TECHNOLOGIES

Chiller selection and

control strategies,
particularly in
California, with its
volatile deregulated
electricity
marketplace requires
a more pro-active
approach when
making choices
among multiple Original chilled water Revised chilled water
system piping flow diagram system piping flow diagram
chillers. Functionally
integrated hybrid
chiller plants with
or without thermal
storage can offer
Chiller Plant
26 significant benefits
for our clients when optimization strategies
ZEROsottoZERO - Refrigeration & Air Conditioning • october 2006

a real-time pricing
(RTP) approach O Milton Meckler Managing Uncertainty Method 1 – Simplified Approach
Only by taking full advantage of a more One must first examine the relevant building
– as opposed to a ne way of dealing with responsive control system integration can

O
loads, electric rates and their relationship to
more traditional life- California pricing uncertainty is to HVAC designers and owners evaluate the latest published weather data given by ASHRAE
use RTP as the integral driver in availability – and profitability – of thermal to understand the benefit of employing bin
cycle cost analysis chiller sequencing and control. In energy at their sites. The solution lies in an weather data vs. conventional computer
this way, building operators can integrated system design, which combines a simulation methods on sequencing individual
– is employed as meet foreseeable needs for variety of chiller types, each designated for a chillers in multiple chiller plants. Although the
an operational flexibility in the purchase of electricity on a specific purpose. Taken together, they result assumption of a straight-line relationship
real-time basis, and natural gas at released in an overall chiller plant that takes full between building loads and weather data is not
control strategy capacity prices. advantage of the unique characteristics of always accurate for some industrial and
each separate chiller for the flexible commercial cooling applications, it can be used
exchange of chilled water among chillers on to represent a simplified approach utilized for
a real-time basis, thus reducing overall purposes of the comparative chiller sequencing
energy consumption and related emissions. case studies that follow. Fortunately, ASHRAE
In the real world, the major factor in chiller has already organized operating hours for both
energy consumption is efficiency at off- domestic and international microclimates into
design conditions, where chillers typically five-degree temperature bins. Chiller operating
spend 99% of their operating hours. Energy costs therefore, can be analyzed by estimating
simulations of the conventional type often do the load in each of the ASHRAE temperature
not allow one accurately to determine a bins and assigning a cost to the power sold
prescribed sequence of operation for during each hour in that bin from and estimated
staging chillers in hybrid plants if based on hourly gas/electric rate schedules. The first step
the stable or predictable utility rates. In in this simplified analysis is to obtain bin-weather
recent years, California has experienced data for the given city or area to determine the
substantial fluctuation in both gas and total number of (annual) hours spent in each
electric prices. Today we will explore two temperature bin. The second step is to
alternative methods of sequencing chillers in determine typical entering condenser-water
a gas-electric hybrid chiller plant utilizing temperatures (ECWTs) available for each of the
both projected (i.e. simplified bin method) or listed bins. For purposes of overall air-
real time (RTP algorithm method) utility rates conditioning analysis in the three (3) chiller case
to automatically control individual chiller studies which follow, it is also assumed that air-
sequencing for cost-effective operation. side economizers are used below 55° F outdoor

