8.

Foreign Exchange Exposure & Risk Management

Study Session 8

LOS 1 : Introduction
Globalization of Business

 Raising of Capital from International Capital Markets or easy excess to External Commercial
Borrowings for companies.
 Open Economy to Foreign Investments, Exports, Imports and making investments in Indian Economy
like Infrastructure sector, medical science, etc.
 Participations of FII’s in Indian capital markets.
 Trade tie-ups between countries.
 Different countries have different currencies and the different currencies have different values, so there
is a need of the rule for currency conversions for Global Business and Investments.

Three types of transactions associated with foreign exchange risk:

1. Loans(ECB)
2. Investments (Bonds & Equity)
3. Export & Import
Foreign Exchange Risk

Foreign Exchange Market (3 Tier Market)

 8.2

Note :
In India, Foreign Exchange Market is regulated by RBI.

What is Exchange Rate?

 The rate of conversion is the Exchange Rate.

 An exchange rate is the price of one country’s currency expressed in terms of the currency of another
country. E.g. A rate of ` 50 per US $ implies that one US $ costs ` 50.
Rule 1 : in an exchange rate two currencies are involved.
Rule 2 : in any transaction involving Foreign Currency, you are selling one currency and buying another.

LOS 2 : Home Currency & Foreign Currency

Home Currency: Country’s own currency.

Example:

For India ‘`’/INR is home currency

For USA ‘US $’ or ‘Dollar’ is a home currency
For UK ‘£’ or ‘Pound’ or ‘GBP’ is home currency

Foreign Currency: Any currency other than home currency will be a Foreign Currency

Example:

For India, $, £, etc. will be a foreign currency.

For US ‘`’, £ will be foreign currency.

LOS 3 : Bid & Ask Rate

Bid Rate: Rate at which bank BUYS left hand side currency.

Ask Rate: Rate at which bank SELLS left hand side currency.

One-way Quote: [when Bid and Ask Rate are same]

Example: 1$ = ` 65
Explanation:
Bank buys 1$ at ` 65.
Bank sells 1$ at ` 65.

Two-way Quote: [when Bid and Ask Rate are separately given]

Example:

1$ = ` 62 ---------------------------------------- ` 65

Left Hand Side Bid Rate / Bank Buying Ask Rate/ Bank Selling
Currency rate of left hand currency rate of left hand currency

Note:
 Difference between Bid & Ask rate represents Profit Margin for the bank.
 Quotation/ Bid & Ask rate or Exchange Rate is always quoted from the point of view of bank.
 8.3

 Bid Rate must always be less than Ask Rate.

Or
Ask Rate must always be greater than Bid Rate.
 Always solve question from the point of view of investor/ Customer unless otherwise stated.
 The difference between the Ask & Bid rates is called Spread, representing the profit margin of dealer.
Spread = Ask Rate – Bid Rate

LOS 4 : Direct Quote & Indirect Quote

Direct Quote: Home Currency Price for 1 unit of foreign currency.
Example: 1$ = ` 50 is DQ for Rupee.
Indirect Quote: Foreign Currency Price for 1 unit of Home Currency.
Example: 1Re = 0.0200$ is IDQ for Rupee.
Note:
 If a given quotation is direct for one country, then the same quotation will be indirect for another
country and vice-versa.
 The concept of DQ and IDQ is only theoretical and don’t have any practical relevance.

LOS 5 : Conversion of Direct Quote into Indirect Quote and vice-versa

Case 1: One-way Quote [When bid & ask rates are same]

 Direct Quote can be converted into indirect quote by taking the reciprocal of direct quote.
𝟏
IDQ =
𝐃𝐐

Case 2: Two-way Quote [When bid & ask rates are separately given]

 Direct Quote (DQ) can be converted into Indirect Quote (IDQ) by taking the reciprocal of direct quote
and switching the position.

Example: $1 = ` 47.25 --- ` 47.85 (1st Quote)

Convert DQ into the IDQ.

Solution:

DQ => $1 = ` 47.25 --- ` 47.85

IDQ => 1 Re. = −
. .

1 Re. = −
. .
OR 1 Re. = 0.02090 --- 0.02116 (2nd Quote)
 8.4

Conversion Rules :

 Which currency is given in the question, we need that currency in the LHS
of the quote.

 Decide whether to Buy that currency or Sell.

