CHAPTER 8

Stereoscopic Parallax

8-1 Introduction
Parallax is the apparent displacement in the position of an object, with respect to a frame of reference,
caused by a shift in the position of observation. A simple experiment will serve to illustrate parallax.
If a finger is held in front of the eyes, and while gazing at the finger the head is quickly shifted from
side to side without moving the finger, the finger will appear to move from side to side with respect to
objects beyond the finger, such as pictures on the wall. Rather than shifting the head, the same effect
can be created by alternately blinking one’s eyes. The closer the finger is held to the eyes, the greater
will be its apparent shift. This apparent motion of the finger is parallax, and it is due to the shift in the
position of observation.
If a person looked through the viewfinder of an aerial camera as the aircraft moved forward,
images of objects would be seen to move across the field of view. This image motion is another
example of parallax caused by shifting the location of the observation point. Again, the closer an
object is to the camera, the more its image will appear to move.
An aerial camera exposing overlapping photographs at regular intervals of time obtains a record
of positions of images at the instants of exposure. The change in position of an image from one
photograph to the next caused by the aircraft’s motion is termed stereoscopic parallax, x parallax, or
simply parallax. Parallax exists for all images appearing on successive overlapping photographs. In
Fig. 8-1, for example, images of object points A and B appear on a pair of overlapping vertical aerial
photographs which were taken from exposure stations L1 and L2. Points A and B are imaged at a and b
on the left-hand photograph. Forward motion of the aircraft between exposures, however, caused the
images to move laterally across the camera focal plane parallel to the flight line, so that on the right-
hand photo they appear at a′ and b′. Because point A is higher (closer to the camera) than point B, the
movement of image a across the focal plane was greater than the movement of image b; in other
words, the parallax of point A is greater than the parallax of point B. This calls attention to two
important aspects of stereoscopic parallax: (1) The parallax of any point is directly related to the
elevation of the point, and (2) parallax is greater for high points than for low points. Variation of
parallax with elevation provides the fundamental basis for determining elevations of points from
photographic measurements. In fact, X, Y, and Z ground coordinates can be calculated for points based
upon their parallaxes. Equations for doing this are presented in Sec. 8-6.
FIGURE 8-1 Stereoscopic parallax of vertical aerial photographs.

Figure 8-2 shows the two photographs of Fig. 8-1 in superposition. Parallaxes of object points A
and B are pa and pb, respectively. Stereoscopic parallax for any point such as A whose images appear
on two photos of a stereopair, expressed in terms of flight-line photographic coordinates, is

FIGURE 8-2 The two photographs of Fig. 8-1 are shown in superposition.

(8-1)

In Eq. (8-1), pa is the stereoscopic parallax of object point A, xa is the measured photo coordinate
of image a on the left photograph of the stereopair, and xa′ is the photo coordinate of image a′ on the
right photo. These photo coordinates are not measured with respect to the fiducial axis system which
was described in Sec. 4-2. Rather, they are measured with respect to the flight-line axis system
described in Sec. 8-2. In Eq. (8-1) it is imperative that proper algebraic signs be given to measured
photo coordinates to obtain correct values for stereoscopic parallax.
Figure 8-3 is a portion of a stereopair of vertical photographs taken over the University of Florida
campus with a 153-mm-focal-length camera at a flying height of 462 m above ground. On these
photos, note how all images moved laterally with respect to the y axis from their positions on the left
photo to their positions on the right photo. Note also how clearly the bell tower (Century Tower)
illustrates the increase in parallax with higher points; i.e., the top of the tower has moved farther
across the focal plane than the bottom of the tower.

FIGURE 8-3 Overlapping vertical photographs taken over the University of Florida campus
illustrating stereoscopic parallax. (Photos courtesy Hoffman and Company, Inc.)

I n Fig. 8-3, the tower affords an excellent example for demonstrating the use of Eq. (8-1) for
finding parallaxes. The top of the tower has an x coordinate (xt = 48.2 mm) and an x′ coordinate (xt′ = –
53.2 mm). By Eq. (8-1), the parallax pt = 48.2 – (–53.2) = 101.4 mm. Also, the bottom of the tower has
an x coordinate (xb = 42.7 mm) and an x′ coordinate (xb′ = –47.9 mm). Again by Eq. (8-1), pb = 42.7 –
(–47.9) = 90.6 mm.

