RS3862 - Grade - 10 Database Management System

Computer Engineering
10
Database Management System
Government of Nepal
Ministry of Education, Science and Technology
Curriculum Development Centre
Sanothimi, Bhaktapur
Phone : 5639122/6634373/6635046/6630088
Website : www.moecdc.gov.np
Feedback Copy
Technical and Vocational Stream

Learning Resource Material
Database Management System

(Grade 10)
Secondary Level
Computer Engineering
Government of Nepal
Publisher : Government of Nepal
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Layout by Khados Sunuwar
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system or transmitted, in any other form or by any means for commercial
purpose without the prior permission in writing of Curriculum Development
Centre.
Preface
The curriculum and curricular materials have been developed and revised on a regular
basis with the aim of making education objective-oriented, practical, relevant and job
oriented. It is necessary to instill the feelings of nationalism, national integrity and
democratic spirit in students and equip them with morality, discipline and self-
reliance, creativity and thoughtfulness. It is essential to develop in them the linguistic
and mathematical skills, knowledge of science, information and communication
technology, environment, health and population and life skills. it is also necessary to
bring in them the feeling of preserving and promoting arts and aesthetics, humanistic
norms, values and ideals. It has become the need of the present time to make them
aware of respect for ethnicity, gender, disabilities, languages, religions, cultures,
regional diversity, human rights and social values so as to make them capable of
playing the role of responsible citizens with applied technical and vocational
knowledge and skills. This Learning Resource Material for Computer Engineering has
been developed in line with the Secondary Level Computer Engineering Curriculum
with an aim to facilitate the students in their study and learning on the subject by
incorporating the recommendations and feedback obtained from various schools,
workshops and seminars, interaction programs attended by teachers, students and
parents.
In bringing out the learning resource material in this form, the contribution of the
Director General of CDC Dr. Lekhnath Poudel, Pro, Dr. Subarna Shakya, Bibha
Sthapit, Anil Barma, Yogesh Parajuli, Nabinkrishna Maskey, Rajendra Rokaya, Lina
Maharjan, Bimal Thapa, Shankar Yadav is highly acknowledged. The book is written
by Satyaram Suwal and the subject matter of the book was edited by Badrinath
Timalsina and Khilanath Dhamala. CDC extends sincere thanks to all those who have
contributed in developing this book in this form.
This book is a supplimentary learning resource material for students and teachrs. In
addition they have to make use of other relevnt materials to ensure all the learning
outcomes set in the curriculum. The teachers, students and all other stakeholders are
expected to make constructive comments and suggestions to make it a more useful
learning resource material.
2076 BS Ministry of Education, Science and Technology

Table of Contents
Unit-1: Introduction to Database System architecture 1

Objectives 1
Database Management system(DBMS) 2
Database Architecture 8
Glossary: 12
Exercises: 12
References: 12
Unit -2: Entity Relationship Model (ER-Mode) 13
Objective: 13
Content’s Elaboration: 13
Glossary: 21
Unit-3: Introduction to Relational Database, SQL and Relational Model Basics 23
Objectives: 23
Learning Process and Study Materials 23
Structured Query Language(SQL) 33
SQL defines following data languages to manipulate data of RDBMS. 34
Key points: 36
Glossary: 37
Exercise 38
Unit-4: Database Design 39
Objective 39
Trivial functional dependency 40
Non trivial functional dependency 41
Glossary: 46
Unit 5: Concurrency Control and recovery 47
Objectives 47
Learning Process and Study Material: 47
Write and Read-Write Operations 48
Potential Deadlock Situation for Concurrent Write Transactions 48
Data Recovery 52
Glossary: 55
Exercises: 55
Unit-6: Security 56
Objectives 56
Learning Process and Study Materials 56
What is Threat in Database System ? 58
Discretionary Access Control (DAC) 60
Mandatory Access Control (MAC) 61
Public Key Cryptography 64
Digital Signatures 64
Glossary: 67
UNIT-1
Introduction to Database System architecture
Objectives
After completion of this unit students will be able
 To explain the concept of Database System concept
 to state Database Manager and users
 to discuss the needs of organization of database
 to apply the knowledge of Client-Server Architecture
Learning Process and support material:

Learning Process:
 Class demonstration and lecture method.
 Group Discussion and Questionnaire.
Content’s Elaboration:
Data: Information in raw or unorganized form (such as alphabets, numbers, or
symbols) that refer to, or represent, conditions, ideas, or objects. Data is limitless and
present everywhere in the universe.
Information: Information is organized or classified data, which has some
meaningful values for the receiver. Information is the processed data on which
decisions and actions are based.
For the decision to be meaningful, the processed data must qualify for the following
characteristics −
 Timely − Information should be available when required.
 Accuracy − Information should be accurate.
 Completeness − Information should be complete.
Database: A Database is a collection of related data organized in a way that data

can be easily accessed, managed and updated. Any piece of information can be a
data, for example name of your school. Database is actually a place where related
piece of information is stored and various operations can be performed on it.
Database Management System : Grade 10 1

Database Management system(DBMS)
A DBMS is software that allows creation, definition and manipulation of database.
DBMS is actually a tool used to perform any kind of operation on data in database.
DBMS also provides protection and security to database. It maintains data
consistency in case of multiple users. Here are some examples of popular DBMS,
MySQL, Oracle, Microsoft access and dBase
User:
A typical DBMS has users with different rights and permissions who use it for
different purposes. Some users retrieve data and some back it up. The users of a
DBMS can be broadly categorized as follows:
 Administrators − Administrators maintain the DBMS and are responsible for

administrating the database. They are responsible to look after its usage and by
whom it should be used. They create access profiles for users and apply
limitations to maintain isolation and force security. Administrators also look
after DBMS resources like system license, required tools, and other software
and hardware related maintenance.
 Designers − Designers are the group of people who actually work on the
designing part of the database. They keep a close watch on what data should be
kept and in what format. They identify and design the whole set of entities,
relations, constraints, and views.
 End Users − End users are those who actually reap the benefits of having a
DBMS. End users can range from simple viewers who pay attention to the logs
or market rates to sophisticated users such as business analysts.
2 Database Management System : Grade 10

File Management System Vs Database Management System
A File Management System (FMS) is a Database Management System that allows
access to single files or tables at a time. FMS’s accommodate flat files that have no
relation to other files. The FMS was the predecessor for the Database Management
System (DBMS), which allows access to multiple files or tables at a time
(see figure below)
A Database Management System (DMS): is a combination of computer software,

hardware, and information designed to electronically manipulate data via computer
processing. Two types of database management systems are DBMS’s
Advantages of flat-file Systems: Despite of the number of drawbacks of flat-file
systems they are beneficial in many situation and database management system may
not be much suitable in such situations. benefits of file processing systems or we can
limitations of database management systems are described below:
 Initial investment: To use database systems we need to purchase database
management system based on our requirement. Besides this we may need to
purchase a powerful computer to run it as database server. Due to this reason
initial investment is high if we use database management system.
 Dedicated staff: To manage database system efficiently we need to hire a skilled
dedicated staff called database administrator. file processing systems do not
need not hire such dedicated
 Overhead: We need to update and maintain database systems in periodic basis
to make it efficient in new technologies which is not needed in flat-file systems.
Thus overhead cost is high for database management systems.

Drawbacks of File system:
 Data Isolation: Because data are scattered in various files, and files may be in
different formats, writing new application programs to retrieve the appropriate
data is difficult.
 Duplication of data – Redundant data
 Dependency on application programs – Changing files would lead to change in
application programs.
Advantages of DBMS
The database management system has promising potential advantages, which are
explained below:
1. Controlling Redundancy: In file system, each application has its own private
files, which cannot be shared between multiple applications. this can often lead to
considerable redundancy in the stored data, which results in wastage of storage
space. By having centralized database most of this can be avoided. It is not possible
that all redundancy should be eliminated. Sometimes there are sound business and
technical reasons forꞏ maintaining multiple copies of the same data. In a database
system, however this redundancy can be controlled.
For example: In case of college database, there may be the number of applications
like General Office, Library, Account Office, Hostel etc. Each of these applications
may maintain the following information into own private file applications:
It is clear from the above file systems, that there is some common data of the student
which has to be mentioned in each application, like Roll number, Name, Class, Phone
No~ Address etc. This will cause the problem of redundancy which results in
wastage of storage space and difficult to maintain, but in case of centralized database,

data can be shared by number of applications and the whole college can maintain its
computerized data with the following database:
It is clear in the above database that Rollno, Name, Class, Father_Name, Address,
Phone_No, Date of_birth which are stored repeatedly in file system in each
application, need not be stored repeatedly in case of database, because every other
application can access this information by joining of relations on the basis of
common column i.e. Rollno. Suppose any user of Library system need the Name,
Address of any particular student and by joining of Library and General Office
relations on the basis of column Rollno he/she can easily retrieve this information.
Thus, we can say that centralized system of DBMS reduces the redundancy of data
to great extent but cannot eliminate the redundancy because RollNo is still repeated
in all the relations.
2. Integrity can be enforced: Integrity of data means that data in database is always
accurate, such that incorrect information cannot be stored in database. In order to
maintain the integrity of data, some integrity constraints are enforced on the
database. A DBMS should provide capabilities for defining and enforcing the
constraints.
For Example: Let us consider the case of college database and suppose that college
having only BTech, MTech, MSc, BCA, BBA and BCOM classes. But if a user
enters the class MCA, then this incorrect information must not be stored in database
and must be prompted that this is an invalid data entry. In order to enforce this, the
integrity constraint must be applied to the class attribute of the student entity. But, in