 If you Buy Bank Sells Use Ask Rate

If you Sell Bank Buys Use Bid Rate

 Always Solve question from the point of view of Customer.

LOS 6 : Spot Rate & Forward Rate

Spot Rate: Rate used for buying & selling of foreign currency at ‘As on Today or Immediately’

Forward rate: Rate used for buying & selling of foreign currency at some future Date i.e. Forward rate
is the rate contracted today for exchange of currencies at a specified future date.

LOS 7 : Premium or Discount

Premium: If the currency is costly or Expensive in future as compared to spot it is said to be at a premium.

SR => 1$ = ` 45
FR => 1$ = ` 50
In the above quote $ is at Premium.

Discount: If the currency is Cheaper in future as compared to spot it is said to be at a discount.

SR => 1Re. = $ = 0.0222
FR => 1Re. = $ = 0.02
We can say that rupee is at discount.

Calculation of Premium or Discount

𝑭𝑹 𝑺𝑹 𝟏𝟐
× × 100
𝑺𝑹 𝐅𝐨𝐫𝐰𝐚𝐫𝐝 𝐏𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐨𝐝

Note: This formula is applicable only for left hand currency

Conclusion:
 If one currency is at a premium, then another currency must be at a discount. However, the rate of
premium may not be equal to the rate of discount.
 On account of base effect, premium is slightly higher than the discount.

LOS 8 : Calculation of Forward Rate when Spot Rate & Premium or Discount is given
Example :

SR  1$ = ` 48.50
 8.5

$ is at premium = 5%
Calculate FR?

Solution:

FR  1$ = ` 48.50 (1 + 0.05)
1$ = ` 50.925

LOS 9 : SWAP POINTS/ Forward Margin/ Forward-Spot Differential

Difference between Forward Rate and Spot Rate is known as Swap Points.

Example:

SR  1£ = $ 0.02594 --- $ 0.02599

FR  1£ = $ 0.02598 --- $ 0.02608
Calculate Swap points?

Solution:

FR  1£ = $ 0.02598 --- $ 0.02608

SR  1£ = $ 0.02594 --- $ 0.02599
0.00004 0.00009
So, Swap Point = 4/9

How to ADD or DEDUCT Swap Points

 Swap Point should be Added or Deducted from the last decimal point in the Reverse Order.
 Premium  Add Swap Points
 Discount  Less Swap Points

If Premium / Discount is not mentioned, we observe the following rules:

Case 1: When Swap Points are in increasing order:

 It indicates premium on left hand currency.

 In this case, we will add swap points with spot rates to calculate forward rates.

Case 2: When Swap Points are in decreasing order:

 It indicates discount on left hand currency.

 In this case, we will deduct swap points from Spot Rate to calculate forward rates.
Note : Don’t apply the rule if Premium or Discount is used in the question.

Example: Example:
SR  1$ = 45.4500 ---- 45.4580 SR  1£ = $ 1.4510 ---- 1.4620
2 months Swap Point = 30/42 1 months Swap Point = 55/44
Calculate Forward Rate? Calculate Forward Rate?
 8.6

Solution: Solution:
1$ = 45.4500 ---- 45.4580 1£ = $ 1.4510 ---- 1.4620
+ 00.0030 ---- 00.0042 (-) 0.0055 ---- 0.0044
FR 1$ = 45.4530 ---- 45.4622 FR 1£ = $ 1.4455 ---- 1.4576

LOS 10 : Cross Rate

Cross Rate between ant two currencies is derived with the help of quotations between these currencies &
third currency.
 Cross Rate is normally used in finding out any missing exchange rate.
 The calculation of cross rate simply requires you to focus on cancellation of common currencies, to do
so you have to multiply with DQ & IDQ.
 Always check ASK Rate > BID Rate.

LOS 11 : Squaring-up the position or Covering the Position or Closing-out the

Position under FOREX
Covering the Position means taking an opposite or reverse position to calculate profit and loss i.e. we
cover our position to book Profit or Loss.

Long Position To Cover Short Position

Short Position Long Position

LOS 12 : Exchange Margin

Exchange Margin is the extra amount or percentage charged by the bank over and above the rate quoted
by it. Eg. Commission, transaction charges, etc.
Actual Selling Rate of Bank: (Add Exchange Margin)
= Ask Rate (1+ Exchange Margin)
Actual Buying Rate of Bank: (Deduct Exchange Margin)
= Bid Rate (1 – Exchange Margin)

LOS 13 : Triangular Arbitrage

It involves 3 currencies represented by 3 corner points of triangle. We will be starting with one currency,
pass through the other two currencies and come back to the original currency. There are two paths 
clockwise and Anticlockwise.