8-2 Photographic Flight-Line Axes for Parallax Measurement

Since parallax occurs parallel to the direction of flight, the photographic x and x′ axes for parallax
measurement must be parallel with the flight line for each of the photographs of a stereopair. (Primed
values denote the right-hand photo of a stereopair.) For a vertical photograph of a stereopair, the flight
line is the line connecting the principal point and corresponding (conjugate) principal point. The flight
line in this context is always a straight line even though the aircraft rarely travels in a perfectly
straight line from one camera position to the next. Principal points are located by intersecting the x
and y fiducial lines. A monoscopic method of establishing corresponding principal points is described
i n Sec. 7-6. Stereoscopic methods are discussed in Sec. 8-4. The y and y′ axes for parallax
measurement pass through their respective principal points and are perpendicular to the flight line.
All photographs except those on the ends of a flight strip may have two sets of flight axes for
parallax measurements—one to be used when the photo is the left photo of the stereopair and one
when it is the right photo. An example is shown in Fig. 8-4, where photographs 1 through 3 were
exposed as shown. Parallax measurements in the overlap area of photos 1 and 2 are made with respect
to the solid xy axis system of photo 1 and the solid x′y′ system of photo 2. However, due to the
aircraft’s curved path of travel, the flight line of photos 2 and 3 is not in the same direction as the
flight line of photos 1 and 2. Therefore, parallax measurements in the overlap area of photos 2 and 3
must be made with respect to the dashed xy axis system on photo 2 and the dashed x′y′ system of photo
3. It is possible for the two axis systems to be coincident; however, this does not generally occur in
practice. Henceforth in this chapter it is understood that photographic coordinates for parallax
determination are measured with respect to the flight-line axis system.

FIGURE 8-4 Flight-line axes for measurement of stereoscopic parallax.

8-3 Monoscopic Methods of Parallax Measurement

Parallaxes of points on a stereopair may be measured either monoscopically or stereoscopically. There
are certain advantages and disadvantages associated with each method. In either method the
photographic flight line axes must first be carefully located by marking principal points and
corresponding principal points.
The simplest method of parallax measurement is the monoscopic approach, in which Eq. (8-1) is
solved after direct measurement of x and x′ on the left and right photos, respectively. A disadvantage
of this method is that two measurements are required for each point.
Another monoscopic approach to parallax measurement is to fasten the photographs down on a
table or base material, as shown in Fig. 8-5. In this method the photographic flight lines o1o2 and o1′o2′
are marked as usual. A long straight line AA′ is drawn on the base material, and the two photos are
carefully mounted as shown so that the photographic flight lines are coincident with this line. Now
that the photos are fastened down, the distance D between the two principal points is a constant which
can be measured. The parallax of point B is pb = xb – xb′ (note that in Fig. 8-5 the xb′ coordinate is
negative). However, by examining the figure, it is seen that parallax is also
FIGURE 8-5 Parallax measurement using a simple scale.

(8-2)

With D known in Eq. (8-2), to obtain the parallax of a point it is necessary only to measure the
distance d between its images on the left and right photos. The advantage is that for each additional
point whose parallax is desired, only a single measurement is required. With either of these
monoscopic methods of parallax measurement, a simple scale as described in Sec. 4-3 may be used,
with the choice being based upon the desired accuracy.

8-4 Principle of the Floating Mark

Parallaxes of points can be measured while viewing stereoscopically with the advantages of speed and
accuracy. Stereoscopic measurement of parallax makes use of the principle of the floating mark.
When a stereomodel is viewed through a stereoscope, two small identical marks printed on clear
plastic transparencies, called half marks, may be placed over the photographs—one on the left photo
and one on the right photo, as illustrated in Fig. 8-6. The left mark is seen with the left eye and the
right mark with the right eye. The half marks may be shifted in position until they fuse together into a
single mark which appears to exist in the stereomodel and to lie at a particular elevation. If the half
marks are moved closer together, the parallax of the half marks is increased and the fused mark will
therefore appear to rise. Conversely, if the half marks are moved apart, parallax is decreased and the
fused mark appears to fall. This apparent variation in the elevation of the mark as the spacing of half
marks is varied is the basis for the term floating mark. Usable half marks can be created by printing
two plus signs (+) several centimeters apart on a plastic transparency. Pinholes are then precisely
made at the center of the crosses. Finally two small pieces approximately 2-cm square can be cut from
the plastic with the crosses at the centers.
FIGURE 8-6 The principle of the floating mark.

