacy Education, December 1998,
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?
doi=10.1.1.455.7982&rep=rep1&type=pdf.
3. Florez, “Improving Adult ESL Learners’ Pronunciation Skills.”
4. Robert Anholt, Dazzle ’Em with Style: The Art of Oral
Scientific Presentation (New York: W. H. Freeman, 1994),
156.
633
Index
abstract, in poster presentation, 230
abstract language, 120–21
academic articles, review of, 230–31, 241–42,
acceptance, speeches of, 197–98
action step, in motivated sequence, 190
active listening, 30, 31–32, 70
active voice, 123, 149
affirmative side, in debate, 230
after-dinner speeches, 199–200
agenda, for group communication, 214
agora (public square), 4. see also forum
alliteration, 125, 126
American Psychological Association. see APA documentation
system
analogy(ies), 122, 126, 162
in informative speech, 163
reasoning by, 183
warrant by, 183
anaphora, 124–25, 126
anecdotes, 58
anti-group roles, 215
antithesis, 125
anxiety
confidence-boosting strategies for minimizing, 16–18
feedback and, 20
movement for minimizing, 20
634
points of onset of, 15–16
relaxation for minimizing, 18–20
sources of, 14–15
APA documentation system, 256–59
appeal to tradition fallacy, 187
architecture design review, 239
arguments
addressing other side of, 184–85
claims in, 179–80
in debates, 231
defined, 179
dialectical inquiry, 216
in persuasive speeches, 179
Aristotle, 5, 21, 172–73, 174, 182
Armstrong, Neil, 125
arrangement, as canon of rhetoric, 4. see also organization of
speech
arrangement, organizational patterns of, 4
articles, recording and citing, 74. see also citations;
documentation systems
articulation, 134–35, 270–71
arts and humanities courses, presentations in, 243–45
asynchronous communication, 210
attention step, in motivated sequence, 190
attire, appropriate in speeches. see dress (attire)
attitude(s), of audience, 36, 37, 38, 39, 41
attitude scales (scale questions), 45
attribution licenses, 27
audience, 7–8. see also audience analysis
age and, 40
635
alerting to key source information, 72–73
attitudes of, 36, 37, 38, 39, 41
attitudes toward topic and, 37
captive, 38, 39
central processing by, 176–77
common ground with, 113
cultural differences in, 6, 41
cultural orientation of, 178
demographics of, 9, 40–43
engagement with, 128
gaining attention of, 113–14
gauging feelings toward topic, 37–38
inclusion of, 6
income of, 41
interviews and surveys of, 45–46
as listeners, 28–33. see also listening
mixed, 41, 232, 233–34
motivating to care about topic, 115
motivation of, 175
narrowing topic for, 51–55
needs of, 175–76
peripheral processing by, 176–77
persuasive strategies for different types of, 184
psychology of, 36–37
respecting values of, 21–22
sources, perception of, 73
speaker, gauging feelings toward, 38–39
speakers feelings in front of, 14–15
target, 40
tools for learning about, 45–46
636
types in workplace, 232–34
types of, 184
voluntary, 39
workplace types of, 232–34
audience analysis, 9, 36–46
definition of, 9, 36
demographics and, 36, 40–43
diversity of audience and, 43–44
for group presentations, 218
for informative speeches, 158–59
psychographics, 36–39
techniques for learning about audience and, 45–46
audience-centered perspective, 8, 36
audience segmentation, 40
audio clips, 146, 153, 156
averages, statistical, 60
balance, in organization, 83
balance principle, 83
bar graphs, 145
basic sales technique, 224–25. see also Monroe’s motivated
sequence
beliefs of audience, 36, 37, 39, 41
biases, 33, 68
Black English, 135
Black Lives Matter, 47
blogs, 66, 75
body, of speech, 11, 12, 78
body language
delivery of speech, 13, 136–42
637
online, 209
on television, 267
books, citation of, 74. see also citations; documentation systems
brainstorming, 48
Branson, Richard, 17
breathing
anxiety management and, 19–20
voice projection and, 133
Buffett, Warren, on public speaking, 2
business and professional presentations, 222–26
call to action, 117–18, 183, 223

canned speeches, 200
canons of rhetoric, 4–5
captive audience, 38, 39
careers, public speaking in, 2–3
Carrey, Jim, 58
case conference, in nursing and allied health courses, 249
case study
in classroom assignments, 232
clinical, 248
categorical pattern of arrangement, 93–94
causal (cause-effect) pattern of arrangement, 88, 91–92, 130,
165, 188
causal reasoning, 183
cause, warrant by, 183
celebration, special occasion speeches of, 196
central idea (thesis statement), 10, 52–53, 80
central processing of information. see elaboration likelihood
model, 176–77
638
“chartjunk,” 149
charts, as presentation aid, 146
Chicago Manual of Style documentation system, 252–56
chronological pattern of arrangement, 87, 88, 90, 165
Churchill, Winston, and use of pathos, 173
Cicero, 5
citations. see also documentation systems
in oral delivery, 24–25, 72–74
reasons for using, 71
civic organizations, 42
claims, 179–80
clichés, 122
closed-ended questions, 45
co-culture, of audience, 41
code-switching, 123
cognitive restructuring, 18
coherence, of organization, 82
colloquial expressions, 123
color, 151
commemoration, special occasion speeches of, 196
commencement speech, sample of, 201–205
common knowledge, 27, 71
communication
asynchronous, 210
dialogic, 32
ethics of, 21
in groups, 214–17
in informative speech, 160–63
as interactive process, 7–8
mediated, 267–68
639
nonverbal. see body language
process of, 7–8
public speaking as form of, 7
skills of, potential employers and, 3
synchronous, 210
types of, 7
community service learning project, 228–29
comparative advantage pattern of arrangement, 130, 188,
189–90, 224
competence, demonstrating, 21, 174
conclusion (of speech), 11, 12, 32, 78, 116–18, 159
concrete language, 120–21, 162
confidence
in public speaking, 128
strategies for building, 16–20
conflict, 57, 215
connectives. see transitions
connotative meaning, 124
context, 8, 46, 60
conversational skills, drawing on, 5–6
coordinate points, 12, 81. see also main points
copyright, 27, 156
Council of Science Editors. see CSE documentation system
counterarguments, 184–85
CQ Researcher, 49
Creative Commons, 26, 27
credibility. see also initial credibility, derived credibility,
terminal credibility
of sources, 21, 58, 72–73
of speaker, 21, 23, 115, 174, 177–78
640
of testimony, 58
words for, 122–24
critical audience, 184
critical thinking, 31–32
cross-cultural values, adapting to, 43–44
CSE documentation system, 262–64
cultural background, of audience, 41
cultural differences, 6, 31, 43–44
cultural sensitivity
in language, 123–24
in listening, 30–31
culture, 6, 31, 41, 178
current events, exploring topics and, 47
DACA program, 47
Darbelnet, Robert L., 114
data. see information
databases
full-text, 62
of general search engines, 48–49
subject-specific, 49
debates, 230–31, 245
decision making, in groups, 216
declarative sentence, main point as, 79–80
decoding, in communication model, 7, 8
deep (invisible) web, 62
defamatory speech (slander), 23
defensive listening, 30
definition, in informative speech, 161–62
delivery cues, 98, 105
641
delivery of speech
body language and, 136–42
definition of, 5
effective, 128
methods of, 128–32
nonverbal, 13
online, 208–14
planning and practicing for, 13, 139, 142
practicing, 13
speaking outline for, 13, 105–109
voice control in, 132–36
demographics, audience, 9, 36–37, 40–43, 84
demonstration, in informative speech, 162
denotative meaning, 124
derivative works, copyright and, 27
derived credibility, 178
description, in informative speech, 162
devil’s advocacy argument, 216
Dewey, John, six-step reflective thinking process of, 217
diagram, 145
dialectical inquiry, 216
dialects, 30, 135–36
dialogic communication, 32
digital collections, 62, 66. see also library portals
digital projectors, 147
dignity, as foundation of ethical speech, 23
directive leadership style, 215
direct quotation, 24, 25, 26
disability, of audience members, 43
disinformation, recognizing, 63, 64
642
displays, methods of, 147–48
distractions
during speech delivery, 8, 30
listening and, 29
diversity of audience, 43–44. see also cultural background, of
audience
DLP projectors, 147
APA, 256–59
Chicago Manual of Style, 252–56
CSE, 262–64
IEEE, 264–65
MLA, 259–62
Dominque, Zachary, 98, 106
dress (attire), 267–68
Drori, Jonathan, 56
dyadic communication, 7
education courses, presentations in, 245–47