TABLE 1 – PLANT CONFIGURATION: TWO 500-TON ELECTRIC CENTRIFUGAL

CHILLERS (BASE CASE)
Load: 800 tons
Plant configuration: Two 500-ton Electric Centrifugal Chillers
Temp bin Hrs Tons load ECWT Kw/ton Kwh RTP $/kwh Operation cost
95-99 20 800 82 0.527 8.432 $ 0.45 $ 3.794
90-94 84 742 81 0.517 32.224 $ 0.40 $ 12.889
85-89 216 687 79 0.504 74.790 $ 0.35 $ 26.176
80-84 393 632 76 0.487 120.959 $ 0.15 $ 18.144
75-79 585 577 74 0.479 161.684 $ 0.10 $16.168
70-74 775 522 72 0.476 192.566 $ 0.03 $ 5.777
65-69 784 467 68 0.468 171.348 $ 0.03 $ 5.140
60-64 706 412 63 0.475 138.164 $ 0.03 $ 4.145
55-59 670 357 59 0.497 118.877 $ 0.03 $ 3.566
$ 95.799
Chiller Equipment Operating
Cost Cost
CH-1 $126.000
CH- $126.000
Total $ 252.000 $ 95.799 Base case
 TABLE 2 – PLANT CONFIGURATION: TWO 500-TON TWO-STAGE DIRECT-FIRED TABLE 3 – PLANT CONFIGURATION: 500-TON TWO-STAGE DIRECT-FIRED
ABSORPTION CHILLERS (OPTION 1) ABSORPTION CHILLER AND 500-TON ELECTRIC CENTRIFUGAL (OPTION2)
Load: 800 tons Load: 800 tons
Plant configuration: Two 500-ton two-stage direct-fired absorption chillers Plant configuration: Two 500-ton two-stage direct-fired absorption chiller (CH-1)
and 500-ton electric centrifugal (CH-2)
Temp bin Hrs Tons load ECWT Kw/ton Kwh RTP $/kwh Operation cost
95-99 20 800 82 8.700 1.740 $ 0.35 $ 609 Temp Hrs Tons ECWT Gas Gas Kw Kwh RTP $/ Operation
bin load ton price ton kwh cost
90-94 84 742 81 8.042 6.755 $ 0.35 $ 2.364
95-99 20 800 82 500 $ 0.35 0.560 1,740 $ 0.45 $ 1,862
85-89 216 687 79 7.202 15.556 $ 0.35 $ 5.445
90-94 84 742 81 500 $ 0.35 0.054 6,755 $ 0.40 $ 5,802
80-84 393 632 76 6.828 26.834 $ 0.35 $ 9.392
85-89 216 687 79 500 $ 0.35 0.590 15,556 $ 0.35 $ 11,819
75-79 585 577 74 5.990 35.042 $ 0.35 $12.265
80-84 393 632 76 500 $ 0.35 0.620 26,834 $ 0.15 $ 10,877
70-74 775 522 72 5.279 40.912 $ 0.35 $ 14.319
75-79 585 577 74 500 $ 0.35 0.690 35,042 $ 0.10 $ 11,708
65-69 784 467 68 4.713 36.950 $ 0.35 $ 12.932
70-74 775 522 72 0 $ 0.35 0.475 40,912 $ 0.03 $ 5.765
60-64 706 412 63 4.318 30.485 $ 0.35 $ 10.670
65-69 784 467 68 0 $ 0.35 0.464 36,950 $ 0.03 $ 5,097
55-59 670 357 59 3.821 25.601 $ 0.35 $ 8.960
60-64 706 412 63 0 $ 0.35 0.455 30,485 $ 0.03 $ 3,970
$ 76.956
55-59 670 357 59 0 $ 0.35 0.456 25,601 $ 0.03 $ 3,272
Equipment Operating $ 60.172
Cost Cost Equipment Operating Cost
Total $ 429.000 $ 76.956 Total $ 340,500 $ 60,172
Base Plant $ 252.000 $ 95.799 Base Plant $ 252,000 $ 95,799
Delta $ 177.000 $ 18.843 Simple Payback: 9.39 years Delta $ 88,500 $ 35,627 Simple Payback: 2.48 years

dry-bulb temperature to satisfy the cooling load. methodology given above, one arrives at an payback for each option, as will be seen. dual nominal 500 ton two-stage direct-fired
While most chiller plant operating hours fall within annual operating cost of $95,799 and equipment Additionally, at the preliminary design absorption chillers are represented as $18,843
lower loads and lower electricity costs, there are cost of $252,000 as indicated in Table 1. After development/schematic phase of a project, per year less than the electric-only chiller plant.
significant hours of operation when electric reviewing Table 1, let us next compare the listed equipment costs (not total installed costs) can be With the price premium for these chillers at
27
prices are high. Thus the conventional wisdom is installed equipment and annual operating costs used as a first approximation. Although the latter $177,000, yielding a simple payback of 9+ years
for facilities to benefit economically in a with those for the following all gas or hybrid alternative absorption units require exhaust results. For example, for the case of the hybrid