The spacing of the half marks, and hence the parallax of the half marks, may be varied so that the
floating mark appears to rest exactly on the terrain. This produces the same effect as though an object
of the shape of the half marks had existed on the terrain when the photos were originally taken. The
floating mark may be moved about the stereomodel from point to point, and as the terrain varies in
elevation, the spacing of the half marks may be varied to make the floating mark rest exactly on the
terrain. Figure 8-6 demonstrates the principle of the floating mark and illustrates how the mark may
be set exactly on particular points such as A, B, and C by placing the half marks at a and a′, b and b′,
and c and c′, respectively.
The principle of the floating mark can be used to transfer principal points to their corresponding
locations, thereby marking the flight-line axes. In this procedure the principal points are first located
as usual at the intersection of fiducial lines. Then the left half mark is placed over one of the principal
points, say, the left point o1. It is held fixed in that position. Using a mirror stereoscope for viewing,
the right half mark is placed on the right photo and moved about until a clear stereoscopic view of the
floating mark is obtained and the fused mark appears to rest exactly on the ground. The right half
mark is then carefully held in place while a pin is inserted through the center of the cross to make a
pinprick on the photograph. This stereoscopic procedure is very accurate if carefully performed, and it
has the advantage that discrete images near the principal points are not necessary, as they are with the
monoscopic method. Imagine, e.g., the difficulty of monoscopically transferring a principal point that
falls in the middle of a grassland. This transfer could be readily done by the stereoscopic method,
however.
Once corresponding principal points have been marked, the photo base b can be determined. The
photo base is the distance on a photo between the principal point and the corresponding principal point
from the overlapping photo. Figure 8-7 is a vertical section through the exposure stations of a pair of
overlapping vertical photos. By Eq. (8-1), the parallax of the left-photo ground principal point P1 is po1
= xo1 – (–xo′1) = 0 – (-b′) = b′. (The x coordinate of o1 on the left photo is zero.) Also, the parallax of the
right-photo ground principal point P2 is po2 = xo2 – (-xo′2) = b – 0 = b. From the foregoing, it is seen that
the parallax of the left ground principal point is photo base b′ measured on the right photo, and the
parallax of the right ground principal point is photo base b measured on the left photo . In areas of
moderate relief, the values of b and b′ will be approximately equal, and the photo base for the
stereopair can be taken as the average of these two values.

FIGURE 8-7 Parallax of the principal points.

8-5 Stereoscopic Methods of Parallax Measurement

Through the principle of the floating mark, parallaxes of points may be measured stereoscopically.
This method employs a stereoscope in conjunction with an instrument called a parallax bar, also
frequently called a stereometer. A parallax bar consists of a metal rod to which are fastened two half
marks. The right half mark may be moved with respect to the left mark by turning a micrometer
screw. Readings from the micrometer are taken with the floating mark set exactly on points whose
parallaxes are desired. From the micrometer readings, parallaxes or differences in parallax are
obtained. A parallax bar is shown lying on the photos beneath a mirror stereoscope in Fig. 8-8.
FIGURE 8-8 Wild ST-4 mirror stereoscope with binocular attachment and parallax bar. (Courtesy LH
Systems, LLC.)