One path will result in profit while the other path will result in Loss.
 8.7

LOS 14 : Purchasing Power Parity Theory (PPPT)

Calculation of Spot Rate

 PPPT is based on the concept of ‘Law of One Price’.

 PPPT is based on the fact that price of a commodity in two different market will always be same.
 If Price of a commodity in two different market are not same, there will be an arbitrage opportunity
exists in the market.
 Suppose Price of a Commodity in India is ` X & In USA is $Y. Spot Rate is 1$ = ` SR
Then X = Y × SR

SR =

𝐂𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐏𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐞 (𝐑𝐬.)

Spot Rate (` / $) =
𝐂𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐏𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐞 ($)
 Exchange Rate = Price Ratio

Calculation of Forward Rate

PPPT is also applicable in case of inflation. Suppose Inflation Rate of India is IRs and in US is I$ Forward
Rate 1$ = ` F. Now as per PPPT, we have after 1 year:
X (1+ I`) = y (1+ I$ ) × FR

( )
FR =
( $)

FR = SR ×
$

𝐅𝐑 (𝐑𝐬./$) 𝟏 𝐑𝐮𝐩𝐞𝐞 𝐈𝐧𝐟𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧

=
𝐒𝐑 (𝐑𝐬./$) 𝟏 𝐃𝐨𝐥𝐥𝐚𝐫 ($)𝐈𝐧𝐟𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
Note:
 The above equation is applicable for any two given currency.
 Determination of Premium or Discount with the help of Inflation Rate: If Inflation Rate of a country is
higher, then the currency of that Country will be at a discount in future and Vice- Versa.

Inflation rate in above equation must be adjusted according to forward period.

Case1: When Period is less than 1 Year. Case2: When Period is more than 1 Year.
𝐅𝐑 (𝐑𝐬./$) 𝟏 𝐏𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐨𝐝𝐢𝐜 𝐈𝐧𝐟𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐑𝐚𝐭𝐞 ( 𝐑𝐬.) 𝐧
= 𝐅𝐑 (𝐑𝐬./$) 𝟏 𝐈𝐧𝐟𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐑𝐚𝐭𝐞 (𝐑𝐬.)
𝐒𝐑 (𝐑𝐬./$) 𝟏 𝐏𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐨𝐝𝐢𝐜 𝐈𝐧𝐟𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐑𝐚𝐭𝐞 ( $ ) = 𝐧
𝐒𝐑 (𝐑𝐬./$) 𝟏 𝐈𝐧𝐟𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐑𝐚𝐭𝐞 ($)

LOS 15 : Interest Rate Parity Theory (IRPT)

 IRPT states that exchange rate between currencies are directly affected by their Interest Rate.
 Assumption: Investment opportunity in any two different market will always be same.

𝐅𝐑 (𝐑𝐬./$) 𝟏 𝐈𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐭 𝐑𝐚𝐭𝐞 (𝐑𝐬.)

=
𝐒𝐑 (𝐑𝐬./$) 𝟏 𝐈𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐭 𝐑𝐚𝐭𝐞 ($)
 8.8

Note:

 The above equation is applicable for any two given currency.

 Interest Rate should be adjusted according to forward period.
Case1: When Period is less than 1 Year. Case2: When Period is more than 1 Year.
𝐅𝐑 (𝐑𝐬./$) 𝟏 𝐏𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐨𝐝𝐢𝐜 𝐈𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐭 𝐑𝐚𝐭𝐞 ( 𝐑𝐬.) 𝐧
= 𝐅𝐑 (𝐑𝐬./$) 𝟏 𝐈𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐭 𝐑𝐚𝐭𝐞 (𝐑𝐬.)
𝐒𝐑 (𝐑𝐬./$) 𝟏 𝐏𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐨𝐝𝐢𝐜 𝐈𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐭 𝐑𝐚𝐭𝐞 ( $ ) = 𝐧
𝐒𝐑 (𝐑𝐬./$) 𝟏 𝐈𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐭 𝐑𝐚𝐭𝐞 ($)

Note:

 Determination of Premium or Discount with the help of Interest Rate: If Interest rate of a country is
higher, than the currency of that country will be at a discount in future and vice-versa.
 If IRPT holds, arbitrage is not possible. In that case, it doesn’t matter whether you invest in domestic
country or foreign country, your rate of return will be same.

