Unit 9 Guiding Questions and Terms

Student Guide

Assignment information
For this assignment, you will answer guiding questions that correspond to the AP® Psychology topics
and learning objectives for this unit. In addition, you may be asked to identify important terms and the
contributions of significant individuals to the field of psychology.

You should also review the AP Psychology topics and learning objectives for this unit. You can find
this information in the AP Psychology Course and Exam Description, which you can download at the
College Board website here: https://apstudent.collegeboard.org/apcourse/ap-psychology.

All multiple-choice and free-response questions on the AP Psychology exam directly address one or
more of the learning objectives or key concepts provided in this document.

Directions
Step 1: As you progress through the video and reading lessons in this unit, take notes on the guiding
questions and important terms.

a) Remember to save your work as you go.

b) If you have questions about how to complete this assignment, ask your teacher for
assistance.
c) You will have the opportunity to turn in this assignment at the end of the unit.

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Section I: Guiding questions

These guiding questions reflect the important topics and learning objectives for this unit. Take notes
on these topics as you progress through the video and reading lessons in this unit, and then craft
thorough responses. Be sure to include specific details, facts, and evidence to support your
conclusions.

1. How do heredity and environments affect development? Heredity determines what an

organism may become, not what it will become. What an organism becomes depends
on both its heredity and environment. The modern science of genetics started with the
work of Gregor Mendel. He found that a certain factor in a plant cell determined the traits
the plant would have
2. What can newborn babies do? Lift head briefly during supervised tummy time. Focus on a
face. Bring hands to face. Suck well.
3. What influences does maturation have on early development? Peer pressure, harassment, self
mutilation, increase psychological disorders
4. What is the significance of children’s emotional bonds with their parents? It seems intuitive that
a secure child-parent bond is important for survival and development. Research
shows just how real those benefits are to children: They are better
able to control their negative emotions in stressful situations.
5. How important are parenting styles? Your parenting style can affect everything from how much
your child weighs to how they feels about themselves. It's important to ensure your parenting
style is supporting healthy growth and development because the way you interact with your child
and how you discipline them will influence them for the rest of their life.
6. How do children acquire language? Children acquire language through interaction - not
only with their parents and other adults, but also with other children. All
normal children who grow up in normal households, surrounded by conversation, will
acquire the language that is being used around them.
7. How do children learn to think? t happens naturally as they explore and learn about the
world. Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget came up with a famous theory about
how children develop cognitive (or thinking) skills in stages. The first stage is when
babies use their senses—sight, sound, touch, taste, and smell—to start to make
connections.
8. How do effective parents discipline their children? Talk with your child about this rather than
just giving consequences. Give them your attention. The most powerful tool
for effective discipline is attention—to reinforce good behaviors and discourage others.
Remember, all children want their parent's attention.
9. How has new knowledge about genetics affected parenthood? genetic influences in the
parents account for 23 percent to 40 percent of parental warmth, control and negativity
towards their children.
10. What are the typical tasks and dilemmas through the life span? Erik Erikson identified a series
of challenges that occur across the life span. These range from a need to gain trust in
infancy to the need to live with integrity in old age.
Successful resolution of the dilemmas produces healthy development whereas
unsuccessful outcomes make it harder to deal with later crises.
• What are some of the more serious childhood problems? attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

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• oppositional defiant disorder (ODD)

• autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
• anxiety disorder.
• depression.
• bipolar disorder.
• learning disorders.
• conduct disorders.
11. Why is adolescent development especially challenging? As adolescents continue
their journey of self-discovery, they continually have to adjust to new experiences as
well as the other changes happening to them biologically and socially. This can be both
stressful and anxiety provoking.
12. How do people develop morals and values? Moral development focuses on the emergence,
change, and understanding of morality from infancy through adulthood. Morality
develops across a lifetime and is influenced by an individual's experiences and their
behavior when faced with moral issues through different periods' physical and cognitive
development.
What happens psychologically during adulthood? Personality change and stability occur in adulthood.
For example, self-confidence, warmth, self-control, and emotional stability increase with age, whereas
neuroticism and openness to experience tend to decline with age.
13. What are the psychological challenges of aging? There is evidence that some natural body
changes associated with aging may increase a person's risk of
experiencing depression. Recent studies suggest that lower concentrations of folate in
the blood and nervous system may contribute to depression, mental impairment, and
dementia.
14. How do people typically react to death and bereavement? Emotionally: Sadness, anger,
disbelief, despair, guilt and loneliness. Mentally: Forgetfulness, lack of concentration,
confusion and poor memory. Behaviourally: Changes to sleeping patterns, dreams or
nightmares, or to your appetite. You might or might not want to go out or be
around people.
15. What factors contribute most to a happy and fulfilling life? Positive emotions, Engagement,
Relationships, Meaning, and Accomplishments.
16. In what ways are attitudes toward death changing? Through the ages, attitudes
toward death and dying have changed and continue to change, shaped by religious,
intellectual, and philosophical beliefs and conceptions. In the twenty-first century
advances in medical science and technology continue to influence ideas
about death and dying.

