Design of Floating Offshore Platform: January 2021
Design of Floating Offshore Platform: January 2021
Design of Floating Offshore Platform: January 2021
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Technical Report
On
Foyez Ahmad
Student ID: 170011060
MCE – 4671: Fossil Fuel Engineering
23-12-2020
Summary: This technical report intends to provide a glimpse regarding floating offshore
platforms. Offshore platform is typically used in deep water oceans to extract minerals such as
crude oil, natural gas etc. from the underlying land. Here the paper is expected to bring about a
general understanding of how and which procedure they perform their work in addition to design
process.
Contents:
I. Introduction
II. Historical Development
III. Types of floating offshore platforms
IV. Tension Leg Platform (TLP)
• Background
• Structural Details of the TLP Platform
• Design Process of Tension Legs Platform
• Transportation of TLP
• Advantages and Disadvantages of the Tension Leg Platform
V. Semi-submersible Platform
• Background
• Configurations of Semi-submersibles Platform
• Types of Semi-submersible platform
• Design considerations of semi-submersible platform
• Transportation
• Advantages and disadvantages of Semi-submersible Platform
VI. SPAR Platform
• Background
• Structural Details of SPAR platform
• Configurations of SPAR platform
• Design Considerations of SPAR Platform
• Advantages and disadvantage of spar
VII. Floating Production, Storage and Offloading system (FPSO)
• Background:
• System Composition:
• design criteria
• advantages and disadvantages of FPSO
VIII. Case Study: Tension Leg Platform (TLP)
IX. Conclusions
X. References
Introduction: Offshore platform can be defined as a large structure at sea used to house crew
and machinery for exploration and production of natural resources such as fossil fuels from
beneath the ocean bed. The platform boasts storage facilities for crude and gas until they're
transported to refineries, and sometimes may also have facilities to provide accommodation to the
workforce. Larger lake- and sea-based offshore platforms are some of the largest transportable
man-made structures in the world. The platform has no fixed access to dry land and may be
required to stay in position in all weather conditions. Normally this type of platform is located
within the continental shelf however might be in deeper waters.[1]
Depending on the circumstances, offshore structures may be installed on the seabed or may be
floating. Floating structures may be attached to the seabed, dynamically mounted by thrusters, or
may be freely drifted. These platforms have hulls (columns and pontoons) with adequate buoyancy
to allow the structure to float, but with enough weight to hold the structure upright. By modifying
the amount of flooding in buoyancy tanks, semi-submersible platforms can be shifted from place
to place and can be ballasted up or down. . Floating offshore platforms are self-sufficient in energy
and water needs, containing electricity generation, water desalinators and all the facilities required
to handle oil and gas in such a manner that they can either be transported directly onshore by
pipeline or to a Floating Storage Unit or to a tanker loading station.
However the construction of a floating offshore platform is an expensive proposition and mobile
exploratory drilling rigs are used to dig wells in order to determine the presence or absence of
crude oil and natural gas at offshore. If there is an appropriate quantity of crude oil or natural gas,
the well shall be plugged before a permanent production platform is built. In addition, offshore
activities include the transport of crude oil and natural gas from offshore output to land refineries
and plants. Exploration, drilling and production of crude oil and natural gas requires a broad variety
of methods, many of which are close to those used by land-based exploration and production.
Nevertheless, offshore operations should introduce additional technology related to the maritime
environment. In comparison to crude oil and natural gas activities on land, offshore operations
include meteorology, naval architecture, mooring and anchoring techniques likewise as buoyancy,
stability, and trim of the vessel or platform.[2]
Historical Development: Offshore oil and gas exploration dates back to the nineteenth
century. In 1890, the first offshore oil wells were drilled from extended piers into the seas of the
Pacific Ocean, offshore Summerland, California. However, the birth of the offshore industry is
generally recognized to be around 20 feet (6.1 m) of water depth off the coast of Louisiana in 1947.
Today there are more than 7,000 offshore platforms in the water depths of up to 1,850m in 53
countries around the world. A large number of new oil would come from deep and ultra-deep water
extraction from three offshore regions known as the Golden Triangle: the Gulf of Mexico, West
Africa and Brazil.
