Carbon: Jong-Hoon Lee, Soo-Jin Park

Carbon 163 (2020) 1e18
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Carbon
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/carbon
Review article
Recent advances in preparations and applications of carbon aerogels:

A review
Jong-Hoon Lee, Soo-Jin Park*
Department of Chemistry, Inha University, 100 Inharo, Incheon, 22212, Republic of Korea
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: The unique properties and practical utility of carbon-based materials have transformed the modern
Received 11 January 2020 scientific fields of electrical energy storage (EES), environmental science, and materials chemistry. Their
Received in revised form outstanding mechanical properties and extraordinary conductivity provide enormous potential for ap-
12 February 2020
plications in divers areas. However, impurities derived from precursors and uncontrollable variations in
Accepted 24 February 2020
Available online 27 February 2020
the properties of natural carbonaceous materials have created a growing demand for synthetic carbon-
based alternatives. The high purity and structural controllability of carbon aerogels make them prom-
ising alternatives as a remedy of those hindrance. The unique features of carbon aerogels enable them to
be employed as energy storage materials, catalytic scaffolds, and adsorbents. Furthermore, Knudsen
effect and hydrophobicity of carbon aerogels promote the applications for organic pollutant separators
and thermal insulators. The aims of this review are to provide a brief overview of the history and
fundamental concepts surrounding carbon aerogels and to present a comprehensive summary of recent
developments for their application.
© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Preparation of carbon aerogels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.1. Gelation of precursors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.2. Drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2.1. Supercritical drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2.2. Freeze-drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2.3. Ambient pressure drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.3. Carbonization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3. Applications of carbon aerogels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.1. Electronic and energy storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.2. Catalysts and catalytic supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.3. Gas storage and separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.4. Water treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.5. Thermal insulators and flame retardants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4. Summary and perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Declaration of competing interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (S.-J. Park).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2020.02.073
0008-6223/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 J.-H. Lee, S.-J. Park / Carbon 163 (2020) 1e18
Fig. 2. The number of published papers on aerogels and their evolution. Reproduced
with permission from Ref. [9]; copyright (2016), Elsevier. (A colour version of this
figure can be viewed online.)
Fig. 1. Fields with applications for carbon aerogel products. Reproduced with
permission from Ref. [10]; copyright (1998), Elsevier.
aerogels by heating them in an inert atmosphere to obtain carbon
aerogels [16,17]. In contrast to silica aerogels, carbon aerogels
1. Introduction exhibit good electrical conductivity which induce the potential to
serve as electrochemical double layer capacitors with high power
The desire to designable materials with controlled structural, and energy densities. Recently synthesized carbon aerogels include
textural, and chemical properties has grown with rapid advances of carbon nanotube (CNT) aerogels, graphene aerogels, carbide aero-
science and technology in recent decades [1,2]. A tremendous gels, and carbonitride aerogels, which are unnecessary to carbon-
amount of research is currently focused on carbon materials due to ization process [18,19].
their outstanding mechanical and chemical properties and their The properties of carbon aerogels are tailored for high perfor-
extraordinary conductivity [3]. Despite these unique advantages, mance by selecting the appropriate preparation conditions. Carbon
impurities in natural carbon and the difficulty of structural control aerogels generally possess three-dimensional (3D) networked
are problematic for application to high-quality materials. These structures that are interconnected by primary nanoparticles. Their
limitations have led to advent of synthetic carbonaceous materials, microporous structural properties are related to the intra-particle
such as carbon aerogels, which have tailorable physical and framework, whereas interparticle morphology governs the devel-
chemical characteristics [4,5]. A carbon aerogel is a synthetic opment of mesopores and macropores [20]. Micropore and meso-
porous gel, in which gas occupies 90e99% of the entire volume of pore formation of carbon aerogels controlled independently, which
the structure. This porous gel maintains three-dimensional and is a distinct advantage for the fabrication of porous material
highly porous network without structural shrinkage [6,7]. The [21e23]. The unique properties of carbon aerogels are motivating
extremely high porosity of aerogels confers various unique prop- research on their synthesis and application. Despite the enormous
erties, such as ultralow density (0.003 g/cm3), low thermal con- commercial and scientific potential of carbon aerogels, only a few
ductivity, phonic insulation, and large specific surface area [8]. recent reviews and book chapters have, unfortunately, a sufficiently
These particular characteristics of aerogels have led to the devel- wide scope to enable identification of recent trends. This review
opment of various applications, such as energy storage materials, provides a brief overview on the history of carbon aerogels and
catalysts, catalytic supports, chemical adsorbents, thermal in- enumerate the synthetic procedures used for their fabrication. Af-
sulators, and sound insulators (Fig. 1) [9,10]. ter that, we discuss recent research on the various uses of carbon
The first aerogel was synthesized by Kistler in 1931, who aerogels and classify them according to their respective
extracted the liquid from wet silica gels using a supercritical drying applications.
process (Fig. 2). Teichner in 1968 and Russo in 1986 proposed the
second generation of aerogels as a remedy for high manufacturing
2. Preparation of carbon aerogels
costs, time-consuming processes, and safety concerns through the
usage of the safer and manageable precursors such as tetramethyl
2.1. Gelation of precursors
orthosilicate (TMOS) and tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS). Main-
stream research at the time focused solely on inorganic silica aer-
The preparation of carbon gels involves three steps: polymeri-
ogel, overlooking the potential of organic precursors [11]. At the
zation, drying, and carbonization. In the polymerization step, the
end of the 1980s, Pekala suggested the fabrication of a new class of
hydrogel forms via polymerization and the crosslinking of mole-
aerogel from resorcinol and formaldehyde precursors and referred
cules. Polymerization involves three separate chemical reactions.
