Some pictures are taken from Ashcroft and Mermin from Kittel from Mizutani and from several

sources on the web.

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Some pictures are taken from Ashcroft and Mermin from Kittel from Mizutani and from several sources on the web.
Quasicrystals – materials that have ordered but not periodic structures –
were discovered by Daniel Shechtman in 1984 and won him the 2011
Nobel Prize for Chemistry.

Before Shechtman's discovery, it was thought that long-range order in

physical systems was impossible without periodicity. Atoms were believed
to be packed inside crystals in symmetrical patterns that were repeated
periodically over and over again. But Shechtman found atoms in a crystal
that were packed in a pattern that could not be repeated and yet had "10-
fold" rotational symmetry. Since then, hundreds of different quasicrystals
have been discovered, including icosahedral quasicrystals that have 2-
fold, 3-fold and 5-fold rotational symmetry. There are also octagonal (8-
fold), decagonal (10-fold) and dodecagonal (12-fold) quasicrystals that
exhibit "forbidden" rotational symmetries within 2D atomic layers but that
are periodic in the direction perpendicular to these layers.
Assembly of triangular bipyramids forming a dodecagonal quasicrystal in Monte Carlo
simulations. (Courtesy: Sharon C Glotzer et al.)

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 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penrose_tiling

http://www.physics.udel.edu/~bnikolic/teaching/phys624/phys624.html

se more: http://jcrystal.com/steffenweber/qc.html

Review of Solid-State Physics

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http://www.physics.udel.edu/~bnikolic/teaching/phys624/phys624.html

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http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2010/popular-physicsprize2010.pdf

The Nobel Prize in Physics 2010 was awarded

jointly to Andre Geim and Konstantin
Novoselov "for groundbreaking experiments
regarding the two-dimensional material
graphene"

http://www.wired.com/gadgetlab/2010/10/graphene/

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http://www.physics.udel.edu/~bnikolic/teaching/phys624/phys624.html

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http://www.physics.udel.edu/~bnikolic/teaching/phys624/phys624.html

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http://www.physics.udel.edu/~bnikolic/teaching/phys624/phys624.html

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1. Introduction. Review of the basic solid state physics concepts.

2. Electronic structure, density of states and the physical

properties of solids.

3. Experimental techniques and principles of electronic

structure-related phenomena.

4. Phonons and electrons in solid.

5. Dielectric properties of solids.

6. Defects in solids.

7. Introduction to superconductivity

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 References
1. C. Kittel, Introduction to Solid State Physics (8ed., Wiley, 1996)
2. N. W. Ashcroft, N. D. Mermin, Solid State Physics, Saunders,
1976.
3. Ch. Enss, S. Hunklinger, Low-Temperature Physics, Springer-
Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2005.
4. U. Mizutani, Introduction to the Electron Theory of Metals,
Cambridge University Press 2001.
5. H. Alloul, Introduction to the Physics of Electrons in Solids,
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011
6. H. Ibach, lH. Lüth, Solid-State Physics, Springer 2009
7. J. M. Ziman, Electrons and phonons, The Theory of Transport
Phenomena in Solids, Oxford, Clarendon Press 1960.

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 #1: Review of Solid State Physics
• Types of Solids Crystalline Solids

– Ionic, Covalent, and Metallic.

• Classical Theory of Conduction

– Current density j, drift velocity vd, resistivity ρ.

• Band Theory and Band Diagrams

– Energy levels of separated atoms form energy “band” when
brought close together in a crystal.
– Fermi Function for how to “fill” bands.
– Metal, Insulator, and Semiconductor band diagrams.
– Donor and Acceptor dopants.
3D all the
points are
equivalent

2D
5 systems
(oblique,
rectangular,
centered
rectangular
(rhombic),
hexagonal,
square

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 Types of Solids: Ionic Solid, Properties

• Formed by Coulombic attraction between ions.