case of file system this constraint must be enforced on all the application separately
(because all applications have a class field).
3. Inconsistency can be avoided: When the same data is duplicated and changes are
made at one site, which is not propagated to the other site, it gives rise to
inconsistency and the two entries regarding the same data will not agree. At such
times the data is said to be inconsistent. So, if the redundancy is removed chances of
having inconsistent data is also removed.
Let us again, consider the college system and suppose that in case of General_Office
file it is indicated that Roll_Number 5 lives in Amritsar but in library file it is
indicated that
Roll_Number 5 lives in Jalandhar. Then, this is a state at which title two entries of
the same object do not agree with each other (that is one is updated and other is not).
At such time the database is said to be inconsistent.
An inconsistent database is capable of supplying incorrect or conflicting information.
So there should be no inconsistency in database. It can be clearly shown that
inconsistency can be avoided in centralized system very well as compared to file
system ..
4. Data can be shared: As explained earlier, the data about Name, Class, Father
__name etc. of General_Office is shared by multiple applications in centralized
DBMS as compared to file system so now applications can be developed to operate
against the same stored data. The applications may be developed without having to
create any new stored files.
5. Standards can be enforced : Since DBMS is a central system, so standard can be
enforced easily may be at Company level, Department level, National level or
International level. The standardized data is very helpful during migration or
interchanging of data. The file system is an independent system so standard cannot
be easily enforced on multiple independent applications.
6. Restricting unauthorized access: When multiple users share a database, it is
likely that some users will not be authorized to access all information in the database.
For example, account office data is often considered confidential, and hence only
authorized persons are allowed to access such data. In addition, some users may be
permitted only to retrieve data, whereas other are allowed both to retrieve and to

update. Hence, the type of access operation retrieval or update must also be
controlled. Typically, users or user groups are given account numbers protected by
passwords, which they can use to gain access to the database. A DBMS should
provide a security and authorization subsystem, which the DBA uses to create
accounts and to specify account restrictions. The DBMS should then enforce these
restrictions automatically.
7. Solving Enterprise Requirement than Individual Requirement: Since many
types of users with varying level of technical knowledge use a database, a DBMS
should provide a variety of user interface. The overall requirements of the enterprise
are more important than the individual user requirements. So, the DBA can structure
the database system to provide an overall service that is "best for the enterprise".
For example: A representation can be chosen for the data in storage that gives fast
access for the most important application at the cost of poor performance in some
other application. But, the file system favors the individual requirements than the
enterprise requirements
8. Providing Backup and Recovery: A DBMS must provide facilities for
recovering from hardware or software failures. The backup and recovery subsystem
of the DBMS is responsible for recovery. For example, if the computer system fails
in the middle of a complex update program, the recovery subsystem is responsible
for making sure that the database is restored to the state it was in before the program
started executing.
9. Cost of developing and maintaining system is lower: It is much easier to
respond to unanticipated requests when data is centralized in a database than when
it is stored in a conventional file system. Although the initial cost of setting up of a
database can be large, but the cost of developing and maintaining application
programs to be far lower than for similar service using conventional systems. The
productivity of programmers can be higher in using non-procedural languages that
have been developed with DBMS than using procedural languages.
10. Concurrency Control: DBMS systems provide mechanisms to provide
concurrent access of data to multiple users.

Disadvantages of DBMS:
 DBMS implementation cost is high compared to the file system
 Complexity: Database systems are complex to understand
 Performance: Database systems are generic, making them suitable for various
applications. However, this feature affects their performance for some
applications
Database Architecture
Centralized database
Earlier architectures used mainframe computers to provide the main processing for
all system functions, including user application programs and user interface
programs, as well as all the DBMS functionality. The reason was that most users
accessed such systems via computer terminals that did not have processing power
and only provided display capabilities. Therefore, all processing was
performed remotely on the computer system, and only display information and
controls were sent from the computer to the display terminals, which were connected
to the central computer via various types of communications networks.

Acentralized DBMS in which all the DBMS functionality, application program
execution, and user interface processing were carried out on one machine. Figure 2
illustrates the physical components in a centralized architecture. Gradually, DBMS
systems started to exploit the available processing power at the user side, which led
to client/server DBMS architectures.
Client Server Architecture
 Client Server architecture is logically divided into two types.
 Logical two-tier Client / Server architecture
 Logical three-tier Client / Server architecture
Two-tier Client / Server Architecture
Two-tier Client / Server architecture is used for User Interface program and
Application Programs that runs on client side. An interface called ODBC (Open
Database Connectivity) provides an API that allow client side program to call the
dbms. Most DBMS vendors provide ODBC drivers. A client program may connect
to several DBMS's. In this architecture some variation of client is also possible for
example in some DBMS's more functionality is transferred to the client including
data dictionary, optimization etc. Such clients are called Data server.

Three-tier Client / Server Architecture
Three-tier Client / Server database architecture is commonly used architecture for

web applications. Intermediate layer called Application server or Web Server stores
the web connectivity software and the business logic(constraints) part of application
used to access the right amount of data from the database server. This layer acts like
medium for sending partially processed data between the database server and the
client.
Applications where we use Database Management Systems are:
Database System are widely used in different areas because of their numerous
advantages. Some of the most common database application are listed here.
 Telecom: There is a database to keeps track of the information regarding calls
made, network usage, customer details etc. Without the database systems it is
hard to maintain that huge amount of data that keeps updating every millisecond.
 Industry: Where it is a manufacturing unit, warehouse or distribution center,
each one needs a database to keep the records of ins and outs. For example,
distribution center should keep a track of the product units that supplied into the
center as well as the products that got delivered out from the distribution center
on each day; this is where DBMS comes into picture.
 Banking System: For storing customer info, tracking day to day credit and debit
transactions, generating bank statements etc. All this work has been done with
the help of Database management systems.
 Education sector: Database systems are frequently used in schools and colleges
to store and retrieve the data regarding student details, staff details, course
details, exam details, payroll data, attendance details, fees details etc. There is a
hell lot amount of inter-related data that needs to be stored and retrieved in an
efficient manner.
 Online shopping: You must be aware of the online shopping websites such as
Amazon, Flipkart etc. These sites store the product information, your addresses
and preferences, credit details and provide you the relevant list of products based
on your query. All this involves a Database management system.
Key Points
 Data is a raw or unorganized form that refer to any idea or object.
 Information is meaningful values for the receiver.
 Database is a collection of related data in such a way that data can be easily
accessed, managed and updated.
 A DBMS is software that allows creation, definition and manipulation of
database.
 A centralized DBMS in which all the DBMS functionality, application program
execution, and user interface processing were carried out on one machine
 Client/Server architecture, the processing power of the computer system at the
user's end utilized by processing the user-interface on that system.
 A client is a computer system that sends request to the server connected to the
network
 Server is a computer system that receive the request, process it, and returns the
requested information back to the client.

Glossary:
 Redundancy: Data repetition
 Integrity: Accurate data in database
 Inconsistency: Data is duplicate and changes are made at one site is not
reflect to other site.
 Backup: A copy of a file or other item of data made in case the original is
lost or damaged.
 ODBC driver: An ODBC driver uses the Open Database Connectivity
(ODBC) interface by Microsoft that allows applications to access data in
database management systems (DBMS) using SQL as a standard for
accessing the data.
 Data server: Data server is the phrase used to describe computer software
and hardware (a database platform) that delivers database services.
 Web Server: It enables a computer to host one or more websites that can be
accessed over the Internet using a Web browser.
Exercises:
a. Very Short Question:
a. What is Data in Database ?
b. Define information
c. What is user ?
d. who is administrator ?
e. Give any two examples of Database
b. Short Question
a. What is Database Management System ?
b. List any four DBMS .
c. What is mean by data redundancy ?
d. Define data integrity with example
e. What is data integrity ?
c. Long Question
a. Define user, administrator, designer and end users.
b. What is DBMS? Write the advantage of DBMS
c. Differentiate between client server and centralized database system
d. explain difference types of client server architecture in detail
e. Write the application area of Database System.
References:
https://www.studytonight.com/dbms/architecture-of-database
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/dbms/dbms_data_models.htm
https://www.wikipedia.com

UNIT -2
Entity Relationship Model (ER-Mode)
Objective:
 To distinguish between entity and attributes
 To identify entity set and keys
 To practice the knowledge of mapping Cardinalities
Learning Process and support material:

 Class demonstration with chart paper drawings.
 Case Study
Entity Relationship Model
Entity–relationship modeling was developed for database design by Peter Chen and
published in a 1976 paper. However, variants of the idea existed previously. Some
ER models show super and subtype entities connected by generalization-
specialization relationships, and an ER model can be used also in the specification
of domain-specific ontologies.
An ER model is typically implemented as a database. In a simple relational database
implementation, each row of a table represents one instance of an entity type, and
each field in a table represents an attribute type. In a relational database a relationship
between entities is implemented by storing the primary key of one entity as a pointer
or "foreign key" in the table of another entity
Entity Relationship Diagram
An entity-relationship (ER) diagram is a graphical representation of entities (which
will become your tables) and their relationships to each other.
ER Model creates entity set, relationship set, general attributes and constraints.
ER Model is best used for the conceptual design of a database.
ER Model is based on −

 Entities and their attributes.
 Relationships among entities.
These concepts are explained below.
Entity
An entity in an ER Model is a real-world entity having properties called attributes.
Every attribute is defined by its set of values called domain. For example, in a
school database, a student is considered as an entity. Student has various attributes
like name, age, class, etc.
Entity Set:
An Entity is an object of Entity Type and set of all entities is called as entity set. e.g;
E1 is an entity having Entity Type Student and set of all students is called Entity Set.
In ER diagram, Entity Type is represented as:
Attribute:
An attribute defines the information about the
entity that needs to be stored. An attribute
describes the facts, details or characteristics of
an entity. If the entity is employee, attributes
could include: name, employee ID, health plan
enrollment and work location.
Types of Attributes
Attributes can be classified as having many
parts to them or just a single unbreakable
attribute.