ZEROsottoZERO - Refrigeration & Air Conditioning • october 2006

deregulated environment, electric chillers should alternative-drive chiller plants, respectively systems, steam piping or larger cooling towers in chiller plant incorporating both a nominal 500 ton
operate primarily during low-load, low cost comprising Option 1) two nominal two-stage most early-stage analysis, these details, while centrifugal and a nominal 500 ton 2-stage
periods of operation, while gas chillers run during direct-fired absorption chillers, or Option 2) same needed subsequently for a more accurate absorption chiller, the simple payback drops
high-load, high electric demand cost hours. as Option 1) above except that one of the two- comparative analysis, will often not be the significantly as can be seen from Table 3 to 2.48
stage absorption chiller is replaced by a nominal determining factor in establishing the proper years. Therefore, the latter hybrid plant would
Typical Application 500 ton electric-driven centrifugal chiller. Assume chiller operating mix for a minimum annual appear to be a better choice than either the all
First, lets take a look at an electric-only multiple a gas price of $0.35 per therm for the above all owning and operating cost. However, a gas or all electric chiller plant alternatives
chiller plant in comparison with (2) comparable gas and hybrid chiller plants. Now by ratioing the maintenance premium should be included in the described above. By definition, the traditional
but different alternative fuel plants. Let us installed equipment cost differential for each of projected operating cost of the gas engine- hybrid plants incorporate at least two chillers,
assume, for example, that the base case chiller the above referenced Option 1 and 2 chiller driven centrifugal units, where used since it can comprising 1) an electric reciprocating,
plant consists of (2) nominal 500-ton electric alternates to the estimated annual operating-cost have greater cost impact and requires an annual centrifugal or screw chiller, in combination with
centrifugal chillers and that the design day load differential above base-case electric centrifugal run time estimate. Referring next to Table 2 either an absorption or gas engine driven chiller
is 800 tons. When applying the ASHRAE data chiller plants (Table 1) one can establish a simple notice that the operating cost of the Option 1) equipped with any one of the above referenced
 TECHNOLOGIES
(3) compressor types. In summary, conventional generating property located in the Southern Once the various possible chiller operating KW for the 500-ton direct-fired absorption chiller.
industry practice has been to adopt an operating California desert near Palm Springs, which combinations are defined, the chiller loading for The chiller plant control system program logic
scheme that employs a base-loaded alternative would otherwise experience large losses in each option can then be determined for a given controller (PLC) can, however, be programmed
gas or gas drive chiller during hours of high revenue in the event one of the chillers were to plant load. Since the chillers in this plant are to determine the optimum chiller combinations
electric cost, with the electric chiller handling only fail. Our firm originally recommended adding configured in parallel, all operating chillers will to use for a given load by estimating the
the remaining load. two 500-ton direct-fired absorption chillers since load to the same percentage of chiller load. For operating cost/ton-hour for each feasible
