THE BEGINNING OF MODERN ASTRONOMY

The Copernican Revolution

Shared by: Prosibeth G Bacarrisas

Note: These slides were taken from different sources, the contents are not mine
 The 15th Century

⚫ In 1453 Ottoman Turks overrun Constantinople.

⚫ Romans flee west into Europe and take books with
them.
⚫ This is the end of the Middle Age
⚫ Most people cannot read or write and generally
believe whatever the Bible and other trusted sources
said about the world.
 The 15th Century Astronomy

⚫ Earth is stationary sphere at the center of heaven. It’s

habitable surface is a flat circle with Jerusalem at it’s
center.
⚫ Stars and planets made of a perfect substance called
th
Aether (or ether) a 5 heavenly element.
⚫ Moon, sun and stars held in place by invisible crystalline
spheres.
 Describe 3 models of the universe

1. Geocentric Model- This model supported the belief that

the Earth was the center of the Universe.
This belief followed the teaching of Aristotle
 2. Ptolemaic Model- this model included part of the
geocentric model.
⚫ It stated that the Earth was in the center of the
universe
⚫ But the moons and planets rotated in circles as
they went around Earth

In astronomy, the geocentric model (also known as geocentrism, or the Ptolemaic

system) is a superseded description of the universe with Earth at the center. Under the
geocentric model, the Sun, Moon, stars, and planets all orbited Earth.[1]
Ptolemaic Model
 Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543)

• Polish Catholic Cleric

• Observed night sky from an
observation tower.
• Trying to solve the calendar
problem.
• Suggested a Sun centered
Universe in a book titled De
Revolutionibus, which was not
published until the year he died.

• NOTE: He was well educated

and had read Greek astronomy.
 Copernican Model

3. Copernican Model
• Heliocentric Universe
• De Revolutionibus
Orbiun Celestium (On
the Revolutions of the
Heavenly Spheres)
• Idea was opposed by
the Catholic Church
 Copernican Model

Copernicus has no clue what stars actually are or how far they are away
 Copernican Model Explained

◼ Earth’s rotation caused daily motion from east

to west.
◼ Mercury and Venus were inferior planets, which
explained why they are always seen near the
Sun.
◼ Sun’s annual motion along the ecliptic (Zodiac)
was caused by Earth’s orbital motion (this one
was difficult to accept.)
◼ Retrograde motion was a natural phenomenon
of one planet passing another planet as they
orbited the Sun.
As a faster moving planet overtakes and passes a slower moving superior planet the superior planet
appears to move backwards as you pass by it.
 Copernican Model
Why believe Copernican model?

⚫ Ptolemy’s model had worked for 1500 years.

⚫ Ptolemy’s model provided a metaphor of the earth
and humans living at the center of God’s creation.
⚫ Copernicus did not prove that the Earth orbited the
Sun.
⚫ Copernican model did not predict the positions of
planets any better than Ptolemy’s model.
⚫ How did the society accept his ideas?
⚫ If you were living at the time of Copernicus,
what is your stand?
⚫ What is the contribution of Copernicus in
Science?
 Why believe Copernican model?

⚫ It was aesthetically more pleasing.

⚫ It was more simple. One element – the
SUN
⚫ It explained observed complex motions
as naturally occurring.

The Copernican Revolution- was the

critical realization that the Earth was not
the center of the universe
What happened after?
 Describe the role of Galileo in early
astronomy

⚫ Galileo was an Italian

mathematician and
philosopher
⚫ He was the first to study the
sky with a telescope

https://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/StarChild/whos_who_level2/galileo.html
 Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
⚫ Italian physicist and astronomer. He was born in
Pisa on February 15, 1564. Galileo's father, Vincenzo
Galilei, was a well-known musician. Vincenzo
decided that his son should become a doctor.
⚫ In 1581, Galileo was sent to the University of Pisa to
study medicine. While a student at the university,
Galileo discovered that he had a talent for
mathematics. He was able to persuade his father to
allow him to leave the university to become a tutor in
mathematics. He later became a professor of
mathematics.