Floating platforms are especially suitable for deepwater: Floating Production, Storage and
Offloading (FPSO), Semi-submersible, TLP and Spar. Among them, the Tension Leg Platform
(TLP) and the spar are the only floaters used today for dry trees. There is little standardization of
the floating units. Shell Offshore and its associates obtained substantial cost savings by
constructing multiple TLPs using common design practices. (i.e. Ram-Powell, Mars, Brutus). By
building the Nansen and Boomvang Spars identically, Kerr McGee obtained some savings.
However, for the most part, each deepwater field has been constructed for a "fit for purpose"
design.[3]
Types of floating offshore platforms: Floater types may be influenced by a set of factors
such as functionality, stability, motion, load or capability, transportability, reusability, etc. There
are mainly four distinct types of floating platforms:
i. Tension Leg Platform (TLP)
ii. Semi-submersible Platform
iii. Spar Platform
iv. Floating Production, Storage and Offloading system (FPSO)
Each platform has a notable difference in terms of architecture, efficiency, construction and
implementation. Like FPSOs, they have a moderately shallow draft, but a large waterplane area
where semi-submersibles have a limited waterplane area and a mild draft. Spars, on the other hand,
has a very deep draft and a moderate to small waterplane area.
Table: Distinctive functions of floaters[5]
Tension Leg Platform (TLP): Tension Leg Platform (TLP) is a vertically moored platform.
The mooring device performs the role of station-keeping and is essential to the safe operation of
offshore floating installations. The floating platform, with its excess buoyancy, is vertically
supported by taut mooring lines called tendons (or tethers). The structure is vertically restricted,
prohibiting vertical (heave) and rotational gestures (pitch and roll). It is horizontally compatible,
allowing lateral movements (surge and sway). The strength of this floating production system is
that it can be used to develop deep-water oil fields with a depth of up to 600 m.
The platform is permanently anchored by means of tethers or tendons organized at each corner of
the frame. A feature of the construction of the tethers is that they have relatively high axial stiffness
(low elasticity) such that nearly all vertical motion of the platform is neglected. That ensures that
the platform will have the production wells on the deck (with rigid rises linked directly to the
underwater wells), rather than on the shore. Subsequently, this enables faster completion of the
well, increases regulation of oil or gas reservoir production and easier access for downhole
intervention operations.[3]
Background: Since the early 1980s, TLPs have been in use. The first tension leg platform was
installed in the early 1980s for the Conoco Hutton field in the North Sea. The hull was constructed
in the dry dock at the highland manufacturer's Nigg yard in the north of Scotland, with the deck
portion being built at the McDermott yard at Ardersier. The two parts were put together in the
Moray Firth in 1984.
Originally, the Hutton TLP was planned for a service life of 25 years at depths of 100 to 1000
meters in the Nord Sea. Typically big TLPs will usually have a full drilling rig on the platform
from which to dig and operate on the wells. Smaller TLPs may have a workover rig or, in a few
cases, no production wellheads placed on the platform at all. A TLP example is the Ursa (Shell Oil
Company) platform, which was scheduled to begin production in 1999. This platform is installed
in 4,000 ft of water, the largest structure in the Gulf of Mexico and will have a depth record for a
drilling platform and production platform. Additional models of the TLP include the SeaStar and
MOSES versions with a mini TLP, comparatively low cost in depths of 600-3,500 ft (200 and
1,100 m).In water depths ranging from 600 to 3500 feet, SeaStar platforms are available. British
Borneo is preparing to construct the world's first SeaStar in the Gulf of Mexico in the Ewing Bank
at a depth of 1,700 ft. British Borneo considers Morpeth for this prospect. [1]
• Hull
• Topsides
• Production Risers
• Export Risers
• Tendons
• Foundations
• Wellhead
Hull: A standard TLP hull has a square setup with a horizontal ring pontoon that connects four
vertical columns. Alternatively, the mini-TLPs have a smaller water-plane region with either a
single central column or four broadly spaced small columns, and an expanded immersed pontoon
frame with 3 or 4 radiating pontoons to provide a substantial foundation for tendon attachment.