to it as an organic aerogel [12]. Since then, various types of organic
First, hydroxymethyl groups (-CH2OH) derived from aldehyde and
aerogels have been reported, including aerogels based on hydrox-
hydroxyl groups are introduced through addition reactions.
ybenzenes (phenol, phloroglucinol, cresol) and aldehydes (furfural,
Hydroxymethyl resorcinol subsequently undergoes condensation
formaldehyde), polyimides, poly (vinyl alcohol), and poly (vinyl
to generate methylene (eCH2e) and methylene-ether
chloride) [13e15]. Researchers subsequently pyrolyzed organic
(eCH2OCH2e) bridges. Finally, formation of the 3D hydrogel
J.-H. Lee, S.-J. Park / Carbon 163 (2020) 1e18 3
structure proceeds via crosslinking and agglomeration (Fig. 3). scale commercial manufacturing. Barim et al. synthesized carbon
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), potassium aerogels derived by resorcinol and formaldehyde using supercriti-
carbonate (K2CO3), and calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) have been cal drying method [46]. After gelation process of resorcinol and
used as alkali catalysts for the beginning of addition step. The formaldehyde, the solvent in the hydrogel was exchanged several
resorcinol anion, which is capable of strong nucleophilic addition, times with acetone. Acetone in hydrogel was removed by super-
forms under alkaline conditions. Whereas conventional compound, critical extraction using supercritical CO2 at 138 bar and 323 K,
acid catalysts have recently been used to catalyze the electrophilic subsequently. Carbon aerogels prepared by aforementioned
addition reaction between formaldehyde and resorcinol [24]. methods represent high pore volume without collapse of the pore
Organic carbon aerogels have traditionally been prepared through structure. Furthermore, homogenous metal nanoparticles were
the polymerization of resorcinol and formaldehyde using various achieved by the well-structured porous frameworks.
catalysts [25]. Other aromatic-aldehyde pairs used to prepare
organic aerogels include melamine and formaldehyde, phenol and 2.2.2. Freeze-drying
formaldehyde, phenol and furfural, and cresol and formaldehyde. Freeze-drying is generally used to prepared porous carbon
Template such as polymers, inorganic salts, and ceramic nano aerogels, as it is a simple, relatively affordable, and eco-friendly
particles also assisted for synthesis of templated carbon aerogel technique. The solvent in the hydrogel is frozen and removed via
during the polymerization process. This type of carbon aerogels sublimation at low pressure without the formation of a gas-liquid
indicated narrow pore size distributions, ordered porous structure, interface [47,48]. The freezing rate and precursor concentration
and mechanical flexibility [26e29]. are important factors that control the porous structure. Rapidly
Graphene, CNTs, and biomass have recently been suggested as frozen samples contain small ice crystals that generate small pores
precursors, with easier preparation than conventional polymers and large pore surface areas. Low precursor concentrations pro-
[30e32]. Various strategies have been used to fabricate graphene mote the growth of ice crystals, which affect the porous structures
aerogels, such as sol-gel, template, spacer support, self-support, of the resultant aerogels. Vazhayal et al. prepared carbon aerogels
and substrate-based methods [33e36]. CNT-derived aerogels are using waste tissue paper (WTP) and poly (vinyl alchol) (PVA) for
promising candidates as electrically conductive materials. They CO2 adsorption and electromagnetic shielding [49]. WTP and PVA
crosslink with each other directly through van der Waals in- polymerized using hydrochloric acid as a catalyst at ambient tem-
teractions to produce aerogels. However, the direct formation of perature. The resultant samples molded and washed with deion-
CNT aerogels has serious drawbacks, including poorly formed 3D ized water and freeze-dried at 193 K and below 1*105 bar.
frameworks, mechanical instability, and limited elasticity [37]. The Obtained WTP-PVA carbon aerogels show 3D porous skeleton at
addition of surfactants to decrease CNT surface activity, and the use SEM images and remains high micropore volume which confirmed
of polymer additives to reinforce the network have been suggested by N2 adsorption-desorption isotherms.
as ways to overcome these challenges [38]. Biomass is an attractive
carbon aerogel precursor also, as it is inexpensive, abundant, and 2.2.3. Ambient pressure drying
eco-friendly [39,40]. In addition, hydrated (water-rich) biomass Ambient drying is a strong candidate for large-scale production
precursors, such as watermelons and bacterial cellulose, are not based on its safety and low cost [50,51]. Though it is a promising
required for the gelation process [41,42]. The 3D frameworks of method, ambient drying creates serious capillary tension at the
hydrated biomass contain void spaces and large amounts of water solid-liquid-vapor interface, which leads to structural shrinkage.
(>80 wt%). Therefore, porous 3D structure obtained via simple There are two strategies to overcome this problem to ensure good
sublimation of water in hydrated biomass precursors. The classifi- mechanical stability under ambient drying conditions [52]. The
cation and their properties according to precursors of carbon aer- surface tension of the solvent is reduced to lower capillary stress,
ogels are summarized on Table 1. which is usually accomplished through solvent exchange. It is
typically performed with acetone at 323 K for one to six days.