– Examples include group I alkali cations paired with group VII
halide anions, e.g. Na+ Cl-.

• Large cohesive energy (2-4 eV/ atom).

– Leads to high melting and boiling points.

• Low electrical conductivity.

– No “free” electrons to carry current.

• Transparent to visible light.

– Photon energy too low to “free” electrons.

• Soluble in polar liquids like water.

– Dipole of water attracts ions.
 Types of Solids: Ionic Solid, Crystal Spacing

Repulsive Potential ∝ 1/rm

Total Potential

Attractive Coulombic
Potential ∝ -1/r

• Potential Energy: Utot = Uattract (+,–) + Urepulse (–, –)

Types of Solids: Example Crystalline Structures

Simple Cubic Body-Centered Cubic Face-Centered

Cubic

FCC
structure: Na+
NaCl

Cl-
 Types of Solids: Covalent Solid

• Examples include group IV elements (C, Si) and III-V elements

(GaAs, InSb).

• Formed by strong, localized bonds with stable, closed-shell structures.

• Larger cohesive energies than for ionic solids (4-7 eV/atom).

– Leads to higher melting and boiling points.

• Low electrical conductivity.

– Due to energy band gap that charged carriers must overcome in
order to conduct.
Types of Solids: Example Crystalline Structures

Graphite Diamond
Planar sp2 bonding Tetrahedral sp3 bonding
(good lubricant) (very hard!)

Vertical π-bonds Bond angle = 109.5º

 http://www.mcescher.com/
Escher loved two dimensional structures too (Dutch graphic artist)

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 Types of Solids: Metal

• Formed by Coulombic attraction between (+) lattice ions and

(–) electron “gas.”

• Metallic bonds allows electrons to move freely through lattice.

• Smaller cohesive energy (1-4 eV).

• High electrical conductivity.

• Absorbs visible light (non-transparent, “shiny” due to re-emission).

• Good alloy formation (due to non-directional metallic bonds).

 Classical Theory of Conduction
Macroscopic Microscopic
dq  di
Current: i = (Amps) Current Density: J =  (A/m 2 )
dt dA
 
q = ∫ idt i ∫ J ⋅ dA
=
 E 
i=
V J= = σ E where ρ = resistivity
ρ σ = conductivity
R
 
J = n e v d where n = carrier density
vd = drift velocity
ρL m
R= ρ= where τ = scattering time
A ne τ
2

• Drift velocity vd is net motion of electrons (0.1 to 10-7 m/s).

• Scattering time τ is time between electron-lattice collisions.
 Classical Theory of Conduction: Electron Motion

• Electron travels at fast velocities for a time τ and then “collides” with
the crystal lattice.
• Results in a net motion opposite to the E field with drift velocity vd.
• Scatter time τ decreases with increasing temperature T, i.e. more
scattering at higher temperatures (leads to higher resistivity).
Classical Theory of Conduction: Resistivity vs. Temp.

FE ma
E e= e= m 1
ρ
= = ∝
J ne vd ne (aτ ) ne τ
2 nτ

• Metal: Resistance increases with Temperature.

• Why? ↑Temp ⇒ ↓τ, n same (same numb. conduction electrons) ⇒↑ρ

• Semiconductor: Resistance decreases with Temperature.

• Why? ↑Temp ⇒ ↓τ, ↑n (“free-up” carriers to conduct) ⇒ ↓ρ
 Band Theory: Two Approaches

• There are two approaches to finding the electron energies

associated with atoms in a periodic lattice.

• Approach #1: “Bound” Electron Approach (single atom energies!)

– Isolated atoms brought close together to form a solid.

• Approach #2: “Unbound” or Free Electron Approach (E = p2/2m)

– Free electrons modified by a periodic potential (i.e. lattice
ions).