The purpose of the hull seems to be, in all situations, to provide buoyancy and structural stability
to support the topsides and the production and export risers and tendons. It is important that the
TLP hull have adequate buoyancy to sustain the total weight and retain the tendons at the necessary
tension level required for safe service.
Production Risers: The key functionality of the TLP concept is to provide sufficiently regulated
motions to allow the use of rigid top-tensioned production risers that sustain relatively traditional
dry-surface trees. These risers are stabilized by a topside (or hull) frame using a tensioning system
(usually designed as multiple hydraulic or pneumatic tensioners) that accommodates relatively
minor vertical motions between the risers and the TLP when exposed to wind, wave and current.
The designs now also include the E-TLP, which has a ring pontoon linking the four air-filled
columns; the Moses TLP, which controls the four-column hull; and the SeaStar TLP, which
contains only one central column for the hull.
Export Risers: Export risers are used to transport the supply of refined oil and gas from the TLP
to the subsea pipeline channel. Export risers are either high-tensioned rigid risers, identical to
production risers, flexible risers (using flexible pipes) or Steel Catenary risers (SCRs).
Tendons: Tendons are used to firmly attach the TLP to the seafloor, as well as to restrict TLP
horizontal excursions and shear, roll and pitch motions. In order to preserve stability and/or
position of the TLP, the tendons should always be in a particular stress range. Usually, there must
be eight to twelve tendons for the configuration of four column hulls (two or three tendons per
column) and either six or eight tendons for the configuration of mini-TLP hulls (with two tendons
for each of the three or four horizontal legs).
Foundations: Early TLP's, like Jolliet in the GOM, used subsea Template(s) which were piled to
the seafloor to protect the lower ends of the tendons. Starting with Mars, all of the GOM TLPs
used a vertical pile operated for each tendon as a foundation. Other types of foundations have been
used in other areas, especially where soils vary from traditional GOM sediments. That involve
large gravity based caissons and/or suction pile foundations.
Wellhead: For TLPs that support top-tensioned risers and surface trees, the wellhead for each well
is mounted on the sea floor immediately below the TLP and is used to attach the riser to the well
casing system
Deck: The topside of the TLP is the same as the standard production platform, consisting of a deck
that keeps the drilling and production equipment, the power module and the living space. Dry tree
wells are typical to TLPs due to reduced vertical movement on platforms.[3]
The tethers are designed for high axial stiffness (low elasticity), so that almost all vertical
rotation of the platform is omitted. This enables the platform to provide the production wellheads
at the deck (directly linked by rigid risers to the subsea wells) instead of at the seabed. This
makes the production of oil or gas reservoirs cheaper and provides greater power.[2]
The first semi-submersible landed by accident in 1961. Blue Water Drilling Company owned and
run the four-column drilling rig Blue Water Rig No. 1 in the Gulf of Mexico for the Shell Oil
Company. As the pontoons were not adequately buoyant to withstand the weight of the rig and
its consumables, it was towed between the draught positions halfway between the top of the
pontoons and the bottom of the deck. It was noticed that the motions at this draught were very
small, and Blue Water Drilling and Shell collectively agreed that the rig should be run in floating
mode. In 1963, the first purpose built semi-submersible drilling Ocean Driller was launched.
There were 30 semi-submersible units by 1972.[1]
Classification: Drilling semis can be divided into sixth generations based on the year built and
water depth capability:
The first generation, starting with the "Bluewater I," includes a wide range of configurations
developed throughout the 1960s. A lack of technical exchange, a lack of consistent design theory,
and the fact that no one design demonstrated a full understanding of the important concepts of
semi-submersible design were the key elements influencing design during this time. The majority
of the units constructed were created by the 2nd generation. A higher level of diffusion of design
and performance experience was a significant feature of this era. There is a very sharp boundary
between the 2nd and 3rd centuries. Just two units were delivered in 1979 and there were none in
1980. [9]
Types of Semi-submersible platform: Based on the way the rig is submerged in the
water, there are two main types of semisubmersibles:
• Bottle-type semi-submersible
• Column-stabilized semi-submersible
Bottle-type semi-submersible: Bottle-type semi-submersible consists of bottle-shaped hulls
below the drilling deck, and can be submerged by loading the hulls with water. The first incarnation
of this type of semi-submersible the bottle-type drilling rig was initially conceived as submersible
rigs. As a submersible, the bottles under the rig is fully submerged, floating on the ocean bottom.
