Teaching Languages to Students with Specific Learning Differences

knowledge in a declarative fortn through explicit classroom instruction, and

With
practise they will proceduralize their knowledge and will be able to use it aut
As children with dyslexia experience difficulties in phonological processin g, ornatically
it is
of learning to that is the most challenging for them. this
more exposure 8tl
explicit explanation, as well as more practisc, to be able to successfully move on
to th
next stage of reading.
The final stage in Frith's (1986) theory is the orthographicstage, in which children
do
process words letter by letter anymore but analyse words into bigger units such as not
letter
sequences and convert these into syllables.This is called the orthographic stage because
readers have to make use of their knowledgeof how written (orthographic) words are
constructed from larger chunks such as morphemes, prefixes and suffixes. In Figure
this involves route 2a and additional phonologicalanalysis from route la. Children With2.2
dyslexia might also find this phase of learning challenging due to their reduced levelof
syllabic awareness (see below).
Nicolson and Fawcett (2008) propose another stage in reading acquisition at which words
are automatically recognized visuallyas one unit in a similar fashion as at the logographic
stage. This stage of development can be understood as a solely memory-based process
based on Logan's (1988) instance theory, which we described above. Instance theory of
automaticity development might explain that in skilled word recognition there might be
two routes: one based on the proceduralizationof phonologicalencoding processes and
one on instant memory based recognition of word forms. Phonological encoding
processes might be called on in reading unknown or unfamiliar words, whereas memory_
based processes are at work in the case of highly familiar words. This dual processing
route explains why dyslexicpeople may easily recognize familiar words, and why their
reading difficulties manifest themselves when faced with unfamiliar words.

Behavioural manifestations and

cognitive correlates of dyslexia
The main behavioural manifestations of dyslexiain childhoodare reading and spelling
difficulties, as well as problems in memory and organization.As pointed out above,
manifestations of dyslexia might vary in their severityand not all the symptoms might
be present in every individual. Reading difficultiesprimarily manifest themselves in
word-recognition and are assumed to be caused by difficultiesin convertingletters to
sounds. Dyslexic children tend to have problems recognizingexisting words as well
decoding non-words. Although we will present a more detailed cognitiveexplanationfor
this problem below, we give a brief description of the nature of the word-recognition
problems here. Every writing system, even Chinese, makes use of information related to
speech sounds, or in other words, phonological information (Goswami& Bryant,1990).

30
 What Is Dyslexia?

Alphabeticand syllabic are based on the

representedin units (i.e. phonetnes in an alphabetic notion that speech can be
system and syllablesin a syllabic
sys.tetn).Therefore, when children learn to read and
write, they first have to be able to
do two basic things: segtnent spoken words into relevant
units, and acquire how specific
units are represented in writing (orthographically). In the
case of alphabetic writing
systerns,the latter process is called phoneme-to-grapheme
whichcauses the most serious difficultiesfor dyslexic mapping, and it is this process
learners (for a reviewsee Vellutino
al., 2004). These difficulties might result in slow and/or
inaccurateword-recognition.
Anotherimportant factor influencing the nature of dyslexic
difficultiesis the language
itselfin which children learn to read. Some languages,such as
Italian,German or
Hungarian, have relatively simple sound-letter conversion
rules and a predictable writing
system,which is called transparent orthography.In other languages,
such as English and
French,the phoneme-to-grapheme mappings are complexand sometimes
unpredictable,
and acquiring these orthographic systems might cause serious problemsfor
dyslexic
children.As a consequence of the differences in writing systems,reading
difficulties
might manifest themselves differently in different languages. Italian or Gerrnan dyslexic
childrenmight be slow but generallyaccurate readers,whereasdyslexicchildren whose
first language is English might exhibit differences in reading both in terms of speed and
accuracy(Paulesu et al., 2001).
Another major area in which dyslexic children experience difficulties is spelling. In
certain cases Of dyslexia, spelling difficulties might be the sole signs of literacy problems
(Frith & Frith, 1980; Snowling, 2008). Just like word recognition, spelling requires
segmentingspoken words into phonemes and convertingthese phonemes into letters or
letter combinations. While visual processing mechanisms such as recognizing the word
as a unit by sight and other contextual clues might compensate for a lack of phonological
awarenessin reading, these compensatory processesare not availablein writing.There-
fore, spelling problems are frequent correlates of dyslexia and might often be observed in
the case of at-risk readers who do not meet the diagnostic criteria for dyslexia based on
their reading performance (Snowling, 2008).
We have shown above that learners with dyslexia have difficulties in segmenting words
into sounds and learning sound-letter correspondence rules, both of which involve
phonological processing. Phonological processing, however,is not only implicated in
reading and writing but also in speech perception and speech production. Research
evidencesuggests that dyslexicindividuals show differencesboth in the accuracyand in
the speed with which they can process orally presented information (Bowers& Swanson,
1991;Wolf, 1991). Dyslexic children were found to perform significantly worse in
sound-discrimination(Adlard & Hazan, 1998) and in word repetition tests than their
non-dyslexicpeers (Miles, 1993). Both of these tasks involve phonological short-term
memory,which helps maintain verbal information active for further processing.
Baddeley(1986) argued that the phonological short-term memory plays a crucial role
in the learning of new words by storing unfamiliar sound patterns while long-term
representationsare built, which presupposes a direct link between short-term memory
and the long-term retention of vocabulary.Impairments in phonologicalshort-term