education level, of audience, 41–42
Ehlers, Vernon, 56
elaboration likelihood model of persuasion
central processing of information, 176–77
peripheral processing of information, 176–77
electronic resources, 61–70. see also sources
emotions, 39, 172, 173
encoding, 7, 8
encyclopedias, 70
engagement with audience, 128
engineering design review, 239
643
English language. see language; non-native speakers of English
entertainment, speeches of, 196
enthusiasm, 128, 209
epiphora (epistrophe), 125, 126
equipment, for online presentations, 209
ESL. see non-native speakers of English
ethics, 21–27
character of speaker, 172, 174
definition of, 21
ethos of speaker and, 21
fair use, copyright, and, 27
free speech rights and, 22–23
ground rules for, 23–24
plagiarism and, 24–26
positive public discourse and, 22
in public speaking, 21–27
respect for listeners’ values and, 21–22
statistics and, 60–61
ethnicity and cultural background, of audience, 41
ethos
as demonstration of positive character, 21
as used in classical persuasive appeal, 174
eulogy(ies), 199
evidence
in arguments, 179
evaluation of, 32–33
in persuasive speech, 181–82
evidence-based practice (EBP) presentation, 248
example, definition by, 162
examples, 56–57
644
expert testimony, 58, 76
expertise, of speaker, 65, 181
explanation, in informative speech, 162–63
extemporaneous speaking, 130–31
external distractions, 29
external evidence, 181. see also secondary sources
eye contact
during speeches, 13, 137–38
key-word outlines for, 97
memorization and, 129
on television, 267
eyewitness testimony, 58
facial expressions, of speaker, 137

fact, claims of, 180
facts, 58–59. see also citations; documentation systems
claims of, 179
definition of, 58–59
propositions of, 231
summarizing and assessing, 33
as supporting material, 58–61
using watchdog sites to check, 64
fair use, 27
Creative Commons licensing for, 27
for presentation software materials, 156
fallacies, in reasoning, 186–87
false dichotomy fallacy, 186
faulty analogy, 122, 187
feedback
constructive and compassionate, 33
645
definition of, 7
for improvement of speeches, 20
feedback loop, 33
Ferrell, Will, 201
field study presentation, 236–37
fight or flight response, 19
“fighting words,” as illegal speech, 23
figures of speech, 121–22
First Amendment, 22–23
fixed-alternative questions, 45
Flickr Creative Commons, 153
flip charts, 147
flowcharts, 146
flowing the debate, 231
fonts, for presentation aids, 150
forum, 5, 221. see also agora
Francis, Pope, 64
free speech, rights of, 22–23
frequency, statistical, 59
full-sentence transitions, 83
Gates, Melinda French, 57–58

gender, of audience, 42, 123
gender-neutral language, 124
general speech purpose, 10, 49–50. see also specific speech
purpose
generational identity of audience, 40
gestures, 13, 20, 138
goals. see purpose of speech
Google, 48, 49, 62, 153, 211
646
graphs, 145
group activity presentation, 247
group leaders, 218
group presentations, 218–21
groups
active participation in, 216
communication in, 214–17
decision making in, 216
Dewey’s six-step reflective thinking process for, 217
presentations by, 218–21
groupthink, 215
Hahn, Jacob, 191

handouts, 147
hasty generalization fallacy, 186
hate speech, 22
health courses, presentations in, 247–49
hearing, vs. listening, 28
heckler’s veto, 23
HeForShe campaign, 117–18
hierarchy of needs (Maslow), 175–76
Hofstede, Geert, 44
hostile audience, 184
humanities courses, presentations in, 243–45
humor
in after-dinner speeches, 200
in introduction, 114
hypothetical examples, 56–57
identification, between speaker and audience, 38–39
647
idioms, 123
IEEE documentation system, 264–65
imagery, 121, 162, 173
images, digital, 153
immediacy, nonverbal, 138–39
immigrants, attitudes toward, 22
impromptu speaking, 129–30, 131
incitement (“fighting words”), 23
inclusive language, 123–24
indentation in outlines, 81
individual debate format, 230
information. see also sources
checking accuracy of, 63
definition of, 63
facts and statistics as, 58–61
key source, offering, 76
vs. propaganda, misinformation, and disinformation, 63–64
quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing, 25–26
informative speeches, 158–71
audience analysis, 158–59
communication strategies in, 160–63
confusion, reducing, 163–65
definition in, 161–62
explaining complex information in, 163
general purpose of, 50
increasing understanding in, 159–60
organizational patterns in, 165
purpose of, 50, 51, 53
sample of, 166–71
subject categories, 161
648
subject matter of, 160
thesis statement in, 53
initial credibility, 177–78
insider audience, 41, 232
inspiration, special occasion speeches of, 196, 200, 201–205
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. see IEEE
documentation system
integrity, as foundation of ethical speech, 23
internal distractions, 29
internal preview, 86
internal previews and summaries, as transitions, 86, 159
internal summary, 86
internet. see also websites
deep (invisible) web and, 62
sources and, 61–70
topic selection and, 48–49
interviews. see also citations; documentation systems
of audience members, 39, 45
media, 268
oral citation for, 76
as source material, 66–67, 70
intonation, 132–33
introduction, speeches of, 196–97, 198
introductions
listening for, 31
motivating audience with, 159
preparing, 112–15
purpose of, 11–12, 78
invective, 22
invention, as canon of rhetoric, 4
649
iTunes, 211
Jackson, Jesse, 125