• Both approaches result in grouped energy levels with allowed and

forbidden energy regions.
– Energy bands overlap for metals.
– Energy bands do not overlap (or have a “gap”) for
semiconductors.
http://www.physics.udel.edu/~bnikolic/teaching/phys624/phys624.html

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 Band Theory: “Bound” Electron Approach
• For the total number N of atoms in a solid (1023 cm–3), N energy
levels split apart within a width ∆E.
– Leads to a band of energies for each initial atomic energy level
(e.g. 1s energy band for 1s energy level).

Two atoms Six atoms Solid of N atoms

Electrons must occupy

different energies due to
Pauli Exclusion principle.
 Band Diagram: Fermi-Dirac “Filling” Function
• Probability of electrons (fermions) to be found at various energy levels.

1 • At RT, E – EF = 0.05 eV ⇒ f(E) = 0.12

f FD ( E ) =
( E − EF ) E – EF = 7.5 eV ⇒ f(E) = 10 –129
e kT +1 • Exponential dependence has HUGE effect!

• Temperature dependence of Fermi-Dirac function shown as follows:

→ Step function behavior “smears” out at higher temperatures.

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 Band Diagram: Metal

T>0
Energy band
Fermi “filling” to be “filled”
function EF
Conduction band
(Partially Filled)
E=0

• At T = 0, all levels in conduction band below the Fermi energy EF are

filled with electrons, while all levels above EF are empty.
• Electrons are free to move into “empty” states of conduction band
with only a small electric field E, leading to high electrical
conductivity!
• At T > 0, electrons have a probability to be thermally “excited” from
below the Fermi energy to above it.
The Fermi energy (EF) is the energy of the highest occupied state at zero temperature.

(Actually, it is the difference between the energy of the highest and the lowest occupied
energy level).

Fermi level is a measure of the energy of the least tightly held electrons
within a solid.
•it changes as the solid is warmed and as electrons are added to or
withdrawn from the solid.
•it is also called the chemical potential that is temperature dependent
•f(EF(T))= 1/2

The internal chemical potential at zero temperature is equal to the Fermi energy.

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 Band Diagram: Insulator
Conduction band
T>0 (Empty)
EC
Egap
EF

Valence band
EV
(Filled)

• At T = 0, lower valence band is filled with electrons and upper

conduction band is empty, leading to zero conductivity.
– Fermi level EF is at midpoint of large energy gap (2-10 eV) between
conduction and valence bands.
• At T > 0, electrons are usually NOT thermally “excited” from valence
to conduction band, leading to zero conductivity.
 Band Diagram: Semiconductor with No Doping

T>0
Conduction band
(Partially Filled)
EC
EF
EV
Valence band
(Partially Empty)

• At T = 0, lower valence band is filled with electrons and upper

conduction band is empty, leading to zero conductivity.
– Fermi level EF is at midpoint of small energy gap (<1 eV) between
conduction and valence bands.
• At T > 0, electrons thermally “excited” from valence to conduction
band, leading to measurable conductivity.
 Band Diagram: Donor Dopant in Semiconductor
• Increase the conductivity of a semiconductor by adding a small amount
of another material called a dopant (instead of heating it!)

• For group IV Si, add a group V element

to “donate” an electron and make n-type
Si (more negative electrons!). n-type Si
• “Extra” electron is weakly bound, with EC
ED
donor energy level ED just below EF
conduction band EC.
Egap~ 1 eV
– Dopant electrons easily promoted to EV
conduction band, increasing electrical
conductivity by increasing carrier
density n.
• Fermi level EF moves up towards EC.
 Band Diagram: Acceptor Dopant in Semiconductor

• For Si, add a group III element to

“accept” an electron and make p-type
Si (more positive “holes”).
• “Missing” electron results in an extra EC
“hole”, with an acceptor energy level
EA just above the valence band EV. EF
EA
– Holes easily formed in valence EV
band, greatly increasing the p-type Si
electrical conductivity.
• Fermi level EF moves down towards EV.
 T

CV = A ⋅ T 3
T << θ D
Electronic specific heat
Page 47