31
 Teaching Languages to Students with Specific Learning Differences

Table 2.2 Overview of linguistic problems experienced by dyslexics

Problems in segmenting words into phonological units

Problems with phoneme-graphemecorrespondences
Problems in word-recognition
Slow reading speed
Difficulties in spelling
Smaller range of vocabulary
Slow word retrieval
Slow speech
Articulation problems
Problems in keeping verbal material in phonological short-term memory

memory and in phonological processing generally result in speech delay, a slower

rate
of speech sometimes with indistinctivepronunciation, and a smaller receptiveand
expressive vocabulary range (Lundberg & Hoien, 2001; Scarborough, 1990, 1991;
Snowling, 2008). Not only is the size of the vocabulary dyslexic children are
familiarwith
often smaller than that of their non-dyslexicpeers, but they might also be
slowerin
retrieving words when they have to name pictures. Table 2.2 gives an overview
of the
linguistic problems experienced by dyslexicstudents.
One of the major problems in research on SpLDs, to which we will return
towardsthe
end of our discussion of dyslexia,is that most dyslexicindividuals do not only
exhibit
difficulties in literacy-relatedskills but show other types of differences, though
sometimes
minor ones, in other areas of cognitive functioning. Research evidence suggests
that
dyslexic people also have a shorter working memory span (Jeffries & Everatt,
2004).This
might explain, for example, why so many dyslexicchildren have problems memorizing
the multiplication tables and have difficultieswith arithmetic and are also consideredas
having dyscalculia (mathematical learning difficulties) (see Chapter 3). Reducedworking
memory capacity makes it difficult for dyslexicpeople to hold several pieces of
information in working memory at the same time, which is often required in
mathematics as well as in reading and listening to longer pieces of texts. Problemswith
sustained attention are also frequent in the case of dyslexicchildren and adultsevenin
the absence of a formal identificationof ADHD (e.g. Fletcher et al., 2004; Snowling,
2008). Limited attention span can cause difficulties in general academic contextsandcan
lead to problems in acquiring general knowledgeand skills, not only literacyrelatedones•
Attention to input is a prerequisite for learning new information, and, due to problemsin
sustaining attention, dyslexicindividualscannot concentrate on new incomingstimulifor
a long time, and might need repeated exposure to acquire new knowledge.Attentionis
also necessary for monitoring output, and thus dyslexicstudents are prone to making
mistakes even if they have acquired the relevant knowledge and skills. Difficultieswith

32
 What Is Dyslexia?

Table 2.3 Overview of non-linguistic problems experienced

by dyslexics
Smaller span of working memory
problems with arithmetic and memorizing multiplication
tables
Difficulties with handwriting
Gross motor-coordination problems
Problemswith sustained attention
Difficultiesin timevnanagementand organizing work
Difficulties in automatizing new skills

attention might also be the cause of difficultiesin time-management,keeping deadlines

and organizing academic work.
Dyslexicchildren and adults are often perceived to have difficulties with motor skills (for
a summary see Nicolson & Fawcett, 2008). Fine motor skills are needed for handwriting,
which explains why a large number of dyslexic children's handwriting is often difficult to
read (Miles, 1993). Gross motor-coordination problems such as difficulties in bicycle
riding and swimming have also been reported among dyslexic children (Augur,1985).
Finally, Nicolson and Fawcett (2008) additionally summarize evidence that dyslexic
children tend to be slow in automatizationwhen acquiringnew skills.
We have already pointed out above that with adequateinstruction,support from the home
environment and practise, reading and spelling difficulties might decrease, but dyslexic
adolescents and adults frequently continue to struggle with other problems associated
with dyslexia,such as problems with working memory,sustained attention and the
coordination of motor skills. Consequently, non-literacy related difficulties might be
important signs for teachers working with language learners past childhood age, and
these difficultiesmight sometimes need more attention in the classroom than problems
with reading and spelling (for an overviewof the difficulties see Table 2.3).