Simple and Composite Attributes
The composite attribute is an attribute that can be subdivided into other single
attributes with meanings of their own. A simple attribute is just an attribute that
cannot be subdivided into parts.
Example:
Imagine from the entity Student that instead of having the three
attributes: stu_LastName, stu_MiddleName, stu_FirstName it had one attribute
called stu_Name. The attribute stu_Name would be considered a composite
attribute since it can be subdivied into the other three attributes: stu_LastName,
stu_MiddleName, stu_FirstName. The rest of attributes would be considering single
attributes since they can't be subdivided into parts.
Single-valued and multi-valued Attributes
Attributes can be classified as single or multi-value. The single-value attribute can
only have one value, while the multi-valued attributes usually can store multiple data
in them.
Example:
In the entity Student, stu_Address could be considered a multi-value attribute since
a student could have multiple addresses where he lives at. An example of a single-
value attribute would be stu_LastName since a student usually has josiose last name
that uniquely identifies him/her.
Derived Attributes
The last category that attributes can be defined is called a derived attribute, where
one attribute is calculated from another attribute. The derived attribute may not be
stored in the database but rather calculated using algorithm.
Example:
In the entity Student, stu_Age would be considered a derived attribute since it could
be calculated using the student's date of birth with the current date to find their age.
Keys and non-keys Attributes
In every entity an attribute or grouped attributes uniquely identify that entity. These
attributes are the key attributes and range from Primary key (single attribute
identifier) to a Composite Key (Multi attribute Identifier). The rest of the attributes

after the identifier are considered the non-key attributes or descriptors, which just
describe the entity.
Example:
Above in the table Student there is only one unique identifier, stu_LastName, which
is the primary key of the table. The rest of the attributes are descriptors.
Database Keys
Keys are very important part of Relational database. They are used to establish and
identify relation between tables. They also ensure that each record within a table can
be uniquely identified by combination of one or more fields within a table.
Super Key
Super Key is defined as a set of attributes within a table that uniquely identifies each
record within a table. Super Key is a superset of Candidate key.
Candidate keys
Candidate keys are defined as the set of fields from which primary key can be
selected. It is an attribute or set of attribute that can act as a primary key for a table
to uniquely identify each record in that table.
Primary Key
Primary key is a candidate key that is most appropriate to become main key of the
table. It is a key that uniquely identify each record in a table.
Relationship − The logical association among entities is called relationship.
Relationships are mapped with entities in various ways. Mapping cardinalities define
the number of association between two entities.
Mapping cardinalities −
 one to one
 one to many
 many to one
 many to many

One to One : This type of relationship is rarely seen in real world.
The above example describes that one student can enroll only for one course and a
course will also have only one Student. This is not what you will usually see in
relationship.
One to Many: It reflects business rule that one entity is associated with many
number of same entity. The example for this relation might sound a little weird, but
this means that one student can enroll to many courses, but one course will have one
Student.
The above diagram describes that one student can enroll for only one course.
Many to One: It reflects business rule that many entities can be associated with just
one entity. For example, Student enrolls for only one Course but a Course can have
many Students.
The above diagram describe many students can enroll in one course.
Many to Many:

Mapping Cardinalities
Cardinality defines the number of entities in one entity set, which can be associated
with the number of entities of other set via relationship set.
 One-to-one − One entity from entity set A can be associated with at most one
entity of entity set B and vice versa.
 One-to-many − One entity from entity set A can be associated with more than
one entities of entity set B however an entity from entity set B, can be associated
with at most one entity.
 Many-to-one − More than one entities from entity set A can be associated with
at most one entity of entity set B, however an entity from entity set B can be
associated with more than one entity from entity set A.

 Many-to-many − One entity from A can be associated with more than one
entity from B and vice versa.
The above diagram represents that many students can enroll for more than one
courses.
E-R Diagram
ER-Diagram is a visual representation of data that describes how data is related to
each other.

Symbols and Notations
Components of E-R Diagram

The E-R diagram has three main components.
1) Entity
2) Attribute
3) Relationship

KEY POINTS
 Entity-Relationship (ER)diagram, is a graphical representation of entities
(which will become your tables) and their relationships to each other.
 An entity in an ER Model is a real-world entity having properties
called attributes
 An attribute defines the information about the entity that needs to be stored
 Keys are very important part of Relational database. They are used to establish
and identify relation between tables.
 Super Key is defined as a set of attributes within a table that uniquely
identifies each record within a table
 Candidate keys are defined as the set of fields from which primary key can be
selected
 Primary key is a candidate key that is most appropriate to become main key of
the table.
 The logical association among entities is called relationship.
 Cardinality defines the number of entities in one entity set, which can be
associated with the number of entities of other set via relationship set.
 The E-R diagram has three main components.
1) Entity
2) Attribute
3) Relationship
Glossary:
 Ontology :An ontology is a formal naming and definition of the types,
properties, and interrelationships of the entities that really exist in a
particular domain of discourse.
 Foreign key: A foreign key is a column or group of columns in a relational
database table that provides a link between data in two tables. It acts as a cross-
reference between tables because it references the primary key of another table,
thereby establishing a link between them.

Exercises:
1. Very Short Question
a. Define entity in Database System
b. What is relationship mean in Database System
c. What is super key ?
d. Define one to one relationship
e. What is cardinalities means?
2. Short Question
a. List out entity sets use in ER diagram
b. Write an example of ER diagram
c. What is key in Database system? list out the different keys use in Database.
d. Define primary keys
e. Give an example of many to many relationships with example.
3. Long question
a. Write an ER diagram of student and teacher
b. Explain different types of relationship with examples.
what is mapping cardinalities? Discuss with an example
References.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontology_(information_science)
https://www.techopedia.com/definition/7272/foreign-key

UNIT-3
Introduction to Relational Database, SQL and
Relational Model Basics
Objectives:
 To memorize Relational Database Model
 To tell Structure Query Language.
Learning Process and Study Materials

 Class demonstration and practical
 Computer lab with RDBMS software.
Entity-Relationship model
An entity-relationship model (ERM) is a theoretical and conceptual way of showing
data relationships in software development. ERM is a database modeling technique
that generates an abstract diagram or visual representation of a system’s data that can
be helpful in designing a relational database. These diagrams are known as entity-
relationship diagrams, ER diagrams or ERDs. Entity-relationship patterns were first
proposed by Peter Pin-Shan Chen of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(MIT) in 1976.
The building blocks of an ERD are entities, relationships and attributes. Entities have
entity types, which are known as instances of the corresponding entities. Each entity
type can exist independently of another; for example, the entity "vehicle" can have
the entity types "car" and "bus." Relationship is the property that links the entity
types together. For example, the entity type husband is related to the entity type wife
by a relationship known as "is-married-to." Attributes are properties that belong to
the entity types as well as to the relationships. There are a number of ER
diagramming tools available on the market. The most common ones are MySQL
Workbench and OpenModelSphere.

Relational database
Relational database is a collection of organized set of tables from which data can be
accessed easily. Relational Database is most commonly used database. It consists of
number of tables and each table has its own primary key.
Table
In Relational database, a table is a collection of data elements organized in terms of
rows and columns. A table is also considered as convenient representation
of relations. But a table can have duplicate tuples while a true relation cannot have
duplicate tuples. Table is the simplest form of data storage. Below is an example of
Employee table.
ID Name Age Salary
1 Ram 34 13000
2 Pema 28 15000
3 John 20 18000
4 Yadav 42 19020
Record
A single entry in a table is called a Record or Row. A Record in a table represents
set of related data. For example, the above Employee table has 4 records. Following
is an example of single record.
RAM 34 13000

Field
A table consists of several records(row); each record can be broken into several
smaller entities known as Fields. The above Employee table consist of four
fields, ID, Name, Age and Salary.
Column
In Relational table, a column is a set of value of a particular type. The term
Attribute is also used to represent a column. For example, in Employee table, Name
is a column that represent names of employee.
Name
Adam
Alex
Stuart
Ross
Above diagram describe the relationship between table in relational database model.
Constraints in Relational Model
While designing Relational Model, we define some conditions which must hold for
data present in database are called Constraints. These constraints are checked before
performing any operation (insertion, deletion and updation) in database. If there is a
violation in any of constrains, operation will fail.
Domain Constraints: These are attribute level constraints. An attribute can only
take values which lie inside the domain range. e.g.,; If a constrains AGE>0 is applied
on STUDENT relation, inserting negative value of AGE will result in failure.