Jamendo, 153
jargon, 119
Jefferson, Thomas, 71
Jesus, 124
job interviews, audience analysis and, 39
journal article review, 228
key-word outline, 97
King, Martin Luther Jr., 124, 134
Kluge, Holger, 117
language
abstract, 120–21
active and passive voice in, 123
alliterative, 125
for building credibility, 122–24
concrete, 120–21, 162
culturally sensitive, 123–24
denotative vs. connotative meaning and, 124
figures of speech in, 121–22
gender-neutral, 124
imagery in, 121
oral style of, 6, 119–20
repetition and, 119, 124–25
rhetorical devices and, 124–26
simplicity in, 119
vernacular, 122–23
650
language patterns, in dialects, 135–36
lavaliere microphone, 136
lay audience, 41, 232, 233
lay testimony, 58, 76
lazy speech, 135
LCD panels, 147
leadership styles, 215–17
leading questions, interviews and, 67
learning framework, 246
learning styles, appealing to in speeches, 164–65
lectures, 246–47
library portals, 62
licenses, for copyrighted works, 27
Lincoln, Abraham, 125
Lincoln-Douglas (L-D) format, 231
line graph, 145
listeners. see audience; listening
listening
active, 30, 31–32, 70
cultural barriers to, 30–31
defensive, 30
definition of, 28
distractions to, 29
evaluation of evidence and reasoning during, 32–33
feedback loop and, 33
goals, setting, 31–32
importance of, 28
obstacles to, 29–31
responsibly, 32
selective, 29
651
strategies for in interviews, 70
styles, cultural differences and, 31
literature review, in social sciences, 241–42
loaded questions, interviews and, 67
logical fallacies, 185–87
logos, as classical persuasive appeal, 172–73, 174
magazine articles, oral citation of, 74

main ideas, listening for, 32
main points
in conclusion, 117
as declarative sentences, 79–80
developing, 11
identifying and retaining, 32
organizing, 78–80
outlining of, 12–13
in parallel form, 79–80
preview of, 114–15
restricting number of, 79–80
transitions between, 83
malapropisms, 123
manuscript, speaking from, 129, 131
maps, as presentation aids, 145
Maslow, Abraham, hierarchy of needs by, 175–76
mass communication, 7
mathematics courses, presentations in, 234–37
Matthew (Bible), 123
McClellan, Mark B., 97
McEwan, Ian, 56
mean, statistical, 60
652
meaning
denotative and connotative, 124
shared, 8
Mease, Paige, 16
media files, online, 146, 156
media interview, 268
median, in statistics, 60
mediated communication, 267–68
meditation, for anxiety management, 19
medium (channel), 7
memory, speaking from, 5, 129, 131
mental engagement, of audience, 176–77
message, 7
metaphors, 122, 126
microphone, using, 136
Microsoft PowerPoint, 147, 148, 152, 154–55, 210, 212
mind (topic) mapping, 48, 49
misinformation, recognizing, 63, 64
mixed audience, 41, 232, 233–34
mixed metaphors, 122
MLA documentation system, 259–62
mode, in statistics, 60
models, as presentation aid, 144
moderators, 214, 220
Modern Language Association. see MLA documentation system
monologue, 32
Monroe, Alan, 190
Monroe’s motivated sequence, 190, 224–25
sample persuasive speech using, 191–95
Morris, Lee, 15
653
motivated sequence pattern. see Monroe’s motivated sequence
motivational warrants, 182
movement, 19–20, 139. see also body language
multimedia, 146
multitasking, while listening, 30
mumbling, 134, 135
music files, digital, 146, 153, 156
narrative, sharing of 57–58. see also story (narrative)

narrative pattern of arrangement, 89, 94–95
narrowing topics, 51–54
National Issues Forum Institute, 5
naturalness, in speech, 128, 209
need step, in motivated sequence, 190
needs, Maslow’s hierarchy of, 175–76
neutral questions, 67
noise, interference of message and, 7–8
non-native speakers of English, tips for, 269–72
nonverbal behavior, in team presentations, 219
nonverbal communication, 136. see also body language
nonverbal delivery, 13. see also body language
nonverbal immediacy, 138–39
Noonan, Peggy, 119
norms, cultural. see culture
nursing and allied health courses, presentations in, 247–49
Obama, Barack, 125, 198

Obama, Michelle, 119
offensive speech, avoiding, 23
Oliver, James, 114
654
one-sided message, 184
online-only publications, citations for, 75. see also citations;
online presentations
delivery modes for, 210
equipment for, 209
formats for, 210–14
planning checklist for, 213–14
unique demands of, 208–10
visual aids, 209–10
vocal variety, 209
online sources. see also internet; websites
from library portal, 62
primary and secondary sources, 64–70
propaganda, misinformation, and disinformation in, 63–64
online video, citations for, 75. see also citations; documentation
systems
on-the-job audiences, addressing, 41
open-ended questions, 45–46
opinion polls, 46. see also surveys
oral citations, 24–26, 72–73, 74–76
oral paraphrase, 25
oral style, 5–6, 119–20
oral summary, 25
oratory, 4–5, 129
organization. see also outlines; patterns of organization
of informative speeches, 165
main points in, 78–80
of persuasive speeches, 185–91
655
of speech body, 78–86
supporting points in, 80–81
transitions and, 83–86
for unity, coherence, and balance, 82–83
organizational patterns, 13, 87–95
blending of, 92
categorical, 93–94
causal, 88, 91–92, 130, 165, 188
comparative advantage, 130, 188, 189–90, 224
motivated sequence, 188, 190
narrative, 89, 94–95
problem-cause-solution pattern, 224
problem-solution, 89, 92–93, 130, 165, 185, 187–89, 224
refutation, 191
spatial, 88, 90–91, 239
temporal, 87, 88, 90, 165
topical, 89, 93–94, 165
outlines, 12–13, 78
coordination and subordination in, 81–82
key-word, 97
phrase, 97
roman numeral, 81
sentence, 96–97
speaking, 13, 96–97, 105–109
working, 12–13, 96–97, 97–105
panel discussions, 220