the natural gas chillers could produce each ton- example, Chiller Combination #4 with a load of combination. The RTP algorithm however, must
Method 2 – Use of RTP Chiller hour at a lower cost during the electrical on- 1,200-tons would load each chiller to 80% (800- have limits to recognize when a chiller
Control Algorithms peak period at that point in time. The renovated tons on the electric chiller and 400-tons on the combination is not feasible due to chiller loads
RTP based chiller sequencing can replace the chilled water distribution system configuration gas chiller). The electric centrifugal chiller being below the lower practical chiller load
more traditional off-peak, mid-peak, and on- shown in Figure 2 now corresponds to a primary efficiencies can be estimated from limits or when the load exceeds the capacity of
peak electric rate schedules since alternative- secondary (with VFD’S) pump configuration. manufacturers test in the form of published ARI the chiller combination. To contrast both the
drive chillers can operate during all hours when The differential pressure CV was also removed 550 NPLV values, which can then be easily Conventional and Alternative approaches, refer
the hourly electricity to gas cost portion of the since it was no longer needed. Energy curve fitted as shown in Figure 3. Direct-fired to Table 5, below:
total cost of cooling delivered (adjusted for simulations were performed utilizing the utility
associated parasitic loads e.g., tower fans, rates when the plant was retrofitted. At that time, TABLE 5 – CONVENTIONAL AND ALTERNATIVE CHILLER SEQUENCING OPTIONS
pumps, ecc.) is high and therefore, switch to electric and gas rates were fairly stable. The
operate only electric chillers when hourly latter energy simulation results were used to CONVENTIONAL APPROACH ALTERNATIVE APPROACH
electricity to gas cost is low. A further benefit of determine a prescribed sequence of operation Prescribed sequencing based on: Dynamic sequencing accounting for:
RTP based chiller sequencing is that building for staging the chillers. These simulations • Time-of-day schedule Time-of-day schedule
operating schedules can be made to change indicated it was more cost-effective to operate • CHWS temperature Plant load (tons)
daily in response to real-time electric and gas the gas chillers as lead during the higher • CHWR temperature Chiller efficiencies
rates. For RTP based operations, the chiller summer on-peak period only. In the past year, Chiller parasitic loads
operating strategy now becomes: Base load that for example, California has experienced large Current utility costs
combination of gas and/or electric chillers that fluctuations in the price of electricity and gas.
projects the lowest operating costs at any given Accordingly, we were recently asked by our gas absorption chiller efficiencies can also be Table 6 shows the results of the control
hour. In this way, building automation systems client to explore a means of using varying gas estimated from manufacturers tests yielding full algorithm using three different electrical rates
28 that monitor the hourly electric and gas rates and electric rates as inputs for giving better load and part load Coefficient of Performance with a constant $0.35/Therm gas rate.
can determine the most cost-effective operating real-time decision capability to the control (COP) values in the form of published ARI 560 The algorithm determines the chiller
ZEROsottoZERO - Refrigeration & Air Conditioning • october 2006