Key Integrity: Every relation in the database should have at least one set of
attributes which defines a tuple uniquely. Those set of attributes is called key. e.g.;
ROLL_NO in STUDENT is a key. No two students can have same roll number. So
a key has two properties:
 It should be unique for all tuples.
 It can’t have NULL values.
Referential Integrity: When one attribute of a relation can only take values from other
attribute of same relation or any other relation, it is called referential integrity. Let
us suppose we have 2 relations
STUDENT
ROL BRANCH
L_NO NAME ADDRESS PHONE AGE _CODE
1 RAM DELHI 9455123451 18 CS
2 RAMESH GURGAON 9652431543 18 CS
3 SUJIT ROHTAK 9156253131 20 ECE
4 SURESH DELHI 18 IT
BRANCH
BRANCH_CODE BRANCH_NAME
CS COMPUTER SCIENCE
IT INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

ECE ENGINEERING
CV CIVIL ENGINEERING
BRANCH_CODE of STUDENT can only take the values which are present in
BRANCH_CODE of BRANCH which is called referential integrity constraint. The

relation which is referencing to other relation is called REFERENCING RELATION
(STUDENT in this case) and the relation to which other relations refer is called
REFERENCED RELATION (BRANCH in this case).
Structure Query Language
SQL is a programming language for Relational Databases. It is designed over
relational algebra and tuple relational calculus. SQL comes as a package with all
major distributions of RDBMS.
SQL comprises both data definition and data manipulation languages. Using the data
definition properties of SQL, one can design and modify database schema, whereas
data manipulation properties allows SQL to store and retrieve data from database.
Code Rules
Code rules were proposed by E.F. Code which should be satisfied by relational
model.
1. Information Rule: Data stored in Relational model must be a value of some
cell of a table.
2. Guaranteed Access Rule: Every data element must be accessible by table
name, its primary key and name of attribute whose value is to be determined.
3. Systematic Treatment of NULL values: NULL value in database must only
correspond to missing, unknown or not applicable values.
4. Active Online Catalog: Structure of database must be stored in an online
catalog which can be queried by authorized users.
5. Comprehensive Data Sub-Language Rule: A database should be
accessible by a language supported for definition, manipulation and
transaction management operation.
6. View Updating Rule: Different views created for various purposes should
be automatically updatable by the system.
7. High level insert, update and delete rule: Relational Model should support
insert, delete, update etc. operations at each level of relations. Also, set
operations like Union, Intersection and minus should be supported.
8. Physical data independence: Any modification in the physical location of a
table should not enforce modification at application level.
9. Logical data independence: Any modification in logical or conceptual
schema of a table should not enforce modification at application level. For

example, merging of two tables into one should not affect application
accessing it which is difficult to achieve.
10. Integrity Independence: Integrity constraints modified at database level
should not enforce modification at application level.
11. Distribution Independence: Distribution of data over various locations
should not be visible to end-users.
12. Non-Subversion Rule: Low level access to data should not be able to bypass
integrity rule to change data.
Join in SQL
SQL Join is used to fetch data from two or more tables, which is joined to appear as
single set of data. SQL Join is used for combining column from two or more tables
by using values common to both tables. Join Keyword is used in SQL queries for
joining two or more tables. Minimum required condition for joining table, is (n-
1) where n, is number of tables. A table can also join to itself known as, Self-Join.
Types of Join
The following are the types of JOIN that we can use in SQL.
 Inner
 Outer
 Left
 Right
Outer JOIN
Outer Join is based on both matched and unmatched data. Outer Joins subdivide
further into,
 Left Outer Join
 Right Outer Join
 Full Outer Join
Left Outer Join

The left outer join returns a result table with the matched data of two tables then
remaining rows of the left table and null for the right table's column.
 Left Outer Join syntax is,
 SELECT column-name-list
 fromtable-name1

LEFT OUTER JOIN
table-name2
on table-name1.column-name = table-name2.column-name;
Left outer Join Syntax for Oracle is,
select column-name-list
fromtable-name1,
table-name2
on table-name1.column-name = table-name2.column-name(+);
Example of Left Outer Join

The class table,
ID NAME
1 abhi
2 adam
3 alex
4 anu
5 ashish
The class_info table,

ID Address
1 KATHAMANDU
2 BHAKTAPUR
3 POKHARA
7 CHITWAN
8 PATAN

Left Outer Join query will be,
SELECT * FROM class LEFT OUTER JOIN class_info ON
(class.id=class_info.id);
The result table will look like,
ID NAME ID Address
1 abhi 1 KATHAMANDU
2 adam 2 BHAKTAPUR
3 alex 3 POKHARA
4 anu null null
5 ashish null null
Right Outer Join

The right outer join returns a result table with the matched data of two tables then
remaining rows of the right table and null for the left table's columns.
Right Outer Join Syntax is,
fromtable-name1
Right Outer Join
table-name2
on table-name1.column-name = table-name2.column-name;
Right outer Join Syntax for Oracle is,
fromtable-name1,
table-name2

on table-name1.column-name(+) = table-name2.column-name;
Example of Right Outer Join
The class table,
ID NAME
1 abhi
2 adam
3 alex
4 anu
5 ashish
ID Address
1 KATHAMANDU
2 BHAKTAPUR
3 POKHARA
7 CHITWAN
8 PATAN

Right Outer Join query will be,
SELECT * FROM class RIGHT OUTER JOIN class_info on
(class.id=class_info.id);
ID NAME ID Address
1 abhi 1 KATHAMANDU
2 adam 2 BHAKTAPUR
3 alex 3 POKHARA
null null 7 CHITWAN
null null 8 PATAN
INNER Join or EQUI Join

This is a simple JOIN in which the result is based on matched data as per the equality
condition specified in the query.
Inner Join Syntax is,
SELECT column-name-list
fromtable-name1
INNER JOIN
table-name2
WHERE table-name1.column-name = table-name2.column-name;
Example of Inner JOIN
The class table,
ID NAME
1 abhi
2 adam
3 alex

4 anu
ID Address
1 KATHAMANDU
2 BHAKTAPUR
3 POKHARA
Inner JOIN query will be,

SELECT * from class, class_info where class.id = class_info.id;
ID NAME ID Address
1 abhi 1 KATHAMANDU
2 adam 2 BHAKTAPUR
3 alex 3 POKHARA
Structured Query Language(SQL)

SQL is a standard computer language for relational database management and data
manipulation. SQL is used to query, insert, update and modify data. Most relational
databases support SQL, which is an added benefit for database administrators
(DBAs), as they are often required to support databases across several different
platforms.
First developed in the early 1970s at IBM by Raymond Boyce and Donald
Chamberlin, SQL was commercially released by Relational Software Inc. (now
known as Oracle Corporation) in 1979. The current standard SQL version is
voluntary, vendor-compliant and monitored by the American National Standards

Institute (ANSI). Most major vendors also have proprietary versions that are
incorporated and built on ANSI SQL, e.g., SQL*Plus (Oracle), and Transact-SQL
(T-SQL) (Microsoft).
One of the most fundamental DBA rites of passage is learning SQL, which begins
with writing the first SELECT statement or SQL script without a graphical user
interfaces (GUI). Increasingly, relational databases use GUIs for easier database
management, and queries can now be simplified with graphical tools, e.g., drag-and-
drop wizards. However, learning SQL is imperative because such tools are never as
powerful as SQL.
SQL defines following data languages to manipulate data of
RDBMS.
DDL: Data Definition Language
All DDL commands are auto-committed. That means it saves all the changes
permanently in the database.
Command Description
create to create new table or database
alter for alteration
truncate delete data from table
drop to drop a table
rename to rename a table
DML: Data Manipulation Language

DML commands are not auto-committed. It means changes are not permanent to
database, they can be rolled back.
Command Description
insert to insert a new row
update to update existing row

delete to delete a row
merge merging two rows or two tables
TCL: Transaction Control Language

These commands are to keep a check on other commands and their effect on the
database. These commands can annul changes made by other commands by rolling
back to original state. It can also make changes permanent.
Command Description
commit to permanently save
rollback to undo change
save point to save temporarily
DCL: Data Control Language

Data control language provides command to grant and take back authority.
Command Description
grant grant permission of right
revoke take back permission.

Key points:
 An entity-relationship model (ERM) is a theoretical and conceptual way of
showing data relationships in software development
 Relational database is a collection of organized set of tables from which data can
be accessed easily. Relational Database is most commonly used database
 A table is a collection of data elements organized in terms of rows and columns
 A single entry in a table is called a Record or Row. A Record in a table
represents set of related data.
 A table consists of several records(row); each record can be broken into several
smaller entities known as Fields.
 While designing Relational Model, we define some conditions which must hold
for data present in database are called Constraints.
 Every relation in the database should have at least one set of attributes which
defines a tuple uniquely. Those set of attributes is called key. e.g.; ROLL_NO
in STUDENT is a key
 SQL is a programming language for Relational Databases. It is designed over
relational algebra and tuple relational calculus
 The left outer join returns a result table with the matched data of two tables then
remaining rows of the left table and null for the right table's column
 The right outer join returns a result table with the matched data of two tables
then remaining rows of the right table and null for the left table's columns.
 INNER Join is a simple JOIN in which the result is based on matched data as
per the equality condition specified in the query.
 All DDL commands are auto-committed. That means it saves all the changes
permanently in the database
 DML commands are not auto-committed. It means changes are not permanent
to database, they can be rolled back
 Transaction Control Language: These commands are to keep a check on other
commands and their effect on the database. These commands can annul changes
made by other commands by rolling back to original state. It can also make
changes permanent.
 Data control language provides command to grant and take back authority

Glossary:
 DBA: A database administrator (DBA) directs or performs all activities related
to maintaining a successful database environment. Responsibilities include
designing, implementing, and maintaining the database system
 oracle: Oracle Corporation is an American multinational computer technology
corporation, headquartered in Redwood Shores, California. The company
specializes primarily in developing and marketing database software and
technology, cloud engineered systems and enterprise software products
 Primary key: A primary key is a special relational database table column (or
combination of columns) designated to uniquely identify all table records.
 My SQL: is an open-source relational database management system(RDBMS).
Its name is a combination of "My", the name of co-founder Michael Widenius's
daughter,] and "SQL", the abbreviation for Structured Query Language. The
MySQL development project has made its source code available under the terms
of the GNU General Public License, as well as under a variety
of proprietary agreements
 Constraint: limitation or restriction.
 Referential integrity (RI): Referential integrity (RI) is a relational database
concept, which states that table relationships must always be consistent
 Query: A question, especially one expressing doubt or requesting information.