parallel form, 79–80
parallelism, 125, 126, 160, 173
paraphrases, 25–26, 70. see also citations; documentation
656
systems
Parkland, Florida, school shooting, 4
participative leadership style, 215
passive voice, 123
pathos, as classical persuasive appeal, 172, 173, 174
pauses, in speaking, 134
people-oriented listening style, 31
percentages, statistical, 59
performance anxiety, 16. see also anxiety
peripheral processing of information, 176–77
perjury, 23
personal knowledge/experience, as primary source, 65, 181
personal pronouns, 39, 120
persons with disabilities (PWD), in audience, 43
persuasive appeals
Aristotle’s, 174
to needs and motivations, 175–78
persuasive speeches
arguments in, 179
claims in, 179
classical appeals in, 172–74
counterarguments in, 184–85
credibility in, 174
culture and, 178
evidence in, 181–82
human psychology, appeals to, 171–72
vs. informative speeches, 158
logical fallacies and, 186–87
mental engagement in, 176–77
657
needs and motivations, appeals to, 175–78
organization of, 185–91
reason and emotion in, 174
sample of, 191–95
thesis statement in, 53
warrants in, 179, 182–83
phrase outline, 97
phrases, 83, 120
pictograms, 145
pictures, 145
pie graphs, 145
pitch, vocal, 132–33
plagiarism, 24–26
podcast, 211–12
point of view of audience. see audience analysis
points. see main points; supporting points
policy, claims of, 180, 188
policy proposal presentation, 242–43
political affiliation, of audience, 42
polls, opinion, 46. see also surveys
popping, 136
Porod, Wolfgang, 163
positive ethos, 21
poster presentation, 229–30
posters, 145
posture, 139
practicing, 13, 17, 20, 139–42, 219
preparation anxiety, 15–16
preparation outline. see working outline
pre-performance anxiety, 16
658
pre-preparation anxiety, 15
presentation aids, 160. see also software, presentation
citing sources in, 75
design of, 148–49
display options for, 147–48
for group presentations, 219
media files as, 153, 156
for online presentations, 209–10
type of, 144–46
presentational speaking, compared to public speaking, 222
presentations. see also special occasion speeches
in arts and humanities courses, 243–45
business and professional, 222–26
compare and contrast, 244–45
debates as, 230–31, 245
in education courses, 245–47
group, 214–17
journal article review as, 228
in nursing and allied health courses, 247–49
online, 208–14
poster session as, 229–30
program evaluation as, 242
vs. public speeches, 222
in science and mathematics courses, 234–37
service learning talk as, 228–29
in social science courses, 240–43
in technical courses, 237–40
presidential campaign of 2016, 64
previews
of main points, 114–15
659
of topic and purpose, 114–15
as transitions, 86
preview statements, 86
primacy effect, 79
primary sources, 62, 64–67, 70
print articles, oral citation of, 74. see also citations;
print sources, from library portal, 62
problem-cause-solution-feasibility pattern, 189
problem-cause-solution pattern, 188–89, 224
problem-solution pattern of arrangement, 89, 92–93, 130, 165,
185, 187–89, 224
process analysis presentations, 236
productive conflict, 215
professional presentations, 222–26
program evaluation presentation, 242
progress reports, 226
projectors, 147
pronouns
gender and, 124
personal, 120
pronunciation, 134–35, 270–71
propaganda, 63
proposals
in businesses, 222–24
policy, 242–43
quality improvement, 249
proposition, 179
props, 144
prototype, 239
660
public discourse, contributing to, 22
public domain, copyright laws and, 27
public forum, 5, 221
public speaking, 2–8
advantages of learning, 2–4
classical roots of, 4–5
conversing, writing and, 4–5
definition of, 7
ethical, 21–27
as interactive communication process, 7–8
learning, 5–6
life skill of, 2–4
reasons to study, 2–4
recognizing and overcoming fears about, 16
steps in process of, 9–13
public-speaking anxiety (PSA), 14–20. see also anxiety
Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association.
see APA documentation system
purpose of speech, 8, 11, 32
in conclusion, 117
general, 10, 49–50
identification of, 49–50
in introduction, 114–15
refining, 51–53
specific, 10, 51–52
PWD. see persons with disabilities (PWD)
quality improvement proposal, 249

question-and-answer sessions, 265–66
questions. see also rhetorical questions
661
closed-ended, 45
fixed-alternative, 45
hostile, handling, 266
in interviews, 66–67
leading, 67
loaded, 67
neutral, 67
open-ended, 45–46
scale, 45
structured, 45
unstructured, 45
vague, 67
quotations. see also citations; documentation systems
direct, 24, 25, 26
plagiarism and, 25–26
radio programs
oral citations of, 75
speaking on, 268
rate of speaking, 133–34
real-time presentations, 210
reason, appeals to in persuasive speech, 172–73
reasoning, evaluation of, 32–33
receiver (audience), 7, 8
recency effect, 79
reckless disregard for the truth, as illegal speech, 23
recorded presentations, 210
reference works, 62, 70, 74
662
reflective thinking, Dewey’s six-step method of, 217
refutation, as organizational pattern, 191
rehearsal, of group presentations, 219
relaxation response, 18–20
reliability of sources, 60
religion, of audience, 42
repetition, 6, 119, 124–25, 160, 173
reports, as business and professional presentations, 222–24,
225–26
request for funding presentation, 239–40
request for proposal (RFP), 223
research, 61–62, 65–67, 240. see also sources
research presentation, 235–36, 237
resolution, 57, 230, 231
respect, 6, 21–22, 24
responsibility
of listener, 32
of speaker, 24
review-of-the-literature presentation, 241–42
rhetoric (oratory), 4–5, 129
rhetorical devices, 119, 124–26, 160
rhetorical questions, 114
rhetorical situation, 8, 46
rhythm, repetition for, 124–25
roast, as speech, 198
roles
in group presentations, 218
in groups, 214–15
roman numeral outlines, 81
663
rough outline. see working outline
Runyon, Marvin, 114
Safire, William, 113

sales proposal (sales pitch), 224–25
Sandberg, Sheryl, 120
Sanford, Jenna, 20
sans serif typefaces, 150
satisfaction step, in motivated sequence, 190
scale questions, 45
scanning, 138
schematic drawing, 145
school shootings, 4
science courses, presentation in, 234–37
scientific talk, 235–36, 237
screencast, 211
scriptwriting, while listening, 30
search engines, 49, 62, 66, 49
secondary sources, 64–67, 70, 181
selective perception, 29
self-talk, 16, 17
sender (source), 7
sentence fragments, 120
sentence outline format, 96–97
serif typefaces, 150
service learning presentation, 228–29
SES. see socioeconomic status
setting of speech, 46
sexist language, avoiding, 42
shared meaning, 8
664
shift report, in nursing and allied health courses, 249
simile, 121, 126
six-by-six rule, of visual design, 148
skills, most important to employers, 3
slander, as illegal speech, 23
small group communication, 7, 214
smiling, 137
social community (co-culture), 41
social roles, in groups, 214–15
social science courses, presentation speeches in, 240–43
socioeconomic status (SES) of audience, 41–42
software, presentation, 152–56, 209
source (sender) of message, 7, 8
source qualifiers, 73
sources. see also citations; documentation systems;
information; research; supporting materials
citing, 25–26, 71–76
credibility of, 21, 72–73
on library portals, 62
in presentation aids, 75
primary sources, 64–67, 70
print and online, 61–70
qualifiers of, 73
secondary sources, 64–65, 70, 181
types of, 74–76
Spanglish, 135–36
spatial pattern of arrangement, 88, 90–91, 239
speaker. see also anxiety
audience’s feelings toward, 37–39
credibility of, 115, 174, 177–78
665
expertise of, 65, 181
speaking outline, 13
sample of, 105–109
steps in creating, 96
types of, 96–97
speaking rate, 133–34
special occasion speeches, 195–205
of acceptance, 197–98
after-dinner, 199–200
to celebrate, 196
to commemorate, 196
to entertain, 196
eulogies and other tributes as, 199
functions of, 195–96
to inspire, 196, 200, 201–205
of introduction, 196–97, 198
of presentation, 198
roast as, 198
sample, 201–205
to set social agendas, 196
toast as, 198
specific speech purpose, 8, 10
narrowing topic for, 51–54
vs. thesis statement, 52–53
speculative claim, 180
speech anxiety. see anxiety
speech points. see main points; supporting points
staff reports, 225–26
Standard English, 135
666
statistics, 58–61
stereotypes, 24
story (narrative). see also narrative pattern
sharing of, 57–58
stress. see anxiety
stress-control breathing, to reduce anxiety, 19–20
stretching, pre-speech jitters and, 19
structured (closed-ended) questions, 45
style, in use of language, 5–6, 33
subject matter, of informative speeches, 160
subject-specific databases, 49
subordinate points, 12, 81, 12, 13, 81
subordination, in outlines, 81–82
substantive warrants, 182–83
summaries, 25–26, 86
supporting materials. see also citations; sources
development of, 56–61
examples as, 56–57
facts and statistics as, 58–61
stories as, 57–58
target audience and, 40
testimonies as, 58
using variety of, 58
supporting points, 80–81
supportive leadership style, 215
surveys
of audience members, 45–46
in primary research, 70
667
sympathetic audience, 184
symposium, 220
synchronous communication, 210
tables, 146
talking head, 139
target audience, 40
task roles, in groups, 214
team leader, 218
team presentations. see group presentations
technical presentations, 237–40
television programs
oral citations of, 75
speaking on, 267–68
temporal (chronological) pattern of arrangement, 87, 88, 90, 165
terminal credibility, 178
testimonies, 58, 76
thesis statement, 10, 52–53, 61–62, 80
toast, as special occasion speech, 198
topic (mind) mapping, 48, 49, 51, 54
topical pattern of arrangement, 89, 93–94, 165
topics
brainstorming, 48
in conclusion, 117
gauging listeners’ feelings toward, 37–38
identifying, 47–49, 53
in introduction, 114–15
listeners’ feelings toward, 37–38
motivating audience to care about, 115
narrowing of, 51, 54–55
668
selecting, 9–10, 47–55
town hall meeting, 221
transitions, 11, 32, 159
to signal end of speech, 116
between team speakers, 218–19
using, 83–86
treatment plan reports, in nursing and allied health courses,
249
tributes, speeches as, 199
Trump, Donald J., 64, 125
trustworthiness, 23, 69, 72–73. see also credibility
truth, reckless disregard for, 23
Tufte, Edward, 149
two-sided message, 184
typefaces, for presentation aids, 150
unbiased language, 123–24

