18CS33-ADE-Module 1

ANALOG AND DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
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MODULE – 1
ANALOG ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
OPTOELECTRONIC DEVICES
Optoelectronic Devices is the field that deals with study of devices that emit, detect and control light in
the wavelength spectrum ranging from ultraviolet to far infrared. They include electrical-to-optical
(convert electrical energy into light energy) and optical-to-electrical (convert light energy into electrical
energy) transducers. Optocouplers also come in this broad category.
PHOTODIODES:
Photodiode is a light detector semiconductor device that converts light energy into electric current or
voltage which depends upon the mode of operation.
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The upper cut-off wavelength of a photodiode is given by; 𝜆𝜆𝑐𝑐 =
𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔
where, 𝜆𝜆𝑐𝑐 is the cut-off wavelength in nm and 𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔 is the bandgap energy in eV.
A normal p-n junction diode allows a small amount of electric current, under reverse bias, due to minority
charge carriers. To increase the electric current under reverse bias condition, we need to generate more
minority carriers. The external reverse voltage applied to the p-n junction diode will supply energy to the
minority carriers, but it will not increase the population of minority charge carriers.
A small number of minority carriers are generated due to external reverse bias voltage. The minority
carriers generated at n-side or p-side will recombine in the same material, before they cross the junction.
As a result, no electric current flows due to these charge carriers. For example, the minority carriers
generated in the p-type material experience a repulsive force from the external voltage and try to move
towards n-side. However, before crossing the junction, the free electrons recombine with the holes within
the same material. As a result, no electric current flows.
To overcome this problem, we need to apply external energy directly to the depletion region to generate
more charge carriers. A special type of diode called photodiode is designed to generate more number of
charge carriers in depletion region. In photodiodes, we use light or photons as the external energy to
generate charge carriers in depletion region.
Construction:
The typical construction of a photodiode is illustrated in the following Figure. This example uses a
construction technique called ion implantation where the surface of a layer of N-type is bombarded with
P- type silicon ions to produce a P-type layer of about 1 µm (micrometre) thick. During the formation of
the diode, excess electrons move from N-type towards P-type and excess holes move from P-type towards
MAHESH PRASANNA K., VCET, PUTTUR
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N-type; this process is called diffusion, resulting in the removal of free charge carriers close to the PN-
junction, so creating a depletion layer as shown in the following Figure.
The (light facing) top of the diode is protected by a layer of Silicon Dioxide (SiO2) in which there is a
window for light to shine on the semiconductor. This window is coated with a thin anti-reflective layer of
Silicon Nitride (SiN) to allow maximum absorption of light and an anode connection of aluminium (AI)
is provided to the P-type layer. Beneath the N-type layer, there is a more heavily doped N+ layer to
provide a low resistance connection to the cathode.
Working Principle:
When the conventional diode is reverse biased, the depletion region starts expanding and the current starts
flowing due to minority charge carriers. With the increase of reverse voltage, the reverse current also
starts increasing. The same condition can be obtained in photodiode without applying reverse voltage.
The following Figure shows photo diode bias symbol. The junction of Photodiode is illuminated by the
light source; the photons strike the junction surface. The photons impart their energy in the form of light
to the junction. Due to which electrons from valence band get the energy to jump into the conduction
band. This leaves positively charged holes in the valence band, so producing 'electron-hole pairs' in the
depletion layer. Some electron-hole pairs are also produced in P and N layers, but apart from those
produced in the diffusion region N layers, most will be re-absorbed within the P and N materials as heat.
The electrons in the depletion layer are then swept towards the positive potential on the cathode, and the
holes swept towards the negative potential on the anode, so creating a photo current. In this way, the
photodiode converts light energy into electrical energy.
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V-I Characteristics of Photodiode:

The characteristics curve of the photodiode can be understood with the help of the following Figure. The
characteristics are shown in the negative region because the photodiode can be operated in reverse biased
mode only.
The reverse saturation current in the photodiode is denoted by I0, It varies linearly with the intensity of
photons striking the diode surface. The current under large reverse bias is the summation of reverse
saturation current and short circuit current.
𝐼𝐼 = 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 𝐼𝐼0 (1 − 𝑒𝑒 𝑉𝑉/∆𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 )
Where Isc is the short circuit current, V is positive for forward voltage and negative for reverse bias, Vt is
volt equivalent for temperature, ∆ is unity for germanium and, 2 for silicon.
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Applications:
• Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics devices like smoke detectors, compact disc players,
and televisions and remote controls in VCRs.
• In other consumer devices like clock radios, camera light meters, and street lights,
photoconductors are more frequently used rather than photodiodes.
• Photodiodes are frequently used for exact measurement of the intensity of light in science and
industry. Generally, they have an enhanced, more linear response than photoconductors.
LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED):

The LED is a PN-junction diode which emits light when an electric current passes through it in the
forward direction. A P-N junction can convert absorbed light energy into a proportional electric current.
The same process is reversed here (i.e. the P-N junction emits light when electrical energy is applied to
it). This phenomenon is generally called Electroluminescence.
Electroluminescence is the properly of the material to convert electrical energy into light energy and
later it radiates this light energy. Different sizes of light emitting diodes are available in market form
lmm2 to onward.
Construction:
The semiconductor material used in LED is Galliurn Arsenide (GaAs), Gallium phosphide (GaP) or
Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP). Any of the above-mentioned compounds can be used for the
construction of LED, but the color of radiated light changes with the change in material (for example,
GaP material gives green/red color with forward voltage of 2.2V).
The semiconductor layer of P-type is placed above N-type because the charge carrier recombination
occurs in P-type. Besides, it is the surface of the device, and thus, the light emitted can be easily seen on
the surface. If P-type is placed below the N-type, the emitted light cannot be seen. The following Figure
shows cross sectional view of diffused LED.
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The P-type layer is formed from diffusion of semiconductor material. On the other side, in N-type region,
the epitaxial layer is grown on N-type substrate. The metal film is used on the P-type layer to provide
anode connection to the diode. Similarly, Gold-film layer is coated on N-type to provide cathode
connection. The Gold-film layer on N-type also provides reflection from the bottom surface of the diode.
If any significant part of radiated light tends to hit bottom surface then that will be reflected from the
bottom surface to the device top surface. This increases LED's efficiency.
Working Principle:
The charge carriers recombine in a forward-biased P-N junction as the electrons cross from the N-region
and recombine with the holes existing in the P-region. Free electrons are in the conduction band of energy
levels, while holes are in the valence energy band. Thus the energy level of the holes is less than the
energy levels of the electrons. Some portion of the energy must be dissipated to recombine the electrons
and the holes. This energy is emitted in the form of heat and light.
The working of the LED depends on the quantum theory. The quantum theory states that, when the
energy of electrons decreases from the higher level to lower level, it emits energy in the form of photons.
The energy of the photons is equal to the gap between the higher and lower level, as shown in the
following Figure.
The LED is forward biased, which allows the current to flow in the forward direction. The flow of current
is because of the movement of electrons in the opposite direction. The recombination shows that the
electrons move from the conduction band to valence band and they emit electromagnetic energy in the
form of photons. The energy of photons is equal to the gap between the valence and the conduction band.
Color of light can be determined by the band gap of semiconductor material.
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Applications:
• LEDs are used in remote control systems such TV or LCD remote.
• Used in traffic signals for controlling the traffic crowds in cites.
• Used in digital computers for displaying the computer data.
• Used in electronic calculators for showing the digital data.
• Used in digital watches and automotive heat lamps.
PHOTOCOUPLER:
Photocoupler or Optocoupler is a device that transfers electrical signals between two isolated circuits by
using light.
Photocouplers are used in many functions: they can be used to link data across two circuits; they can be
used within optical encoders, where the optocoupler provides a means of detecting visible edge transitions
on an encoder wheel to detect position, etc., and they can be used in many other circuits where optical
links and transitions are needed. As a result, optical couplers or photocouplers are found in many circuits.
Construction:
All optocouplers consist of two elements: a light source (a LED) and a photosensor (a photoresistor,
photodiode, phototransistor, silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR), or triac); which are separated by a
dielectric (non-conducting) barrier.
Working Principle:
When input current is applied to the LED, it switches ON and emits infrared light; the photosensor then
detects this light and allows current to flow through the output side of the circuit; conversely, when the
LED is off, no current will flow through the photosensor. By this method, the two flowing currents are
electrically isolated. It consists of LED and photodiode; where the circuits are isolated electrically. In the
following Figure, LED is forward biased, photodiode is reverse biased and output exists across R2.
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The Figure (a) describes the basic operation of an optocoupler. When current is not being applied via Pin
1, the LED is off, and the circuit connected to Pins 4 and 5 is experiencing no current flow. When power
is applied to the input circuit, the LED switches on, the sensor detects the light, closes the switch and
initiates current flow in the output circuit, as shown in the Figure (b).
Applications:
• Input and output switching in electronically noisy environments.
• Controlling transistors and triacs.
• Switch-mode power supplies.
• PC/ Modem communication.
• Signal isolation.
• Power control.
BJT BIASING
A transistor (Bipolar Junction Transistor-BJT) is a sandwich of one type of semiconductor (P-type or N-
type) between two layers of other type. Transistors are of two types: p-n-p transistor and n-p-n transistor.
There are three distinct regions (hence, terminals) in a transistor: Emitter, Base, and Collector.
For any circuit, four-terminals would be required: two-input-terminals and two-output-terminals. Hence,
for a transistor, one of the three terminals will be common to both input and output in a circuit. Thus,
there are three different modes of operation for a transistor: Common-Base Connection (CB), Common
Emitter Connection (CE), and Common Collector Connection (CC).
Transistor Biasing is the establishment of suitable dc-values such as IC, VCE, IB, etc., by using a dc-source.
When BJT is properly biased, amplification of signal takes place. There are mainly three types of biasing
a transistor: Base bias or Fixed bias, Collector-to-Base bias, Voltage-divider bias.
BASE BIAS or FIXED BIAS:

Base biasing configuration is given in the following Figure. A base resistance RB is used between VCC and
base to establish the base current IB. Since VCC and RB are fixed quantities, IB remains fixed.
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Applying Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) to the base circuit;
VCC – IBRB – VBE = 0
Or, IB = (VCC – VBE)/RB --------------------- (1)
VBE is 0.7 V for Silicon and 0.3 V for Germanium transistor.
Applying the KVL to the collector circuit;
VCC – ICRC – VCE = 0
Or, VCE = VCC - ICRC -------------------- (2)
Note that, the voltage and current polarities are reversed in base bias circuits of npn- and pnp-transistors;
but, the same KVL equations are applicable.
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COLLECTOR-TO-BASE BIAS CIRCUIT:
The collector-to-base bias circuit shown in the following Figure, has the base resistor RB connected
between the transistor collector and base terminals. This circuit has significantly improved bias stability
for hfe changes compared to base bias.
Applying KVL to the outer loop;

VCC – (IC + IB) RC – VCE = 0 Or, VCE = VCC – (IC + IB) RC -------------------- (3a)
Applying KVL to the loop VCE, IBRB, and VBE;
VCE – VBE – IBRB = 0 Or, VCE = VBE + IBRB -------------------- (3b)
Equating equations 3a and 3b;
VCC – (IC + IB) RC = VBE + IBRB
Or, (IC + IB) RC + IBRB = VCC – VBE i.e., IB (RC + RB) + ICRC = VCC – VBE
Substituting IC = βIB in above equation, we get;
IB (RC + RB) + βIBRC = VCC – VBE Gives, IB = (VCC – VBE)/(β+1)RC + RB -------------------- (4)
Effect of IC or β: Any changes in VCE changes IB, the change in IB causes IC to change. If IC increases
above the design level, there is an increased voltage drop across RC; resulting in reduction of VCE. The
reduced VCE causes IB to be lower. If IB decreases, IC also decreases, as IC = βIB. Similarly, a reduction in
IC produces an increase in VCE, which increase IB, thus tending to increase IC back to the original level.
Thus an increase/ decrease in IC produces a feedback effect that tends to return IC toward its original level.
In the collector-to-base bias circuit, the feedback from the collector-to-base reduces the effect of
β (due to transistor replacement). Thus collector-to-base bias has greater stability than base bias, for a
given range of β values.
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VOLTAGE DIVIDER (EMITTER CURRENT) BIAS CIRCUIT:
Voltage divider bias is the most stable of the three basic transistor biasing circuits. A voltage divider
circuit is shown in the following Figure.
There is an emitter resistor RE connected in series with Emitter terminal, so that the total dc load in series
with the transistor is (RC + RE). Resistors R1 and R2 constitutes a voltage VB.
Applying KVL to the loop VCC, R1, and R2, we get;
VCC – I1R1 – I2R2 = 0 Or, I1R1 + I2R2 = VCC -------------------- (5)
We have; I1 = I2 + IB
Voltage divider bias circuits are normally designed to have a voltage divider current I2 very much greater
than transistor base current IB. i.e., I2 >> IB. Hence, I1 ≈ I2 -------------------- (6)
Using 6 in 5; I2R1 + I2R2 = VCC i.e., I2 (R1 + R2) = VCC Or, I2 = (VCC) / (R1 + R2)
VB is the voltage across R2. i.e., VB = I2R2 Or, VB = (VCC * R2) / (R1 + R2)
VE is the voltage across RE. i.e., VE = IERE
Applying KVL to the base-emitter loop; VB – VBE – VE = 0 i.e., VBE = VB - VE

Or, VE = VB – VBE i.e., IERE = VB – VBE Hence, IE = (VB – VBE) / RE
Applying KVL to the collector-emitter loop; VCC – ICRC – VCE – ICRE = 0 [IE ≈ IC]
i.e., VCE = VCC – IC (RC + RE)
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MULTIVIBRATORS USING IC-555
A multivibrator (like an oscillator) is a circuit with regenerative feedback, which produces a pulsed
output. There are three basic types of multivibrator circuits:
• Astable – has no stable states, but switches continuously between two states. This action produces
a train of square wave pulses at a fixed frequency.
• Monostable – one of the states is stable, but the other state is unstable (transient).
• Bistable – the circuit is stable in either state.
Timer IC-555:
Timer IC-555 is the one of the most commonly used general-purpose linear integrated circuits.
Internal Schematic of Timer IC-555

The Timer IC 555 comprises two Op-Amp comparators, a flip-flop, a discharge transistor, a reset
transistor, three identical resistors and an output stage. The resistors set the reference voltage levels at the
non-inverting input of the lower comparator and inverting input of the upper comparator at +VCC/3 and
2VCC/3, respectively. The output of two comparator feed SET and RESET inputs of the Flip-Flop. This
decided the logic state of its output and subsequently the final output. The Flip-Flops complementary
outputs feed the output stage and the base of the discharge transistor. Hence, when the output is HIGH,
the discharge transistor is OFF and when the output is LOW, the discharge transistor is ON.
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MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR:
Monostable multivibrator using 555 timer IC is as shown in the following Figure. This 555 timer is called
monostable multivibrator because it has only one stable state. Resistor RA and capacitor C are
components connected externally to the IC-555. Threshold voltage (6) and discharge (7) pins are
connected to each other.
o Initially the SR-FF is set (Q = 1); transistor T is driven into saturation, and the capacitor is by
passed by the transistor. Therefore, the capacitor voltage VC = 0, and also the output voltage Vout
= 0 (as Q = 1).
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o When the negative going trigger pulse (which should be more than 1/3 VCC) is applied at trigger
input of lower comparator, the comparator output goes high; and SR-FF is reset (Q = 0), forcing
𝑄𝑄� to go high and transistor T turns off.
o As T is off, capacitor starts charging through RA. Now, the output will remain high (from t1 to t2,
in waveform shown).
o At time t2; the voltage across the capacitor VCC becomes more than 2/3 VCC and upper comparator
output goes high. This will set the SR-FF (Q = 1).
o Since, SR-FF output Q = 1; transistor T is ON, and hence, capacitor discharges, and also output
goes low. The output remains low till the next trigger pulse is applied.
From the waveform of monostable multivibrator, it is clear that, the ON time TON of the output voltage is
same as charging time of the capacitor.
Therefore, TON → is the time taken by capacitor to charge from 0 to 2/3 VCC.
𝑡𝑡
The voltage across capacitor increases exponentially and is given by; 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 [1 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 ]
𝑡𝑡
−
As capacitor charges through RA; let us replace R by RA: Hence, 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 [1 − 𝑒𝑒 𝑅𝑅 𝐴𝐴 𝐶𝐶 ]
At t = t2 (TON), the capacitor voltage (VC) reaches 2/3 VCC:
𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇
2 − 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 − 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂
Therefore, 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 [1 − 𝑒𝑒 𝑅𝑅 𝐴𝐴 𝐶𝐶 ] Or, 𝑒𝑒 𝑅𝑅 𝐴𝐴 𝐶𝐶 = 1 – 2/3 = 1/3
3
Therefore, TON = 1.1 RAC