2.2. Drying Careful selection of an appropriate exchange solvent is important
when this approach is used [53]. Alternatively, the strength of the
The drying process has a significant impact on the textural framework is increased to enable it to withstand high capillary
properties of the final carbon aerogel products. The solvent in the tension. Feng et al. synthesized resorcinol-formaldehyde (RF) aer-
hydrogel is removed, leaving only the solid framework. Therefore, ogels with ambient drying [54]. Polymerized poly (acrylonitrile)
drying the aerogel without the collapse of its porous structure is (PAN)/RF hydrogel composites were solvent exchanged by ethanol
critical for good textural property. Drying methods for carbon for 7 days and oven dried in air at 323 K for 3 days and 373 K for 1
aerogels are divided into three categories: freeze drying, super- day. Ambient dried PAN/RF aerogels indicated structural shrinkage
critical drying, and ambient drying. The dried gel products are above 10% and low micropore volume.
classified according to the drying method such as aerogels (su-
percritical drying), cryogels (freeze drying), and xerogels (oven 2.3. Carbonization
drying). Gels dried by one of the three methods are broadly
referred, also, to as aerogels (Table 2) [43]. After drying process, the mechanical stability of an aerogel is
improved through pyrolysis at 773e2,773 K in an inert atmosphere
2.2.1. Supercritical drying (N2 or Ar). The microporous properties of aerogels are influenced
The liquid and vapor phases are indistinguishable in the su- primarily by the carbonization process, whereas mesopores and
percritical state. Therefore, the surface tension of the solid-liquid- macropores are affected more by the initial preparation or drying
gas interface is reduced in this state, and collapse of the porous conditions [55,56]. Hydrogen and oxygen functionalities decom-
structure is evitable [44]. Supercritical drying affords gels with pose into gases during the carbonization process, leaving behind a
more highly porous and uniform structures than other drying porous and carbonaceous 3D network [57]. The physical properties
techniques [45]. However, incomplete solvent replacement seri- of carbon aerogels carbonized under different conditions vary
ously impacts the performance of the final product. Furthermore, significantly [58]. Carbonization at temperatures above 1,473 K
complicated and time-consuming process, large volumes of solvent significantly reduces the specific surface area of the aerogel due to
waste, and high cost hinder the use of supercritical drying for large- excessive densification of the carbon skeleton. Besides,
Fig. 3. Fundamental procedure for the preparation of carbon aerogel. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [20]; copyright (2016), Elsevier. (A colour version of this figure can be
viewed online.)
Table 1
Classification and their properties according to precursors of carbon aerogels.
Types Precursors Properties
Organic-based carbon aerogel - aromatics (phenol, cresol, phloroglucinol) and aldehydes (furfural, ✓ Textural properties controllable by synthesis conditions
formaldehyde) ✓ Uniform morphology through bottom-up process
- polymers (poly (vinyl alcohol), poly (vinyl chloride), polyimide) ✓ Applicable to large-scale production
Graphitic materials-based carbon carbon nanotube (CNT), graphene, carbide, carbonitride ✓ Crosslinked each other through van der Waals interactions
aerogel ✓ Promising candidates as electrically conductive materials
✓ Carbonization process is skippable
Biomass-based carbon aerogel - hydrated biomass (watermelon, cucumber, aloe, celery, pumpkin) ✓ Not required for the gelation process
- highly porous biomass (cotton, cattail, cane) ✓ Porous structure obtained via sublimation of water in
hydrated biomass
✓ Inexpensive, abundant, and eco-friendly
Table 2
Various drying methods and their perperties of carbon aerogel synthesis. Reproduced with permission from [7]; copyright (2003), WILEY-VCH.
Methods Properties
Supercritical drying Supercritical drying with CO2 ✓ Production of dried light polymers called “aerogels”
✓ Insignificant shrinkage of pore structure
✓ Requires high pressures, long times for exchanging solvent with CO2
Supercritical drying with acetone ✓ Like supercritical drying with CO2, but with lower pressures
✓ Process simplification with skip of CO2 solvent exchanging
✓ Requires high temperatures to shift acetone to supercritical conditions
✓ Partial thermal decomposition of dried gels
Freeze drying ✓ Production of dried light polymers called “cryogels” with mostly mesoporous
✓ Density of solvents must be invariant with freezing
Ambient pressure drying ✓ Production of dried dense polymers called “xerogels”
✓ Causes significant shrinkage of especially wide pores
✓ Structural collapse be insignificant if gels were synthesized with high mechanical strength
✓ Large- production available
✓ Decrease of surface tensions by solvent exchange or surfactant
temperatures above 2,273 K resulted in complete graphitization, the rapidly growing demand for electronic devices and applications
which significantly increases electrical conductivity [59,60]. [65,66]. Carbon aerogels are suitable for electronic materials, due to
Therefore, appropriate temperatures to achieve both a large specific structural controllability and remarkable electrical conductivity.
surface area and high electrical conductivity are required for elec- However, the electrochemically conflicting effect reveals by vary of
trochemical applications [61]. This step is skippable on graphitic the aerogel properties, so exquisite control is required on electronic
materials, such as graphene or CNT-based aerogels, which are applications of carbon aerogels [67,68]. For example, good surface
already completely graphitized. Carbon aerogels are activated affinity between the active materials and electrolytic species that
physically or chemically with potassium hydroxide (KOH), sodium are easily wetted with electrolytes are necessary for electro-
hydroxide (NaOH), carbon dioxide (CO2), and water (H2O), to chemical reactions. Repulsion between the electrode and the
generate more micropores and increase the specific surface area electrolyte allows free mass transfer [69]. The pore size distribution
[62,63]. The activation of carbon aerogels allows the surface areas, is also an important factor. Micropores (<2 nm) are generally pro-
pore volumes, and pore size distributions of the products to be vide abundant adsorption sites for ions, besides mesopore
controlled [64]. The methods of carbonization and their properties (2e50 nm) enable the rapid diffusion of electrolyte ion [70,71].
on carbon aeorgel synthesis are summarized on Table 3. Therefore, appropriate pore size distributions are key factor for
good electrochemical performance in energy storage applications.
3. Applications of carbon aerogels The specific capacitance of a carbon gel is significantly better than
that of a conventional capacitor, which arises from the designability
3.1. Electronic and energy storage of its structural properties, high electronic conductivity, and
machinability [72,73]. It is well known that capacitance and specific
Efficient electronic and energy materials are essential to meet surface area, or pore volume, have a proportional relationship.