underlining, in presentation aids, 150
uninformed audience, 184
unity, of organization, 82
unstructured (open-ended) questions, 45
urban legends, 64
vague questions, interviews and, 67

values, 36, 37, 173
of audience, 21–22, 36, 37, 43–44
claims of, 180
cross-cultural, 43–44
propositions of, 231
universal, 44
669
verbs, active (strong) and passive, 121, 123
vernacular language, 122–23
video capture software, 210
videorecording of speech practice, 142
videos, online, 75, 146, 156, 210–11. see also citations;
Villarreal, Elpidio, 117
virtual presentations. see online presentations
visual aids. see presentation aids
visualization, for anxiety management, 18
visualization step, in motivated sequence, 190
vocal fillers, 134
vocal variety, in online presentations, 209
vodcast, 211–12
voice, active and passive, 123
voice control
in speaking, 132–36
on television, 267
voice projection, 133
volume, of speaking, 132
voluntary audience, 39
warrant (in arguments), 179

authoritative, 182
motivational, 182
substantive, 182–83
watchdog websites, 64
webinars, 213
weblogs. see blogs
websites. see also citations; documentation systems; internet
670
on copyright, 27
creative communications, 27
for digital media, 153, 156
for global opinion polls, 44
oral citation of, 75
speeches online, 65, 70
watchdog, 64
whiteboards, 147
white space, in presentation aids, 149
Wikipedia, 70
Wilson, Phil, 122
word association, for brainstorming, 48
word origin, definition by, 162
words. see also language
pronunciation and articulation of, 134–35, 270–71
transitional, 83
working outline, 12–13, 96–105
workplace, audience types in,
colleagues within the field, 232
expert or insider, 232
lay, 232, 233
mixed, 233–34
works cited. see citations
671
QUICK TIPS
Voice Your Ideas in a Public Forum
Speak with Purpose
Be Aware of Your Nonverbal Delivery
Envision Your Speech as a Conversation
Stretch Away Stress
Enjoy the Occasion
Beware the Heckler’s Veto
Succeed by Listening
Listening Styles and Cultural Differences
Listen Responsibly
Rise to the Top of the Applicant Pool with Audience Analysis
Addressing On-the-Job Audiences
Be Sensitive to Disability When Analyzing an Audience
Jump-Start Your Search Using Trusted Websites
To Identify the General Speech Purpose, Consider the Occasion
Share Stories That Make an Impact
Use a Variety of Supporting Materials
Use Watchdog Sites to Check the Facts
Common Knowledge and Uncommon Facts
Consider Audience Perception of Sources
Credit Sources in Presentation Aids
Save the Best for Last—or First
Blend Organizational Patterns
Find Freedom with the Topical Pattern
Show Them the Transformation
Bring Your Speech Full Circle
Experiment with Phrases and Sentence Fragments
Denotative versus Connotative Meaning
672
Breathe from Your Diaphragm
Use a Natural Conversational Pace
Use Movement to Connect
Record Two Practice Sessions
Reasons to Use Video as an Aid
Hold the Handouts
Beware of “Chartjunk”
Using Serif and Sans Serif Type
Enlighten Rather Than Advocate
Don’t Overwhelm the Audience
Make the Introduction Motivating
Use Analogies Accurately
Base Emotional Appeals on Sound Reasoning
Include a Call to Action
Respond to the Introduction
Commemorate Life — Not Death
Focus on Projecting Enthusiasm and Naturalness
Put a Face to the Speaker(s)
Optimize Decision Making in Groups
Be Mindful of Your Nonverbal Behavior
Flowing the Debate
What Do Science-Related Courses Include?
Get to the Point
What Are the Technical Disciplines?
Avoid These Technical Presentation Pitfalls
Narrow Your Topic
Disciplines in the Arts and Humanities
Be Prepared to Lead a Discussion
Focus on Interactive Learning
673
SAMPLE SPEECHES
Informative Speech
Going Carbon Neutral on Campus, Saundra Dixon

Student Saundra Dixon educates her audience about the
campus movement toward zero carbon emissions.
Persuasive Speech
Becoming a Socially Conscious Consumer, Jacob Hahn

Organizing his speech using Monroe’s motivated sequence
pattern, student Jacob Hahn argues that consumers share a
responsibility to ensure safer conditions for workers.
Special Occasion Speech
2017 University of Southern California Commencement

Address, Will Ferrell
Actor and comedian Will Ferrell delivers a heartfelt,
humorous, and inspirational address to the University of
Southern California graduating class of 2017.
VISUAL GUIDES
Selecting a Topic
From Source to Speech: Narrowing Your Topic to Fit Your

Audience
Finding Credible Sources on the Internet
674
From Source to Speech: Evaluating Web Sources
Organizing the Speech
From Point to Point: Using Transitions to Guide Your Listeners
Your Body in Delivery
From Weak to Confident Delivery: Enhancing Your Delivery

with Body Language
A Brief Guide to Presentation Software
From Slide Show to Presentation: Getting Ready to Deliver a

PowerPoint, Keynote, or Prezi Presentation
CHECKLISTS
Getting Started
Steps in Gaining Confidence

Correctly Quote, Paraphrase, and Summarize Information
Dealing with Distractions While Delivering a Speech
Development
Appeal to Audience Attitudes, Beliefs, and Values

Reviewing Your Speech in the Light of Audience Demographics
Analyzing the Speech Situation
Identifying the Speech Topic, Purpose, and Thesis
675
Evaluating Your Research Needs
Finding Speeches Online
Preparing for the Interview
Offering Key Source Information
Organization
Reviewing Main and Supporting Points