chiller sequence to help building owners operate system operating the chiller plant. This would IPLV values. For example, the electric combination with the lowest predicted
plants at their lowest possible costs. To describe allow the operator to provide more cost effective centrifugal chiller manufacturer’s data shown operating cost to automatically determine
use of the second method, let us now follow the utilization of the existing gas and electric chillers above in Figure 3 indicated a concave shaped the best chiller sequencing strategy based
actual evolving case history of a large chiller in order to maximize savings. During the course efficiency trend ranging from 0.534 KW/ton at on the utility cost data. Note that at
plant originally designed in 1986 to serve a of analyzing a better control strategy for the 100% load dropping to 0.416 KW/ton at 50% $0.05/KWh, it is more cost-effective to use
major hotel complex It was initially comprised of hybrid plant we recognized that the following load at part load and through increasing to only the electric chillers when using a
two nominal 1000 ton electrical centrifugal additional elements could be implemented into 0.565 KW/ton at 20% load. Similarly, as can be $0.35/Therm gas rate. The electric parasitic
chillers and located near Palm Springs, the control algorithm: seen from Figure 4, the two-stage absorption loads on the gas absorbers accounted for
California. The original chiller plant was • Electrical cost ($/KWh) chillers are characterized by a convex shape 26-30% of the operating costs (cost/ton-hr),
subsequently modified years later to incorporate • Gas cost ($/Therm) trend ranging from a COP of 1.0 at 100% load showing why parasitic loads should be
two additional nominal 500 ton 2-stage • Measured plant load (tons) rising to a COP of 1.154 at 50% part load and considered in the control logic.
absorption chillers following an extensive study • Chiller parasitic loads (KW) there after falling to a COP value of 1.136 at The results also shows a dramatic increase in
of alternative energy conservation measures • Chiller efficiency data for part load 25% part load as shown. Readily available operating cost for the plant at recent on-peak
undertaken to reduce then spiraling operating conditions (KW/ton or COP) software can be used to determine respectively electric costs of $0.18/KWh when the plant
costs. Adding the gas-fired absorption 2-stage We also recognized the utility rate schedules the polynomial equation and coefficients that has more than a 1,000-ton load due to the
chillers allowed our clients to reduce peak need to be updated in the control system as the provides the best curve-fit for the above 1,000-ton capacity limit of the installed gas
(growth) demand and/or to permit transferring rates change. We then proceeded to develop a published ILPV or NLPL manufacturer’s data. absorption chillers.
loads during on-peak and/or mid-peak periods better control algorithm that utilizes this data. Parasitic electrical loads can be accounted for As can be seen from Table 6 above, one can
to gas or vice versa back to electric during off- The first step in developing the RTP algorithm as a fixed electrical load when the chiller is better utilize current PLC control system
peak and/or mid-peak depending on crossover referred to earlier, is to define the potential operating. The electric and gas chiller parasitic technology to implement more complex
utility rate opportunities. The two (2) nominal 500 chiller operation combinations. Since the loads included associated primary chilled water calculation logic for optimizing hybrid plant
ton chillers also provided some redundancy expanded chiller plant now had four chillers pumps and condenser water pumps (not operation. This optimization allows plant
benefits for the expanded chiller plant which operating in parallel, i.e., two 1,000-ton electric shown). Gas chiller parasitic loads also operators to minimize operating costs many
was then experiencing loads above 70-100% of centrifugal chillers and two 500-ton direct-fired included the electrical load for the burner years after the design team has left the project.
peak for more than 50% of the summer months. double-effect gas absorption chillers, ecc., the blower, solution pumps and purge pump. The Chiller plant system designers must, however,
The original chiller plant with two 1,000 ton range of foreseeable potential chiller comparative total parasitic loads are 79.3 KW be willing to detail and describe the necessary
electric centrifugal chillers was configured as combinations would be: for the 1,000-ton electric centrifugal and 62.5 control logic in the sequence of operations in
shown in FIGURE 1. Not shown, however, are order for control system programmers to
chiller isolation valves (one for each chiller) TABLE 4 – HYBRID CHILLER OPERATING COMBINATIONS AND CAPACITIES effectively implement them.
which were activated open whenever each RTP electric costs reflect many hours of
Chiller Combination Chillers Operating Capacity (tons)
respective chiller was operating requiring a operation with very low electric rates,
1 (1) 500-ton gas 500
automatic differential pressure CV to operate as particularly when low ECWTs also are available
2 (1) 1,000-ton electric 1,000
needed for maintaining flow balance through by as can be seen in Figure 5.
3 (2) 500-ton gas 1,000
pass (where shown) for the constant volume, One of the factors that can be used to hold
4 (1) 500-ton gas & (1) 1,000-ton 1,500
primary chilled water pumps to serve all air down equipment cost is ECWT: For example,
5 (2) 1,000-ton electric 2,000
handling units equipped with either 2 or 3-way the nominal 500 ton electric centrifugal chiller
6 (1) 1,000-ton electric & (2) 500-ton 2,000
valves at their respective cooling coils, ecc. can be selected for the off-design ECWT of
7 (2) 1,000-ton electric & (1) 500-ton 2,500
Referring next to Figure 2, the subsequently 74°F maximum, rather than the 85°F maximum
8 (2) 1,000-ton electric & (2) 500-ton 3,000
revised chiller plant served an income required in the all-electric or traditional hybrid