As a semi-submersible, the platform provided excellent stability for drilling activities, and the
rolling and pitching of waves and winds was significantly minimized. In addition to intermittent
environmental hazards, such as earthquakes, cyclones or hurricanes, some fracking sites are often
harsh with persistent rough waters. Being able to drill in deeper and rougher waters, semi-
submersible has opened up a new avenue for discovery and development.
Column-stabilized semi-submersible: Column-stabilized semi-submersible platform is a more
common semi-submersible platform. Here, two horizontal hulls are attached to the drilling deck
above the water through cylindrical or rectangular columns. To support the structure, smaller
diagonal columns are used. The submersion of this type of semi-submersible is accomplished by
partly filling the horizontal hulls with water before the rig is submerged to the desired depth.
Mooring lines anchor the rig over the well, and complex positioning will help hold the semi-sub
on-site as well. Further the column stabilized semisubmersible platform design can be classified
as follows:
• Ring Pontoon Semisubmersible: Ring-pontoon designs usually have one constantly
lower hull serving 4-8 vertical columns (pontoons and nodes). The vertical columns
support the upper hull (deck).
• Twin Pontoon Semisubmersible: The Twin Pontoon designs have two lower hulls
(pontoons), each supporting 2-4 vertical columns. The 4-8 vertical columns protect the
upper hull (deck). In addition, diagonal bracelets protecting the deck and horizontal
bracelets linking the pontoons or columns can be reinforced.[10]
Transportation: All SSPs are usually built in onshore (fabrication yard) for economic purposes
and after completion of production, filled and shipped to offshore. Offshore installations that are
heavier can be reached or weigh 10,000 tons or more. So it has to be moved, usually by slipping,
into the water or onto a wide, overweight lift craft that can carry it to its target. Basic technological
constraints for moving systems include load flexibility at the quay, depth of water and wave
hazards. The study of sea fastening before transporting the platform is carried out.
When loading, the alignment and balance of the watercraft required to be adjusted and corrected
to be constantly corrected to secure the geometry and tidy, suitable to the loading operation.
Commonly both the structure and the vessel require correct load and transport tension. Sea
fastenings should have ample resistance to a heavy hurricane for long-distance sea transport.[11]
Spar Platform: A spar is a type of floating oil platform broadly used in very deep waters and
is named for logs used as buoys in shipping that are vertically moored. Spar production platforms
have been installed as an alternative to conventional platforms. The deep draft design of the spars
makes them less affected by wind, waves and tides and facilitates both dry-tree and subsea
production. SPAR platforms are one of the largest offshore platforms in operation. The spar is the
only effective dry-tree solution for deep-water production that can work efficiently in the deepest
and most extreme conditions. They are moored to the seabed like the TLP, but although the TLP
has vertical tension tethers, the SPAR has more conventional mooring lines.
The Spar Platform consists of a single vertical cylinder with a wide diameter supporting the deck.
It has a standard FP topside (surface deck with drilling and processing equipment), three types of
risers (production, drilling and export) and a hull moored using a 6-20 line taut catenary framework
bolted into the sea floor. Spars are the most prominent in the US Gulf of Mexico; however, there
are also offshore spars installed in Malaysia and Norway.[2]
Background: The Brent Spar, a structure designed for storing and discharge of crude oil goods,
was the first spar. It was mounted in June 1976 at Brent Field. Greenpeace's proposed deep-sea
dumping of the base in the 1990s generated a major backlash. Eventually, the spar was removed
and sections were used in Norway as a base for a quay. The Neptune Spar, installed in 1996 by
Oryx Energy Company (now Kerr-McGee) and CNG, was the first production Spar in the world.