Use Transitional Words and Phrases
Determining an Organizational Pattern
Steps in Creating a Speaking Outline
Starting, Finishing, and Styling
Guidelines for Preparing the Introduction

How Effective Is Your Introduction?
Guidelines for Preparing the Conclusion
How Effective Is Your Conclusion?
Using Effective Oral Style
Delivery
Tips for Successful Delivery

Practice Check for Vocal Effectiveness
Tips on Using a Microphone
Tips for Using Effective Facial Expressions
Using Gestures Effectively
Presentation Aids
Create Effective Line, Bar, and Pie Graphs
676
Incorporating Presentation Aids into Your Speech
Apply the Principles of Simplicity and Continuity
Tips for Successfully Using Presentation Software in Your
Speech
Types of Speeches
Strategies for Explaining Complex Information

Tips for Increasing Speaker Credibility
Identify the Nature of Your Claim
Strategies for Addressing Counterarguments
Guidelines for Introducing Other Speakers
Online, Group, and Business Contexts
Creating a Podcast
Online Presentation Planning
Group Presentation Tips
Using Monroe’s Motivated Sequence in a Sales Proposal
Speaking in Other College Courses
Tips on Presenting to a Mixed Audience

Steps in Preparing a Focused Scientific Presentation
677
Speech Videos
Go to LaunchPad: launchpadworks.com to find over 120 video