When a parallax bar is used, the two photos of a stereopair are first carefully oriented for
comfortable stereoscopic viewing, in such a way that the flight line of each photo lies precisely along
a common straight line, as line AA′ shown in Fig. 8-5. The photos are then fastened securely, and the
parallax bar is placed on the photos. The left half mark, called the fixed mark, is unclamped and
moved so that when the floating mark is fused on a terrain point of average elevation, the parallax bar
reading is approximately in the middle of the run of the graduations. The fixed mark is then clamped,
where it will remain for all subsequent parallax measurements on that particular stereopair. After the
fixed mark is positioned in this manner, the right half mark, or movable mark, may be moved left or
right with respect to the fixed mark (increasing or decreasing the parallax) as required to
accommodate high points or low points without exceeding the run of the parallax bar graduations.
Figure 8-9 is a schematic diagram illustrating the operating principle of the parallax bar. After
the photos have been oriented and the left half mark is fixed in position as just described, the parallax
bar constant C for the setup is determined. For the setup, the spacing between principal points is a
constant, denoted by D. Once the fixed mark is clamped, the distance from the fixed mark to the index
mark of the parallax bar is also a constant, denoted by K. From Fig. 8-9, the parallax of point A is

FIGURE 8-9 Schematic diagram of the parallax bar.

 The term (D – K) is C, the parallax bar constant for the setup. Also ra is the micrometer reading.
By substituting C into the above equation, the expression becomes

(8-3)

To calculate the parallax bar constant, a micrometer reading is taken with the floating mark set
on a selected point. The parallax of that point is also directly measured monoscopically and calculated
using Eq. (8-1). Then with p and r for that point known, the value of C is calculated by using Eq. (8-3),
as

(8-4)

The parallax bar constant should be determined on the basis of micrometer readings and parallax
measurements for two points. Then the mean of the two values may be adopted. Any two points may
be selected for this purpose; however they should be clear, discrete images, and selected so that they
lie on opposite sides of the flight line and approximately equidistant from the flight line. This
minimizes error in parallaxes due to tilt and faulty orientation of the photos.
One of the advantages of measuring parallax stereoscopically is increased speed, for once the
parallax bar constant is determined, the parallaxes of all other points are quickly obtained with a
single micrometer reading for each point. Another advantage is increased accuracy. An experienced
person using quality equipment and clear photos is generally able to obtain parallaxes to within
approximately 0.03 mm of their correct values.

8-6 Parallax Equations

As noted earlier, X, Y, and Z ground coordinates can be calculated for points based upon the
measurements of their parallaxes. Figure 8-10 illustrates an overlapping pair of vertical photographs
which have been exposed at equal flying heights above datum. Images of an object point A appear on
the left and right photos at a and a′, respectively. The planimetric position of point A on the ground is
given in terms of ground coordinates XA and YA. Its elevation above datum is hA. The XY ground axis
system has its origin at the datum principal point P of the left-hand photograph; the X axis is in the
same vertical plane as the photographic x and x′ flight axes; and the Y axis passes through the datum
principal point of the left photo and is perpendicular to the X axis. According to this definition, each
stereopair of photographs has its own unique ground coordinate system.
FIGURE 8-10 Geometry of an overlapping pair of vertical photographs.

By equating similar triangles of Fig. 8-10, formulas for calculating hA, XA, and YA may be derived.
From similar triangles L1oay and L1AoAy,

from which

(a)

and equating similar triangles L1oax and L1AoAx, we have

from which
 (b)

Also from similar triangles L2 o′ax′ and L2 Ao′ Ax,

from which

(c)

Equating Eqs. (b) and (c) and reducing gives

(d)

Substituting pa for xa – xa′ into Eq. (d) yields

(8-5)

Now substituting Eq. (8-5) into each of Eqs. (b) and (a) and reducing gives

(8-6)

(8-7)

In Eqs. (8-5), (8-6), and (8-7), hA is the elevation of point A above datum, H is the flying height
above datum, B is the air base, f is the focal length of the camera, pa is the parallax of point A, XA and
YA are the ground coordinates of point A in the previously defined unique arbitrary coordinate system,
and xa and ya the photo coordinates of point a measured with respect to the flight-line axes on the left
photo.
Equations (8-5), (8-6), and (8-7) are commonly called the parallax equations. These equations
enable a moderate accuracy survey of the overlap area of a stereopair to be made, provided the focal
length is known and sufficient ground control is available so the air base B and flying height H can be
calculated.
Equations (8-6) and (8-7) yield X and Y ground coordinates in the unique arbitrary coordinate
system of the stereopair, which is not related to any standard two-dimensional ground coordinate
system. However, if arbitrary XY coordinates are determined using these equations for at least two
points whose ground coordinates are also known in a standard two-dimensional coordinate system
(e.g., state plane coordinates), then the arbitrary XY coordinates of all other points can be transformed
into that ground system through a two-dimensional coordinate transformation, as described in App. C.
Example 8-1
A pair of overlapping vertical photographs was taken from a flying height of 1233 m above sea level
with a 152.4-mm-focal-length camera. The air base was 390 m. With the photos properly oriented,
flight-line coordinates for points a and b were measured as xa = 53.4 mm, ya = 50.8 mm, xa′ = –38.3
mm, ya′ = 50.9 mm, xb = 88.9 mm, yb = –46.7 mm, xb′ = –7.1 mm, yb′ = –46.7 mm. Calculate the
elevations of points A and B and the horizontal length of line AB.