Exercise
Very Short Question
a. Define table in RDBMS
b. What is record?
c. What is field?
d. What is join in RDBMS
e. Define DCL in RDBMS.
f. Choose best answer
The operation is intended to join two relations on the basis of comparison operation
is called
a. outer join b. theta join c. Natural joins c. Cartesian produce.
Modification of the database is done by the operator
a. Insertion b. deletion c. Update d. all of the above.
Short Question
a. List out the different types of joins.
b. What is the major drawback of natural join?
c. What is right outer join?
d. What is SQL? Where does it use?
e. List out different languages use in SQL
Long Question
a. What is RDBMS? Explain with examples.
b. What is constrain in relational Model? Illustrate with example.
c. Explain referential integrity with example.
d. Describe Code rules in detail.
e. Explain different types of joins with example.
References:
https://www.techopedia.com/definition/1245/structured-query-language-sql

UNIT-4
Database Design
Objective
 To distinguish between Trivial and Non-trivial
 To demonstrate closure of a set of Attributes
 To practice the knowledge of Normalization

 Class demonstration and practical
 Group discussion
 Case study
Introduction: while designing a database out of an entity-relationship mode, the
main problem existing in that raw database is redundancy. redundancy is storing the
same data item in more one place. A redundancy creates several problems like the
following:
 Extra storage space: strong the same data in many places takes large amount of
disk pace.
 Entering same data more than once during data insertion.
 Deleting data from more than one place during deletion.
 Modifying data in more than one place.
 Anomalies may occur in the database if insertion, deletion, modification etc. are
no done properly.
 It creates inconsistency and unreliability in the database.
To solve this problem the raw database needs to be normalized. Normalization is a

step by step process of removing different kinds of redundancy and normally at each
step. At each step a specific rule is followed to remove specific kind of impurity in
order to give the database a slim and clean look. The process of reducing data

redundancy and removing database modification anomaly in a relational database is
called normalization.
Functional Dependencies
The attributes of a table are said to be dependent on each other when an attribute of
a table uniquely identifies another attribute of the same table.
For example: Suppose we have a student table with attributes: Stu_Id, Stu_Name,
Stu_Age. Here Stu_Id attribute uniquely identifies the Stu_Name attribute of student
table because if we know the student id we can tell the student name associated with
it. This is known as functional dependency and can be written as Stu_Id->Stu_Name
or in words we can say Stu_Name is functionally dependent on Stu_Id.
Formally:
If column A of a table uniquely identifies the column B of same table then it can
represented as A->B (Attribute B is functionally dependent on attribute A)
Types of Functional Dependencies
 Trivial functional dependency
 non-trivial functional dependency
Trivial functional dependency

The dependency of an attribute on a set of attributes is known as trivial functional
dependency if the set of attributes includes that attribute.
Symbolically: A ->B is trivial functional dependency if B is a subset of A.
The following dependencies are also trivial: A->A & B->B
For example: Consider a table with two columns Student_id and Student_Name.
{Student_Id, Student_Name} ->Student_Id is a trivial functional dependency as
Student_Id is a subset of {Student_Id, Student_Name}. That makes sense because
if we know the values of Student_Id and Student_Name then the value of Student_Id
can be uniquely determined.
Also, Student_Id ->Student_Id&Student_Name ->Student_Name are trivial
dependencies too.

Non trivial functional dependency
If a functional dependency X->Y holds true where Y is not a subset of X then this
dependency is called non trivial Functional dependency.
For example: An employee table with three attributes: emp_id, emp_name,
emp_address. The following functional dependencies are non-trivial:emp_id -
>emp_name (emp_name is not a subset of emp_id) emp_id ->emp_address
(emp_address is not a subset of emp_id)
On the other hand, the following dependencies are trivial:{emp_id, emp_name} -
>emp_name [emp_name is a subset of {emp_id, emp_name}]
Closure of a Set of Functional Dependencies
1. We need to consider all functional dependencies that hold. Given a set F of
functional dependencies, we can prove that certain other ones also hold. We
say these ones are logically implied by F.
2. Suppose we are given a relation scheme R=(A,B,C,G,H,I), and the set of
functional dependencies:
A B
A C
CG H
CG I
B H
Then the functional dependency is logically implied.
Closure of Attribute Sets
1. To test whether a set of attributes is a superkey, we need to find the set of
attributes functionally determined by .
2. Let be a set of attributes. We call the set of attributes determined by under
a set F of functional dependencies the closure of under F, denoted .
3. The following algorithm computes :
result :=
while (changes to result) do
for each functional dependency

in Fdo
begin
if result
then result := result ;
end
1. If we use this algorithm on our example to calculate then we find:

 We start with result = AG.
 A B causes us to include B in result.
 A C causes result to become ABCG.
 CG H causes result to become ABCGH.
 CG I causes result to become ABCGHI.
 The next time we execute the while loop, no new attributes are added, and
the algorithm terminates.
2. This algorithm has worst case behavior quadratic in the size of F. There is a
linear algorithm that is more complicated.
Normalization
Normalization is the process of minimizing redundancy from a relation or set of
relations. Redundancy in relation may cause insertion, deletion and updation
anomalies. So, it helps to minimize the redundancy in relations. Normal forms are
used to eliminate or reduce redundancy in database tables.
If a database design is not perfect, it may contain anomalies, which are like a bad
dream for any database administrator. Managing a database with anomalies is next
to impossible.
 Update anomalies − If data items are scattered and are not linked to each other
properly, then it could lead to strange situations. For example, when we try to
update one data item having its copies scattered over several places, a few
instances get updated properly while a few others are left with old values. Such
instances leave the database in an inconsistent state.
 Deletion anomalies − We tried to delete a record, but parts of it was left
undeleted because of unawareness, the data is also saved somewhere else.
 Insert anomalies − We tried to insert data in a record that does not exist at all.

Normalization is a method to remove all these anomalies and bring the database to a
consistent state.
First Normal Form
First Normal Form is defined in the definition of relations (tables) itself. This rule
defines that all the attributes in a relation must have atomic domains. The values in
an atomic domain are indivisible units.
We re-arrange the relation (table) as below, to convert it to First Normal Form.
Each attribute must contain only a single value from its pre-defined domain.
Second Normal Form
Before we learn about the second normal form, we need to understand the following−
 Prime attribute − An attribute, which is a part of the candidate-key, is known
as a prime attribute.
 Non-prime attribute − An attribute, which is not a part of the prime-key, is said
to be a non-prime attribute.
If we follow second normal form, then every non-prime attribute should be fully
functionally dependent on prime key attribute. That is, if X → A holds, then there
should not be any proper subset Y of X, for which Y → A also holds true.

We see here in Student_Project relation that the prime key attributes are Stu_ID and
Proj_ID. According to the rule, non-key attributes, i.e. Stu_Name and Proj_Name
must be dependent upon both and not on any of the prime key attribute individually.
But we find that Stu_Name can be identified by Stu_ID and Proj_Name can be
identified by Proj_ID independently. This is called partial dependency, which is
not allowed in Second Normal Form.
We broke the relation in two as depicted in the above picture. So there exists no
partial dependency.
Third Normal Form
For a relation to be in Third Normal Form, it must be in Second Normal form and
the following must satisfy −
 No non-prime attribute is transitively dependent on prime key attribute.
 For any non-trivial functional dependency, X → A, then either −
 X is a superkey or,
 A is prime attribute.

We find that in the above Student_detail relation, Stu_ID is the key and only prime
key attribute. We find that City can be identified by Stu_ID as well as Zip itself.
Neither Zip is a superkey nor is City a prime attribute. Additionally, Stu_ID → Zip
→ City, so there exists transitive dependency.
To bring this relation into third normal form, we break the relation into two relations
as follows −
Key points:
 Normalization is a step by step process of removing different kinds of
redundancy and normally at each step.
 Functional Dependencies: The attributes of a table is said to be dependent on
each other when an attribute of a table uniquely identifies another attribute of
the same table.
 Trivial functional dependency: The dependency of an attribute on a set of
attributes is known as trivial functional dependency if the set of attributes
includes that attribute.
 Non trivial functional dependency: If a functional dependency X->Y holds true
where Y is not a subset of X then this dependency is called non trivial Functional
dependency.