Table 3
Carbonization methods and their perperties of carbon aerogel synthesis.
Methods Properties
Pyrolysis (carbonization) ✓ Pyrolysis at 773e2,773 K in an inert atmosphere (N2 or Ar).

✓ At temperatures above 1,473 K, the specific surface area significantly reduces due to excessive densification
✓ At temperatures above 2,273 K, complete graphitization resulted, which significantly increases electrical conductivity
Activation Physical activation ✓ Gaseous reagents (H2O (steam), CO2, air)
✓ High activation temperature is needed
✓ Low yield and low porosity, washing process is skippable
Chemical activation ✓ Chemical reagents (inorganic acids (HCl, H2SO4, H3PO4), alkali hydroxides (KOH, NaOH), inorganic salts (ZnCl2, K2CO3))
✓ High activation temperature is needed
✓ High yield and high porosity, washing process is essential
✓ Maintenance problem due to corrosive reagents
However, not only large specific surface areas, but large pores 3.2. Catalysts and catalytic supports
which accessible to big electrolyte ions also required to have high
ion adsorption capacities [74,75]. A carefully designed porous Carbon aerogels exhibit fascinating textural and structural fea-
structure provides an abundance of fully accessible adsorption tures that tailored at the molecular level using sol-gel methods
sites, which results in high specific capacitance. [79,80]. Powdered active materials are often used as heterogeneous
Shabangoli et al. designed a thionine-functionalized 3D gra- catalysts; however, the nanoparticles aggregate readily, which
phene aerogel (Th-GA) as a flexible and metal-free supercapacitor seriously impairs their performance [81,82]. Moreover, losses of the
[76]. Functionalization of the 3D graphene aerogel with thionine nano-active materials from aqueous solutions is a major limitation
led to the synergistic enhancement of capacitance over that of a for practical applications [83,84]. Carbon aerogels have recently
pure thionine electrode. This was attributed to its more rapid redox attracted attention as a way to circumvent these problems [85,86].
reaction kinetics and more readily accessible active materials. Its Their large specific surface areas and macroscopic morphologies
sponge-like structure provided a larger pore volume for the access enable the uniform immobilization of active materials on the
of electrolyte ions and electroactive species. The specific capaci- substrates. Large-scale porous network including mesopores and
tance of the symmetric device at 1 A/g was 384 F/g, and its macropores facilitate loading of active materials without pore
maximum specific energy density and specific power density were blocking. In addition, the product and byproducts are removed
32.6 Wh/kg and 12.8 kW/kg, respectively (Fig. 4). easily from the reaction system via high porosity [87,88]. The
Chen et al. fabricated a N-self-doped carbon nanofiber aerogel remarkable electrical conductivity of carbon aerogels also con-
(NCNF) via the in-situ synthesis of a zeolitic imidazolate framework tributes to improvements in catalytic performance [89,90].
(ZIF-8) on bacterial cellulose [77]. The highly interconnected 3D Zou et al. fabricated a 3D nitrogen-doped graphene aerogel
conductive network in the NCNF allowed efficient electron trans- (NGA) coupled with cobalt nitride (CoNx) nanoparticles for a self-
port. Its large specific surface area and silk cocoon-like nodes driven water splitting device, which was connected to a Zn-air
provided a large effective electrochemical surface area and short battery [91]. The electron transfer efficiency of the CoNx/NGA was
ion diffusion paths for the charge/discharge process. The capaci- high due to several factors. Agglomerates were confined in the 3D
tances of the optimized samples were 224 F/g at 0.5 A/g and graphene aerogel matrix. Active sites in both CoNx and NxC pro-
612 mF/cm2 at 1.37 mA/cm2. The specific power density and energy vided an abundance of reaction centers for the oxygen reduction
density of the NCNF were 31.0 Wh/kg and 250 W/kg, respectively reaction (ORR), the oxygen evolution reaction (OER), and the
(Fig. 5). hydrogen evolution reaction (HER). Mass transfer was facilitated by
Sun et al. devised a facile strategy for the synthesis of a N-doped short pathways in the highly porous aerogel. In general, water
graphene aerogel-vanadium pentoxide (V2O5) nanocomposite (N- splitting, including the OER and HER, suffer from high overpotential
GA@V2O5) via direct growth of V2O5 nanowires on a 3D N-doped (ƞ) and low energy efficiency [92]. During the OER, the CoNx/NGA
graphene aerogel (N-GA) [78]. This convenient synthetic process required a lower overpotential (ƞ10 ¼ 295 mV) for a current density
also afforded well-aligned V2O5 nanowires on the N-GA backbone, of 10 mA/cm2 than commercial RuO2. The overpotential for the HER
which were observed in SEM images. The maximum capacitance of was also acceptably low (ƞ10, 198 mV). Moreover, impressive long-
the N-GA@V2O5 sample was 711 F/g at 0.5 A/g. Its specific power term stability was indicated by the ORR. The CoNx/NGA exhibited
density and energy density were 98.6 Wh/kg and 250 W/kg, 89% retention of catalytic activity after 10 h of operation, whereas a
respectively (Fig. 6). Pt/C electrode retained less than 67%. The combined advantages of
Fig. 4. (a) Schematic illustration of a thionine-functionalized 3D graphene aerogel. (b) Electrochemical performance of the stainless steel (SS) substrate, pure thionine (Th), the
graphene aerogel (GA), and thionine-functionalized GA (TheGA) at a 50 mV/s scan rate in a 1 M H2SO4 electrolyte. (c) Setup for a symmetric Th-GA solar-powered system. The
system powered a red LED light for over 5 min. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [76]; copyright (2018), Wiley. (A colour version of this figure can be viewed online.)