Solution By Eq. (8-1)

By Eq. (8-5),

By Eqs. (8-6) and (8-7),

The horizontal length of line AB is

8-7 Elevations by Parallax Differences

Parallax differences between one point and another are caused by different elevations of the two
points. While parallax Eq. (8-5) serves to define the relationship of stereoscopic parallax to flying
height, elevation, air base, and camera focal length, parallax differences are more convenient for
determining elevations. In Fig. 8-11, object point C is a control point whose elevation hC above datum
is known. The elevation of object point A is desired. By rearranging Eq. (8-5), parallaxes of both
points can be expressed as

FIGURE 8-11 Elevations by parallax differences.

(e)

(f)

The difference in parallax pa – pc, obtained by subtracting Eq. (e) from Eq. (f) and rearranging, is

(g)
Let pa – pc equal Δp, the difference in parallax. By substituting H – hA from Eq. (f), and Δp into (g) and
reducing, the following expression for elevation hA is obtained:

(8-8)

Example 8-2
In Example 8-1, flight-line axis x and x′ coordinates for the images of a vertical control point C were
measured as xc = 14.3 mm and xc′ = –78.3 mm. If the elevation of point C is 591 m above sea level,
calculate the elevations of points A and B of that example, using parallax difference Eq. (8-8).

Solution By Eq. (8-1),

For point A,

By Eq. (8-8),

For point B,

By Eq. (8-8),

Note that these answers check the values computed in Example 8-1.
If a number of control points are located throughout the overlap area, use of Eq. (8-8) permits
elevations of unknown points to be most accurately determined from the parallax difference of the
nearest control point. This minimizes the effects of two primary errors—photographic tilt and
imperfect alignment of the photos for parallax measurement.

8-8 Simplified Equation for Heights of Objects from Parallax

Differences
In many applications it is necessary to estimate heights of objects to a moderate level of accuracy.
Utilizing parallax differences for height determination is particularly useful when application of relief
displacement is not possible because either the feature is not vertical (e.g., a construction crane) or the
base of the feature is obscured (e.g., trees in a forest). In a situation like this, a parallax difference can
be determined between a point on the ground and the top of the feature. A fundamental assumption is,
of course, that the point on the ground is at the same elevation as the base of the feature. In a large
number of cases, this assumption is valid as long as only moderate accuracy is required.
A simplified equation for height determination can be obtained from Eq. (8-8) by choosing the
vertical datum to be the elevation of the point on the ground that is used as the basis for the parallax
difference. This makes hC zero, and Eq. (8-8) simplifies to

(8-9)

In Eq. (8-9), hA is the height of point A above ground, Δp = pa – pc is the difference in parallax
between the top of the feature and the ground (pc is the parallax of the ground), and H is the flying
height above ground, since datum is at ground. If the heights of many features are needed in an area
where the ground is approximately level, the photo base b can be utilized as the parallax of the ground
point. In this case, Eq. (8-9) can be modified to

(8-10)

I n Eq. (8-10), b is the photo base for the stereopair, Δp = pa – b, and the other terms are as
previously defined. For very low flying heights or in areas of significant relief, or both, the
assumptions of Eq. (8-10) are not met; in these cases, Eq. (8-8) should be used. Equation (8-10) is
especially convenient in photo interpretation where rough elevations, building and tree heights, etc.
are often needed.

Example 8-3
The parallax difference between the top and bottom of a tree is measured as 1.3 mm on a stereopair of
photos taken at 915 m above ground. Average photo base is 88.2 mm. How tall is the tree?