Applications:
A monostable multivibrator can be used in many applications, few important applications are
1. Frequency divider
2. Missing pulse detector
3. Pulse width modulator
4. Pulse position modulator etc.
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ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR:
An astable multivibrator does not have any stable state; it keeps changing its state from low to high and
high to low. This multivibrator is also called free running multivibrator or rectangular wave generator
circuit. Astable multivibrator does not require an external trigger pulse to change the state of the output.
The circuit configuration of an astable rnultivibrator is as shown in the following Figure.
To understand the operation, let us divide the circuit operation into two time interval TON and TOFF.
ON time operation:
o At t = 0, the voltage on the capacitor VCC = 0, the same capacitor voltage is applied to both
trigger point of lower comparator and threshold point of upper comparator. As capacitor voltage
VC = 0, which is less 1/3 VCC, the output of lower comparator goes high (𝑄𝑄� = l) and Q = 0. This
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causes T to go off and capacitor starts charging through series resistors RA and RB. When
capacitor voltages reaches 2/3 VCC, on time is terminated.
OFF time operation:
o As soon as VC exceeds 2/3 VCC, the upper comparator output goes high and it will set the SR FF.
i.e., S = 1 and R = 0 and Q = 1 and 𝑄𝑄� = 0. This will turn on transistor T, and output at pin (3)
goes low.
o Now, the capacitor discharges through RB, and through transistor T. The discharge time (also
called off time (TD); and it depends on the values of RB and C. When capacitor voltage is VC = 1/3
VCC, lower comparator output goes high.
o This process of charging and discharging is continuous and hence circuit oscillates. The
schematic diagram and waveforms are as shown in the Above Figure.
The output voltage waveform is the sum of charging and discharging periods (TC, and TD) of the
capacitor. .'. Period of one cycle T = TC + TD.
1 1
Frequency can be written as 𝑓𝑓 = =
𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇𝐶𝐶 + 𝑇𝑇𝐷𝐷
Voltage across charging capacitor is given by (initial voltage on capacitor is zero);

𝑡𝑡
𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 [1 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 ]
If there is some initial voltage present, the voltage expression for capacitor changes, and is given by;
𝑡𝑡
𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝑉𝑉𝐹𝐹 + (𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 − 𝑉𝑉𝐹𝐹 )𝑒𝑒 −𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
Where VF - final voltage capacitor can reach, and Vi - is Initial voltage on capacitor.
During charging time TC, the initial voltage on the capacitor is Vi = 1/3 VCC, and the final voltage is VF =
VCC. Also as charging takes place through both RA and RB, the above expression becomes;
2𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 1 −
𝑇𝑇 𝐶𝐶
= 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 + ( 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 − 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 )𝑒𝑒 �𝑅𝑅 𝐴𝐴 +𝑅𝑅 𝐵𝐵 �𝐶𝐶
3 3
1 2 −
𝑇𝑇 𝐶𝐶
𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = ( 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 )𝑒𝑒 �𝑅𝑅 𝐴𝐴 +𝑅𝑅 𝐵𝐵 �𝐶𝐶
3 3
Therefore, TON = TC = 0.693 (RA + RB) C
From discharging waveform; we can note that, the capacitor discharges from 2/3 VCC to 1/3 VCC; and can
𝑇𝑇
1 2 − 𝐷𝐷
be expressed as: 𝑉𝑉 = 0 + ( 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 − 0)𝑒𝑒 𝑅𝑅 𝐵𝐵 𝐶𝐶
3 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 3
𝑇𝑇
1 2 − 𝐷𝐷
Or, 𝑉𝑉 = ( 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 )𝑒𝑒 𝑅𝑅 𝐵𝐵 𝐶𝐶
3 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 3
Therefore, TOFF = TD = 0.693 RB C
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Hence, Total period, T= TON + TOFF = 0.693 (RA + 2RB) C
𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏.𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒
Frequency, 𝒇𝒇 = =
𝑻𝑻 (𝑹𝑹𝑨𝑨 +𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝑩𝑩 )𝑪𝑪
Duty Cycle, %D = [(on time) / (total time)]*100

(𝑹𝑹𝑨𝑨 + 𝑹𝑹𝑩𝑩 )
% 𝑫𝑫 = ∗ 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
(𝑹𝑹𝑨𝑨 + 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝑩𝑩 )
Applications:
A nastable multivibrator can be used in many applications, few important applications are
1. Square-wave oscillator/ generator
2. Schmitt trigger using IC-555
3. Voltage controlled oscillator.
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OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER (OP-AMP) APPLIATION CIRCUITS
An Op-Amp is a direct-coupled high gain, high bandwidth differential amplifier with very high value of
input impedance and very low value of output impedance.
Basic Differential Amplifier & Circuit Representation of an OP-Amp

The ideal Op-Amp model was derived to simplify circuit calculations. The ideal Op-Amp model makes three
assumptions:
Ideal Op-Amp Practical Op-Amp
1. Input resistance (impedance), Ri = ∞
Internal Impedance is infinite Input Impedance range 100KΩ to
2. Output resistance (impedance), Ro = 0 1000MΩ
3. Open-loop (differential voltage) gain, Ad = ∞ Output Impendence is zero Output impedance range from 10Ω
to 100Ω
Based on these three assumptions,
Open loop differential voltage gain is Open loop gain is in the range of
other assumptions can be derived: infinite 10,000 to 100,000
1. Since Ri = ∞, Ii = Ini = 0 Bandwidth is infinite Bandwidth is limited

DC input and output offset voltage is Finite DC input and output offset
2. Since Ro = 0, Vo = Ad * Vd
zero voltage
3. Zero DC input and output offset voltages Input differential voltage is zero Finite differential voltage is finite
4. Bandwidth and slew rate are also infinite, as no frequency dependencies are assumed.
5. Drift is also zero, as there is no changes in performance over time, temperature, power supply variations, and so
on
6. Since output voltage depends only on differential input voltage, it rejects any voltage common to both inputs.
Hence, common mode gain = 0
Open-loop gain is the differential voltage gain in the absence of any positive or negative feedback. Practical Op-
Amps have –
1. Input impedance can vary from hundred of kilo-ohms (for some low-grade Op-Amps) to tera-ohms (for
high grade Op-Amps).
2. Output impedance may be in the range of 10 to 100 Ω
3. Open-loop gain in the range of 10,000 to 1, 00,000
4. Bandwidth is limited and is specified by gain-bandwidth product
5. There may be some finite DC output (referred to as output offset voltage), even when both the inputs are
grounded.
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PEAK DETECTORS:
Peak detector detects holds the most positive value attained by the input signal. The following Figure
shows peak detector circuit.
During positive half cycle of the input, D-conducts and capacitor charges to peak (highest) value of the
input. Capacitor retains its charged value unless and until it discharges with a help of switch.
The op-amp is connected as a voltage follower and its output voltage will be equal the drop
across capacitor which is positive peak value of the applied voltage and will remain that for long periods
until next more higher peak occurs at the input. For negative cycle of input, the diode is reverse biased
and capacitor retains its value.
Modified Peak Detector:
More sophisticated peak detector that buffers the signal source from the capacitor is shown in the
following Figure.
As Op-Amp (A1) is connected as voltage follower, the circuit presents very high impedance to the signal
source. Op-Amp (A2) acts as a buffer between the capacitor and the load. Output (V0) at any given time is
equal to the voltage on the capacitor which is nothing but, the peak value of the input occurred up to that
time.
Whenever the input signal has higher peak than the present one, the capacitor charges up to new
high input level. Whenever input level gets dropped, then capacitor retains the peak value of input, as
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diode D1 gets reverse biased and diode D2 prevents amplifier A1 output from going into negative
saturation.
To hold the negative peak of the input signal, reverse the diode connections in the above Figure.
Applications:
o Used for AM in communication
o Used in test and measurement instrumentation applications.
SCHMITT TRIGGER (REGENERATIVE) COMPARATOR:

A Schmitt trigger is a fast-operating voltage level detector.
Inverting Schmitt Trigger:

The input voltage Vin is applied to the inverting input terminal and the feedback voltage goes to the non-
inverting terminal. This means, the circuit uses positive voltage feedback (i.e., feedback voltage aids the
input voltage).
If the input voltage at the inverting terminal is slightly positive than feedback voltage at the non-inverting
terminal, the output voltage will be negative (negative saturation, –Vsat); and if the input voltage more
negative than the reference feedback voltage, the output will be positive (positive saturation, +Vsat).
Hence, the voltage at the output switches from +Vsat to –Vsat or vice-versa; are called Upper Trigger Point
(UTP) and Lower Trigger Point (LTP). The difference between two trigger points is called Hysteresis.
The upper and lower trigger points can be written as;
𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅2
𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = (−𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 )
(𝑅𝑅1 +𝑅𝑅2 ) (𝑅𝑅1 +𝑅𝑅2 )
𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅2

𝑉𝑉ℎ𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 = 𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 − 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑡𝑡 − 𝑒𝑒 (−𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ) = 2 � � 𝑉𝑉 = 2𝛽𝛽𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
(𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 ) (𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 ) 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑅𝑅2
𝛽𝛽 =
𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2
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Non-Inverting Schmitt Trigger:
The input voltage Vin is applied to the non-inverting input terminal and the feedback voltage also goes to
the non-inverting terminal. The inverting terminal is grounded..
Initially, assume that the output is in the negative saturation (–Vsat). Then the feedback voltage is also
negative. This feedback voltage will hold the output in negative saturation, until the input voltage
becomes positive enough to make voltage positive.
Let VA is the voltage at point A. Hence, VA = IR2.

Since no current passes through the Op-Amp, entire current flows through R2.
𝑉𝑉0 +𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
Therefore, 𝐼𝐼 = =
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅1
When Vin becomes positive and its magnitude becomes greater than (R2/R1)Vsat, then the output switches
to +Vsat. Therefore, the UTP at which the output switches to +Vsat is given by;
𝑅𝑅2 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 =
𝑅𝑅1
Similarly, when Vin becomes negative and its magnitude becomes greater than (R2/R1)Vsat, then the output
switches to –Vsat. Therefore, the LTP at which the output switches to –Vsat is given by;
𝑅𝑅2 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 = −
𝑅𝑅1
𝑅𝑅2
𝑉𝑉ℎ𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 = 𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 − 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 2 � � 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 2𝛽𝛽𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑅𝑅1
𝑅𝑅2
𝛽𝛽 =
𝑅𝑅1
Applications of Schmitt Trigger:
Schmitt trigger is used in many applications, where level needs to be sensed. Hysteresis is used to reduce
the multiple transitions that can occur around.
o Digital to analog conversion
o Level detection
o Line reception.
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ACTIVE FILTERS:
Filter is a frequency selective circuit commonly used in signal processing that passes signal of specified
range of frequencies and blocks the signals of frequencies outside the band. Active filters are attractive
due to their –
• Flexibility in gain control
• Small component size
• No loading Problem
• Pass band gain
• Use of the inductors can be avoided
Filters are useful in many areas of applications, such as Communication and Signal Processing. They are
found in electronic systems like Radio, Television, Telephones, Radars, satellites, and Biomedical
instruments.
Filters
Digital Filters Analog Filters
Passive Filters Active Filters
Broader Classification of Filters
Passive filters work for high frequencies; but at audio frequencies, the inductors become problematic, as
they are large, heavy, high power dissipation, and expensive.
Active filters use Op-Amp as the active element, resistors and capacitors as passive elements.
SNo. Passive Filters Active Filters
Filters with only components like Filters with components such as Op-Amps,
1 resistors, capacitors, and inductors are transistors, and other active elements are known
known as passive filters. as active filters.
Passive filters do not require an external
Active filters require an external power supply
2 power source for operation; incapable of
for operation; capable of providing power gain.
providing power gain.
Better stability and can withstand large Oscillations and noise will be generated due to
3
currents. feedback loops.
4 A passive filter has no frequency Due to active elements, active filters have
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limitations. frequency limitations.
Passive filters circuits are bulky/ heavy
due to the presence of inductors; they Active filters circuits are more compact, less
5
consume more power and operate with heavy; and operate with high speed.
limited speed.
Difficult to fabricate in IC form and
Can be fabricated in IC form and usually
6 usually designed using discrete
designed using discrete components.
components.
Active filters offer the following advantages over Passive filters:

• Gain and frequency adjustment flexibility
• No loading problem & No insertion loss
• Size and weight
• Cost.
Most commonly used active filters are –
• Low-pass filter, High-pass filter, Band-pass filter, Band-stop filter (Band-reject filter), and All-
pass filter.
Frequency Response:
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Design:
An active filter generally uses Op-Amp. Op-Amp has very high input impedance and low output
impedance. The gain is determined by the resistive network in the feedback loop.
First Oder Active Low-Pass Filter (LPF):
The first-order low-pass butter worth filter consists of a single RC filter stage, providing a low frequency
path to the non-inverting input of an Op-Amp. The circuit diagram and the frequency response of the
circuit is given below:
• From the graph; the gain (AF) is almost constant for the frequency range: 0 < f < fH.
• At cut-off frequency, f = fH, the gain is 0.707AF.
• After cut-off frequency fH, the gain decreases at the rate of 20 dB/decade.
1
• The cut-off frequency is given by: 𝑓𝑓𝐻𝐻 =
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝑅𝑅𝑓𝑓
• Pass band gain is given by: 𝐴𝐴𝐹𝐹 = 1 + 𝑅𝑅1
Some applications of low-pass filters are –

o Low-pass filters are used in Audio amplifiers
o LPFs are used in equalizers or speakers to reduce the high frequency noise.
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Second Order Low-Pass Filter:

First order filter can be converted to second order filter by adding an extra RC-network, as shown in the
following Figure. The frequency response of second order low-pass filter is same as the first order low-
pass filter except that the gain at the stop band rolls off at the rate of 40 dB/decade.
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• After cut-off frequency fH, the gain decreases at the rate of 40 dB/decade.
1
• The cut-off frequency is given by: 𝑓𝑓𝐻𝐻 = .
2𝜋𝜋 �𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3 𝐶𝐶2 𝐶𝐶3
1
o If R2 = R3 = R & C2 = C3 = C; then 𝑓𝑓𝐻𝐻 =
𝑅𝑅𝑓𝑓
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High-Pass Butter Worth Filter:

High-pass filters passes higher frequency signals, attenuating all signals below cut-off frequency, fL.
First Order High-Pass Butter Worth Filter:
The filter circuit consists of a passive filter followed by a non-inverting amplifier.
𝑉𝑉
• At low frequency: f < fL, 𝑉𝑉 0 < AF. AF increases at the rate of 20 dB/decade till f = fL.
𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
• At cut-off frequency, f = fL, the gain is 0.707AF.