Fig. 5. (a) Preparation of an all-solid-state N-self-doped carbon nanofiber (NCNF) aerogel-based symmetric supercapacitor (SSC). SEM images of (b) nanocrystalline ZIF-8 and (c) silk
cocoon-like energy storage node in the NCNF. (d) Specific capacitances of carbonized bacterial cellulose (C-BC), carbonized ZIF-8 (C-ZIF8), and optimized N-self-doped carbon
nanofibers (NCFN2-900) at various current densities. (e) Areal and volumetric capacitances of NCFN2-900 as a function of current density. Reproduced with permission from
Ref. [77]; copyright (2019), Elsevier. (A colour version of this figure can be viewed online.)
Fig. 6. (a,b) SEM images of the directional growth of V2O5 nanowire arrays on a 3D N-doped graphene aerogel (N-GA@V2O5). (c) Compressibility of the N-GA. (d,e) CV curves and
galvanostatic charge-discharge curves of the different samples. (f) Specific capacitances of the GA@V2O5 and N-GA@V2O5 MWAs at various current densities. Reproduced with
permission from Ref. [78]; copyright (2018), Royal Society of Chemistry. (A colour version of this figure can be viewed online.)
the CoNx/NGA enabled successful operation of the self-driven water and high adsorption capacities [94]. However, the kinetics of MOF-
splitting assembly (Fig. 7). based catalytic CO oxidation are slow due to poor diffusion ability
Qu et al. developed a metal organic framework (MOF, HKUST-1)- [95]. CO conversion at high weight hourly space velocity (WHSV)
coated 3D Ru/graphene aerogel hybrid (Ru/GA-HK) for catalytic was efficient on the Ru/GA-HK. This was attributed to its good
carbon monoxide (CO) oxidation [93]. MOFs are often selected as accessibility and efficient molecular diffusion in the 3D graphene
CO oxidation catalysts because of their large specific surface areas aerogel network. The Ru/GA-HK showed good long-term
Fig. 7. (a) Synthetic process of amorphous cobalt nitride nanoparticles and a 3D nitrogen-doped graphene aerogel nanohybrid (CoNx/NGA). (b) Overpotentials required for a 10 mA/
cm2 current density (j) during the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) and hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) and the long-term catalytic stabilities of CoNx/NGA and Pt/C based on
their chronoamperometric responses. (c) Schematic illustration and photograph of a self-driven water splitting assembly and an image of electric fan operation powered by a Zn-air
battery based on CoNx/NGA. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [91]; copyright (2019), Elsevier. (A colour version of this figure can be viewed online.)
conversion durability without any noticeable decline, which was the adsorbent and the gas molecules. This occurs through chemi-
indicated by the facile diffusion of reactants and products (Fig. 8). sorption, which is a chemical interaction between the adsorbent
Wang et al. synthesized carbon quantum dot-graphene aerogel and gas molecules [103e105]. Functionalization and the introduc-
composites (CQDs/GA) as a photocatalyst [96]. CQDs are light- tion of heteroatoms also enhance carbon dioxide capture by
absorbing materials for solar energy applications, and they have increasing the affinity of the adsorbent surface for CO2 molecules
superior ultravioletevisible (UVeVis) light absorption capabilities [106,107]. Therefore, carbon aerogels are promising adsorbents for
[97]. Despite intensive study, the practical application of CQDs is gas storage due to the ease of controlling their porous structures
hindered by their low photosensitization efficiency and a recycling and molecular-level design [108e110].
process that is complicated by their water-soluble features [98]. Li et al. reported a facile process for the fabrication of a nitrogen-
The photocatalytic performance of the CQDs/GA composite was doped carbon aerogel (NCA). They used a porous organic polymer
enhanced by its 3D graphene support, which facilitated the inter- aerogel, which was obtained via a Schiff base reaction [111]. The
mediate extraction and transfer of charge carriers. The GA support NCA had good textural properties, such as a large specific surface
immobilized the CQDs, which made the liquid phase reaction sys- area (2,356 m2/g), a large pore volume (1.12 cm3/g), high bulk
tem reusable. The hydrothermally prepared CQDs/GA catalyst was porosity (70%), and low density (5 mg/cm3). The fabricated sample
regenerated by simply re-hydrothermal treatment that replenish adsorbed remarkable quantities of CO2. Its CO2 uptake was
the CQDs on deactivated catalyst. The CQDs/GA catalyst reduced 6.1 mmol/g at 273 K (1 bar) and 3.4 mmol/g at 298 K (1 bar). The
91% of the hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) within 40 min by pho- micropore volume fraction and nitrogen content of the adsorbent
tocatalytic reaction when irradiated with UVeVis light. The pho- affected both the uptake of CO2 and its CO2/N2 selectivity. An
tocatalytic activity of the CQDs/GA composite was fully restored appropriate nitrogen content in the carbon structure enhanced CO2
after regeneration over four successive regeneration cycles (Fig. 9). affinity by providing basic redox-active surface sites. The selectivity
of the optimized sample using the ideal adsorption solution theory
3.3. Gas storage and separation (IAST) was 47.8 with a gas composition of 15% CO2/85% N2 (v/v) at
298 K and 1 bar (Fig. 10).
Carbon aerogels have great potential for gas storage and sepa- Oh et al. reported a carbon nitride-functionalized porous
ration, which is attributed to the small size of gas molecules and the reduced graphene oxide aerogel (CNA) for highly selective and
narrow and uniform distribution of pore size in carbon aerogel regenerative CO2 adsorbents [112]. Strong interaction between gas
structures [99e102]. Uniform micropores are preferred for high molecules and adsorbents generally results poor reproducibility,
affinity on physisorption of gas molecules due to their small kinetic although it enhances capacity and selectivity of CO2 [113]. It is
diameter and Lennard-Jones potential. Furthermore, metal atoms therefore important to balance the adsorption energy for a large
or heteroatoms are introduced into the carbon aerogels to increase CO2 capacity and the facile capture and release of gas molecules
hydrogen uptakes, due to the improvement of the affinity between [114]. The specific surface area and pore volume of the CNA were
Fig. 8. (a) Preparation of a 3D Ru/graphene aerogel hybrid (Ru/GA-HK) coated with a metal organic framework (MOF, HKUST-1). (b) Process of CO removal by Ru/GA-HK. (c) CO
conversion at different heat treatment temperatures. (d) Long-term stability of Ru/GA-HK on CO oxidation. (e) CO conversion by Ru/GA and Ru/GA-HK with different weight hourly
space velocities (WHSVs) under ambient conditions. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [93]; copyright (2018), WILEY-VCH. (A colour version of this figure can be viewed
online.)