https://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/StarChild/whos_who_level2/galileo.html
⚫ In 1609, Galileo heard about the invention of the
spyglass, a device which made distant objects appear
closer. Galileo used his mathematics knowledge and
technical skills to improve upon the spyglass and
improve/build a telescope to be used for astronomy.
⚫ Later that same year, he became the first person to look
at the Moon through a telescope and make his first
astronomy discovery. He found that the Moon was not
smooth, but mountainous and pitted - just like the Earth!
⚫ He subsequently used his newly invented/improved
telescope to discover four of the moons circling Jupiter,
to study Saturn, to observe the phases of Venus, and to
study sunspots on the Sun.

https://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/StarChild/whos_who_level2/galileo.html
 Galileo had 4 major discoveries:

1. Saw mountains on moon

2. Saw sunspots on Sun…later made him
blind
3. Saw the moons of Jupiter
4. Realized that Venus had phases which
meant that it orbited the Sun
 Galileo took a stand against the Church (which
supported the geocentric model).

⚫ Galileo supported the heliocentric model

⚫ This was a time when the Church burned
Bruno (an astronomer) for his beliefs for
the sun-centered model.
 Let us take a closer look

⚫ The Catholic Church, which was very powerful and

influential in Galileo's day, strongly supported the theory
of a geocentric, or Earth-centered, universe.
⚫ After Galileo began publishing papers about his
astronomy discoveries and his belief in a heliocentric, or
Sun-centered, Universe, he was called to Rome to answer
charges brought against him by the Inquisition (the legal
body of the Catholic Church).
⚫ Early in 1616, Galileo was accused of being a heretic, a
person who opposed Church teachings. Heresy was a
crime for which people were sometimes sentenced to
death.
 What happened after?

⚫ He was cleared of charges of heresy, but was told that he should no

longer publicly state his belief that Earth moved around the Sun.
⚫ He continued his study of astronomy and became more and more
convinced that all planets revolved around the Sun.
⚫ In 1632, he published a book that stated, among other things, that
the heliocentric theory of Copernicus was correct. Galileo was once
again called before the Inquisition and this time was found guilty of
heresy.
⚫ He was sentenced to life imprisonment in 1633, but because of his
age and poor health, he was allowed to serve his imprisonment
under house arrest. Galileo died on January 8, 1642.
⚫ The Church officially and publicly forgave Galileo for his crimes in
1992
 Charles Darwin:

