Theories and Perspectives of Victimology

The concept of a “victim” can be traced back to ancient societies. It was connected to the
notion of sacrifice. In the original meaning of the term, a victim was a person or an animal
put to death during a religious ceremony in order to appease some supernatural power or
deity. Over the centuries, the word has picked up additional meanings. Now it commonly
refers to individuals who suffer injuries, losses, or hardships for any reason. People can
become victims of accidents, natural disasters, diseases, or social problems such as warfare,
discrimination, political witch hunts, and other injustices. Crime victims are harmed by
illegal acts.
Victim: the word victim is derived from the Latin word ‘Victima’ referring to an animal or
living sacrifice which as a concept of sacrifice offered to a temple or deity and first indicated
in Bible as a concept of suffering of weak at the hands of aggressor. The concept revolved
around the incidents of Abel and Cain which was first recorded history of a murderer. The
first recorded use of the word referring to a person was circa in 1690 and indicated someone
who was tortured, hurt or killed by another. Currently ‘victim’ means any living entity that
experiences injury, loss or hardship due to any act as follows:
 By criminal act
 By religious sacrifice
 By oppression, tyranny or war
 By voluntary undertaking
 By tricking or fraud
 By any supernatural calamity
According to Correctional and Conditional Release Act 1992, Victim means
a) A person to whom harm was done or suffers physical or emotional damage as a result
of commission of an offence.
b) Where the person is dead ill or otherwise incapacitated any person solely or partly
depending upon him or her.
Victimization: Victimization is an asymmetrical interpersonal relationship that is abusive,
painful, destructive, parasitical, and unfair. While a crime is in progress, offenders
temporarily force their victims to play roles that mimic the dynamics between predator and
prey, winner and loser, victor and vanquished and even master and slave. In other words
victimization is the process of being victimized or becoming a victim weather its direct or
indirect. 
Victimology: The term Victimology was first used by Benjamin Mendelsohn in 1937 in His
writings. Victimology is the study of victimization, including the relationships between
victims and offenders, the interactions between victims and the criminal justice system that
is, the police and courts, and corrections officials and the connections between victims and
other social groups and institutions, such as the media, businesses, and social
movements. Victimology is however not restricted to the study of victims of crime alone but
may include other forms of human rights violations. Victimology is the scientific study of the
physical, emotional, and financial harm people suffer because of illegal activities.
Victimologists first and foremost investigate the victims’ plight: the impact of the injuries
and losses inflicted by offenders on the people they target. In addition, Victimologists carry
out research into the public’s political, social, and economic reactions to the plight of victims.
Victimologists also study how victims are handled by officials and agencies within the
criminal justice system, especially interactions with police officers, detectives, prosecutors,
defense attorneys, judges, probation officers, and members of parole boards. Victimology is
the Study of victims in their own social context.
Criminology: Criminology is the scientific approach to studying criminal behavior. In their
classic definition, preeminent criminologists Edwin Sutherland and Donald Cressey state:
Criminology is the body of knowledge regarding crime as a social phenomenon. It includes
within its scope the processes of making laws, of breaking laws, and of reacting toward the
breaking of laws. . . . The objective of criminology is the development of a body of general
and verified principles and of other types of knowledge regarding this process of law, crime,
and treatment.
Sutherland and Cressey’s definition includes some of the most important areas of interest to
criminologists:
❚ Crime as a social phenomenon
❚ The processes of making laws
❚ Of breaking laws and reacting toward the breaking of laws
❚ Development of a body of general and verified
The term criminology was coined in 1885 by Italian law professor Raffaele
Garofalo as criminologia. Criminology is the scientific study of crime, including its causes,
responses by law enforcement, and methods of prevention. It is a sub-group of sociology,
which is the scientific study of social behavior. There are many fields of study that are used
in the field of criminology, including biology, statistics, psychology, psychiatry, economics,
and anthropology.
Victimogenesis :“Victimogenesis” refers to the origin or cause of a victimization; the
constellation of variables which caused a victimization to occur.
Offender: The word offender was first introduced in 1275-1325 from Latin offendere which
means to strike against, displease against. Offender means a person who

1. Causes to irritate, annoy, or anger; cause resentful displeasure in any act

2.  Affects the sense, taste, etc disagreeably.

3. Violates or transgress a criminal, religious, or moral law.

4. Causes hurt or cause pain to others.

When there is the study of Victimology involved offender is a frequent word to be acquainted
with. In a sense offender is the person responsible for causing hardship maybe of any kind on
the victim.