Glossary:
 Trivial: of very little importance or value; insignificant
 Nontrivial:The valueof at least one variable of the equation is not equal to zero.
 Anomalies : A deviation from the common rule, type, arrangement, or form.
 Domain: A data domain refers to all the values which a data element may
contain.
 Ttransitive dependency: A transitive dependency in a database is an indirect
relationship between values in the same table that causes a
functional dependency
Exercise
Very Short Question
a. What is the miniumum condition to be 2nd normal form
b. If all non-prime attributes are fully functional dependent on the relation key
then what is the relation called ?
c. List out the types of functional dependencies.
d. What is prime attribute ?
e. Define normalization.
Short Question
a. What is functional Dependencies ? write its types
b. Differentiate between Trivial and Non trivial functional dependency
c. Why normalization is important in database ?
d. Define second normal form with its condition
e. Define third normalization with its minimum condition
Long Question
a. Discuss un-normalized form with example.
b. Explain types of functional dependency with examples.
c. What do you mean by closure of a set of functional dependencies ?
d. Compare fully and partially functional dependency.
e. Explain Normalization process with examples.
References:
https://beginnersbook.com/2015/04/functional-dependency-in-dbms/

http://www.cs.sfu.ca/CourseCentral/354/zaiane/material/notes/Chapter6/node12.ht
ml
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/dbms/database_normalization.htm
UNIT 5
Concurrency Control and recovery
Objectives
 To identify the transaction
 To describe the properties of transaction
 To illustrate the knowledge of state of transaction
 To memorize the requirements for recovery
Learning Process and Study Material:

 Class demonstration and Case Study.
 Practical woks can be done in recovery part.
 Introduction Of transaction
A transaction can be defined as a group of tasks. A single task is the minimum
processing unit which cannot be divided further.
Let’s take an example of a simple transaction. Suppose a bank employee transfers
Rs 500 from A's account to B's account. This very simple and small transaction
involves several low-level tasks.
A’s Account
Open_Account(A)
Old_Balance = A.balance
New_Balance = Old_Balance - 500
A.balance = New_Balance
Close_Account(A)
B’s Account
Open_Account(B)

Old_Balance = B.balance
New_Balance = Old_Balance + 500
B.balance = New_Balance
Close_Account(B)
Write and Read-Write Operations

You can manage the specific behavior of concurrent write operations by deciding
when and how to run different types of commands. The following commands are
relevant to this discussion:
 COPY commands, which perform loads (initial or incremental)
 INSERT commands that append one or more rows at a time
 UPDATE commands, which modify existing rows
 DELETE commands, which remove rows
COPY and INSERT operations are pure write operations, but DELETE and
UPDATE operations are read-write operations. (In order for rows to be deleted or
updated, they have to be read first.) The results of concurrent write operations depend
on the specific commands that are being run concurrently. COPY and INSERT
operations against the same table are held in a wait state until the lock is released,
then they proceed as normal.
UPDATE and DELETE operations behave differently because they rely on an initial
table read before they do any writes. Given that concurrent transactions are invisible
to each other, both UPDATEs and DELETEs have to read a snapshot of the data
from the last commit. When the first UPDATE or DELETE releases its lock, the
second UPDATE or DELETE needs to determine whether the data that it is going to
work with is potentially stale. It will not be stale, because the second transaction does
not obtain its snapshot of data until after the first transaction has released its lock.
Potential Deadlock Situation for Concurrent Write Transactions
Whenever transactions involve updates of more than one table, there is always the
possibility of concurrently running transactions becoming deadlocked when they
both try to write to the same set of tables. A transaction releases all of its table locks
at once when it either commits or rolls back; it does not relinquish locks one at a
time.

For example, suppose that transactions T1 and T2 start at roughly the same time. If
T1 starts writing to table A and T2 starts writing to table B, both transactions can
proceed without conflict; however, if T1 finishes writing to table A and needs to start
writing to table B, it will not be able to proceed because T2 still holds the lock on B.
Conversely, if T2 finishes writing to table B and needs to start writing to table A, it
will not be able to proceed either because T1 still holds the lock on A. Because
neither transaction can release its locks until all its write operations are committed,
neither transaction can proceed.
In order to avoid this kind of deadlock, you need to schedule concurrent write
operations carefully. For example, you should always update tables in the same order
in transactions and, if specifying locks, lock tables in the same order before you
perform any DML operations.
Properties of transaction
A transaction is a very small unit of a program and it may contain several low level
tasks. A transaction in a database system must maintain Atomicity, Consistency,
Isolation, and Durability − commonly known as ACID properties − in order to ensure
accuracy, completeness, and data integrity.
 Atomicity − This property states that a transaction must be treated as an atomic
unit, that is, either all of its operations are executed or none. There must be no
state in a database where a transaction is left partially completed. States should
be defined either before the execution of the transaction or after the
execution/abortion/failure of the transaction.
 Consistency − The database must remain in a consistent state after any
transaction. No transaction should have any adverse effect on the data residing
in the database. If the database was in a consistent state before the execution of
a transaction, it must remain consistent after the execution of the transaction as
well.
 Durability − The database should be durable enough to hold all its latest updates
even if the system fails or restarts. If a transaction updates a chunk of data in a
database and commits, then the database will hold the modified data. If a
transaction commits but the system fails before the data could be written on to
the disk, then that data will be updated once the system springs back into action.

 Isolation − In a database system where more than one transaction being
executed simultaneously and in parallel, the property of isolation states that all
the transactions will be carried out and executed as if it is the only transaction in
the system. No transaction will affect the existence of any other transaction.
States of Transactions
A transaction in a database can be in one of the following states −
 Active − In this state, the transaction is being executed. This is the initial state
of every transaction.
 Partially Committed − When a transaction executes its final operation, it is said
to be in a partially committed state.
 Failed − A transaction is said to be in a failed state if any of the checks made by
the database recovery system fails. A failed transaction can no longer proceed
further.
 Aborted − If any of the checks fails and the transaction has reached a failed
state, then the recovery manager rolls back all its write operations on the
database to bring the database back to its original state where it was prior to the
execution of the transaction. Transactions in this state are called aborted. The

database recovery module can select one of the two operations after a transaction
aborts −
 Re-start the transaction
 Kill the transaction
Committed − If a transaction executes all its operations successfully, it is said to be
committed. All its effects are now permanently established on the database system.

Data Recovery
DBMS is a highly complex system with hundreds of transactions being executed
every second. The durability and robustness of a DBMS depends on its complex
architecture and its underlying hardware and system software. If it fails or crashes
amid transactions, it is expected that the system would follow some sort of algorithm
or techniques to recover lost data.
Requirements for recovery
When a system crashes, it may have several transactions being executed and various
files opened for them to modify the data items. Transactions are made of various
operations, which are atomic in nature. But according to ACID properties of DBMS,
atomicity of transactions as a whole must be maintained, that is, either all the
operations are executed or none.
When a DBMS recovers from a crash, it should maintain the following −
 It should check the states of all the transactions, which were being executed.
 A transaction may be in the middle of some operation; the DBMS must ensure
the atomicity of the transaction in this case.
 It should check whether the transaction can be completed now or it needs to be
rolled back.
 No transactions would be allowed to leave the DBMS in an inconsistent state.
There are two types of techniques, which can help a DBMS in recovering as well as
maintaining the atomicity of a transaction −
 Maintaining the logs of each transaction, and writing them onto some stable
storage before actually modifying the database.
 Maintaining shadow paging, where the changes are done on a volatile memory,
and later, the actual database is updated.
Recovery with Concurrent Transactions
When more than one transaction are being executed in parallel, the logs are
interleaved. At the time of recovery, it would become hard for the recovery system
to backtrack all logs, and then start recovering. To ease this situation, most modern
DBMS use the concept of 'checkpoints'.

Checkpoint
Keeping and maintaining logs in real time and in real environment may fill out all
the memory space available in the system. As time passes, the log file may grow too
big to be handled at all. Checkpoint is a mechanism where all the previous logs are
removed from the system and stored permanently in a storage disk. Checkpoint
declares a point before which the DBMS was in consistent state, and all the
transactions were committed.
Recovery
When a system with concurrent transactions crashes and recovers, it behaves in the
following manner −
 The recovery system reads the logs backwards from the end to the last
checkpoint.
 It maintains two lists, an undo-list and a redo-list.
 If the recovery system sees a log with <Tn, Start> and <Tn, Commit> or just <Tn,
Commit>, it puts the transaction in the redo-list.
 If the recovery system sees a log with <Tn, Start> but no commit or abort log
found, it puts the transaction in undo-list.
All the transactions in the undo-list are then undone and their logs are removed. All
the transactions in the redo-list and their previous logs are removed and then redone
before saving their logs.

Key Points
 A transaction can be defined as a group of tasks. A single task is the minimum
processing unit which cannot be divided further.
 One can manage the specific behavior of concurrent write operations by
deciding when and how to run different types of commands
 The following commands are relevant to this discussion:
 COPY commands, which perform loads (initial or incremental)
 INSERT commands that append one or more rows at a time
 UPDATE commands, which modify existing rows
 DELETE commands, which remove rows
 Whenever transactions involve updates of more than one table, there is always
the possibility of concurrently running transactions becoming deadlocked when
they both try to write to the same set of tables
 Properties of transaction
 Atomicity
 Consistency
 Durability
 Isolation
 States of Transactions
 Active
 Partially Committed
 Failed
 Aborted
 Committed
 In computing, data recovery is a process of salvaging (retrieving) inaccessible,
lost, corrupted, damaged or formatted data from secondary storage, removable
media or files, when the data stored in them cannot be accessed in a normal way.