450 m2/g and 1.5 cm3/g, respectively. In terms of CO2 capture, CO2 environment [117,118]. Large quantities of industrial oil, dyes, toxic
uptake by the CNA was 4.2 mmol/g at 300 K (1 bar). It retained organic compounds, and heavy metal ions such as chromium (Cr),
97.6% of its initial capacity after five regeneration cycles and a lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), copper (Cu), cadmium (Cd), and cobalt (Co)
selectivity value of 113 with a gas composition of 10% CO2/90% N2 are released annually. This discharge of waste causes the serious
(v/v) at 300 K and 1 bar (Fig. 11). contamination of aquatic ecosystems [119e121]. Porous materials,
Liu et al. synthesized a 3D glucose/graphene-based aerogel (G/ particularly carbon aerogels, are of significant interest for the sep-
GAs) for the adsorption of various target gases, including CO2, CH4, aration of pollutants from water, as it is facile, rapid, selective, and
and H2 [115]. Glucose was used as a binder to obtain a graphene recyclable [122]. Highly porous and hydrophobic carbon aerogels
oxide matrix with a hierarchical morphology. The G/GAs had a large improve the efficiency and selectivity of water pollutant separation.
surface area (763 m2/g) and a total pore volume of 3.06 cm3/g. Its The affinity of a carbon aerogel for adsorbates is controlled by
CO2 and CH4 uptakes at 298 K and 1 bar were 1.7 mmol/g and tailoring its surface functional groups and doping it with hetero-
1.1 mmol/g (1.7 wt%), respectively. H2 uptake of G/GAs at 77 K and atoms [123,124].
1 bar was 6.1 mmol/g (1.2 wt%) (Fig. 12). Eom et al. modified the MOF (Mg2 (dobpdc)) to octylamine
Jeon et al. studied the effect of nitrogen content on the CO2 (OctA) functionalized MOF and hybridized with rGO aerogel (OctA/
capacity of N-doped carbon aerogels (CAs). To evaluate the influ- rGA) for the separation of oil and water [125]. Typical MOF-based
ence of the nitrogen moieties, N-doped CAs with varying resor- materials are unstable in water, so hydrophobic moieties have
cinol/melamine (R/M) ratios were fabricated [116]. Even though recently been incorporated to overcome hydrolytic instability
low specific surface area, CO2 capacity increased by high nitrogen [126,127]. The practical selectivity of OctA for the separation of oil
contents up to a R/M ratio of 1:0.3. This result indicated that and water was evaluated using an OctA membrane in a mixture of
contribution of basic nitrogen dopant sites to increase in CO2 hexadecane, water, and an acidic dye. Organic dye is obviously
attraction. The maximum CO2 uptake of the N-doped CAs was separated by OctA membrane after mixture separation. In the ab-
2.7 mmol/g at 298 K and 1 bar (Fig. 13). sorption test of organic solvents, the capacities of the OctA/rGA
composites were enhanced by their highly porous aerogel struc-
tures, compare with the capacity of pristine OctA. They retained up
3.4. Water treatment to 85% of their relative adsorption capacities after 10 cycles in a
recyclability test (Fig. 14).
There is an urgent need for affordable and feasible pollution Chen et al. fabricated cotton-derived porous carbon oxide
remediation strategies to prevent deterioration of the global
Fig. 9. (a) Synthesis of carbon quantum dot and graphene aerogel composites (CQDs/GA). (b) Band structure of CQDs. (c) Photocatalytic performance of Cr(VI) reduction in an
aqueous solution during irradiation with UVeVis light. (d) Recycling evaluation of CQD/GA-15. (e) Evaluation of CQD/GA-15 regeneration. Reproduced with permission from
Ref. [96]; copyright (2018), Elsevier. (A colour version of this figure can be viewed online.)
Fig. 10. (a) Synthesis of nitrogen-doped carbon aerogels (NCAs). (b) N2 adsorption-desorption isotherms at 77 K of NCAs as a function of pyrolysis. (c) CO2 uptake of NCA samples at
273 K. (d) CO2/N2 selectivity of NCA-900 based on a typical fuel gas composition of 15% CO2/85% N2 (v/v), calculated using the IAST method. Reproduced with permission from
Ref. [111]; copyright (2019), WILEY-VCH. (A colour version of this figure can be viewed online.)
(CDPCO) aerogels for the removal of organic pollutants and heavy exchange [129]. Among those various approaches, the adsorption-
metal ions [128]. Many methods have been developed for the based techniques using porous materials derived from biomass
separation of organic pollutants and heavy metal ions from have attracted attention due to their low cost and facile application
wastewater. These include reverse osmosis, filtration, and ion [130,131]. CDPCO was readily synthesized using natural cotton
Fig. 11. (a) Illustration of carbon nitride aerogel (CNA) synthesis. (b) Schematic illustration of selective CO2 adsorption via dipole-induced dipole interactions. (c) CO2 adsorption
isotherms of a reduced graphene oxide aerogel (rGA), dicyandiamide-functionalized rGA (D-rGA), and CNA at 300 K. (d) N2 and CO2 adsorption isotherms of CNA for the evaluation
of CO2/N2 selectivity. (e) CO2 uptake cycles of CNA at 1 bar. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [112]; copyright (2015), American Chemical Society. (A colour version of this figure
can be viewed online.)