LOS 16 : Covered Interest Arbitrage (CIA)

Type 1 Type 2
When Bid and Ask rates are same. If Bid & Ask rates are given separately.
When Investment & Borrowing rates are same in Investment & Borrowing rate of a given currency is
one country. separately given.
# (Short – cut is available) # (Hit & Trial method is used)
 When Investment opportunity in any two given countries are different, covered Interest Arbitrage is
possible.
 When IRPT is not applicable, then covered interest arbitrage will be applicable.
 The rule is to “ Borrow from one country & Invest in another Country ”.
 Suppose Interest Rate of India is INT` And USA is INT$. Spot Rate is 1$ = ` SR, Forward Rate => 1$
= ` FR
Let assume Investor is having ` A for investment
Option 1: When investor invest ` A in India:
Amount of ` Received after one year
A1 = A (1 + INT`)
Option 2: When investor invest ` A in USA:
Amount of Equivalent ` Received after one year
𝐀
A2 = [ $ (1 + INT$)] × FR
𝐒𝐑

IF A1 = A2 IF A1 > A2 IF A1 < A2
No arbitrage opportunity. Arbitrage Opportunity is Possible. Arbitrage opportunity is possible.
Arbitrager should invest in India Arbitrager should invest in USA
(Home Country) & borrow from USA (Foreign Country) & borrow from
(Foreign Country) India (Home Country)
Note:
If in 1st try we have arbitrage profit, then no need to solve 2nd case.
If in 1st try we have arbitrage loss, then 2nd case must be solved.
 8.9

LOS 17 : Forward Contract

 Transaction exposure arises when a firm has a known amount of foreign currency payable or receivable
but home currency equivalent of which is unknown.
 Hedging is defined as an activity converted uncertainty into certainty. The simplest hedging strategy is
hedging through forward contract.
 In case of foreign currency is to be received in future

 In case of foreign currency is to be Paid in future

LOS 18 : Money Market Operations

Case 1 : If Foreign Currency is to be received in future:

Step 1: Borrow in Foreign Currency: Amount of borrowing should be such that Amount Borrowed
+Interest on it becomes equal to the amount to be received.
Step 2: Convert the borrowed foreign currency into home currency by using spot Rate.
Step 3: Invest this home currency amount for the required period.
Step 4: Pay the borrowed amount of foreign currency with interest using the amount to be received in
foreign currency. [May be Ignored]
8.10

Case 2: When foreign currency is to be paid in future

Step 1: Invest in Foreign currency. Amount of investment should be such that, “Amount Invested +
Interest on it” becomes equal to amount to be paid
Step 2: Borrow in Home Currency, equivalent amount which is to be invested in foreign currency using
Spot rate.
Step 3: Pay the borrowed amount with interest in Home Currency on Maturity.
Step 4: Pay the outstanding amount with the amount received from investment. [May be ignored]

LOS 19 : Adjusting Exchange rate quotation when exchange margin is attached to it

Example:

1 Euro = £ 1.7846 ± 0.0004

Solution:

1 Euro = £ 1.7842 ---- 1.7850

LOS 20 : Foreign Capital Budgeting

Two approaches are followed in case investment is undertaken in foreign country:
 Home Currency Approach
 Foreign Currency Approach

Home Currency Approach:

Step 1: Compute all cash inflows & outflows arising in foreign currency.
Step 2: Convert these cash Inflows & outflows into home currency by using appropriate exchange rates
(i.e. Forward Rate) (Calculate through Swap Point or IRPT)
Step 3: Compute a suitable discount rate.
Step 4: Compute Home Currency (NPV)

Foreign Currency Approach:

Step 1: Compute all cash inflows & outflows arising in foreign currency.
Step 2: Compute a suitable discount rate ( RADR).
Step 3: Compute Foreign Currency (NPV)
Step 4: Convert foreign currency NPV into Home currency by using Spot Rate

Note:

 Answer by both approach will be same.

 8.11

 Discount Rate to be used should be risk-adjusted discount rate (RADR), Since foreign project involves
risk.