Glossary:
 Deadlock: a deadlock is a state in which each member of a group is waiting for
some other member to take action, such as sending a message or more
commonly releasing a lock.
 Algorithm: It is a process or set of rules to be followed in calculations or other
problem-solving operations, especially by a computer.
 Atomicity : is part of the ACID model (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation,
Durability), which is a set of principles used to guarantee the reliability
of database transactions
Exercises:
Very Short Question
a. Define transaction in Database System
b. What are the commands use in write and read operation
c. What is mean by deadlock ?
d. List out the porperties of transaction
e. What are the states of transactions
Short Question
a. What is potential deadlock situation ?
b. Write Atomicity properties of transaction.
c. Explain about states of transactions.
d. What is checkpoint in DBMS?
e. What is data recovery ?
Long Question
a. Explain the write and read -write operation in detail.
b. write briefly about the properties of transaction.
c. Illustrate with figure about the states of transactions.
d. List out he requirements for recovery in detail.
e. Explain data recovery with figure.
References:
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/dbms/dbms_data_recovery.htm
https://www.techopedia.com/definition/1245/structured-query-language-sql
https://docs.aws.amazon.com/redshift/latest/dg/c_write_readwrite.html

UNIT-6
Security
Objectives
 To state the security of DBMS
 To recognize Access Control
 To tell statistical Database
 To discuss with data encryption technique.

 Class demonstration and Questionnaire
 Group discussion and practical work
Database Security and Threats
Data security is an imperative aspect of any database system. It is of particular
importance in distributed systems because of large number of users, fragmented and
replicated data, multiple sites and distributed control.
Threats in a Database
 Availability loss − Availability loss refers to non-availability of database
objects by legitimate users.
 Integrity loss − Integrity loss occurs when unacceptable operations are
performed upon the database either accidentally or maliciously. This may
happen while creating, inserting, updating or deleting data. It results in corrupted
data leading to incorrect decisions.
 Confidentiality loss − Confidentiality loss occurs due to unauthorized or
unintentional disclosure of confidential information. It may result in illegal
actions, security threats and loss in public confidence.

Measures of Control
The measures of control can be broadly divided into the following categories −
 Access Control − Access control includes security mechanisms in a database
management system to protect against unauthorized access. A user can gain
access to the database after clearing the login process through only valid user
accounts. Each user account is password protected.
 Flow Control − Distributed systems encompass a lot of data flow from one site
to another and also within a site. Flow control prevents data from being
transferred in such a way that it can be accessed by unauthorized agents. A flow
policy lists out the channels through which information can flow. It also defines
security classes for data as well as transactions.
 Data Encryption − Data encryption refers to coding data when sensitive data is
to be communicated over public channels. Even if an unauthorized agent gains
access of the data, he cannot understand it since it is in an incomprehensible
format.
Role of DBA in Database Security

Keeping data secure is only one of the roles of the DBA. The typical tasks of a DBA
include:
 Controlling access to the database, including creating logins for users and setting
roles for each user. Some users may only need to query the data, while others
are involved in entering new data.
 Providing support services to the end users, such as making sure all users know
how to use the database.
 Managing procedures for backup and recovery of data, in case of errors made
by users or system crashes. You don't want to lose all the valuable data just
because the power went out.
 Ensuring data integrity, which means that data are complete, accurate and
current for the tasks at hand.
 Controlling data security, including preventing unauthorized access to the data
and protecting against other security threats.
 Setting data privacy, which means that only authorized individuals are able to
see certain data. For example, there is no need for everyone in the organization
to be able to see all the personnel files of all the employees.

What is Threat in Database System ?
A threat is something that may or may not happen, but has the potential to cause
serious damage. Threats can lead to attacks on computer systems, networks and
more.
Threats are potentials for vulnerabilities to turn into attacks on computer systems,
networks, and more. They can put individuals’ computer systems and business
computers at risk, so vulnerabilities have to be fixed so that attackers cannot infiltrate
the system and cause damage.
Threats can include everything from viruses, Trojans, back doors to outright attacks
from hackers. Often, the term blended threat is more accurate, as the majority of
threats involve multiple exploits. For example, a hacker might use a phishing attack
to gain information about a network and break into a network.
Threats to Database security
Almost all organizations use databases in some form for tracking information such
as customer and transaction records, financial information, and human resources
records. Much of the information contained in databases is sensitive and can be sold
for cash or, such as in cases of theft by a disgruntled employee or by a hacker with
political motivations, to cause the organization loss of business or reputation,
especially if the organization is found to be in breach of regulations or industry
standards that demand high levels of data security.
According to technology vendor Application Security, Inc., the following are the top
10 threats related to databases:
1. Default or weak passwords
2. SQL injection
3. Excessive user and group privileges
4. Unnecessary DBMS features enabled
5. Broken configuration management
6. Buffer overflows
7. Privilege escalation
8. Denial of service
9. Un-patched RDBMS
10. Unencrypted data

Database Security Essentials
There are 5 key steps to ensuring database security, according to Applications
Security, Inc.
1. Isolate sensitive databases—maintain an accurate inventory of all databases
deployed across the enterprise and identify all sensitive data residing on those
databases.
2. Eliminate vulnerabilities—continually assess, identify and remediate
vulnerabilities that expose the database.
3. Enforce least privileges—identify user entitlements and enforce user access
controls and privileges to limit access to only the minimum data required for
employees to do their jobs.
4. Monitor for deviations—implement appropriate policies and monitor any
vulnerabilities that cannot be remediated for any and all activity the deviates
from authorized activity.
5. Respond to suspicious behavior—alert and respond to any abnormal or
suspicious behavior in real time to minimize risk of attack.
Classification of Database Security
The database security can be broadly classified into physical and logical security.
Database recovery refers to the process of restoring database to a correct state in the
event of a failure.
 Physical Security: Physical security refers to the security of the hardware
associated with the system and the protection of the site where the computer
resides. Natural events such a fire, foods, and earthquakes car be considered as
some of the physical threats. It is advisable to have backup copies of databases
in the face of massive disasters.
 Logical security: Logical security consists of software safeguards for a
organization's systems including user identification and password access,
authenticating, access rights and authority levels. these measures are to ensure
that only authorized users are able to perform actions or access information in a
network or a workstation. It is a subset of computer security.

Discretionary Access Control (DAC)
Discretionary access control (DAC) is a type of security access control that grants or
restricts object access via an access policy determined by an object's owner group
and/or subjects. DAC mechanism controls are defined by user identification with
supplied credentials during authentication, such as username and password. DACs
are discretionary because the subject (owner) can transfer authenticated objects or
information access to other users. In other words, the owner determines object access
privileges.
In DAC, each system object (file or data object) has an owner, and each initial object
owner is the subject that causes its creation. Thus, an object's access policy is
determined by its owner.
A typical example of DAC is Unix file mode, which defines the read, write and
execute permissions in each of the three bits for each user, group and others. DAC
attributes include:
 User may transfer object ownership to another user(s).
 User may determine the access type of other users.
 After several attempts, authorization failures restrict user access.
 Unauthorized users are blind to object characteristics, such as file size, file name
and directory path.
 Object access is determined during access control list (ACL) authorization and
based on user identification and/or group membership.
DAC is easy to implement and intuitive but has certain
Disadvantages, including:
 Inherent vulnerabilities (Trojan horse)
 ACL maintenance or capability
 Grant and revoke permissions maintenance
 Limited negative authorization power

Mandatory Access Control (MAC)
Mandatory Access Control (MAC) Is a set of security policies constrained according
to system classification, configuration and authentication. MAC policy management
and settings are established in one secure network and limited to system
administrators.
MAC defines and ensures a centralized enforcement of confidential security policy
parameters.
or best practices, MAC policy decisions are based on network configuration. In
contrast, certain operating systems (OS) enable limited Discretionary Access Control
(DAC).
MAC advantages and disadvantages depend on organizational requirements, as
follows:
 MAC provides tighter security because only a system administrator may access
or alter controls.
 MAC policies reduce security errors.
 MAC enforced operating systems (OS) delineate and label incoming application
data, which creates a specialized external application access control policy.
Statistical Database
It is a database used for statistical analysis purposes. It is an OLAP (online
analytical processing), instead of OLTP (online transaction processing) system.
Modern decision, and classical statistical databases are often closer to the relational
model than the multidimensional model commonly used in OLAP systems today.
Statistical databases typically contain parameter data and the measured data for these
parameters. For example, parameter data consists of the different values for varying
conditions in an experiment (e.g., temperature, time). The measured data (or
variables) are the measurements taken in the experiment under these varying
conditions.
Many statistical databases are sparse with many null or zero values. It is not
uncommon for a statistical database to be 40% to 50% sparse. There are two options
for dealing with the sparseness:

(1) leave the null values in there and use compression techniques to squeeze them
out or
(2) remove the entries that only have null values.
Data Encryption
Encryption is a security method in which information is encoded in such a way that
only authorized user can read it. It uses encryption algorithm to generate cipher text
that can only be read if decrypted.
Types of Encryption
There are two types of encryptions schemes as listed below:
 Symmetric Key encryption
 Public Key encryption
Symmetric key encryption

Symmetric key encryption algorithm uses same cryptographic keys for both
encryption and decryption of cipher text.
Public Key Encryption

Public key encryption algorithm uses pair of keys, one of which is a secret key and
one of which is public. These two keys are mathematically linked with each other.