Cognitive and neurological

explanations of dyslexia
The most well known cognitive theory of the causes of dyslexia, which is based on the
models of reading and learning to read presented above, is the Phonological Deficit
Hypothesis (Stanovich, 1988; Vellutino, 1979). As its name suggests, the Phonological
Deficit Hypothesis assumes that dyslexia is caused by an underlying phonological
processing problem, namely impaired phonological awareness. Phonologicalawareness
has two levels: syllabic and phonernic knowledge. Syllabic knowledge entails the ability to
segment words into syllablesand manipulating syllablesin words (e.g.deletingor

33
 Teaching Languages to Students with Specific Learning Differences

adding syllables). Phonetnic knowledge involves the ability to divide words into
difTerentiatingsounds frotn each other and tnanipulating sounds (e.g. deleting,adding
and substituting sounds). The Phonological Deficit I lypothesis has receivedextensive
support through research, which has demonstrated that dyslexic people perform
significantlyworse in tasks requiring phonological awareness, such as non-wordreading
and non-word repetition, sound differentiation, letter recognition, deleting and adding
letters and syllables to words, than their non-dyslexicpeers. Support for decreased
phonological awareness in dyslexicpeople, in particular in phonemic knowledge,has
provided in a number of intervention studies, where significant improvement in reading
skills was achieved through training in phonemic awareness (for a review see Vellutino
et al., 2004). Difficultieswith phonological processing skills can provide a good
explanation for why dyslexic people have problems in lower level reading skills,
specificallyin word recognition, and why they experience spelling and speech perception
problems (see Figure 2.4). There seems to be a consensus among dyslexiaresearchers
that the underlying cognitive cause of reading difficulties in people with dyslexiais
phonological processing deficit. The question, however, is whether phonologicaldeficitis
the only cause of dyslexiaand what other underlying neurological problems mightexplain
dyslexicreading difficulties.The PhonologicalDeficit Hypothesis has been instrumental
in setting up remedial programmes for dyslexicchildren, which gave them Stapport
in acquiring sound-letter correspondences and helped to develop their phonological
awareness.
A modified version of the PhonologicalDeficit Hypothesis is the so-called Double.l)eficit
Hypothesis, which posits that, in addition to phonological processing problems, naming
speed deficits also play a role in developmental dyslexia. Research evidence suggeststhat
dyslexicchildren are significantlyslower in word naming tasks than people with no
apparent dyslexia (Denckla & Rudel, 1976), which might point to problems with thespeed
of processing in the case of dyslexic participants. Wolf and Bowers (1999) argued that
differences in naming speed and difficulties with phonological processing are two
independent sources of dyslexicreading problems (see Figure 2.5). They supportedtheir
theory by showing that students who experience reading difficulties can be dividedinto
three groups: those who exhibit speed problems; those with phonological processing
problems; and finallythe most severely impaired reading performance was associated

Reduced
phonological short
Phonological term memory
processing
problems Reduced phonemic
Reading difficulties
awareness
Difficulties in
syllabic knowledge