Solution By Eq. (8-10),

8-9 Measurement of Parallax Differences

Parallax differences may be determined in any of the following ways:

1. By monoscopic measurement of parallaxes followed by subtraction

2. By taking differences in parallax bar readings
3. By parallax wedge
 A parallax wedge, as illustrated in Fig. 8-12, consists of a piece of transparent film upon which
are drawn two converging lines. The left line is a reference line while the line on the right contains
graduations from which readings can be made. The spacing of the two lines depends on whether the
parallax wedge will be used with a mirror stereoscope or a pocket stereoscope. For a pocket
stereoscope the spacing should vary from about 65 mm at the bottom to about 45 mm at the top. This
spacing accommodates the usual spacing between corresponding images when a stereopair is oriented
for viewing with a pocket stereoscope, and it gives a possible range of about 20 mm in parallax
differences that can be measured.

FIGURE 8-12 Parallax wedge.

Suppose line spacings of a parallax wedge were exactly 65 mm at the bottom and 45 mm at the
top, as shown in Fig. 8-12. If the total height y of the graduations was 200 mm, then for graduations
spaced at 2.5-mm intervals along the line, each of the 80 graduations proceeding upward on the scale
is 0.25 mm closer to the reference line than the next-lower graduation. Graduations numbered from 45
to 65 on the parallax wedge represent horizontal spacings from the reference line, with the smallest
graduation interval representing a parallax difference of 0.25 mm even though the vertical spacing
between consecutive lines is 2.5 mm.
When a parallax wedge is used, the photos are first carefully oriented for viewing with a pocket
stereoscope and secured. The parallax wedge is placed in the overlap area and viewed
stereoscopically; the two lines of the parallax wedge will fuse and appear as a single floating line in
areas where the spacing of the lines is slightly less than the spacing of corresponding photo images.
The floating line will appear to split where the parallax of the lines is equal to that of the photo
images. The position of the parallax wedge can be adjusted so that the floating line splits forming a
wedge exactly at a point whose parallax is desired, and at that point a reading is taken from the scale.
The parallax wedge reading at point a of Fig. 8-12, for example, is 51.25 mm. Parallax differences are
obtained by simply taking differences in parallax wedge readings for different points.
 An expedient means of producing a parallax wedge is to create a drawing using an available
computer-aided drafting (CAD) program and to print the result on a transparency using a laser printer.

8-10 Computing Flying Height and Air Base

To use parallax equations, it is generally necessary to compute the flying height and air base. Flying
height may be calculated using the methods described in Sec. 6-9. For best results, the average of
flying heights for the two photos of a stereopair should be used.
If the air base is known and if one vertical control point is available in the overlap area, flying
height for the stereopair may be calculated by using Eq. (8-5).

Example 8-4
An overlapping pair of vertical photographs taken with a 152.4-mm-focal-length camera has an air
base of 548 m. The elevation of control point A is 283 m above sea level, and the parallax of point A is
92.4 mm. What is the flying height above sea level for this stereopair?

Solution By rearranging Eq. (8-5),

If the flying height above datum is known and if one vertical control point is available in the
overlap area, the air base for the stereopair may be calculated by using Eq. (8-5).

Example 8-5
An overlapping pair of vertical photos was exposed with a 152.4-mm-focal-length camera from a
flying height of 1622 m above datum. Control point C has an elevation of 263 m above datum, and the
parallax of its images on the stereopair is 86.3 mm. Calculate the air base.

Solution By rearranging Eq. (8-5),

If a line of known horizontal length appears in the overlap area, then the air base can be readily
calculated. The horizontal length of the line may be expressed in terms of rectangular coordinates,
according to the pythagorean theorem, as

Substituting Eqs. (8-6) and (8-7) into the above for the rectangular coordinates gives

Solving the above equation for B yields

 (8-11)

Example 8-6
Images of the endpoints of ground line AB, whose horizontal length is 650.47 m, appear on a pair of
overlapping vertical photographs. Photo coordinates measured with respect to the flight axis on the
left photo were xa = 33.3 mm, ya = 13.5 mm, xb = 41.8 mm, and yb = –95.8 mm. Photo coordinates
measured on the right photo were xa′ = –52.3 mm and xb′ = –44.9 mm. Calculate the air base for this
stereopair.