clips, including model speech clips and “needs improvement”
clips, on a variety of speech topics that show you how to
improve your technique and deliver a strong, effective speech.
Here is a list of
topics and the
number of videos
available for each
one:
Ethics (2)
Audience
Analysis (3)
Supporting
Material (14)
Choosing a
Topic (2)
Organization (17)
Thesis Statement (4)
Introductions (5)
Conclusions (6)
Language (11)
678
Methods of
Delivery (7)
Body in
Delivery (2)
Vocal Delivery
(7)
Full Speeches
of Introduction
(2)
Full
Informative
Speeches (6)
Full
Persuasive
Speeches (4)
Full Special
Occasion
Speeches (2)
Argument (12)
Presentation
Aids (7)
679
680
681
目录
About this Book 2
Cover Page 2
Title Page 5
Copyright Page 6
Coverage in A Pocket Guide to Public Speaking, Sixth Edition,
8
Correlated with NCA’s Learning Outcomes in Communication
How to Use the Book and Digital Resources 11
Preface 17
Brief Contents 29
Contents 32
Part 1 Getting Started 40
Chapter 1 Becoming a Public Speaker 42
Gain a Vital Life Skill 43
Advance Your Professional Goals 43
Enhance Your Career as a Student 44
Find New Opportunities for Civic Engagement 45
The Classical Roots of Public Speaking 47
Learning to Speak in Public 49
Draw on Conversational Skills 49
Draw on Skills in Composition 50
Develop an Effective Oral Style 50
Demonstrate Respect for Difference 51
Public Speaking as a Form of Communication 52
Public Speaking as an Interactive Communication Process 53
Chapter 2 From A to Z: Overview of a Speech 56
Analyze the Audience 57
Select a Topic 58
Determine the Speech Purpose 59
Compose a Thesis Statement 60
Develop the Main Points 62
Gather Supporting Materials 63
Arrange the Speech into Its Major Parts 64
682
Outline the Speech 66
Consider Presentation Aids 68
Practice Delivering the Speech 69
Chapter 3 Managing Speech Anxiety 70
Identify What Makes You Anxious 71
Lack of Positive Experience 71
Feeling Different 72
Being the Center of Attention 72
Pinpoint the Onset of Anxiety 73
Pre-Preparation Anxiety 73
Preparation Anxiety 73
Pre-Performance Anxiety 74
Performance Anxiety 75
Use Proven Strategies to Build Your Confidence 76
Prepare and Practice 76
Modify Thoughts and Attitudes 76
Visualize Success 78
Activate the Relaxation Response 80
Briefly Meditate 80
Use Stress-Control Breathing 81
Use Movement to Minimize Anxiety 83
Learn from Feedback 84
Chapter 4 Ethical Public Speaking 85
Demonstrate Competence and Character 86
Respect Your Listeners’ Values 87
Contribute to Positive Public Discourse 88
Use Your Rights of Free Speech Responsibly 89
Observe Ethical Ground Rules 91
Be Trustworthy 91
Demonstrate Respect 91
Make Responsible Speech Choices 92
Demonstrate Fairness 92
Be Civic-Minded 92
Avoid Plagiarism 93
683
Orally Acknowledge Your Sources 93
Citing Quotations, Paraphrases, and Summaries 93
Fair Use, Copyright, and Ethical Speaking 97
Chapter 5 Listeners and Speakers 99
Recognize the Centrality of Listening 100
Recognize That We Listen Selectively 102
Anticipate Obstacles to Listening 103
Minimize External and Internal Distractions 103
Refrain from Multitasking 104
Guard against Scriptwriting and Defensive Listening 105
Beware of Laziness and Overconfidence 105
Work to Overcome Cultural Barriers 105
Practice Active Listening 107
Set Listening Goals 107
Listen for Main Ideas 108
Strive for the Open and Respectful Exchange of Ideas 109
Evaluate Evidence and Reasoning 110
Offer Constructive and Compassionate Feedback 111
Part 2 Development 112
Chapter 6 Analyzing the Audience 114
Adapt to Audience Psychology: Who Are Your Listeners? 115
“If the Value Fits, Use It” 116
Gauge Listeners’ Feelings toward the Topic 117
Gauge Listeners’ Feelings toward You as the Speaker 118
Gauge Listeners’ Feelings toward the Occasion 120
Adapt Your Message to Audience Demographics 121
Age 121
Ethnic and Cultural Background 122
Socioeconomic Status 123
Religion 124
Political Affiliation 125
Gender and Sexual Orientation 125
Group Affiliations 126
Adapt to Diverse Audiences 127
684
Adapt to Cross-Cultural Values 128
Focus on Universal Values 129
Tools for Learning About Your Audience 130
Conduct Interviews 130
Survey the Audience 130
Consult Published Sources 132
Analyze the Speech Setting and Context 134
Chapter 7 Selecting a Topic and Purpose 135
Explore Topics for Your Speech 136
Identify Personal Interests 136
Consider Current Events and Controversial Issues 137
Survey Grassroots Issues: Engage the Community 137
Steer Clear of Overused and Trivial Topics 137
Try Brainstorming to Generate Ideas 138
Use Internet Tools 139
Identify the General Purpose of Your Speech 141
Refine the Topic and Purpose 143
Narrow Your Topic 143
Form a Specific Speech Purpose 144
Compose a Thesis Statement 145
From Source to Speech: Narrowing Your Topic to Fit Your
148
Audience
Chapter 8 Developing Supporting Material 152
Offer Examples 153
Share Stories 155
Draw on Testimony 158
Provide Facts and Statistics 159
Use Statistics Accurately 159
Use Statistics Selectively—and Memorably 162
Present Statistics Ethically 162
Chapter 9 Finding Credible Sources in Print and Online 164
Assess Your Research Needs 165
Use Library Portals to Access Credible Sources 166
Recognize Propaganda, Misinformation, and Disinformation 168
685
Investigate a Mix of Primary and Secondary Sources 171
Explore Primary Sources 171
Explore Secondary Sources 177
From Source to Speech: Evaluating Web Sources 179
Chapter 10 Citing Sources in Your Speech 182
Alert Listeners to Key Source Information 184
Establish the Source’s Trustworthiness 185
Qualify the Source 186
Avoid a Mechanical Delivery 187
Vary the Wording 187
Vary the Order 187
Types of Sources and Sample Oral Citations 188
Book 188
Reference Work 189
Article in a Journal, Newspaper, or Magazine 189
Website 189
Blog 190
Television or Radio Program 190
Online Video 191
Testimony (Lay or Expert) 191
Interview and Other Personal Communication 192
Part 3 Organization 193
Chapter 11 Organizing the Body of the Speech 195
Use Main Points to Make Your Major Claims 196
Restrict the Number of Main Points 196
Restrict Each Main Point to a Single Idea 197
Use the Purpose and Thesis Statements as Guides 198
Use Supporting Points to Substantiate Your Claims 200
Pay Close Attention to Coordination and Subordination 202
Principles of Coordination and Subordination 202
Strive for a Unified, Coherent, and Balanced Organization 203
Use Transitions to Give Direction to the Speech 205
Use Transitions between Speech Points 205
Use Internal Previews and Summaries as Transitions 206
686
From Point to Point: Using Transitions to Guide Your 208
Listeners
Chapter 12 Selecting an Organizational Pattern 211
Arranging Speech Points Chronologically 212
Arranging Speech Points Using a Spatial Pattern 215
Arranging Speech Points Using a Causal (Cause-Effect)
216
Pattern
Arranging Speech Points Using a Problem-Solution Pattern 218
Arranging Speech Points Topically 220
Arranging Speech Points Using a Narrative Pattern 222
Chapter 13 Preparing Outlines for the Speech 224
Plan on Creating Two Outlines 225
Use Sentences, Phrases, or Key Words 227
Use a Key-Word Outline for Optimal Eye Contact 228
Create a Working Outline First 229
Prepare a Speaking Outline for Delivery 241
Part 4 Starting, Finishing, and Styling 248
Chapter 14 Developing the Introduction and Conclusion 250
Preparing the Introduction 251
Gain Audience Attention 251
Preview the Topic, Purpose, and Main Points 254
Establish Credibility as a Speaker 256
Motivate the Audience to Accept Your Goals 256
Preparing the Conclusion 258
Signal the End of the Speech and Provide Closure 258
Summarize the Key Points 259
Reiterate the Topic and Speech Purpose 260
Challenge the Audience to Respond 261
Make the Conclusion Memorable 262
Chapter 15 Using Language 263
Use an Oral Style 264
Strive for Simplicity 264
Make Frequent Use of Repetition 265
Use Personal Pronouns 266
687
Choose Concrete Language and Vivid Imagery 267
Offer Vivid Imagery 268
Use Figures of Speech 269
Avoid Clichés, Mixed Metaphors, and Faulty Analogies 269
Choose Words That Build Credibility 271
Use Words Appropriately 271
Use Words Accurately 272
Use the Active Voice 272
Use Inclusive, Unbiased Language 272
Choose Words That Create a Lasting Impression 274
Use Repetition to Create Rhythm 274
Use Alliteration for a Poetic Quality 275
Experiment with Parallelism 276
Part 5 Delivery 278
Chapter 16 Methods of Delivery 280
Keys to Effective Delivery 281
Select a Method of Delivery 282
Speaking from Manuscript 282
Speaking from Memory 283
Speaking Impromptu 283
Speaking Extemporaneously 285
Chapter 17 Your Voice in Delivery 288
Adjust Your Speaking Volume 289
Vary Your Intonation 290
Adjust Your Speaking Rate 291
Use Strategic Pauses 292
Strive for Vocal Variety 293
Carefully Pronounce and Articulate Words 295
Use Dialect (Language Variation) with Care 297
Chapter 18 Your Body in Delivery 299
Pay Attention to Body Language 300
Animate Your Facial Expressions 300
Maintain Eye Contact 301
Use Gestures That Feel Natural 302
688
Create a Feeling of Immediacy 303
Maintain Good Posture 304
Practice the Delivery 305
Focus on the Message 305
Plan Ahead and Practice Often 305
From Weak to Confident Delivery: Enhancing Your Delivery
307
with Body Language
Part 6 Presentation Aids 310
Chapter 19 Speaking with Presentation Aids 312
Select an Appropriate Aid 313
Props and Models 313
Pictures 313
Graphs, Charts, and Tables 314
Audio, Video, and Multimedia 315
Options for Showing Presentation Aids 317
Flip Charts 317
Chalkboards and Whiteboards 317
Chapter 20 Designing Presentation Aids 320
Keep the Design Simple 321
Use Design Elements Consistently 323
Select Appropriate Typeface Styles and Fonts 324
Use Color Carefully 326
Consider Subjective Interpretations of Color 328
Chapter 21 Using Presentation Software 329
Give a Speech, Not a Slide Show 330
Develop a Plan 331
Avoid Technical Glitches 332
Find Media for Presentations 333
Avoid Copyright Infringement 335
From Slide Show to Presentation: Getting Ready to Deliver a
337
PowerPoint, Keynote, or Prezi Presentation
Part 7 Types of Speeches 341
Chapter 22 Informative Speaking 343
Use Audience Analysis 344
689
Present New and Interesting Information 345
Look for Ways to Increase Understanding 346
Subject Matter of Informative Speeches 348
Decide How to Communicate Your Information 350
Take Steps to Reduce Confusion 353
Use Analogies to Build on Prior Knowledge 353
Appeal to Different Learning Styles 355
Arrange Points in a Pattern 357
Sample Informative Speech: Saundra Dixon, Going Carbon
358
Neutral on Campus
Chapter 23 Principles of Persuasive Speaking 368
Persuasive Speeches Appeal to Human Psychology 369
Classical Persuasive Appeals: Ethos, Pathos, and Logos 371
Appeal to Reason 371
Appeal to Emotion 372
Appeal to Credibility 374
Contemporary Persuasive Appeals: Needs and Motivations 375
Appeal to What Motivates Audience Members 375
Appeal to Audience Members’ Needs 376
Encourage Mental Engagement 377
Demonstrate Speaker Credibility 378
Consider Cultural Orientation 380
Chapter 24 Constructing the Persuasive Speech 381
Identify the Nature of Your Claims 383
Use Convincing Evidence 385
Offer Secondary Sources (“External Evidence”) 385
Offer Speaker Expertise as Evidence 385
Offer Evidence That Appeals to Audience Needs and
386
Motivations
Select Warrants 387
Counterarguments: Addressing the Other Side 390
Avoid Fallacies in Reasoning 393
Strengthen Your Case with Organization 396
What Do Your Claims and Evidence Suggest? 396
690
What Response Do You Seek? 397
What is the Audience’s Disposition? 397
Problem-Solution Pattern of Arrangement 398
Comparative Advantage Pattern of Arrangement 399
Monroe’s Motivated Sequence 400
Refutation Pattern of Arrangement 401
Sample Persuasive Speech: Jacob Hahn, Becoming a Socially
403
Conscious Consumer
Chapter 25 Speaking on Special Occasions 411
Functions of Special Occasion Speeches 412
Types of Special Occasion Speeches 414
Speeches of Introduction 414
Speeches of Acceptance 415
Speeches of Presentation 416
Roasts and Toasts 417
Eulogies and Other Tributes 417
After-Dinner Speeches 419
Speeches of Inspiration 419
Sample Special Occasion Speech: Will Ferrell, 2017
421
University of Southern California Commencement Address
Part 8 Online, Group, and Business Contexts 429
Chapter 26 Preparing Online Presentations 431
Apply Your Knowledge of Face-to-Face Speaking 432
Plan for the Unique Demands of Online Delivery 433
Know the Equipment 433
Focus on Vocal Variety 434
Provide Superior Visual Aids 435
Plan the Delivery Mode 436
Real-Time Presentations 436
Recorded Presentations 436
Choose an Online Presentation Format 438
Video 438
Podcasts and Vodcasts 438
Webinars 441
691
Chapter 27 Communicating in Groups 445
Focus on Goals 446
Plan on Assuming Dual Roles 447
Center Disagreements around Issues 448
Resist Groupthink 449
Adopt an Effective Leadership Style 450
Set Goals 451
Encourage Active Participation 451
Use Reflective Thinking 452
Chapter 28 Delivering Group Presentations 455
Use Group Communication Guidelines 456
Analyze the Audience and Set Goals 456
Assign Roles and Tasks 456
Establish Information Needs 457
Establish Transitions between Speakers 457
Consider the Presenters’ Strengths 457
Coordinate the Presentation Aids 458
Rehearse the Presentation Several Times 458
Presenting in Panels, Symposia, and Forums 459
Panel Discussions 459
Symposia 460
Public Forums 461
Chapter 29 Business and Professional Presentations 463
Become Familiar with Reports and Proposals 465
The Sales Proposal 467
The Staff Report 469
The Progress Report 470
Part 9 Speaking in Other College Courses 472
Chapter 30 Presentations Assigned across the Curriculum 473
Journal Article Review 474
The Service Learning Presentation 475
The Poster Presentation 477
The Debate 479
Debate Sides, Resolutions, and Formats 479
692
Advance Strong Arguments 480
The Case Study 482
Prepare for Different Types of Audiences 483
Chapter 31 Science and Mathematics Courses 486
Preparing Effective Presentations in Science and
487
Mathematics
Research Presentation 489
Process Analysis Presentation 490
Field Study Presentation 492
Chapter 32 Technical Courses 494
Preparing Effective Technical Presentations 495
Engineering Design Review 497
Architecture Design Review 498
Request for Funding 499
Chapter 33 Social Science Courses 500
Preparing Effective Presentations in the Social Sciences 501
Literature Review Presentation 502
Program Evaluation Presentation 504
Policy Proposal Presentation 505
Chapter 34 Arts and Humanities Courses 506
Preparing Effective Arts and Humanities Presentations 507
Presentations of Interpretation and Analysis 508
Presentations That Compare and Contrast 509
Debates 510
Chapter 35 Education Courses 511
Preparing Effective Education Presentations 512
Delivering a Lecture 514
Facilitating a Group Activity 515
Facilitating a Classroom Discussion 516
Chapter 36 Nursing and Allied Health Courses 517
Preparing Effective Presentations in Nursing and Allied
518
Health Courses
Evidence-Based Practice Presentation 519
Clinical Case Study Presentation 520
693
Quality Improvement Proposal 521
Treatment Plan Report 522
Appendices 523
Appendix A Citation Guidelines 524
Chicago Documentation 525
APA Documentation 533
MLA Documentation 539
CSE Documentation 545
IEEE Documentation 550
Appendix B Question-and-Answer Sessions 551
Protocol during the Session 552
Handling Hostile and Otherwise Troubling Questions 554
Ending the Session 555
Appendix C Preparing for Mediated Communication 556
Speaking on Television 557
Dress and Makeup 558
Speaking on Radio: The Media Interview 559
Appendix D Tips for Non-Native Speakers of English 561
Think Positively 562
Consider Your Context and Audience 563
Capitalize on Your Language Uniqueness 564
Practice, Practice, Practice 565
Focus on Your Pronunciation 566
Final Suggestions 568
Glossary 569
Notes 602
Index 634
Features 672
Speech Videos 678
Back Cover 680
694