Fig. 12. (a) Fabrication of 3D glucose/graphene-based aerogels (G/GAs). (b) N2 isotherms of G/GAs at 77 K as a function of the GO/glucose ratio. (cee) Adsorption graphs of H2, CO2,
and CH4 by the G/GAs. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [115]; copyright (2019), Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute. (A colour version of this figure can be viewed
online.)
waste, an abundant biomass source. The authors reported a large wastepaper [132]. The CMB had a low density of 5.8 mg/cm3, a
specific surface area of 1,160 m2/g and a high sorption capacities for specific surface area of 178 m2/g, and it was hydrophobic. The
organic solvents (354e1,519 mg/g). The uptake of heavy metal ions properties of the CMB made it a suitable candidate as an absorbent
was high for Co(II) (71.4 mg/g), Cd(II) (40.2 mg/g), Pb(II) (111.1 mg/ for organic pollutants, such as oils and solvents. The sorption ca-
g), and Sr(II) (33.3 mg/g) (Fig. 15). pacity and recyclability of the CMB were evaluated in a simple
Bi et al. synthesized a carbon microbelt aerogel (CMB) from squeezing and distillation test with an organic pollutant. Its
Fig. 13. (a) Preparation of a N-doped carbon aerogel (CA). (bec) SEM images of the CA at different magnifications. (d) N2 isotherms at 77 K of CA as a function of the resorcinol/
melamine ratio (RM1:x-CA). (e) CO2 adsorption curves of the CAs at 298 K. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [116]; copyright (2015), Korean Carbon Society. (A colour version
of this figure can be viewed online.)
Fig. 14. (a) Preparation of a graphene aerogel and octylamine-appended framework composites (OctA/rGA). (b) Separation of oil and water by an OctA membrane. (c) Absorption
performance of OctA/rGA. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [125]; copyright (2019), Royal Society of Chemistry. (A colour version of this figure can be viewed online.)
Fig. 15. (a) Synthesis of cotton-derived porous carbon oxide (CDPCO). (b) Separation of methylene blue (MB), methyl orange (MO), and rhodamine B (RhB) solution via selective
sorption by the carbon aerogels. (c) Sorption capacities of organic pollutants and heavy metal ions. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [128]; copyright (2015), Royal Society of
Chemistry. (A colour version of this figure can be viewed online.)
Fig. 16. (a) Synthesis of a wastepaper-based carbon microbelt aerogel (CMB) and a photograph showing the wettability test. (b) Absorption of organic solvents by CMB and optical
images. (c) Recycling performance of CMB on organic solvent absorption evaluated via distillation and squeezing. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [132]; copyright (2014),
WILEY-VCH. (A colour version of this figure can be viewed online.)
Fig. 17. (a) Preparation of carbon aerogel monoliths (CAMs). (b) Relationship between the thermal conductivity and density of the CAMs at 303 K and 353 K. Reproduced with
permission from Ref. [145]; copyright (2016), Elsevier. (A colour version of this figure can be viewed online.)
sorption capacity was superior to that of previously reported sor- Men et al. proposed poly (ionic liquid) (PILs) as activation agents
bents (56e188 mg/g) (Fig. 16). for flexible and flame retardant polysaccharide biomass-derived
carbonaceous porous foams (PIL/cotton) [149]. Especially, PILs not
3.5. Thermal insulators and flame retardants only promote carbonization and increase microporosity, but also
improve oxidation stability via nitrogen heteroatoms in PILs. Flame
One of the unique properties of carbon aerogels is the control- resistance was tested by burning samples that had been soaked in
lability of thermal conductivities. This feature makes them suitable 500 wt% ethanol in air. PIL/cotton lost only 4.1 wt% of its mass,
as thermal insulators or flame retardants [133e135]. The impor- whereas a cotton sample prepared without PIL lost 80.3 wt% of its
tance of thermal insulation has grown with increasing building mass. After four cycles of flame test, the mass of the PIL/cotton
energy efficiency considerations and attention by the aerospace sample remained at 85 wt%. Moreover, the PIL/cotton foams
field [136e138]. Therefore, the demand for materials with thermal retained their shapes under harsher flame conditions when a 70:30
conductivities below those of currently available materials (volume fraction) butane/propane mixture was used as the com-
including expanded polystyrene (EPS) and polyurethane (PU) has bustion gas (Fig. 19).
increased. EPS has a thermal conductivity of 0.03e0.04 W/m$K. The
thermal conductivities of PU and glass fiber are 0.02e0.03 W/m$K 4. Summary and perspectives
and 0.03e0.04 W/m$K, respectively [139,140]. Carbon aerogels
with small pore sizes (<100 nm) typically exhibit low thermal Carbon-based three-dimensional porous aerogels have gener-
conductivity due to the Knudsen effect. The Knudsen effect is ated interest over the last several decades due to their fascinating
observed when gas molecules are confined within pores with di- characteristics, which include tailorable structural and chemical
ameters smaller than the mean free path of the gas molecules properties, high porosity, low density, and working as a bridge
(70 nm) at 1 bar [141e144]. From the listed properties, there are between nanoscale to macroscale applications. In this review,
many studies reported about thermal insulation and flame retar- recent progress on carbon aerogels for a wide range of applications
dant applications of carbon aerogels. was summarized, including energy storage, catalysis, gas storage,
Jia et al. fabricated processible carbon aerogel monoliths (CAMs) pollutant separation, and thermal insulation. Carbon aerogels are
with low thermal conductivity and good mechanical properties used extensively as sorbents for water purification and gas storage,
[145]. The machinability of CAMs is a useful feature for practical such as separation of oils and organic dyes, the removal of heavy
applications. However, the brittleness and fragility of CAMs have metal ions, CO2 capture, and gas (H2, CH4) fuel storage. Their high
hindered the realization of their full potential [146,147]. Further- selectivity and facile regeneration through squeezing, evaporation,
more, the mechanical properties of aerogels generally tend to suffer and combustion make them amenable to large-scale applications.