Aim of Victimological Study:

1. To conduct research on victim related issues.

2. To identify the needs of victims.
3. To develop methodology and intervention statutes and strategies.
4. To explore possibilities of victims.
5. To help the victims holistic approach.
6. To develop a system of measures to reduce victimization.
Objectives:
1. To achieve the specific goals of victim needs.
2. To study victims in their social context.
3. To study crimes committed against victims.
4. To study various victims who are silent sufferers of society.
5. To explore the availability of resources for betterment of the victims.
6. To facilitate rehabilitation for the victims.
7. To empower the victim so that they can get integrated in the society once again.
8. To analyze the requirement of changes in the government policy decision.
9. To create awareness regarding victims though social services.
10. To provide assistance to the victims through social services.
11. To raising awareness among the victims to make them aware of their own rights.
 12. To investigate alternative ways to handle victims.
13. To provide insights to the victims and potential victims and challenges facing by
them.
14. To humanize the victims in systematic ways.
15. To find out various reasons of victimization.

Scope and field of Victimology: A basic goal of Victimology is to facilitate the ' Well-
being' and Social functioning of the victims of various reasons. Each of the key concepts in
this statement is essential to the understanding of the scope of Victimology. The World
Health Organization (W.H.O.) recognizes social well-being as an integral component of a
person’s overall state of health, complementary to, but different from, physical, mental and
spiritual well-being. Social functioning refers to the way people perform their social roles and
to the way societies provide structural supports to help them perform their roles. The person-
in-environment perspective refers to the victims of crime and other unfortunate incidents. At
the core of Victimological practice, these concepts guide the work of Victimologists in
diverse fields of service. However, depending on the chosen area of practice, the roles and
responsibilities of Victimologists can widely vary. For this reason, it is proposed that this
scope of practice statement be more clearly defined, in order to effectively examine the
bounds of the Victimology. The scope of social work has several defining elements.
Practice Domain: The central mission is to have a plan a developmental scheme that will
improve social well-being structures and enhance individual, family and community social
functioning at local, national and international levels ensuring they likely not become victims.
Practice Preparation: In order to formulate a better environment for victims and improving
their condition education and knowledge in the relative field is necessary which includes
knowledge both basic and institutional along with practice is mandatory. Study in
Victimology field has developed now in many countries and many countries are adopting the
discipline along with criminology. So for better understanding and improving the victims
field university level education such as honors and masters and if possible PhD might be
considered as a kick start for preparation of practice of a Victimologists. It can undoubtedly
be said no new additions can be contributed without formal education or training at some
level.

Practitioners: Victimologists are expected to have a comprehensive understanding of the

complex nature of their own person-in-environment systems. They are prepared to rise above
personal biases and preferences to advance the social well-being of victims through their
developmental Schemes. Practitioners of Victimological Knowledge are instructed to
constantly monitor and evaluate personal and professional influences that bear on the
scientific and intuitive ways they use themselves as change agents in practice situations. At
the professional level, they are expected to perform a variety of professional roles, integrate
the relevant codes of professional conduct that apply to their practice activities and adhere at
all times to explicit standard of care tenets
Developmental Methods: Developmental methods for victims are rooted in the early
adoption of a clearly stated study, diagnosis and treatment process to systematize practice in a
person-in environment context. Implementation of the practice process was initially done
through a variety of fields of practice, including Victim welfare, Victim services, medical
work, psychiatric work, schooling work, and several method specialties
Future Direction: Victimology's original scope of practice was broadly defined by its
pioneering and value based victims of various reason perspective, which shifted to a narrower
scope defined by practice methods and the influence of scientific methods of intervention.
Today, Victimological developments are influenced by the scientific method but the sphere
of influence is broadening again to include new advances being made in the humanities and
sciences. The profession’s distinguishing focus on relationship networks between people in
their social environment contexts will continue to be a valued aspect of its scope of practice
and increasingly a focus borrowed by other helping professions. Specific agenda should be
followed so that there is room for future improvements.