A Pocket Guide To Public Speaking 6th Edition

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

A Pocket Guide To Public Speaking 6th Edition

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

A Pocket Guide To Public Speaking 6th Edition

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

2

Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013, 2010 by Bedford/St. Martin’s.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced,

ISBN 978-1-319-21700-6 (mobi)

For information, write: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 75 Arlington

2017 University of Southern California Commencement

At the time of publication all Internet URLs published in this

NCA Outcome Correlation Grid

NCA Outcome Relevant coverage in A Pocket Guide to Public Speaking

LOC #1: Coverage of foundational communication concepts

LOC #2: Employ The text is grounded in current communication theories

LOC #4: Create Chapter 4 introduces students to ethical considerations of

LOC #5: Chapter 9 offers advice for critically assessing speech

LOC #6: Chapter 3 discusses barriers that often impede

LOC #7: Apply Chapter 4 enables students to reflect on and actively

LOC #8: Utilize Chapter 6 explains how to speak to diverse audiences

LOC #9: Chapter 1 discusses the potential of public speaking to

Finding What You Need

SPEAKING BEYOND THE SPEECH

Quick Speech Preparation

Chapter 1, “Becoming a Public Speaker,” provides a brief

For more on specific types of speeches, consult Chapters 22–25

Other Useful Tools

TIPS FOR NON-NATIVE SPEAKERS OF

LaunchPad is an easy-to-use platform that offers digital tools to

New video assessment program

Our primary goal in writing A Pocket Guide has always been

A Pocket Guide to Public Speaking has been a popular choice

New to This Edition

LaunchPad offers powerful content and exciting assessment

LaunchPad for A Pocket Guide to Public Speaking, Sixth

New speeches on contemporary topics, paired with video in

A new informative speech, accompanied by questions in

A wealth of new research gives students the tools they need to

The new edition continues to give students the tools they

A new visual guide on using effective body language

Current examples help students engage with course material.

Digital and Print Formats

The Essential Guides. These brief yet comprehensive and

Instructor’s Resource Manual. The online instructor’s

Thanks to all the instructors who participated in reviews for

10. Citing Sources

12. Organizational Patterns

Part 4 Starting, Finishing, and Styling

Part 6 Presentation Aids

Part 7 Types of Speeches

Part 8 Online, Group, and Business Contexts

LearningCurve adaptive quizzing

Additional resources, such as presentation software tutorials and

Be sure to do it, whether you like it or not … do it until you

Advance Your Professional Goals

SKILLS EMPLOYERS RATE AS MOST IMPORTANT

Source: National Association of Colleges and Employers, Job Outlook

Enhance Your Career as a

Find New Opportunities for Civic

Climate change, immigration reform, gun violence—such

As you study public speaking, you will have the opportunity

Greek, and later Roman, teachers divided the process of

Invention refers to discovering the types of evidence and