Gas
Electric
absorber
Chiller
Chiller
efficiency
efficiency
curve fit
curve
 TABLE 6 – CHILLER SEQUENCING CONTROL ALGORITHM OUTPUT
Gas Cost ($/Therm) $0.35 $0.35 $0.35
Electrical Cost ($/kwh) $0.05 $ 0.12 $ 0.18

Cost / Ton-Hr

Cost / Ton-Hr

Cost / Ton-Hr
Combination

Combination
Combination
Best Chiller

Best Chiller
Best Chiller
Plant Load (Tons)

400 2 $ 0.031 1 $ 0.066 1 $ 0.075

500 2 $ 0.029 1 $ 0.057 1 $ 0.065
600 2 $ 0.028 2 $ 0.068 3 $ 0.089
700 2 $ 0.028 2 $ 0.068 3 $ 0.082
800 2 $ 0.028 3 $ 0.066 3 $ 0.075
900 2 $ 0.029 3 $ 0.061 3 $ 0.075
900 2 $ 0.029 3 $ 0.061 3 $ 0.069
1,000 5 $ 0.029 3 $ 0.057 3 $ 0.065
1,100 5 $ 0.029 4 $ 0.068 4 $ 0.094
1,200 5 $ 0.028 4 $ 0.067 4 $ 0.093
Gas absorber Chiller curve fit with ECWT adjustment efficiency
1,300 5 $ 0.028 4 $ 0.066 4 $ 0.092
1,400 5 $ 0.028 4 $ 0.067 6 $ 0.092
plants. Thus, the same size unit can handle fitting actual data adjusted for the effects on
more tons with less energy, making COP with percent (%) part load for varying 1,500 5 $ 0.028 6 $ 0.068 6 $ 0.090
nontraditional hybrids less expensive to EWCT values. If we now compare the latter 1,600 5 $ 0.028 6 $ 0.067 6 $ 0.088
operate while providing more redundancy in values with earlier presented COP values with 1,700 5 $ 0.028 6 $ 0.066 6 $ 0.087
capacity. Chiller operating costs at various percent (%) part load developed from 1,800 5 $ 0.029 6 $ 0.065 6 $ 0.086
29
load points and at corresponding ECWTs can published 1PLV values for the same gas fired 1,900 5 $ 0.030 6 $ 0.065 6 $ 0.087
also be used where information of real time absorption chiller one will note some 2,000 5 $ 0.031 6 $ 0.066 6 $ 0.088

ZEROsottoZERO - Refrigeration & Air Conditioning • october 2006

values is also available to determine more significant deviations in projected COP values,
accurately (than using NLPV or ILPV values) not only at ECWT design conditions as manufacturers test data already adjusted for If we allow the ECWT to drop to a permissible
to achieve proper chiller sequencing. For reflected in Figure 4, but at other part load the effect of EWCT we will see a rather large 67.5 ºF, the estimated COP rises to 1.31 or an
example consider the hybrid plant illustrated conditions as well. variation in the result. increase of 30% above that available at a 85 º
in Table 1, an 850-ton, single-stage steam For example, at a 50% part load condition a F ECWT. In the absence of actual chiller
absorption chiller could handle the entire load Summary and Conclusions design day ECWT of 85 ºF, the COP found is manufacturers performance data of the type
above 79°F ECWT, when electric costs are In summary, if we again to Figure 4, at a 50% significantly less at 1.01 (by approximately illustrated in Figure 5, however one can still
highest, while a, 650-ton electric centrifugal part load condition one would conclude that 19%), than that obtained from earlier use IPLV or NPLV data, but its use is advised
chiller could take over below a 79°F ECWT. with an estimated COP of approximately 1.24 referenced ILPV values illustrated in only as a first approximation recognizing that
The operating cost would be $27,019 less at an 85 ºF ECWT. If we then compare that Figure 4. Furthermore such ILPV values are some underestimation of operating
than the equivalent all-electric plant, and the result extrapolated from chiller manufacturer published only at limited number of part load performance will result if EWCT is allowed to
payback would be a very attractive 1.5 years. published ILPV values to that obtained conditions corresponding to 25%, 50%, 75% drop to levels approved by the respective gas
Refer next to Figure 5 developed from curve directly by curve fitting actually chiller and 100%, for example. or electric chiller manufacturer(s).

IKK 2006
Nürnberg
18-20 October 2006
Hall 9 - Stand 9-219

[email protected] - www.necos.it

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