THESE SLIDES WERE PREPARED BYROHIT SAMSON

 Childhood
⚫ On February 12, 1809 Charles Robert Darwin
was born in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, England
as a son of a well-to-do physician.
⚫ He was said to be shy yet mischievous.
Darwin’s mother died on July 15, 1817, when
he was only 8.
⚫ In September 1818, Darwin attended
Shrewsbury Grammar School, along with
Erasmus, run by the Rev. Samuel Butler.
⚫ The focus of their study was Greek and
Roman grammar and reading.
⚫ He did not do well in school, and on June 17,
1825 Darwin was removed because of bad
grades. Because of this he spent the summer
working in his dad’s medical practice.
 An Unpromising Youth
⚫ Darwin was sent by his father to study medicine at
Edinburgh University in Scotland. He was horrified,
however, by the sight of surgery without anesthesia, and
discontinued his studies after only two years.
⚫ Darwin was accepted into Christ’s College at Cambridge in
Oct. 1827, but he lacked true interest in theology. Instead,
he collected beetles and studied them.
⚫ His first work in science began with a geologic field trip led
by English geologist Adam Sedgwick.
⚫ Scottish zoologist Robert Grant introduced Darwin to the
evolutionary ideas of the French naturalist Jean-Baptiste
Lamarck, who first thought of evolution of life from simple
forms.
The Beagle Voyage
⚫ In December of 1831 the
H.M.S. Beagle left Plymouth
Harbor on a 5 year ‘voyage of
scientific exploration’.
⚫ Darwin joined as the ship’s
naturalist.
⚫ Sea-sickness and infections
apart he was able to come to
a ‘clear realization of the
antiquity of the Earth and the
long ages through which life
had to develop.’ (Isaac
Asimov)
Galapagos Giant Tortoise
photograph courtesy of Dr. Phillip Dvoskin
“Darwin’s Finches”
photograph courtesy of Dr. Phillip Dvoskin (Galapagos Islands 2004)
 Natural Selection
⚫ While there were many unusual animals on the Galapagos Islands, Darwin
mainly noticed a group of birds, the famous “Darwin’s Finches” which were
similar but divided into at least 14 species, none of which existed on the
mainland.
⚫ Darwin believed that these birds came to the island seeking food and therefore
had a common ancestor, but their descendants differentiated based on
adaptation to different natural conditions like availability of food, predators,
prey, and climate “eventually evolving into separate species.”
⚫ He noticed that the 14 different species of finches each had “unique beaks
tailored to it’s specific diets.” For example the Warbler Finch has a sharp,
pointy beak to eat insects in trees, but the Large ground finch has a large, stout
beak that allows it to eat seeds and nuts which are too big for other species.
(courtesy of Newsweek article, Nov. 2005)
⚫ He also could identify the island origin of giant tortoises based on the patterns
on their shells.
⚫ He concluded that creatures adapted themselves to different ways of life based
on the environment and the fittest of them survived and procreated. He then
realized that such NATURAL SELECTION explained the process of
EVOLUTION.
 The Theory of Evolution
• The evolution concept refers to the belief that existing animals and plants
developed by a process of slow, continuous change from previously existing
forms.
•Organic evolution, as opposed to belief in the special creation of each individual
species as an unchangeable form, envisions life as having had its beginnings in a
simple mass (probably starting out in the sea) from which, over course of time,
arose all living forms.
•Inorganic evolution, on the other hand, is concerned with the development of the
physical universe from unorganized matter.
 The Late Years of Darwin
⚫ Charles Darwin remained ill most of his
life. He never traveled abroad again. He
may have suffered from Chagas disease.
On September 7, 1881,
⚫ Darwin finished his final will. On Dec. 15,
1881, Darwin started feeling strong chest
pains. From Feb. to Apr. 1882,
⚫ Darwin had violent seizures and heart
troubles. A doctor was called on April 18,
1882 and left the next day saying Darwin
was fine. Later that day he suffered from
more violent attacks. His family gathered
around his bedside. Charles Robert
⚫ Darwin died about 4:00p.m April 19, 1882.
On April 26 1882, Charles Robert Darwin
was buried at Westminster Abbey (even
without the family requesting it) next to his
friend, Sir John Herschel (astronomer)
about 20 feet from Sir Isaac Newton.
Ironically, this was the only honor he
received from the British government
under Queen Victoria, who were against
Darwinism.
Some Books by Charles Darwin
⚫ Darwin's Scientific Diaries 1836-1842.
⚫ On the Origin of Species a Facsimile of the First Edition
⚫ The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex.
⚫ The Origin of Species
⚫ The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals.
⚫ The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection: Or, the
Preservation of Favored Races in the Struggle for Life.
⚫ The Autobiography of Charles Darwin 1809-1882.
⚫ Charles Darwin and the Voyage of the 'Beagle'.
⚫ Charles Darwin's Notebooks, 1836-1844: Geology,
Transmutation of Species, Metaphysical Enquiries.
⚫ The Correspondence of Charles Darwin: 1821-1863 (vol-1-11).
⚫ Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary.
The Freudian Revolution
 Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

⚫ Austrian, doctor
⚫ One of the first
psychologists to study
human motivation
⚫ was the founding father
of psychoanalysis, a
method for treating mental
illness and also a theory
which explains human
behavior.
 Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

⚫ Like Marx, a determinist

⚫ People determined by their
instincts
⚪ Life instinct: sex (libido)
⚪ Death instinct: aggression,
self-destruction
 Freud: unconscious mind