The hull of the Neptune Spar is 705 feet (215 m) long with a center-well of 32 x 32 ft2 (10 x 10
m2) and a diameter of 72 ft (22 m). Six lines composed of a wire rope and a cord composed of the
mooring system.
The first three production Spars consisted of a long cylindrical outer shell with "hard tanks" close
to the top to provide buoyancy. The middle section was empty, free of flooding and the lower
section consisted of "soft tanks" which were used mainly to enable the Spar to float horizontally
during installation and to keep the ballast fixed. A third generation “cell” Spar was introduced in
2004. It is identical to that of the other Spars, but it is built differently. The hull consists of several
ring-shaped tubes or "cells" which are bound by horizontal and vertical plates. This is less
expensive than the conventional approaches of plate and frame.
Structural Details of SPAR platform: Three types of production spars have been built to
date: the “Classic” and “Truss” spars shown in and recently the third generation cell spar (Finn
and Maher, 2003). The main structural parts of the classic and truss spar include:
• Deck
• Hard Tank
• Midsection (steel shell or truss structure)
• Soft Tank
Deck: The Topsides Deck is usually a multi-level structure to mitigate the cantilever requirement.
For decks of up to 18,000 tons, the deck weight is balanced by four columns connecting the hard
tank at the intersection of the radial bulkhead with the outer shell. Additional columns for heavier
decks are adjusted. Decks of up to 10,000 tons can be built offshore with a single lift. Larger decks
require a variety of lifts.
Hard Tank: "Hard Tank" means that the compartments are designed to endure maximum
hydrostatic pressure. There are usually five or six tank levels between the spar deck and the bottom
of the hard tank, each of which is detached by a watertight deck. Each level is further divided into
four compartments by radial bulkheads emanating from the center well corner. The tank level at
the waterline requires extra cofferdam tanks to minimize the submerged volume in the case of
intrusion of the outer hull due to a ship collision. There are also up to 28 different compartments
in the hard tank.
Midsection: The Midsection reaches below the hard tank to give the spar its deep draft. In the
early "classic" spars, the mid-section was basically an addition of the outer shell of hard tanks.
There was no internal structure, except as needed to provide support for the range of risers in the
mid-section. This "truss spar" arrangement resulted in a lighter weight, cheaper hull construction.
Even, the truss has less drag and lowers total mooring loads in high-current conditions.
Soft Tank: The Soft Tank at the bottom of the spar is intended to provide floatation during the
construction process while the spar is floating horizontally. It also includes compartments for the
positioning of the fixed ballast until the spar is overturned. The soft tank has a centerwell and a
keel guide that controls the risers at that stage.[5]
Design Considerations of SPAR Platform: All SPAR platforms utilize strakes to minimize
vortex-induced motion. Anodes are commonly found in SPAR hulls to reduce corrosion. Every
design upgrades the older model and provides better features at a reduced cost. Depending on the
work, various topside decks may be connected to SPARs. Some of these decks are:
1. Maximum weight of the topsides and risers supported by the spars that needs to be
accommodated
2. Eccentricity of the deck which needs to be trimmed by variable ballast
3. Area required in the centrewell to enclose risers and buoyancy cans
4. Maximum pitch motions in a 100-year event less than about 10°
5. Centrewell sufficient to support the riser buoyancy cans and other riser requirements
6. Maximum riser stroke less than about ± 15 ft
7. Ability to be single piece transported on a heavy lift vessel
8. Ability to float-off heavy lift vessel (maximum draft less than 10m)
Spay Hull Sizing Parameters: Apart from the centrewell size, the key sizing parameters for the
spar hull include:
1. Diameter
2. Hard Tank Depth
3. Fixed Ballast
4. Draft
5. Fairlead Elevation
The minimum weight (or cost) configuration that satisfies all of the requirements is chosen as the
baseline configuration. At this point, some restrictions may be considered. In addition to the
limitations on the transport proposal, other requirements may include:
• Maximum hull diameter for easy construction at a particular yard
• Minimum length of hard tank to enclose buoyancy cans
• Optimum diameter for accommodating deck leg spacing[12]
Floating Production, Storage and Offloading system (FPSO): FPSOs are the most
prominent floating platforms for production. This floating production system is a floating
production storage and offloading system (FPSO) with production and processing equipment,
water (gas) equipment, public facilities, and living facilities mounted on a ship with storage and
an offloading vessel. Oil and gas are sent to the single point mooring structure (SMS) through
pipes at the seabed, and then sent to the FPSO to be attached to the SMS, by way of a riser and
soft pipe connected to the SMS, finally to the refining system. Properly trained crude oil is stored
by the FPSO and sent to the shuttle tanker after evaluation and treatment of the calibration. FPSOs
are usually ship-shaped floaters with arrangements for storing and offloading of oil at the same
time. They may be built so that they still face the weather, eliminating rolls and heave
movements.[2]
Background: FPSOs have been utilized in offshore production since the 1970s, usually within
the North Sea, offshore Brazil, Asia Pacific, the Mediterranean Sea, and offshore West Africa.