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Section II: Important terms

For each term, provide a definition, describe its characteristics, or explain its significance (as appropriate).

1. Adolescence the period following the onset of puberty during which a young person
develops from a child into an adult.

2. Aggression hostile or violent behavior or attitudes toward another; readiness to attack or

confront.

3. AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) A disease of the immune system due to
infection with HIV.

4. attachment a deep and enduring emotional bond between two people in which each
seeks closeness and feels more secure when in the presence of the attachment figure

5. authoritarian parents have very high expectations of their children, yet provide very little in
the way of feedback and nurturing. Mistakes tend to be punished harshly.

6. authoritative parents responsive to the child's emotional needs while having high
standards. They set limits and are very consistent in enforcing boundaries.

7. autism spectrum disorder a complex developmental condition that involves persistent

challenges in social interaction, speech and nonverbal communication, and
restricted/repetitive behaviors.

8. basic trust describe the sense of secure trust in other people that can develop as a result
of good mothering.

9. critical period a period during someone's development in which a particular skill or

characteristic is believed to be most readily acquired.

10. cross-sectional research type of observational research that analyzes data of variables
collected at one given point in time across a sample population or a pre-defined subset.

11. developmental psychologist analyzing the changes that occur in humans as they grow
through childhood and into adulthood.

12. Embryo an unborn or unhatched offspring in the process of development, in particular a

human offspring during the period from approximately the second to the eighth week after
fertilization (after which it is usually termed a fetus).

13. emerging adulthood the distinct period between 18 and 25 years of age where adolescents
become more independent and explore various life possibilities.
14. Erik Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development

a. trust versus mistrust If the care the infant receives is consistent, predictable and
reliable, they will develop a sense of trust which will carry with them to other
relationships, and they will be able to feel secure even when threatened.

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b. autonomy versus shame and doubt children at this stage are focused on developing
a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence.
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of will.

c. initiative versus guilt children assert themselves more frequently through directing
play and other social interaction.

d. industry versus inferiority the stage in which children enter into the greater society
beyond the family for the first time. If they succeed in navigating this stage, then
they are able to develop a meaningful social role to give back to society.

e. identity versus role confusion the conflict is centered on developing a

personal identity. ... According to Erikson, this is important to the process of
forming a strong identity and developing a sense of direction in life.

f. intimacy versus isolation This stage takes place during young adulthood between
the ages of approximately 18 to 40 yrs. ... Avoiding intimacy, fearing
commitment and relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and sometimes
depression.

g. generativity versus stagnation This stage takes place during middle adulthood
between the ages of approximately 40 and 65. People experience a need to create
or nurture things that will outlast them, often having mentees or creating positive
changes that will benefit other people.

h. integrity versus despair we contemplate our accomplishments and can

develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life.

15. fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) a condition in a child that results from alcohol exposure
during the mother's pregnancy. Fetal alcohol syndrome causes brain damage and
growth problems. The problems caused by fetal alcohol syndrome vary from child to
child, but defects caused by fetal alcohol syndrome are not reversible.

16. Fetus an unborn offspring of a mammal, in particular an unborn human baby more than
eight weeks after conception.

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17. Freud’s psychosexual stages of development

a. oral stage the developing infant's main concerns are with oral gratification.
The oral phase in the normal infant has a direct bearing on the infant's activities
during the first 18 months of life.

b. anal stage the child begins to toilet train, which brings about the child's fascination
in the erogenous zone of the anus. The erogenous zone is focused on the bowel
and bladder control.

c. phallic stage the infant's libido (desire) centers upon their genitalia as the
erogenous zone.

d. latent stage most sexual impulses are repressed during the latent stage, and
sexual energy can be sublimated (re: defense mechanisms) towards school
work, hobbies, and friendships.

e. genital stage the teenager has overcome latency, made associations with one
gender or the other, and now seeks out pleasure through sexual contact with
others.

18. Gender Gender is the range of characteristics pertaining to, and differentiating between,
masculinity and femininity. Depending on the context, these characteristics may include
biological sex, sex-based social structures, or gender identity.