from high porosity. Appropriate properties control, therefore, is As catalysts, carbon aerogels are used as active materials itself and
essential to practical applications of carbon aerogels. In this study, as supports with readily accessible 3D pathways for facile mass
CAMs were synthesized from phenol resin and hexamethylene- transfer. The 3D networked structures and large specific surface
tetramine (HMTA). Synthesis was followed by an ambient pressure areas of carbon aerogels contain large numbers of active sites. In
drying process to prevent collapse of the porous network. The addition, their high conductivities enhance mass transfer, and their
CAMs had mechanical strengths are 9e50 bar and thermal con- high porosity and permeability prevent catalyst deactivation. The
ductivities of 0.032e0.069 W/m$K (Fig. 17). unique properties of carbon aerogels as thermal insulators are due
Li et al. reported the facile fabrication of a poly (vinyl chloride)- to the Knudsen effect, which is caused by the confinement of gas
based aerogel (PVC aerogel) which have flexible and thermal molecules. The thermal conductivities and thermal insulation
adiabatic properties without costly supercritical drying nor freeze- performance of carbon aerogels are controlled by tailoring their
drying procedure [148]. The heat transfer mechanism in the PVC chemical surface properties or their structural properties.
aerogel was investigated to maximize its insulative performance. Apart from the mentioned applications in this review, carbon
The authors determined that smaller pore sizes and higher porosity aerogels have great potential for other applications. Large-scale 3D
increased the potential of the aerogel as a thermal insulator. The porous structure and structural controllability of carbon aerogels
optimized PVC aerogel had thermal conductivities of 0.028 W/m$K are suitable for use as protective materials on nano-metal. There
at 1 bar and 0.008 W/m$K at 0.001 bar. The porosity of the PVC are various strategies proposed for space-confining of metal
aerogel was high (95.4%), and its density was low (0.063 g/cm3) nanoparticles without aggregation using coating materials and
(Fig. 18). porous 3D zeolites [150,151]. However, those approaches have
Fig. 18. (a) Synthesis of a poly (vinyl chloride) (PVC) aerogel monolith. (b) Photographs of twisting, the bending test, and an ultralight and flexible PVC aerogel balanced on a flower
and a foxtail. (c) Diagram of a hot-wire thermal conductivity apparatus and porosity-dependent thermal conductivity graphs. (d) Schematic illustration of the thermal transport
mechanism in PVC aerogels. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [148]; copyright (2019), WILEY-VCH. (A colour version of this figure can be viewed online.)
Fig. 19. (a) Photographs of a natural cotton-derived poly (ionic liquid) (PIL) carbonaceous film, a PIL/cotton monolith, and shape recovery of PIL/cotton composites. (b) First flame
retardance test and mass loss graphs of PIL/cotton foams in air (left) and a butane/propane gas mixture (right). The foams were burned after absorbing ethanol. Reproduced with
permission from Ref. [149]; copyright (2013), Royal Society of Chemistry. (A colour version of this figure can be viewed online.)
some limitations, such as the residual coating materials by are still not as competitive as other porous media, such as activated
incomplete elimination and the difficulty of mass transfer by carbon, MOFs, and porous polymers. In practical terms, complicated
ultramicropores on zeolites. Carbon aerogels has possibility for synthetic procedures, poor mechanical strength, insufficient sorp-
overcoming those problems by rapid mass transfer and structural tion capacity, and structural instability have remained obstacles to
controllability. High electrical conductivity and highly porous their commercialization. Many researchers have made progress
structure make aerogel as a candidate for electromagnetic inter- investigating novel synthetic processes and new drying methods to
ference shielding materials [152e154]. Knudsen effects, which facilitate the facile fabrication of carbon aerogels and reduce their
confined gas molecules, makes carbon aerogels also applicable to cost. On the other hand, the fabrication of hybrid materials using
sound insulator. In additions, highly porous structure, low density, carbon aerogels with other substances and the incorporation of
and chemical controllability allows carbon aerogels to be consid- different molecules have been suggested to improve the mechan-
ered as a solar steam generator [155,156]. However, carbon aerogels ical stability and sorption capacities of carbon aerogels.
Declaration of competing interest [26] Y. Chen, Z. Zhang, Y. Lai, X. Shi, J. Li, X. Chen, et al., Self-assembly of 3D neat
porous carbon aerogels with NaCl as template and flux for sodium-ion bat-
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The authors declare that they have no known competing [27] M. Salihovic, N. Hüsing, J. Bernardi, V. Presser, M.S. Elsaesser, Carbon aerogels
financial interests or personal relationships that could have with improved flexibility by sphere templating, RSC Adv. 8 (48) (2018)
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. 27326e27331.
[28] T.F. Baumann, J.H. Satcher Jr., Template-directed synthesis of periodic mac-
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This work was supported by an Inha University Research Grant, high-performance cathode electrocatalysts for aluminumeair batteries,
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Carbon 163 (2020) 1e18

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Recent advances in preparations and applications of carbon aerogels:

Types Precursors Properties

Pyrolysis (carbonization) ✓ Pyrolysis at 773e2,773 K in an inert atmosphere (N2 or Ar).

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