Moreover, since these structures can be moved, they are a more economical option for more
marginal regions, as the vehicle can be transferred to further growth and redeployed once the initial
region has been drained. Oil has been produced in offshore areas since the late 1940s. The first
FPSO oil was installed in 1977 in shell Castellon on the Mediterranean Sea of Spain. Early FPSOs
were limited to mild conditions that permitted the use of tankers conversions. The turret mooring
was installed in 1986, and in turn raised the door for the FPSOs into more crucial environments.
The first North Sea FPSOs were also launched that year. Today, the North Sea and Brazil are the
main FPSO industries. Despite their existence in the offshore oil-producing regions of the world,
there was no single FPSO in the Gulf of Mexico since 2004. The US government has only recently
allowed its use in the Gulf of Mexico, but no oil company has made a plan to build one since
2004.[3]
System Composition: The floating production device has another term, namely that the main
component is an oil tanker with the purpose of storing and offloading oil (FSO). (FSO). The crude
oil and gas is only extracted elsewhere, given the lack of an oil, gas, and water extraction and
processing infrastructure. Then the FSO receives qualified oil and gas to store through submarine
pipelines. Frequently, the oil tanker is shipped. A little old tanker can be changed to the FSO and
the construction time is short.
Design criteria of Hull: There are four major criteria regulating the scale of a standard FPSO;
• Provision of oil storage space consistent with the pace of production and offloading
arrangements, i.e. turnaround time for the shuttle tanker
• Provision of the topsides for the safe layout of the process plant, the storage and utilities
• Provision of displacement and hydraulic capacity to reduce the impact of movements on
process plant and riser structures.
• Provision of area for the production turret (bow, stern or internal). As a result, the sum of
hull storage capacity reduced (new-build or conversion).
The length of the hull should be modified with respect to the expected wavelengths to ensure that
intense environmental conditions do not produce wavelengths located beyond the range of peak
heave and/or pitch response, thereby minimizing turret vertical motion and related dynamic loads.
This optimization also eliminates the need for specific topside configuration criteria for process
equipment, such as baffles for separators. In recent FPSO advancements, there have been instances
where FPSO cargo carrying capacity is not measured against the initial production flow rate, but
further into production life, where decreased and more economical storage can be accomplished.
Floater functional requirements:
Advantages of FPSOs:
Limitations of FPSO:
i. It can take up to two years to turn a tanker into an FPSO. Although it is something that
has to be addressed, the construction of a pipeline is considerably quicker.
ii. Companies can find that they compete with their own infrastructure dependent on
pipelines which can be considered as self-competition
iii. The initial expense of the FPSO could be higher than the cost of constructing a big
offshore fixed platform.
iv. Limited to small fields operation
v. Very low deck load capacity
vi. Might be damaged to riser due to motion.
Materials used in the design: Selection of strength and consistency standards for steel, cement,
concrete and other materials for the platform, base and other elements will typically meet the
requirements widely used for offshore structures. The tendons work under high-cycle fatigue stress
superimposed on the mean stress tensile load in the seawater environment. The material should
have sufficient fracture strength to withstand the largest non-rejectable welding fault permitted by
the tendon manufacturing standard at full load design and minimum exposure temperatures.