19. gender identity an individual's personal sense of having a particular gender.

20. gender role the role or behavior learned by a person as appropriate to their gender,
determined by the prevailing cultural norms.

21. gender typing the process by which a child becomes aware of their gender and thus
behaves accordingly by adopting values and attributes of members of the sex that they
identify as their own.

22. Habituation the diminishing of a physiological or emotional response to a frequently

repeated stimulus.

23. Harry Harlow’s attachment research the infants' attachment to the cloth diapers,
speculating that the soft material may simulate the comfort provided by a mother's touch.
... In both conditions, Harlow found that the infant monkeys spent significantly more time
with the terry cloth mother than they did with the wire mother.

24. Identity the fact of being who or what a person or thing is.

25. Imprinting a critical period of time early in an animal's life when it forms attachments and
develops a concept of its own identity. Birds and mammals are born with a pre-
programmed drive to imprint onto their mother.

26. infantile amnesia the inability of adults to retrieve episodic memories (memories of
situations or events) before the age of two to four years, as well as the period before the
age of ten of which adults retain fewer memories than might otherwise be expected given
the passage of time.

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27. Intimacy close familiarity or friendship; closeness.

28. Jean Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory

a. schemata a representation of a plan or theory in the form of an outline or model.

b. Assimilation the process of taking in and fully understanding information or ideas.

c. Accommodation the part of the adaptation process. The process

of accommodation involves altering one's existing schemas, or ideas, as a
result of new information or new experiences.

d. sensorimotor stage It extends from birth to approximately 2 years, and is

a period of rapid cognitive growth. ... During this period, infants develop an
understanding of the world through trial and error using their senses and actions
(i.e., motor movements).
e. object permanence the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they
cannot be seen, heard, or otherwise sensed.

f. preoperational stage children begin to engage in symbolic play and learn to

manipulate symbols.

g. Egocentric thinking only of oneself, without regard for the feelings or desires of
others; self-centered.

h. concrete operations the development of organized and rational thinking.

i. concepts of conservation Some forms of conservation (such as mass) as

understood earlier than others (volume). Piaget used the term horizonal decalage
to describe this (and other) developmental inconsistencies.

j. formal operations As adolescents enter this stage, they gain the ability to think in
an abstract manner by manipulating ideas in their head, without any dependence
on concrete manipulation

k. metacognition a deeper level of thinking that includes your ability to think about
your thinking; how you understand, adapt, change, control, and use your thought
processes.
29. Lawrence Kohlberg’s moral development theory

a. pre-conventional stage the self-interest of children in their decision making as they

seek to avoid punishment at all costs.

conventional stage individuals

begin to develop personal moral codes by internalizing the
rules of adult role models. There is no questioning of these norms and rules during
this stage, they are adopted and not critiqued.
b. post-conventional stage individuals enter the highest level of morale development.
People who have reached this stage of development are concerned with the
innate rights of humans and guided by their own ethical principles.

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30. longitudinal research a type of correlational research that involves looking at variables
over an extended period of time. This type of study can take place over a period of
weeks, months, or even years. In some cases, longitudinal studies can last several
decades.
31. Mary Ainsworth’s strange situation

a. stranger anxiety the distress that young children experience when they are
exposed to people who are unfamiliar to them.

b. secure attachments classified by children who show some distress when their
caregiver leaves but are able to compose themselves knowing that their caregiver
will return. Children with secure attachment feel protected by their caregivers, and
they know that they can depend on them to return.

c. avoidant attachments when parents or caregivers are largely emotionally

unavailable or unresponsive most of the time. Babies and children have a deep
inner need to be close to their caregivers. Yet they can quickly learn to stop or
suppress their outward displays of emotion.

d. anxious/ambivalent attachments t will typically explore little (in the Strange

Situation) and is often wary of strangers, even when the parent is present. When
the caregiver departs, the child is often highly distressed. The child is
generally ambivalent when the caregiver returns.

32. Maturation the process of learning to cope and react in an emotionally appropriate way.

33. Menarche the first occurrence of menstruation.

34. Menopause the time in a woman's life when her period stops.

35. nature versus nurture human behavior is determined by the environment, either prenatal or
during a person's life, or by a person's genes.

36. newborn reflexes reflex actions originating in the central nervous system that are exhibited by
normal infants, but not neurologically intact adults,

37. permissive parents type of parenting style characterized by low demands with high
responsiveness. Permissive parents tend to be very loving, yet provide few guidelines
and rules. These parents do not expect mature behavior from their children and often
seem more like a friend than a parental figure.