Figure 2.4 An illustration of the Phonological Deficit

Hypothesis

34
 What Is Dyslexia?

Reduced
phoneme
awareness

Phonological Difficulties in Reading

syllabic
problems knowledge difficulties

Reduced
phonological
short-term
memory capacity

Reduced
processing Slow decoding
speed mechanisms

Figure 2.5 An illustration of the Double-Deficit Hypothesis

with both phonologicalprocessingand naming speed. It has to be noted that most

studies that have tested the Double-DeficitHypothesis found that the majority of dyslexic
people have difficulties both in terms of speed and phonologicalprocessing (e.g. Lovett
et al., 2000; Pennington et al., 2001).These findings seem to suggest that the
Double-DeficitHypothesis might not be tenable. Nevertheless,the hypothesis had
important conseqt1(41ces for reading remediation because in addition to phonics support,
children also started to receive training in the fluency of letter and word-recognition.
A competing cognitive theory of dyslexia is based on the observation that dyslexia
frequentlyco-occurs with other types of learning differences such as motor coordination
problems (dyspraxia),general language processing difficulties (Specific Language
Impairment)and ADHD. Therefore,it might be argued that dyslexiais a manifestationof
a learning difference, which is not only restricted to reading. Nicolson and Fawcett (1990)
hypothesizedthat problems in the automatizationof new skillsare at the core of the
difficulties dyslexic children experience in different spheres of life. In their view, 'dyslexic
children will suffer problems in fluency for any skill that should become automatic
through extensive practice' (Nicolson & Fawcett,2008: 29). The illustration of their
conceptualizationof dyslexiacan be seen in Figure 2.6. If we consider the theories of
automaticitypresented above, this hypothesis claims that dyslexic children have problems
in the proceduralization of skills in general, and that they find it difficult to reach the
stage of automatic skilled performance not only in phonological processing but also in
fine and gross motor skills. Nicolson and Fawcett also developed a neurological model
that supports their hypothesis. In this model, which is called the Cerebellar Deficit
Hypothesis,they argue that a specific part of the brain, the cerebellum, is responsible for
procedural learning, and deficits in cerebellar functioning are responsible for the variety
of symptoms dyslexic individuals display in acquiring different skills. Although Nicolson

35
Teaching Languages to Students with Specific Learning Differences

Phonological
problems

Reading and
Automatization Reduced
difficulties speed spelling
difficulties

Working
memory
problems Handwriting
difficulties
Skill
development
problems Motor skills
problems

Figure 2.6 Illustration of the automaticity deficit hypothesis

and Fawcett's hypothesis is compatible with the assumption that the cognitivecauseof
dyslexiais phonological processing deficit, it has been criticized on methodological
grounds (for a review see Ramus, el al., 2003). Nevertheless, it is worth notingthatina
recent article Snowling (2008), who previously unequivocally supported the Phonological
Deficit Hypothesis, acknowledges that 'phonological deficits alone are insufficientto
explain literacy difficulties,and it is children with multiple deficits (includinglanguage
problems) that are more likely to succumb to reading failure' (p. 142). Recentresearch in
the field of behavioural genetics also suggests that learning differences do not onlyha\?
specific effects on cognitive functioning but also on general functioning, and thatlearning
differences restricted to one single module of cognitive processing are rare (Plomin
Kovas, 2005).

The present data suggest that it is not appropriate to question whether phonologicaldeficitis
necessary or sufficient to account for dyslexia —this kind of question depends on adopting
arbitrarycut-offs for defining deficits. If instead dyslexia is viewed as a continuouslydistributed
dimension, then those who fall at the lower end are more likely to have poor phonology.Butthey
are more likely to have other cognitive deficits as well. This is not to deny that specificdisorders
exist; indeed individuals with pure disorders are more likely to be recruitedto laboratory samples
as the findings of our study make clear. (Snowling, 2008: 153)

Another neurological theory of dyslexia relates the causes of literacy problemsto

difficulties in processing visual and auditory stimuli in the cerebral cortex,whichis the
part of brain involvedin understanding incoming speech. It was discoveredthatone
of the pathways in the brain that transmits auditory and visual signals, calledthe
magnocellular pathway, might be impaired in dyslexic people (Livingstone et al" 1991)'