(1 + RADR) = (1 + Risk-free rate) (1 + Risk Premium)

 Discount Rate or RADR of both the country are different.

 Risk Premium of both home country and foreign country are assumed to be same.

LOS 21 : Cancellation/Modification under Forward Contract

Forward Contract are legal binding contracts, which must be fulfilled by each and every party.
In case of cancellation of Forward Contracts, following rules must be followed:

How to cancel Forward Contract

Forward Contracts must be cancelled by entering into a reverse contract.

Rate at which contract needs to be Cancelled

Case 1 Cancelled before expiry Forward Rate prevailing as on today for expiry
Case 2 Cancelled on expiry Spot Rate of expiry
Case 3 Cancelled after expiry Spot Rate of the date when customer contracted with the bank.
Case 4 Automatic Cancellation Spot Rate prevailing on 15th day i.e. when grace period ends.
 8.12

Settlement of Profit/Loss:

Case 1 Cancelled on or before expiry Customer will be eligible for both profit/Loss.
Case 2 Cancelled after expiry or automatic Customer will be eligible only for Loss
cancellation

LOS 22 : Extension of Forward Contract

Step 1: Cancellation of original Contract

Step 2: Entering into a new forward contract for the extended period.

LOS 23 : Early Delivery

The bank may accept the request of customer of delivery at the before due date of forward contract
provided the customer is ready to bear the loss if any that may accrue to the bank as a result of this. In
addition to some prescribed fixed charges bank may also charge additional charges comprising of:
a) Swap Difference: This difference can be loss/ gain to the bank. This arises on account of
offsetting its position earlier created by early delivery as bank normally covers itself against the position
taken in the original forward contract.

b) Interest on Outlay of Funds: It might be possible early delivery request of a customer may result in
outlay of funds. In such bank shall charge from the customer at a rate not less than prime lending rate
for the period of early delivery to the original due date. However, if there is an inflow of funds the
bank at its discretion may pass on interest to the customer at the rate applicable to term deposits for
the same period.
 8.13

LOS 24 : Cancellation after Due Date/ Automatic Cancellation Late Delivery /

Extension after due date
In these cases the following cancellation charges may be payable:
1. Exchange Difference
2. Swap Loss

3. Interest on outlay of funds

LOS 25 : Centralized Cash Management & Decentralized Cash Management System

 Under Decentralized Cash Management, every branch is viewed as separate undertaking. Cash
Surplus and Cash Deficit of each branch should not be adjusted.
 Under Centralized Cash Management, every branch cash position is managed by single centralized
authority. Hence, Cash Surplus and Cash Deficit of each branch with each other is accordingly adjusted

LOS 26 : Contribution to Sales Ratio based decision under FOREX

𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐛𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 ( 𝐒𝐚𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐕𝐂)
Contribution to Sales Ratio = × 100
𝐒𝐚𝐥𝐞𝐬
Decision:

Higher the C/S Ratio, Better the position.

LOS 27 : Leading & Lagging

 Leading means advancing the timing of payments and receipts.
 Lagging means postponing or delaying the timing of payments and receipts.
8.14

LOS 28 : Exposure Netting

Netting means adjusting receivable and payables (or inflows & Outflows)

Two conditions must be fulfilled:

1. Netting can be done for same currency.

2. Netting can be done for same period.
Note: In case of Netting, No. of forward contracts can be reduced.

LOS 29 : Currency Pairs

Currency Pairs are written by ISO Currency codes of the base currency and the counter currency,
separating them with a slash character.

Example:

A price quote of EUR/USD at 1.30851 means

1 Euro = 1.30851 $

LOS 30 : Gain/Loss under FOREX

 8.15

LOS 31 : Evaluation of Quotation from two Banks

When quotations are received from two banks, customer should select that quotation which is more
beneficial to him.