⚫ Id: the raw instincts unconscious part

of the mind
⚪ (this part of the mind seeks to bring us
pleasure)
⚪ primitive parts of our personality including
aggression and sexual drives
⚫ Ego: the manager of the id that
sublimates the instincts
o conscious part of the mind (Rational Self)
o decides what action to take for positive means
and what to do based on what is believed is the
right thing to do.
o is aware of reality.
⚫ Superego: the “conscience” that
manages the ego according to social
standards and morality
For example, the superego can make a person
feel guilty if rules are not followed. When
there is a conflict between the goals of the id
and superego, the ego must act as a referee
and mediate this conflict. The ego can deploy
various defense mechanisms (Freud, 1894,
1896) to prevent it from becoming
overwhelmed by anxiety.
⚫ If you don’t resolve this conflict between
the ID and the EGO, you may experience
unhappiness or mental distress.
⚫ Thus, in order to understand motivation,
you must understand what is in your
unconscious memory. This is the basis for
PSYCHOANALYSIS.
⚫ “Psychoanalysis has as its core the idea that
each of us has an unconscious part whose
existence, activities and thoughts are hidden
behind a mental barrier that we cannot voluntarily
remove. Behind this barrier are repressed and
psychologically dangerous thoughts that give rise
to unconscious conflicts, which in turn, can result
in psychological and physical symptoms.”
⚫ - Plotnik, p. 514
The ego can deploy various defense mechanisms (Freud, 1894, 1896) to prevent it
from becoming overwhelmed by anxiety.
How do you get this out?

1) FREE ASSOCIATION
-ink blot pictures,
word association
(Way of “tricking”
you to lull your
conscious mind to
sleep to bring out the
unconscious).
⚫ 2) HYPNOSIS
⚫ - Freud was one of the first to use this. This
is a way of freeing the unconscious mind or
opening up drawers to remember vivid
details of the past.
3) DREAMS
- Freud believed dreams were your unconscious
mind talking to you. Dreams were very symbolic
and difficult to analyze.
Ex: driving a car
⚫ (driver) means you feel in control of your life
⚫ (passenger) –someone else is in control of your
life
⚫ Horses –symbolize freedom
 Freud & the human mind

⚫ Freud-believed that mental illness is a result of

nurture, not nature.
⚫ He asked the question: “What makes people do
things?”
Answer: MOTIVATION
⚫ Needs motivate human behaviour (food, shelter,
clothing…)
Later this idea was introduced

Maslow's hierarchy of
human needs. (From
Maslow, A. (1970}.
Motivation and
personality (2nd ed.).
New York: Harper & Row;
reprinted by permission of
Harper Collins Publishers.)
⚫ Being deprived of a need arouses a feeling called a DRIVE
OR DESIRE. Animals respond instinctively, humans
learn various ways to respond.
⚫ Human motivation explains the reasons why people behave
the way they do.
⚫ People have DRIVES OR DESIRES in the back of their
minds
Example: Will to live, will to die
⚫ Some of these desires cause people to behave irrationally.
Civilization and its Discontents (1930)

⚫ Causes of suffering
⚪ Body
⚪ External world
⚪ Relations with others
 Freud: Why does civilization bring discontent?

⚫ Civilization is the result of human’s sublimating their

instincts
⚫ However, civilization demands too much: civilization
can repress people and make them neurotic
⚫ Civilization
⚪ 1) makes people discontented;
⚪ 2) is fighting a losing battle against aggression
 Freud: methods to avoid suffering:

⚫ Voluntary isolation
⚫ Human community
⚫ Intoxication
⚫ Displacements of libido (sublimation)
⚫ Delusion: alternative reality
 Freud & the arts
⚫ Liberate the unconscious mind—an escape from
“civilization”
⚫ Stream of consciousness (literature)
⚪ Proust, Joyce, Faulkner
⚫ Surrealism (literature & visual arts)
⚪ Kafka
⚪ Miro, Klee, Dali, Kahlo, Magritte
These are just 3 of the many intellectual revolutions in
human history
 Bibliography

•http://users.rcn.com/brill/freudarc.html
•http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/f/freud.htm
•http://www.allpsych.com/psychology101/ego.html
•Introduction to Psychology 4th edition. Rod Plotnik.
•http://encarta.msn.com/media_461543697/The_Mind_as
_an_Iceberg.html
•http://www.inkblottestwallpaper.com
 TASK: Impact of Intellectual Revolution to the
development of S & T through the course of history.
Choose any (5) of the Intellectual revolutions: and Complete the
table below.

Intellectual Revolution Highlight Impact to the Controversies met, if any

advancement of Modern
Science and Technology

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.