𝑉𝑉0
• At very high frequency f > fL, = AF is constant.
𝑉𝑉 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
1
• The cut-off frequency is given by: 𝑓𝑓𝐿𝐿 =
𝑅𝑅𝑓𝑓
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Second Order High-Pass Filter:

A first order high-pass filter can be converted into a second order high-pass filter by using an extra RC-
network in the input side. The frequency response of second order high-pass filter is same as the first
order high-pass filter except that the gain at the stop band rolls off at the rate of 40 dB/decade.
1
• The cut-off frequency is given by: 𝑓𝑓𝐿𝐿 = .
1
o If R2 = R3 = R & C2 = C3 = C; then 𝑓𝑓𝐿𝐿 =
𝑅𝑅𝑓𝑓
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Active Band-Pass Filter:

Active band-pass filters provide an effective means of making a filter to pass only a given band of
frequencies. An active band-pass filter can be constructed by cascading a single low-pass filter with a
single high-pass filter, as shown below:
The cut-off frequency of the low-pass filter is higher than the cut-off frequency of the high-pass filter; and
the difference between these frequencies at the –3dB point will give the ‘bandwidth’ of the band-pass
filter. A band-pass filter can be characterized by Quality factor (Q). The relation between Q, 3dB
𝑓𝑓 𝐶𝐶 𝑓𝑓 𝐶𝐶
bandwidth, and the centre frequency, fC, is given by; 𝑄𝑄 = 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
= 𝑓𝑓 𝐻𝐻 − 𝑓𝑓𝐿𝐿
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Wide Band-Pass Filter:
A low Q-filter will have a wide-pass-band; i.e., with Q < 10. It has wide flat response over the range of
frequencies and bandwidth is large.
Narrow Band-Pass Filter:

A high Q-filter will have a narrow-pass-band; i.e., with Q > 10. It has a sharp bell type response, with
high gain and high selectivity.
1
• 𝑓𝑓𝐶𝐶 = .
𝑓𝑓 𝐶𝐶 1 𝑅𝑅1
• 𝑄𝑄𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 3𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= �
2 𝑅𝑅2
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𝑅𝑅
• Maximum Gain, 𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣 = − 2𝑅𝑅2 = −2𝑄𝑄 2
1
Applications of Band-Pass Filters (BPF):

o BPFs are also used in optics like Lasers, LIDARS, etc.
o BPFs are extensively used in wireless transmitters and receivers.
o BPFs are used in electronic devices like Sonar, Seismology; and medical applications like ECG,
and electrocardiograms.
o BPFs are extensively used for Audio signal processing, where a particular range of frequencies of
sound is required while removing the rest.
Band-Stop Filter (Band-Reject Filter):

Band-Stop Filer (BSF) is another type of frequency selective circuit that functions in exactly opposite to
the band-pass filter. BSF passes all frequencies with the exception of those within a specified stop band,
which are attenuated. If this stop band is very narrow and highly attenuated over a few hertz, then the
band-stop filter is referred as a notch filter.
Wide Band-Reject Filter:

The frequency response curve and the circuit diagram of a wide band-reject filter is given below.
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Narrow Band-Stop Filter (Notch Filter):

Notch filters are highly selective, high-Q form of band-stop filter, which can be used to reject a single or
very small band of frequencies. The most common notch filter design is the twin-T notch filter network
(shown below).
A twin-T network offers very high reactance at the resonance frequency and very low reactance at
frequency off-resonance. In the circuit diagram, very low frequency signals find their way to the output
via low-pass filter (formed by R1 – R2 – C3); and very high frequency signals find their way to the output
via high-pass filter (formed by C1 – C2 – R3). Hence, in an intermediate band of frequencies, both filters
pass signals to the output; due to cancellation of +ve phase shift of high-pass filter with the –ve phase
shift of the low-pass filter.
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NON LINEAR AMPLIFIER:

Non linearity is the behavior of a circuit, particularly an amplifier, in which the output signal strength do
not vary in direct proportion to the input signal strength. A non-linear amplifier in as circuit which gives
non linear relationship between its input and output signals.
The Non linear amplification can be achieved in a simple way by just connecting a non-linear device such
as PN-junction diode in the feedback path. In the circuit shown is the following Figure, large change in
input voltage causes small change in the output voltage. This circuit is a log amplifier, hence the output
voltage is logarithm of the input voltage.
The above Figure shows a non-linear amplifier, where diode ‘D’ is used in negative feedback path. By
virtual ground concept; as node B is grounded, node A will be virtually grounded. Therefore, VA = 0.
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𝑉𝑉 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 −𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴 𝑉𝑉 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
We have;𝐼𝐼 = 𝑅𝑅
= 𝑅𝑅
since VA = 0.
Let If be the current through the diode. The voltage across diode is VA – V0. Since, VA = 0, the voltage
across diode is –V0.
𝐼𝐼
Diode equation: −𝑉𝑉0 = 𝜂𝜂𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 ln � 𝑓𝑓 �
𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟
Where, VT – Voltage equivalent of Temperature

If – Diode forward current
Ir – Diode reverse saturation current.
Since, current through the Op-Amp is negligible;I = If
𝑉𝑉 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
Therefore, If = I =
𝑅𝑅
𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉
Gives, 𝑉𝑉0 = 𝜂𝜂𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 ln �𝐼𝐼 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑅𝑅 � = 𝜂𝜂𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 ln �𝑉𝑉 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 � IrR = Vref is a constant.
𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
The above equation shows that, the output voltage is a logarithmic function of input voltage.
Applications: Non-linear Amplifiers are used in AC bridge balance detectors.
RELAXATION OSCILLATOR:
Relaxation oscillator is a non-linear electronic oscillator circuit that generates a continuous non-sinusoidal
output signal in the form of rectangular wave, triangular wave or a saw-tooth wave. The time period of
non-sinusoidal output depends on the charging time of the capacitor connected in the oscillator circuit.
The relaxation oscillator basically contains a feedback loop that has a switching device in the form of
transistor, relays, operational amplifiers, comparators, or a tunnel diode that charges a capacitor through a
resistance till it reaches a threshold level then discharges it again. The following Figure shows the basic
circuit of an Op-Amp based relaxation oscillator.
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Assume that, the output is initially in positive saturation. As a result, voltage at non-inverting input of Op-
Amp is +VSAT * R1 / (R1 + R2). This force the output to stay in positive saturation as the capacitor C is
initially in fully discharged state. Capacitor C starts charging towards +VSAT through R. The moment the
capacitor voltage exceeds the voltage appearing at the non-inverting input, the output switches to –VSAT.
Now, the voltage appearing at the non-inverting input changes to –VSAT * R1 / (R1 + R2). The
capacitor starts discharging and after reaching zero, it begins to discharge towards –VSAT. Again, as soon
as it becomes more negative than the voltage appearing at the non-inverting input of the Op-Amp, the
output switches back to +VSAT.
1+𝛽𝛽
The expression for the time period of the output rectangular waveform is given by; 𝑇𝑇 = 2 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 ln ( )
1−𝛽𝛽
In the above equation; the natural logarithm is used, which is logarithm to base e. By varying the value
of resistor R, the time period of the output waveform can be varied.
β is the feedback fraction/ factor and is given by β = R1/ (R1+R2)
When the output voltage V0 is at at +VSAT the feedback voltage is known as upper threshold voltage VUTP
and is given by +VSAT x R1/ (R1+ R2)
When the output voltage V0 is at at –VSAT the feedback voltage is known as lower threshold voltage VLTP
and is given by –VSAT x R1/ (R1+ R2)
VOLTAGE TO CURRENT (V TO I) CONVERTER:

In many applications, we have to convert a voltage to a proportionate current. These voltage-to-current
converter circuits can be of two types:
a) Voltage to Current Converter with Floating Load: The circuit is shown in the following
Figure, where RL is the floating load.
𝑉𝑉 𝑖𝑖
Since, voltage at node A is Vi; 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 = 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅1 Or, 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 = 𝑅𝑅1
i.e., input voltage Vi is converted into and output current.
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b) Voltage to Current Converter with Grounded Load: The circuit is shown in the following
Figure.
𝑉𝑉 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 −𝑉𝑉2 𝑉𝑉0 −𝑉𝑉2

𝐼𝐼1 = 𝑅𝑅
𝐼𝐼2 = 𝑅𝑅
The load current is given by; IL = I1 + I2

𝑉𝑉 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 −𝑉𝑉2 𝑉𝑉0 −𝑉𝑉2 𝑉𝑉 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + 𝑉𝑉0 − 2𝑉𝑉2
Therefore, 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 = + =
𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅
𝑅𝑅
For a non-inverting amplifier, we know that; 𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣 = 1 + =2 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆, 𝑉𝑉0 = 2𝑉𝑉2
𝑅𝑅
𝑉𝑉 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + 2𝑉𝑉2 − 2𝑉𝑉2 𝑉𝑉 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
Therefore, 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 = 𝑅𝑅
𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂, 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 =
𝑅𝑅
Thus, the current IL is proportionate to voltage.
CURRENT TO VOLTAGE (C TO V) CONVERTER:

Consider the simple Op-Amp circuit to convert I to V, as shown in the following Figure.
Since, current through the Op-Amp is negligible;IS = If

𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 − 𝑉𝑉0
𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠 = 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 =
𝑅𝑅𝑓𝑓
By virtual ground concept; as node A is grounded, node B will be virtually grounded. Therefore, VB = 0.
Therefore,
−𝑉𝑉0
𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠 = 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂, 𝑉𝑉0 = 𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆 𝑅𝑅
𝑅𝑅𝑓𝑓
Thus, output is proportional to the input current IS, and the circuit works as I to V converter.
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VOLTAGE REGULATORS
All electronic systems that we use daily, requires a stable power supply voltage source; and voltage
regulators accomplish that. Voltage regulator is a circuit that keeps the output voltage constant under all
operating conditions. Voltage regulation is the process of keeping a voltage steady under conditions of
changing applied voltage, changing load and temperature.
There are two types of voltage regulators: shunt and series.
Need for Regulators:

In ordinary power supplies, the voltage regulation is very poor. The DC output voltage changes
appreciably with change in load current. The output voltage also changes due to fluctuations in the input
AC supply. This is due the following reasons:
1. In practice, there are considerable fluctuations in line voltage caused by external factors. This
changes the DC output voltage. Most of the electronic circuits will refuse to work satisfactorily
on such output voltage fluctuations. Hence, regulated power supply is the solution.
2. The internal resistance of ordinary power supply is relatively large ( > 30 Ω). Therefore, output
voltage is affected by the amount of load current drawn from the supply. These variations in DC
voltage may cause erratic operation of circuits. Without stable potentials, circuit performance
degrades and if the variations are large enough, the components may get destroyed. In order to
avoid this, regulated power supply is used.
Input to the voltage regulator is unregulated pulsating DC obtained from filter rectifier. Its output is
constant DC voltage which is almost ripple free. The following Figure shows block diagram of regulated
power supply.
The transformer provides voltage transformation and electrical isolation between the input power supply
(AC mains) and the DC output. The rectifier circuit changes the AC voltage appearing across the
transformer secondary to DC (unidirectional output). The rectifier circuit always has some AC content
known as ripple. The filter circuit smoothens the ripple of the rectifier circuit. The regulator is a type of
feedback circuit that ensures that the output DC voltage does not change from its nominal value due to
change in line voltage or load current.
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Factors Affecting the Load Voltage:
The variables affecting the load voltage in a power supply are given below:
1. Load current (IL): Ideally the output voltage should remain constant in-spite of changes in the
load current, but practically the power supply without regulator, the load voltage decreases as
load current, IL, increases. For practical power supply regulator, the load voltage must be constant
through load to full load condition.
2. Line voltage: The input to the rectifier is AC (230 V) is the line voltage. This input decides the
output voltage level. If input changes, output also changes. So this affects the performance of
power supply. So ideally voltage must remain constant irrespective of any changes in the line
voltage.
3. Temperature: In the power supply, the rectifier unit is used which uses PN-junction diode. As the
diode characteristics are temperature dependent, the overall performance of the power supply is
temperature dependent.
Performance Parameters of a Power Supply:

The power supply is judged by some parameters, called as performance parameters. These performance
parameters are explained below:
1. Line Regulation: If the input to the rectifier unit i.e. 230 V changes, the output DC of rectifier
will also change and since the output of rectifier is applied to the regulator, the output of regulator
will also vary. Thus the source causes the change in output. This is as source regulation or line
regulation. It is defined as the change in regulated DC output for a given change in input (line)
voltage. Ideally the source regulation should be zero and practically it should be as low as
possible.
2. Load Regulation: Load regulation is defined as the change in the regulated output voltage when
load current is changed from zero (no load) to maximum value (full load). The load regulation
ideally should be zero, but practically it should be as small as possible. The following Figure
𝑉𝑉𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 −𝑉𝑉𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹
shows the load regulation characteristics. Percentage load regulation = �
𝑉𝑉𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹
�∗ 100
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3. Voltage Stability factor (SV): Voltage stability factor shows the dependency of output voltage on
the input line voltage. Voltage stability factor is defined as the percentage change in the output
voltage which occurs per volt change in input voltage, where load current and temperature are
assumed to be constant. Smaller the value of this factor, better is the performance of power
supply.
4. Temperature Stability Factor (Sr): As in the chain of power supply we are using semiconductor
devices (diodes in rectifier block) the output voltage is temperature dependent. Thus the
temperature stability of the power supply will be determined by temperature coefficients of
various temperature sensitive semiconductor devices. So, it is better to choose the low
temperature coefficient devices to keep output voltage constant and independent of temperature.
Sr must be as small as possible, and ideally it should it should be zero for a power supply.
5. Ripple Rejection Factor (RR): The output of rectifier and filter consists of ripples. Ripple
rejection is defined as a factor which shows how effectively the regulator rejects the ripples and
attenuates it from input to output. As ripples in the output are small compared to input, the RR is
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 (𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 )
very small and in dB, it is in negative value. Ripple rejection factor =
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 (𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 )
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 (𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 )
When expressed in decibels, ripple rejection equals 20 log � 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 (𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 )
� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 (𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 )
Also, 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 (𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜) =
1+𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
Example: Two power supplies A and B are available in the market. Power supply A has no-load and full-
load voltages of 40 V and 30 V respectively; whereas these values are 30 V and 28 V for power supply B.
Which one do you think is better power supply?
Supply A: VNL = 40 V, VFL = 30 V
% Voltage regulation = [(VNL – VFL)/VFL]*100 = [(40 – 30)/30]*100 = 33 %.
Supply B: VNL = 30 V, VFL = 28 V
% Voltage regulation = [(VNL – VFL)/VFL]*100 = [(30 – 28)/28*]*100 = 7 %.
Conclusion: The power supply which has lower voltage regulation is better. Hence, power supply B is
between than power supply A.
Example: A regulated power supply operates from 220 ± 20 VAC. It produces a no-load regulated
output voltage of 24 ± 0.5 VDC. Also, the regulated output voltage falls from 24 VDC to 23.8 VDC as the
load changes from no-load to full-load condition for the nominal value of input voltage. Determine (a)
line regulation and (b) load regulation.
Line regulation = (24.5 – 23.5)/24 = 1/24 = 0.0417 = 4.17%
Load regulation = (24 – 23.8)/23.8 = 0.2/23.8 = 0.0084 = 0.84%.
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Example: A regulated power supply provides a ripple rejection of –80dB. If the ripple voltage in the
unregulated input were 2V, determine the output ripple.
V RIPPLE (OUTPUT )
Ripple rejection in dB is given by; 20 log � � dB = –80dB
V RIPPLE (INPUT )
V RIPPLE (OUTPUT )
Or log � V RIPPLE (INPUT )
�= –4
V RIPPLE (OUTPUT )
Or � V RIPPLE (INPUT )
� = 10–4
Therefore, output ripple = 2 * 10–4 V = 0.2mV
Example: The following Figure shows load voltage versus load current characteristics of a regulated
power supply. Determine the output impedance of the power supply.
Output impedance is given by ratio of change in the output voltage for known change in the load current.
From the given characteristic curve, output impedance = (24 – 23.5)/((10 – 0) = 0.5/10 = 0.05Ω = 50mΩ.
Three-Terminal Regulators:
Three-terminal regulators require no external components. These are available in fixed output voltage
(positive and negative) as well as adjustable output voltage (positive and negative) types with current
rating 100mA, 500mA, 1.5A and 3.0A.
o LM/MC 78XX-series and LM 140XX/340XX-series are the popular three-terminal positive
output voltage regulators.
o LM/MC 79XX-series and LM 120XX/320XX-series are the popular three-terminal negative
output voltage regulators.
o LM 117/217/317 is common adjustable positive output voltage regulators.
o LM 137/237/337 is common adjustable negative output voltage regulators.
 A two-digit number in place of “XX” indicates the regulated output voltage.
The minimum unregulated input to regulated output differential voltage required for the regulator to
produce the intended regulated output voltage is known as dropout voltage. For example, consider a 5V
regulator with a 2V dropout voltage; for this to give a regulated output, the input voltage must be least
46
18CS33
equal to the output voltage (5V) plus the dropout voltage (2V), which is 7V; any input below 7V will
result into unregulated voltage output.
The following Figures show the basic application circuits using LM/MC 78XX-series and Lm/MC 79XX-
series three-terminal regulators.
Basic Application Circuits using Three-Terminal Regulators
Example: Refer three-terminal regulator circuit of following Figure. Determine (a) load current; (b)
current through LM 7812; (c) current through external transistor; (d) power dissipated in LM 7812. Take
VBE (Q1) = 0.7V.
(a) Load current = 12/5 = 2.4A