36
 What Is Dyslexia?

Due to the fact that magnocellular pathways are responsible for processing both visual
and auditory stimuli, two different theories of dyslexia were developed: one in which the
visual pathway is affected (the Visual Magnocellular I Iypothesis) and another in which the
auditory pathway shows differential functioning (the Auditory Magnocellular Hypothesis).
The Visual Magnocellular Hypo[hesis is based on Lovegrove'sexperiments, in which it
was found that dyslexic people have difficulties in reading black print against a white
background (Martin & Lovegrove, 1987). The Auditory Magnocellular Hypothesis claims
that dyslexic children are slow in processing auditory stimuli. Neither of these theories
has received sufficient empirical support (for a review see Nicolson & Fawcett, 2008).
Finally,we need to mention that dyslexia might have genetic origins. Research evidence
suggests that male children who have either a dyslexicparent or a dyslexicsibling have a
chance of being dyslexic (Gayån & Olson, 1999). Advances in genetic research have
also been made in terms of identifying the potential genes that might be responsible for
dyslexia.Although the familial risk of dyslexia is very important in the diagnosis of
dyslexia,environmental factors often override the role of genetics. Thus, a home
environment in which literacy activities are supported and which creates optimal
conditions for the cognitive development of the child might reduce the severity of reading
difficultiesassociatedwith dyslexia.On the other hand, it is also worth noting that the
effectsof dyslexiain a familymight be cumulative.It might often be the case that
dyslexicparents cannot provide the necessaryliteracyand academicsupport to their
children, which might predispose them to reading problems. Moreover,dyslexia is often
the cause of reduced employability (see Chapter 9), and this might adversely affect
the social and economic status of the family, which again might contribute to the
development of reading problems in at-risk children.
In this chapter we provided an overviewof the history of dyslexia research and outlined
several definitions of dyslexia. We discussed the possible cognitive causes of dyslexia and
related these to general theories of learning and models of reading development. The
behavioural manifestations of dyslexia were also outlined in detail. We pointed out that
although dyslexia is primarily associated with problems related to literacy skills, it is
rare that dyslexia only manifests itself in the form of reading and spelling difficulties.
Therefore,teachers also need to be aware of the challengesthese learners face in other
aspects of academic performance and in their private lives. The next chapter will acquaint
readers with other types of learning differences that frequently co-occur with dyslexia.

37
Teaching Languages to Students with Specific Learning Differences

Summary of key points

International Dyslexia Association
The best available definition of dyslexia today is that of the
is neurologicalin origin.It is
according to which 'dyslexia is a specific learning disability that
recognition and by poor spelling
characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word
a deficit in the phonological
and decoding abilities. These difficulties typically result from
to other cognitive abilitiesandthe
component of language that is often unexpected in relation
provision of effectiveclassroom instruction.'
level, the cause of dyslexia
The mainstream position in dyslexia research is that, at the cognitive
is reduced phonological awareness.
limited to reading and spelling.
Dyslexia is a type of learning differencewhich is not only
of cognitive functioningsuchas
Literacy problems are frequentlyassociated with other areas
and automatization of knowledge
lack of sustained attention, difficulties in proceduralization
students have managedto
and problems with gross and fine motor skills. Even if dyslexic
difference is not likely to disappearand
overcome their literacy problems, their overall learning
it will affect them throughout their lives.
difficulties might be of
Dyslexia is dimensional and not an 'all or nothing' state. Dyslexic
with a variety of other learning
different degrees of severity and dyslexia might be associated
display very different strengths and
differences, which means that dyslexic individuals might
weaknesses.
family and the socio-economic
Dyslexia needs to be considered in the context of education, the
is of key importancefor
setting. Early identification and remediation of literacy problems
but also to avoid the negative
dyslexic children not only to ensure their academic success
and in creating a supportive
emotional experiencesof failure. Family support in literacy activities
important role in
atmosphere for the child's emotional and cognitive development plays an
whoare
reducing the effect of dyslexia on the child's future life and academic success. Children
relevant
at-risk of dyslexia in disadvantageous social settings need additional support from the
educational institutions. Great care must also be taken not to over-diagnose dyslexia in specific
social and cultural groups.

Activities
definition
1. What definition of dyslexia is used in your country? Discuss the implications of this
for diagnosis and teaching an L2.
2. What are the signs on the basis of which a language teacher might suspect that a studenthas
dyslexia?
3. Discuss the differenttheoriesof dyslexia presented in this chapter in terms of their explanatory
power with regard to the symptoms of dyslexia. Which symptoms can these theories account
for and which ones remain unexplained by them?
4. Interview a parent who has a dyslexic child. What difficulties does the parent give accountOf
concerning the child's experiencein everyday life and in schooP
5. Interview a dyslexic adult about the difficulties s/he experienced as a child in school and in
everyday life and about the problems that persist in adulthood.

38
 What Is Dyslexia?

Further reading
Frith, U. (1999). Paradoxes in the definition of dyslexia. Dyslexia,5, 192—214.
Shaywitz, S. (2003). Overcoming Dyslexia:A Newand CompleteScicncæ-hasedProgramfor
Reading Problems at any Level. New York: Alfred Knopf.

Vellutino, F.R., Fletcher, J.M., Snowling, M.J. & Scanlon, D.M. (2004). Specific reading
disability (dyslexia): What have we learned in the past four decades? Journal of Child
Psychologyand Psychiatry, 45, 2—40.

39