38. primary sex characteristics any of the body structures directly concerned in reproduction, as
the testes, ovaries, and external genitalia.

39. Puberty the period of several years in which rapid physical growth
and psychological changes occur, culminating in sexual maturity.

40. Role the collection of expectations that accompany a particular social position.

41. secondary sex characteristics any physical characteristic developing at puberty which
distinguishes between the sexes but is not directly involved in reproduction.

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42. self-concept an idea of the self constructed from the beliefs one holds about oneself and
the responses of others.

43. sexual development includes not only the physical changes that occur as children grow,
but also the sexual knowledge. and beliefs they come to learn and the behaviors they
show. Any given child's sexual knowledge.

44. sexual orientation a person's identity in relation to the gender or genders to which they are
sexually attracted

45. social clock a concept that explores the timetable determined by a culture
or social structure, that specifies a proper time for certain events, like marriage,
graduation, employment or social status.

46. social identity the portion of an individual's self-concept derived from perceived membership in
a relevant social group.

47. social learning theory a theory of learning process and social behavior which proposes that
new behaviors can be acquired by observing and imitating others.

48. Temperament consistent individual differences in behavior that are biologically based and are
relatively independent of learning, system of values and attitudes.

49. Teratogens an agent or factor which causes malformation of an embryo.

50. Testosterone a steroid hormone that stimulates development of male secondary sexual
characteristics, produced mainly in the testes, but also in the ovaries and adrenal cortex.

51. theory of mind a popular term from the field of psychology as an assessment of an individual
human's degree of capacity for empathy and understanding of others.

52. Transgender denoting or relating to a person whose sense of personal identity and gender
does not correspond with their birth sex.

53. Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development "the distance between the actual developmental
level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of
potential development as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance, or
in collaboration with more capable peers"
54. X chromosome The X chromosome determines your sex,

55. Y chromosome the other sex chromosome

56. Zygote a fertilized egg, or ovum, with a diploid set of chromosomes, half contributed by
the mother and half by the father.

Section III: Biographies

Explain each person’s contribution to the field of psychology. If you are working on a biography book
project, you may add these people to your project. If you have questions, ask your teacher for
assistance.

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1. Mary Ainsworth a developmental psychologist perhaps best known for her Strange
Situation assessment and contributions to the area of attachment theory. ... Based on
her research, she identified three major styles of attachment that children have to their
parents or caregivers.

2. Albert Bandura originator of social cognitive theory who is probably best known for his
modeling study on aggression, referred to as the “Bobo doll” experiment, which
demonstrated that children can learn behaviours through the observation of adults.

3. Diana Baumrind the identification of two central dimensions of parents' behavior —

structured expectations and responsiveness — and the discovery that these dimensions
in combination revealed three main parenting styles.

4. Erik Erikson Erikson's stage theory of psychosocial development generated interest and
research on human development through the lifespan. An ego psychologist who
studied with Anna Freud, Erikson expanded psychoanalytic theory by exploring
development throughout life, including events of childhood, adulthood, and old age.

5. Sigmund Freud the founding father of psychoanalysis, a method for treating mental
illness and also a theory which explains human behavior.

6. Carol Gilligan Gilligan argued that girls exhibit distinct patterns of moral development
based on relationships and on feelings of care and responsibility for others. Her work
soon inspired and informed a feminist-oriented movement in philosophical ethics known
as the ethics of care.

7. Harry Harlow best known for his maternal-separation, dependency needs, and social
isolation experiments on rhesus monkeys, which manifested the importance of
caregiving and companionship to social and cognitive development.

8. Lawrence Kohlberg Kohlberg is most well known among psychologists for his research
in moral psychology, but among educators he is known for his applied work of moral
education in schools. The three major contributions Kohlberg made to moral education
were the use of Moral Exemplars, Dilemma Discussions, and Just Community Schools.

9. Konrad Lorenz investigated the mechanisms of imprinting, where some species of

animals form an attachment to the first large moving object that they meet. This process
suggests that attachment is innate and programmed genetically.

10. Jean Piaget the first psychologist to make a systematic study of cognitive development.
His contributions include a stage theory of child cognitive development, detailed
observational studies of cognition in children, and a series of simple but ingenious tests
to reveal different cognitive abilities.

11. Lev Vygotsky a seminal Russian psychologist who is best known for his sociocultural
theory. He believed that social interaction plays a critical role in children's learning. ...
Imitation, guided learning, and collaborative learning all play a critical part in his theory.

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