(b) Current through regulator = 0.7/1 = 0.7A
(c) Current through external transistor = 2.4 – 0.7 = 1.7A
(d) Voltage appearing at regulator input = 15 – 0.7 = 14.3V
(e) Power dissipated in the regulator = (14.3 – 12) * 0.7 = 1.61W.
Adjustable Voltage Regulator:

An adjustable voltage regulator is a kind of regulator, whose regulated output voltage can be varied over a
range. There are positive adjustable voltage regulators and negative adjustable regulators in practice.
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18CS33
LM317 is a classic example of positive adjustable voltage regulator, whose output voltage can be varied
over a range of 1.2 V to 57 V. LM337 is an example of negative adjustable voltage regulator. LM337 is
actually a compliment of LM317 which are similar in operation and design with the only difference being
polarity of regulated output voltage.
Connection of LM317 Adjustable Voltage Regulator

The resistors R1 and R2 determine the output voltage Vout. The resistor R2 can be adjusted to get the output
voltage in the range of 1.21 V to 57 V. The output voltage is given by;
Vout = VR (1 + R2/R1) + IADJR2
D TO A & A TO D CONVERTERS
The digital system such as computers also need to communicate with physical processes and with people
through analog signals. So there is a need of digital to analog converters.
Typical A/D and D/A Converter

Naturally available signal is analog in form, and may be obtained from sensor or transducer. This analog
signal is band limited by anti-aliasing filter. The signal is then sampled at a frequency rate, more than
twice the maximum frequency of the band limited signal. The sampled signal is held constant by hold
48
18CS33
circuit while conversion is taking place. The discrete signal from the sample and hold circuit is fed to
analog to digital converter (ADC). The ADC gives digital output signal that can be easily processed,
stored, or transmitted by digital systems or computer system.
The digital signal is converted back to by digital to analog converter (DAC). The output of DAC is
usually stair-case waveform, which is passed through smoothing filter to reduce the quantization noise.
The diagram shown in the above Figure can be used in the applications such as digital signal processing,
digital audio mixing, music and video synthesis, data acquisition, pulse code modulation, and
microprocessor instrumentation.
BASIC DAC TECHNIQUES:

The DAC converts digital or binary data into its equivalent analog value. The symbolic representation of
an n-bit DAC is given below:
n-bit DAC
The DAC output can either be a voltage or current signal. For a voltage output DAC, the conversion
characteristic can be expressed by;
𝑉𝑉0 = 𝑘𝑘𝑉𝑉𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 (𝑏𝑏1 2−1 + 𝑏𝑏2 2−2 + 𝑏𝑏3 2−3 + … 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 2−𝑛𝑛 )
Where, V0 – Output voltage
VFS – Full scale output voltage
k – Scaling factor (usually 1)
b1. . ., bn – n-bit binary fractional word with decimal point located at the left
b1 – MSB with a weight = VFS/2
bn – LSB with a weight = VFS/2n
Performance Parameters of DAC:

1. Resolution: Resolution is the number of various analog output values that is provided by a DAC.
For n-bit DAC; Resolution = 2n
Resolution can also be defined as the ratio of change in output voltage resulting from a change of
LSB at the digital input. For n-bit DAC; Resolution = VOFS/2n – 1
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18CS33
Where, VOFS – Full scale output voltage.
If we know the resolution, we can obtain input-output relation for DAC:
V0 = Resolution x b
Where, b – Decimal values of digital input.
1
For example, in a 4-bit system, using ladder, the LSB has a weight of . This means that, the
16
1
smallest increment in the output voltage is 16 of the input voltage. If we assume that, this 4-bit
1
system has input voltage levels of +16 V; (since has a weight of 16 ) a change in LSB results in a
change of 1 V in the output. Thus, the output voltage changes in steps of 1 V.
Hence, this converter can be used to represent analog voltages from 0 to +15 V in 1-V
increments. But, this converter cannot be used to resolve voltages into increments smaller than
1V. If we desire to produce +4.2 V, using this converter, the actual output voltage would be +4.0
V. This converter is not capable of distinguishing voltages finer than 1 V, which is the resolution
of the converter.
If we want to represent voltages to a finer resolution, we would have to use a converter
with more input bits. For example, the LSB of a 10-bit converter has a weight of 1/1024. If this
1
converter has a +10 V full-scale output, the resolution is approximately, +10 * = 10 mV.
1024
Problem: What is the resolution of a 9-bit D/A converter which uses a ladder network? What is
the resolution expressed as a percentage? If the full-scale output voltage of this converter is +5
V, what is resolution in volts?
1
Solution: The LSB in a 9-bit D/A converter has a weight of . Thus, this converter has a
512
resolution of 1 part in 512.

1
The resolution expressed in percentage is * 100 percent = 0.2 %.
512
The voltage resolution is obtained by multiplying the weight of the LSB by the full-scale output
1
voltage. Thus, the resolution in volts is: * 5 = 10 mV.
512
Problem: How many bits are required at the input of a converter, if it is necessary to resolve
voltage to 5 mV and the ladder has +10 V full-scale?
1
Solution: The LSB of an 11-bit D/A converter has a resolution of . This would provide a
2048
1
resolution at the output of 2048 * 10 = +5 mV.
2. Accuracy: The accuracy of the D/A converter is primarily a function of the accuracy of the
precision resistors used in the ladder and the precision of the reference voltage supply used.
Accuracy is a measure of how close the actual output voltage is to the theoretical output value.
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18CS33
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑦𝑦 =
(2𝑛𝑛 − 1)2
Problem: Calculate the accuracy of a 8-bit DAC, if the full scale output voltage is 10.0 V?
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 10.0
Solution: 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = (2𝑛𝑛 −1)2
= (28 −1)2
= 19.8 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚.
1
3. Setting Time: Setting time is the time required for a DAC output to settle within ± 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 of
2
final value for a given digital input.
4. Stability: The performance of a DAC is not stable due to the parameters such as temperature,
power supply variations, and ageing.
Binary Weighted Resistor DAC:

The following Figure shows binary weighted resistor DAC circuit using n-electronic switches to control
the binary inputs b1, b2, . . . , bn.
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅
When the switch is ON; 𝐼𝐼 = 𝑅𝑅
When the switch is OFF; I = 0.
Due to very high input impedance of Op-Amp, the toatl current I will flow through Rf. The total current
trough Rf is; 𝐼𝐼 = 𝐼𝐼1 + 𝐼𝐼2 + 𝐼𝐼3 + … + 𝐼𝐼𝑛𝑛
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅
= 𝑏𝑏 + 𝑏𝑏 + 𝑏𝑏 + … + 𝑛𝑛 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛
21 𝑅𝑅 1 22 𝑅𝑅 2 23 𝑅𝑅 3 2 𝑅𝑅
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅
= [𝑏𝑏 2−1 + 𝑏𝑏2 2−2 + 𝑏𝑏3 2−3 + … + 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 2−𝑛𝑛 ]
𝑅𝑅 1
The output voltage is; V0 = – IfRf
−𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅
𝑖𝑖. 𝑒𝑒. , 𝑉𝑉0 = 𝑅𝑅 [𝑏𝑏 2−1 + 𝑏𝑏2 2−2 + 𝑏𝑏3 2−3 + … + 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 2−𝑛𝑛 ]
𝑅𝑅 𝑓𝑓 1
If Rf = R; Or, 𝑽𝑽𝟎𝟎 = −𝑽𝑽𝑹𝑹 �𝒃𝒃𝟏𝟏 𝟐𝟐−𝟏𝟏 + 𝒃𝒃𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐−𝟐𝟐 + 𝒃𝒃𝟑𝟑 𝟐𝟐−𝟑𝟑 + … + 𝒃𝒃𝒏𝒏 𝟐𝟐−𝒏𝒏 �
Drawbacks: (1) Large range of resistor values are required, as resistance values increases like
21R, 22R, 23R, . . . , 2nR.
(2) Practically it’s difficult to fabricate large values of resistors on IC.
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18CS33
R-2R Ladder type DAC:
In R-2R ladder, only two values, R and 2R are used. The circuit diagram is given below:
Each binary bit connects switch either to ground (non-inverting input) or to the inverting terminal of Op-
Amp. Due to virtual ground, both the positions of the switches are at ground potential, and currents
through the resistances are constant.
The current flowing through each of 2R resistances;
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 /2 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 /4 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 /(2𝑛𝑛 − 1)
𝐼𝐼1 = 𝐼𝐼2 = = 𝐼𝐼3 = = 𝐼𝐼𝑛𝑛 =
2𝑅𝑅 2𝑅𝑅 4𝑅𝑅 2𝑅𝑅 8𝑅𝑅 2𝑅𝑅
But, 𝑉𝑉0 = −𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅𝑓𝑓 = −𝑅𝑅𝑓𝑓 (𝐼𝐼1 + 𝐼𝐼2 + … + 𝐼𝐼𝑁𝑁 )
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅
𝑖𝑖. 𝑒𝑒. , 𝑉𝑉0 = −𝑅𝑅𝑓𝑓 � 𝑏𝑏1 + 𝑏𝑏2 + … + 𝑛𝑛 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 �
2𝑅𝑅 4𝑅𝑅 2 𝑅𝑅
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅
Or, 𝑉𝑉0 = − 𝑅𝑅𝑓𝑓 [𝑏𝑏1 2−1 + 𝑏𝑏2 2−2 + … + 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 2−𝑛𝑛 ]
𝑅𝑅
If Rf = R; 𝑽𝑽𝟎𝟎 = −𝑽𝑽𝑹𝑹 �𝒃𝒃𝟏𝟏 𝟐𝟐−𝟏𝟏 + 𝒃𝒃𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐−𝟐𝟐 + … + 𝒃𝒃𝒏𝒏 𝟐𝟐−𝒏𝒏 �

Advantages: (1) As it requires only two types of resistors, fabrication and accurate value of R-@R can
be designed.
(2) Node voltage remains constant, and hence, slow down effect can be avoided.
52
18CS33
53
18CS33
A-D CONVERTERS:
ADC takes the analog signal as input and converts into digital output. The functional diagram of DAC is
given below:
ADC is provided with two control inputs start (input to initiate the conversion) and end of conversion
(output to indicate the end of conversion). Direct type ADCs and Integrated type ADCs are the two types
of ADCs available.
Flash (Comparator/ Parallel) type ADC:

A simple, fast, but most expensive conversion technique.
A 2-bit Flash ADC:
54
18CS33
A 3-bit Flash ADC:
The resistive network is to set to equal reference voltages at each node. The comparactor compares set
reference value at inverting terminal of Op-Amp with analog output at non-inverting terminal. The
truthtable for ADC is given below:
55
18CS33
Advantages:
1. High speed
Disadvantages:
1. Number of comparators required is almost double for each added bit
Eg.: For 2-bit ADC; No. of Comparators = 4 (22)
For 3-bit ADC; No. of Comparators = 8 (23)
Successive Approximation type ADC:

The following Figure shows successive approximation ADC.
56
18CS33
Figure shows a successive approximation register (SAR), the output of which is connected to DAC and
output latch circuit. The input signal (Vin) is compared with the analog output signal (Va) of the DAC.
Output of the comparator is feedback into SAR. The control logic inside SAR adjusts its digital output;
until it is equal to the analog input signal. The operation could be understood by the code tree given
below.
At the start of conversion cycle, start conversion terminal is made high. On the first clock pulse, the
output of the SAR is made 1000. The DAC produces an analog voltage (Va) proportional to 1000. This
analog voltage is compared with input analog signal (Vin).
If Vin > Va, the comparator output will be high and SAR keeps Q3 high. On the other hand, if Vin < Va,
then the comparator output becomes low and SAR resets Q3 to low. If Vin > Va, SAR follows the upward
path in code tree and if Vin < Va, SAR follows downward path.
The conversion time for n-bit successive approximation ADC is (n + 2) clock periods.
Advantages:
1. Considerably good speed
2. Good resolution.
57

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

V-I Characteristics of Photodiode:

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED):

BASE BIAS or FIXED BIAS:

Applying KVL to the outer loop;

Applying KVL to the base-emitter loop; VB – VBE – VE = 0 i.e., VBE = VB - VE

Internal Schematic of Timer IC-555

MAHESH PRASANNA K., VCET, PUTTUR

Therefore, TON = 1.1 RAC

Voltage across charging capacitor is given by (initial voltage on capacitor is zero);

Therefore, TON = TC = 0.693 (RA + RB) C

Therefore, TOFF = TD = 0.693 RB C

Duty Cycle, %D = [(on time) / (total time)]*100

Basic Differential Amplifier & Circuit Representation of an OP-Amp

1. Since Ri = ∞, Ii = Ini = 0 Bandwidth is infinite Bandwidth is limited

SCHMITT TRIGGER (REGENERATIVE) COMPARATOR:

Inverting Schmitt Trigger:

𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅2

Let VA is the voltage at point A. Hence, VA = IR2.

Digital Filters Analog Filters

Passive Filters Active Filters

Broader Classification of Filters

Active filters offer the following advantages over Passive filters:

Some applications of low-pass filters are –

Second Order Low-Pass Filter:

High-Pass Butter Worth Filter:

• At cut-off frequency, f = fL, the gain is 0.707AF.

Second Order High-Pass Filter:

Active Band-Pass Filter:

Narrow Band-Pass Filter:

Applications of Band-Pass Filters (BPF):

Band-Stop Filter (Band-Reject Filter):

Wide Band-Reject Filter:

Narrow Band-Stop Filter (Notch Filter):

NON LINEAR AMPLIFIER:

Where, VT – Voltage equivalent of Temperature

Applications: Non-linear Amplifiers are used in AC bridge balance detectors.

VOLTAGE TO CURRENT (V TO I) CONVERTER:

i.e., input voltage Vi is converted into and output current.

𝑉𝑉 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 −𝑉𝑉2 𝑉𝑉0 −𝑉𝑉2

The load current is given by; IL = I1 + I2

Thus, the current IL is proportionate to voltage.

CURRENT TO VOLTAGE (C TO V) CONVERTER:

Since, current through the Op-Amp is negligible;IS = If

Need for Regulators:

Performance Parameters of a Power Supply:

MAHESH PRASANNA K., VCET, PUTTUR

Therefore, output ripple = 2 * 10–4 V = 0.2mV

Basic Application Circuits using Three-Terminal Regulators

(a) Load current = 12/5 = 2.4A

Adjustable Voltage Regulator:

Connection of LM317 Adjustable Voltage Regulator

Typical A/D and D/A Converter

BASIC DAC TECHNIQUES:

Performance Parameters of DAC:

resolution of 1 part in 512.

final value for a given digital input.

Binary Weighted Resistor DAC:

If Rf = R; 𝑽𝑽𝟎𝟎 = −𝑽𝑽𝑹𝑹 �𝒃𝒃𝟏𝟏 𝟐𝟐−𝟏𝟏 + 𝒃𝒃𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐−𝟐𝟐 + … + 𝒃𝒃𝒏𝒏 𝟐𝟐−𝒏𝒏 