Importance of Victimology: Victimology is important not only to educate citizens about

behaviors that place them at risk for becoming victims, but it also helps those working in
criminal justice, law enforcement and mental health better assist victims. Through
understanding the psychological effects criminal acts have on victims, members of the
criminal justice system are better equipped to guide them through the stressful process of
prosecuting offenders. The Importance of Victimology can be realized in the following ways:

 Victimology focuses on the crime on the perspective of victims who are the actual
sufferer of the offence, it gives the society an ample view of crimes in victims view
which is necessary for doing any sort of justice.
  Victimology focuses on needs of the victims of crime and provides various schemes
so that they can be reintegrated into the society.

 Victimology is important for changing the view of society towards the victims of
crime e.g.- specially social stigma towards victims of sexual offences.

 Victimology is necessary for studying victims in their own social context and
sociological reasons if any for victimization.

 Victimology explores the available resources in the society for the betterment of
victims.

 Victimology provides various theories of victimization and analyzes requirement of

change in the governmental policies and social policies for reducing victimization.

 Victimology promotes various social services aiming for betterment of victims and
also raising awareness among the victims for ensuring their own rights.

 Victimology also provides developmental methods for the present criminal justice
system for better assistance and successful prosecution of offenders.

 Victimology provides insights to the victims and potential victims and challenges
facing by them.

 Lastly the study of Victimology is important as it prescribes various counseling and

correctional methods for victims and offenders.

Similarities between Criminology and Victimology: All too often, society is inclined to
allow criminals to receive leniency for their crimes as a result of the environment in which a
person may have existed. Even if the criminal was not influenced by their environment to
commit the crime, the criminal is liable to adopt the persona of the victim in order to gain
sympathy. This is often successful because when more well-off individuals are in the
presence of those that are considered to be less fortunate, they may feel guilt. In many cases,
this guilt is not necessary. However, if an individual begins to express their opinion that by
adopting the role of a victim the criminal is dodging the responsibility of the crime, they will
likely be criticized greatly for their thoughts. Victimology, even if it is sincere, is often a way
in which individuals justify a crime to themselves and to others. For example, one of the most
commonly held beliefs within the United States of America is that of the great American
dream, in which everyone is happy, living in a nice house and the parents have stable
occupations making a comfortable living for their families. This does not at all reflect the
reality of inner city slums and poor rural areas. By clinging to the belief that no matter what,
even without trying in some cases, individuals deserve to experience the American dream,
they may be inclined to take what they feel they deserve rather than try to work for it. Some
people will rationalize that they have no means to work for this dream, and they had no
choice but to act out in the way that they did. However, this blaming of society does not
change the reality of the situations. By allowing one person to get away with a crime because
of a victim mentality would be a slap in the face to the people that do work to succeed.
Herein lays the most important parallel between Victimology and Criminology. While it is
simple to blame society for one’s troubles, this does not begin to solve the problem.
Individuals from all sides need to think about how the society may impact the role of the
criminal and to take steps in order to change things. This way, when an individual tries to
adopt a victim mentality, we can state as a society that there were other options. By outlining
the different options in such a setting, even more people can be exposed to the ways in which
society is working to stabilize equality between different categories of individuals and work
to reduce crime as a product of environment or surroundings. Criminology works to examine
how society and the criminal interact, and this needs to be looked at under extreme scrutiny
in order to find the causes of problems and work towards successful solutions. There are also
instances in which those who are perceived to be in a seat of power will become corrupt. It is
important to look at this too. Individuals may attempt to adopt a victim role in this scene as
well in order to appeal to the sympathetic public. Aside from sociopaths, individuals have
moral standards that will tell them what is wrong and what is right. For anyone to adopt the
role of the victim in order to gain sympathy is a ploy against the considerate nature of others.
When it comes to crime, the people that should be playing the role of the victim are those
who were victimized during the act of the crime. For individuals that live, they are many
times much stronger than people may have believed them to be, and it is nauseating that the
criminal will then try to adopt a role that the person they violated will not even take on in the
court room.