Resistance to stress corrosion cracking under working conditions is important, since it is difficult
to detect such cracks during operation.
Environmental, seafloor and regulatory conditions: It is the duty of the operator to choose the
environmental data required. The diverse nature of the TLP allows the platform designer to work
closely with the meteorological-oceanographic expert to create the data and interpretation in the
form required for the technical design/analysis methods to be used. The characteristics of the
seafloor are collected by surveys of the seafloor location. Seafloor site survey used to collect data
for the geological assessment of the foundation soils and the nearby regions. It is often used to
classify aquatic hazards that may cause operational risks, such as pockmarks, shallow gas, near-
surface faults, debris flows and hard land.[8]
Loads used for the design of the TLP’s: Dead loads are non-variable static loads of TLPs. This
aspects of the structure of the platform and any permanent equipment do not alter over the life of
the structure. Live loads are variable static loads which can be adjusted, transferred or replaced
over the life of the structure. Maximum and minimum payload must be considered.
• Wind Forces
• Ice Loads
• Wave Impact Forces
• Earthquakes
• Accidental Loads
• Fire and Blast Loading
Tension of the mooring leg: The mooring leg should be strained, i.e. the tension value is positive.
In fact, the difference in tension should be as low as possible.
Platform motion cycle: In order to avoid vibration, the six-degree cycle of freedom of movement
of the platform should be expanded past the real wave cycle.
Platform geometry: As long as the other performance is not affected, we should follow a steel-
saving program that is convenient for replacement and maintenance. We ought to pay a great deal
of attention to the fatigue power of the stress leg and consider corrosion.
TLP tendon mechanics: TLP is held in place by means of lateral forces produced by tendons as
the TLP is pushed out of the center. The lateral force relies on the tension of the tendon. As a
result, a large portion of the TLP buoyancy is focused on the development of tendon tension. In
addition, though dynamic mooring loads of other floating systems are effectively lessened by the
platform inertia, the mooring loads of the TLPs are directly connected to the first wave loads on
the structure. The left side of the TLP demonstrates the forces acting on the TLP in still water
without lateral loading. The total weight is given as:
W= Wo + 𝛿W
Here, V = displacement volume of the hull; ρ = mass density of the seawater; g = acceleration of
gravity the buoyant force is expressed as (ρ g∇). Tt =the individual tendon tension and nt = number
of tendons.
Installation procedures of the tension leg platform: Installation procedures for the
tension leg platform are as follows:
a) At First the anchor pile is installed in the predetermined submarine location, and then the tension
leg platform is placed at a location about 40m away from the horizontal position of the anchor pile.
b) The tension leg is lifted to the turnbuckle motion compensator that is the same as that on the
drilling platform.
c) Then the tension leg platform is moved and it is adjusted to be accurately located above the
anchor pile.
d) The anchor joints (anchor connector) are made on the tension leg insert into the anchor pile.
e) The anchor joint is locked.
f) Finally the remaining tension leg is installed.
Conclusion: Due to the excellent capabilities of extracting natural gas or crude oil by means of
operating several operations, offshore floating platforms play an enormous role in the related
industry. Each type of platform is chosen mainly considering the depth of the water and the deck
material required to perform its service. Like FPSOs, they have a relatively shallow draft, but a
wide water-plane area where semi-submersibles have a small water-plane area and a mild draft.
On the other side, Spars have a very deep draft and a medium to minimal region of the waterplane.
Each platform is suitable for each specific purpose and field of operation zone. If ultra deep water
oil extraction is required then Spar platform is the best option. Besides this, considering small field
operation, FPSOs are the most prominent for providing great opportunities of early production as
well as storage facility. Although several other issues need to be discussed, the paper presents the
whole procedure in a straightforward and simple way.
References:
[1] R. Sharma, “An introduction to offshore platforms,” no. December, 2019, doi:
10.13140/RG.2.2.31319.21925.
[2] J. G. Speight, Offshore Platforms. 2015.
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