Solution By Eq. (8-1),

By Eq. (8-9),

8-11 Error Evaluation

Answers obtained using the various equations presented in the chapter will inevitably contain errors. It
is important to be aware of the presence of these errors and to be able to assess their magnitudes.
Some of the sources of error in computed answers using parallax equations are as follows:

1. Locating and marking the flight lines on photos

2. Orienting stereopairs for parallax measurement
3. Parallax and photo coordinate measurements
4. Shrinkage or expansion of photographs
5. Unequal flying heights for the two photos of stereopairs
6. Tilted photographs
7. Errors in ground control
8. Other errors of lesser consequence such as camera lens distortion and atmospheric refraction
distortion

A general approach for determining the combined effect of several random errors in computed
answers is presented in Sec. A-4. This approach is demonstrated in the following example.

Example 8-7
In the computation of the elevation of point A in Example 8-1, suppose that the random errors were ±
2 m in H, ± 2 m in B, and ± 0.1 mm in pa. Compute the resulting error in hA due to the presence of
these errors.

Solution The basic equation used was Eq. (8-5), and the partial derivatives in that equation taken
with respect to each of the three error sources are

Substituting the above expressions into Eq. (A-2) gives

Substituting numerical values into the above, we get

Errors in computed answers using any of the equations of this chapter can be analyzed in the
fashion described above. It is, of course, necessary to estimate the magnitude of the random errors in
the measured variables used in the equations. It is more difficult to analyze errors caused by tilt in the
photographs. The subject of tilted photographs is discussed in Chap. 10, and rigorous analytical
methods are presented in Chap. 11. For the present, however, suffice it to say that for normal
photography intended to be vertical, errors in parallax equation answers due to tilt are compatible with
errors from the other sources that have been considered.

References
American Society of Photogrammetry: Manual of Photogrammetry, 3d ed., Bethesda, MD, 1966, chap.
2.
———: Manual of Photogrammetry, 4th ed., Bethesda, MD, 1980, chap. 2.
Avery, T. E.: “Two Cameras for Parallax Height Measurements,” Photogrammetric Engineering, vol.
32, no. 6, 1966, p. 576.
Bender, L. U.: “Derivation of Parallax Equation,” Photogrammetric Engineering, vol. 33, no. 10, 1967,
p. 1175.
Nash, A. J.: “Use a Mirror Stereoscope Correctly,” Photogrammetric Engineering, vol. 38, no. 12,
1972, p. 1192.
Porter, G. R.: “Errors in Parallax Measurements and Their Assessment in Student Exercises,”
Photogrammetric Record, vol. 8, no. 46, 1975, p. 528.
Schut, G. H.: “The Determination of Tree Heights from Parallax Measurements,” Canadian Surveyor,
vol. 19, 1965, p. 415.

Problems
 8-1. Calculate the stereoscopic parallaxes of points A through D, given the following measured
flight-line axis coordinates. Which point is the highest in elevation? Which is lowest?

8-2. Calculate the elevations of points A through D of Prob. 8-1 if the camera focal length is 152.62
mm, flying height above datum is 2763 m, and the air base is 1135 m.

8-3. A pair of overlapping vertical photographs is mounted for parallax measurement, as illustrated
in Fig. 8-5. Distance D is measured as 276.1 mm. Calculate the stereoscopic parallaxes of the points
whose measured d values are as follows. Which point is highest in elevation? Which is lowest?

Point d
A 183.0 mm
B 185.5 mm
C 186.4 mm
D 187.8 mm

8-4. Repeat Prob. 8-3, except D was measured as 272.7 mm, and measured d values are as follows.

Point d
A 182.5 mm
B 184.7 mm
C 185.3 mm
D 180.2 mm

8-5. Assume that point A of Prob. 8-3 has an elevation of 357.1 m above datum and that the photos
were taken with an 88.74-mm-focal-length camera. If the air base is 1357 m, what are the elevations
of points B, C, and D?

8-6. Assume that point A of Prob. 8-4 has an elevation of 249.0 m above datum and that the photos
were taken with a 153.07-mm-focal-length camera. If the air base is 1773 m, what are the elevations
of points B, C, and D?