Example:

LOS 32 : Expected Spot Rate

Expected Spot Rate = ∑ Spot Rates × Probability

LOS 33 : Currency Futures

Steps Involved:

Step1: Decide Position

 Long Position
 Short Position
Note: First we will decide which currency will buy or which currency we will sell then check the currency
on the LHS of the quotation & then accordingly decide Long Position & Short Position

Step 2 : Calculation of Number of contracts/Lots

𝐕𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐏𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 £ $
No. of Lots = = =
𝐕𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐧𝐞 𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐜𝐭 £ £
Note: Convert exposure amount in the same currency as of Lot Size/Contract Size & it will be converted
at CONTRACT RATE.
8.16

Step 3: Calculate Settlement Amount/ Total Outflow/Inflow under Future Contract

1. Calculate Profit and Loss under Future Contract

Change in Future Price × No. of Lots × Value of One Contract

2. Calculate Total Receipt/Total Payment using SR on Expiry

3. Calculation of opportunity cost of initial margin if Given

Total Outflow / Inflow under Future Hedging

LOS 34 : Currency Options

Steps Involved:

Step1: Decide Position

Long Call Short Call

Long Put Short Put

Note: First we will decide which currency will buy or which currency we will sell then check the currency
on the LHS of the quotation & then accordingly decide Long Call & Long Put
 8.17

Step2 : Calculation of Number of contracts/Lots

𝐕𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐏𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 $
No. of Lots = = =17.35 or 17 lots
𝐕𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐧𝐞 𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐜𝐭 $

Note: Convert exposure amount in the same currency as of Lot Size/Contract Size & it will be converted
at CONTRACT RATE.

Step 3: Now the UNHEDGE POSITION should be hedge through forward market as there is no lot size
requirement under forward market.

Step 4: Calculation of Option Premium paid as on today with opportunity cost on it.

Step 5: Calculate / Total Outflow/Inflow under Option Contract

(i) Option Premium paid as on today with opportunity cost on it.

(ii) Unhedged Position under forward contract
(iii) Under Option Contract using Exercise Price

Total Outflow / Inflow under Option Hedging

LOS 35 : Calculation of Return under FOREX

𝐏𝟏 𝐏𝟎 𝐈
Return (In terms of Home Currency) = 𝟏 + (1+ C) – 1
𝐏𝟎

P0 = Price at the beginning I = Income from Interest/Dividend

P1 = Price at the End C = Change in exchange rate.

LOS 36 : Broken Date Contracts

A Broken Date Contract is a forward contract for which quotation is not readily available.
Example: If quotes are available for 1 month and 3 months but a customer wants a quote for 2 months,
it will be a Broken Date Contract. It can be calculated by interpolating between the available quotes for
the preceding and succeeding maturities.

LOS 37 : Implied Differential in Interest Rate

Interest rate is just another name of premium or discount of one country currency in relation to another
country currency (As per IRPT).

Premium or Discount = Difference in Interest Rate

8.18

Equation:

𝐅𝐑 (𝐑𝐬./$)–𝐒𝐑(𝐑𝐬./$) 𝟏𝟐
× × 100 = Interest Rate (`) – Interest Rate($)
𝐒𝐑 𝐅𝐨𝐫𝐰𝐚𝐫𝐝 𝐏𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐨𝐝

LOS 38 : Savings due to Time Value (Discount) & Currency Fluctuation

If the firm decides to pay today rather than in future he may get two types of benefits:
 Benefit on account of discount for pre-payment.
 Benefit on account of currency fluctuation.

LOS 39 : Nostro Account, Vostro Account and LORO Account

Nostro Account [Ours account with you]

This is a current account maintained by a domestic bank/dealer with a foreign bank in foreign currency.
Example: Current account of SBI bank (an Indian Bank) with swizz bank in Swizz Franc. (CHF) is a Nostro
account.

Vostro Account [Yours account with us]

This is a current account maintained by a foreign bank with a domestic bank/dealer in Rupee currency.

Example: Current account of Swizz bank in India with SBI bank in Rupee (`) currency

Loro Account [Our account of their Money with you]

This is a current account maintained by one domestic bank on behalf of other domestic bank in foreign
bank in a foreign currency.
In other words, Loro account is a Nostro account for one bank who opened the bank and Loro account for
other bank who refers first one account.
Example: SBI opened Current account with swizz bank. If PNB refers that account of SBI for its
correspondence, then it is called Loro account for PNB and it is Nostro account for SBI.

Note:
 8.19

 SPOT purchase/sale of CHF affects both exchange position as well as Nostro account.
 However, forward purchase/sale affects only the exchange position.

1. Nostro A/c (Cash A/c) in Foreign Currency

Particulars Dr. [Debit] outflow Cr. [Credit] Inflow

of Dollars (FC) of Dollars (FC)

2. Exchange Position A/c/

Particulars Long Short

Dollar Buy (FC) Dollar Sell (FC)
8.20