Cryptography
Cryptography is the science of encoding information before sending via unreliable
communication paths so that only an authorized receiver can decode and use it.
The coded message is called cipher text and the original message is called plain
text. The process of converting plain text to cipher text by the sender is called
encoding or encryption. The process of converting cipher text to plain text by the
receiver is called decoding or decryption.
The entire procedure of communicating using cryptography can be illustrated
through the following diagram −
Private Key Cryptography

In conventional cryptography, the encryption and decryption is done using the same
secret key. Here, the sender encrypts the message with an encryption algorithm using
a copy of the secret key. The encrypted message is then send over public
communication channels. On receiving the encrypted message, the receiver decrypts
it with a corresponding decryption algorithm using the same secret key.
Security in conventional cryptography depends on two factors −
 A sound algorithm which is known to all.
 A randomly generated, preferably long secret key known only by the sender and
the receiver.
The most famous conventional cryptography algorithm is Data Encryption
Standard or DES.
The advantage of this method is its easy applicability. However, the greatest problem
of conventional cryptography is sharing the secret key between the communicating
parties. The ways to send the key are cumbersome and highly susceptible to
eavesdropping.

Public Key Cryptography
In contrast to conventional cryptography, public key cryptography uses two different
keys, referred to as public key and the private key. Each user generates the pair of
public key and private key. The user then puts the public key in an accessible place.
When a sender wants to sends a message, he encrypts it using the public key of the
receiver. On receiving the encrypted message, the receiver decrypts it using his
private key. Since the private key is not known to anyone but the receiver, no other
person who receives the message can decrypt it.
The most popular public key cryptography algorithms are RSA algorithm
and Diffie– Hellman algorithm. This method is very secure to send private
messages. However, the problem is, it involves a lot of computations and so proves
to be inefficient for long messages.
The solution is to use a combination of conventional and public key cryptography.
The secret key is encrypted using public key cryptography before sharing between
the communicating parties. Then, the message is send using conventional
cryptography with the aid of the shared secret key.
Digital Signatures
A Digital Signature (DS) is an authentication technique based on public key
cryptography used in e-commerce applications. It associates a unique mark to an
individual within the body of his message. This helps others to authenticate valid
senders of messages.
Typically, a user’s digital signature varies from message to message in order to
provide security against counterfeiting. The method is as follows −
 The sender takes a message, calculates the message digest of the message and
signs it digest with a private key.
 The sender then appends the signed digest along with the plaintext message.
 The message is sent over communication channel.
 The receiver removes the appended signed digest and verifies the digest using
the corresponding public key.
 The receiver then takes the plaintext message and runs it through the same
message digest algorithm.
 If the results of step 4 and step 5 match, then the receiver knows that the message
has integrity and authentic.
Hashing
In terms of security, hashing is a technique used to encrypt data and generate
unpredictable hash values. It is the hash function that generates the hash code, which
helps to protect the security of transmission from unauthorized users.
Hash function algorithms
Hashing algorithm provides a way to verify that the message received is the same
as the message sent. It can take a plain text message as input and then computes a
value based on that message.
Essential Points
 The length of computed value is much shorter than the original message.
 It is possible that different plain text messages could generate the same value.
Here we will discuss a sample hashing algorithm in which we will multiply the
number of a’s, e’s and h’s in the message and will then add the number of o’s to this
value.
For example, the message is “ the combination to the safe is two, seven, thirty-five”.
The hash of this message, using our simple hashing algorithm is as follows:
2 x 6 x 3 ) + 4 = 40
The hash of this message is sent to John with cipher text. After he decrypts the
message, he computes its hash value using the agreed upon hashing algorithm. If the
hash value sent by Bob doesn’t match the hash value of decrypted message, John
will know that the message has been altered.
For example, John received a hash value of 17 and decrypted a message Bob has sent
as “You are being followed, use backroads, hurry”
He could conclude the message had been altered, this is because the hash value of
the message he received is:
(3x4x1)+4 = 16
This is different from then value 17 that Bob sent.

Key points:
 Data security is an imperative aspect of any database system. It is of particular
importance in distributed systems because of large number of users, fragmented
and replicated data, multiple sites and distributed control.
 The measures of control can be broadly divided into the following categories −
 Access Control
 Flow Control
 Data Encryption
 A threat is something that may or may not happen, but has the potential to
cause serious damage. Threats can lead to attacks on computer systems,
networks and more.
 Classification of Database Security
 Physical Security
 Logical security
 Discretionary access control (DAC) is a type of security access control that
grants or restricts object access via an access policy determined by an object's
owner group and/or subjects
 Mandatory Access Control (MAC) is a set of security policies constrained
according to system classification, configuration and authentication
 Statistical is a database used for statistical analysis purposes. It is
an OLAP (online analytical processing), instead of OLTP (online transaction
processing) system. Modern decision, and classical statistical databases are
often closer to the relational model than the multidimensional model commonly
used in OLAP systems today.
 Encryption is a security method in which information is encoded in such a way
that only authorized user can read it
 Symmetric key encryption algorithm uses same cryptographic keys for both
encryption and decryption of cipher text.
 Public key encryption algorithm uses pair of keys, one of which is a secret key
and one of which is public. These two keys are mathematically linked with each
other.
 A Digital Signature (DS) is an authentication technique based on public key
cryptography used in e-commerce applications.
 Hashing is a technique used to encrypt data and generate unpredictable hash
values.

Glossary:
 A Digital Signature (DS) is an authentication technique based on public key
cryptography used in e-commerce applications.
 Hashing is a technique used to encrypt data and generate unpredictable hash
values.
 Fragmented: Break or cause to break into fragments.
 Confidentiality: The state of keeping or being kept secret or private.
 Encryption: Confidentiality is a set of rules or a promise that limits access or
places restrictions on certain types of information.
 logins: an act of logging in to a computer, database, or system.A password or
code used when logging in.
 unauthorized: Not having official permission or approval
 Trojans Horse: A trojan horse (Sometimes called a trojan) is a kind
of malware. It is special computer program that pretends to do a certain thing,
but in reality it does something else, such as allow a stranger to access the
computer and change it and read its information. In some cases the user notices,
in other cases they do not. Spyware programs are current examples of programs
that work as trojans.
 Back doors: A backdoor is a means to access a computer system or encrypted
data that bypasses the system's customary security mechanisms.
 Hackers: A hacker is any skilled computer expert that uses their technical
knowledge to overcome a problem. While "hacker" can refer to any skilled
computer programmer, the term has become associated in popular culture with
a "security hacker", someone who, with their technical knowledge,
 Vulnerabilities: A vulnerability is a weakness which allows an attacker to
reduce a system's information assurance. Vulnerabilities are the intersection of
three elements: a system susceptibility or flaw, attacker access to the flaw, and
attacker capability to exploit the flaw.
 privileges: When multiple users can access database objects, authorization can
be controlled to these objects with privileges. Every object has an
owner. Privileges control if a user can modify an object owned by another user
 grants: GRANT statement is use to give privileges to a specific user or role, or
to all users, to perform actions on database objects.

 revoke:REVOKE statement is use to remove privileges from a specific user or
role, or from all users, to perform actions on database objects.
 cipher: In cryptography, ciphertext or cyphertext is the result of encryption
performed on plaintext using an algorithm, called a cipher.
Exercises:
Very Short Question Answer
a. Define Database security.
b. What is thereat ?
c. What is encryption mean in database security ?
d. Define cipher text.
e. Who is responsible for overall security of the database system.
Short Question Answer
a. List out the different threats in Database System.
b. What are the measures of control use in Database System?
c. List out the role of DBA in Database Security.
d. Write the threats found in Database.
e. Classify the Database Security.
Long Question Answer
a) Explain the role of DBA in Database Security in detail.
b) Describe the method of Database Security Essentials.
c) What is Discretionary Access Control? Write its attributes.
d) Differentiate between Private Key cryptography and Public Key
cryptography.
e) What is digital signature? whey it is important ?
References:
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/distributed_dbms/distributed_dbms_database_secur
ity_cryptography.htm
http://www.dbta.com/Editorial/Think-About-It/5-Key-Steps-to-Ensuring-Database-
Security-95307.aspx

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Computer Engineering

Database Management System

Technical and Vocational Stream

Database Management System

Layout by Khados Sunuwar

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

2076 BS Ministry of Education, Science and Technology

Unit-1: Introduction to Database System architecture 1

Learning Process and support material:

Database: A Database is a collection of related data organized in a way that data

Database Management System : Grade 10 1

 Administrators − Administrators maintain the DBMS and are responsible for

2 Database Management System : Grade 10

A Database Management System (DMS): is a combination of computer software,

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Two-tier Client / Server Architecture

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Three-tier Client / Server database architecture is commonly used architecture for

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Learning Process and support material:

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Components of E-R Diagram

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Learning Process and Study Materials

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ID Name Age Salary

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Database Management System : Grade 10 25

1 RAM DELHI 9455123451 18 CS

2 RAMESH GURGAON 9652431543 18 CS

3 SUJIT ROHTAK 9156253131 20 ECE

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

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Left Outer Join

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Example of Left Outer Join

The class_info table,

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4 anu null null

5 ashish null null

Right Outer Join

30 Database Management System : Grade 10