8-7. From the information given for Probs. 8-1 and 8-2, calculate the horizontal ground length of
line AC. Measured y coordinates on the left photo are ya = 70.8 mm and yc = –64.9 mm.

8-8. Repeat Prob. 8-7 except that the computations are for line BD. Measured y coordinates on the
left photo are yb = 10.8 mm and yd = –81.5 mm.
 8-9. From the data of Probs. 8-3 and 8-5, calculate the horizontal area of triangle ABC. Measured x
and y flight-line axis coordinates of a, b, and c on the left photo were xa = –7.6 mm, ya = 90.3 mm, xb =
31.8 mm, yb = –79.3 mm, xc = 88.4 mm, and yc = 16.1 mm.

8-10. Distances b on the left photo and b′ on the right photo of a pair of overlapping vertical photos
are 91.0 mm and 88.2 mm, respectively. If the air base is 604 m and the camera focal length is 88.78
mm, which ground principal point is higher and by how much?

8-11. Repeat Prob. 8-10, except that b and b′ are 90.6 mm and 92.1 mm, respectively, the air base is
682 m, and the camera focal length is 152.60 mm.

8-12. A pair of overlapping vertical photos is taken from a flying height of 981 m above ground with
a 152.46-mm-focal-length camera. The x coordinates on the left photo of the base and top of a certain
tree are 76.2 mm and 82.9 mm, respectively. On the right photo these x′ coordinates are –13.8 mm and
–16.1 mm, respectively. Determine the height of the tree.

8-13. A pair of overlapping vertical photos is taken from a flying height of 1273 m above the base of
a radio tower. The x coordinates on the left photo of the top and base of the tower were 87.3 mm and
80.4 mm, respectively. On the right photo these x′ coordinates were –11.6 mm and –10.2 mm,
respectively. What is the approximate height of the tower?

8-14. The air base of a pair of overlapping vertical photos was determined to be 793 m. The focal
length of the camera was 152.35 mm. The image coordinates of point A, whose elevation is 203 m
above datum, were determined on the left photo as xa = 37.2 mm and on the right photo as xa′ = –52.9
mm. What is the flying height above datum for the stereopair?

8-15. Repeat Prob. 8-14, except that the air base was 514 m, the camera focal length was 209.60 mm,
and point A, whose elevation was 365 m above datum, had image coordinates of xa = 44.9 mm on the
left photo and xa′ = –46.9 mm on the right photo.

8-16. The images of two control points A and B appear in the overlap area of a pair of vertical
photographs. The following photo coordinates and ground coordinates apply to points A and B.
Calculate the air base of the stereopair, using Eq. (8-11).

8-17. Repeat Prob. 8-16, except that the photo coordinates and ground coordinates for points A and B
were as follows:
8-18. A pair of overlapping vertical photos was exposed with a camera having a 209.80-mm focal
length. Calculate B and H from the following information on ground points D and E. [Hint: Set up Eq.
(8-5) for point D and for point E, then solve simultaneously.]

8-19. Repeat Prob. 8-18, except that the camera focal length is 152.53 mm and the following
information applies to points D and E.

8-20. A parallax wedge for use with a pocket stereoscope similar to that shown in Fig. 8-12 has
height of graduations y equal to 160 mm. The lateral spacing between reference line and the graduated
line is 45 mm at the top and 65 mm at the bottom. What is the vertical spacing of reference marks on
the graduated line if the difference in parallax between adjacent graduations is 0.25 mm?

8-21. In Prob. 8-14, suppose that random errors were ±1 m in h and B, and ±0.05 mm in each of xa
and xa′. What is the expected resultant error in the calculated value of H due to these random errors?
(Assume the focal length to be error-free.)

8-22. In Prob. 8-15, suppose that random errors were ± 0.5 m in hA, ± 2 m in B, and ±0.1 mm in both
xa and xa′. What is the expected error in the calculated value of H due to these errors? (Assume the
focal length to be error-free.)

8-23. In Prob. 8-12, assume that random errors existed in the amounts of ± 1 m in H and ±0.1 mm for
each of the measured photo coordinates. What is the expected error in the calculated height of the tree
due to these random errors?