Difference Between Criminology And Victimology:

Points Criminology Victimology

Definiti Criminology is the body of Victimology is the scientific study of the physical,
on knowledge regarding crime as a emotional, and financial harm people suffer
social phenomenon. It includes because of illegal activities. Victimology is the
within its scope the processes of Study of victims in their own social context.
making laws, of breaking laws,
and of reacting toward the
breaking of laws (Sutherland)

Origin The term Victimology was first The term  criminology  was coined in 1885 by
used by Benjamin Mendelsohn Italian law professor  Raffaele
in 1937 in His writings. Garofalo as criminologia.

Researc Criminology is an Victimology is the study of repeat victims, whether

h Area interdisciplinary field in they are individual victims, groups, organizations,
the behavioral sciences, or places 
drawing especially on the
research
of sociologists and psychologist
s, as well as on writings in law.

Main The objective of criminology is To study victims in their social context and to
Objectiv the development of a body of study crimes committed against victims.
e general and verified principles
and of other types of knowledge
regarding the process of law,
crime, and treatment.

Social Criminology examines the Victimology examines the social reaction to

reaction social reaction to crime. Long- Victimization. Long-term victimization prevention
s term crime prevention strategies strategies that Victimologists propose and debate
that criminologists propose and include self help and direct aid projects set up by
debate include efforts to former victims, such as child-search organizations,
eradicate the social roots of shelters for battered women, crisis centers for rape
street crime, such as poverty, victims, and advocacy organizations.
unemployment, failing schools,
and dysfunctional families.

Extent Criminologists agree among Victimologists, unlike criminologists, cannot reach

of Study themselves that they should a consensus about the appropriate outer limits of
 limit their studies to illegal their field. Some victimologists argue that their
activities, and should exclude scientific studies should not be restricted to
forms of social deviance that do criminal victimization. They believe that additional
not violate any criminal law. sources of harm and loss are worthy of systematic
analysis: vicious political repression caused by
despotic regimes that violate basic human rights,
manmade slaughters such as wars and genocide,
natural disasters such as floods and earthquakes,
and maybe even sheer accidents like meltdowns of
nuclear power plants.

Tendenc The conservative tendency The conservative tendency within Victimology

y within Criminology focuses focuses primarily upon street crimes. A basic tenet
primarily upon lawbreakers of conservative thought is that everyone both
must be strictly punished on victims and offenders must be held strictly
behalf of their victims accountable for their decisions and actions. This
(retribution). Inflicting suffering translates into an emphasis on self-reliance rather
on lawbreakers should further than governmental assistance.
general deterrence (to make a
negative example of them, to
serve as a warning to other
would-be offenders that they
should think twice and decide
not to break the law), and
specific deterrence.
Incapacitating predators behind
bars keeps them away from the
targets they would like to prey
upon.

Types of victims: There are various types of victims in our society and specialists have
classified them depending on various factors and variants. The key typologies of victims by
different scholars are discussed under as follows:
Mendelsohn’s typology: For Mendelsohn (1976) victim are classified primarily in
conformity with the degree of contribution to the crime. Hence Mendelsohn categories the
victims as follows.

1. The completely innocent victim: The victims can be child or a person who is
unconscious.

2. The victim with minor guilt and the ignorant victim: The victim can be a woman who
agree for a miss-carriage and as a result pays her life.

3. The voluntary victim and the victim as guilty as the offender: The victim can be a
person who commits suicide or asks for euthanasia.

4. The victim more guilty than the offender: The victim can be a person who provokes or
induces someone to commit a crime.

5. The most guilty victim and the victim who is guilty alone: The victim can be the
aggressive victim who kills the attacker in self-defense.

6. The stimulating or imaginary victim: The victim can be a paranoid or a hysteric or a

senile person.

Von Hentig’s typology: Von Hentig has given four types of victims:

i. Victims whose injury may be the price of a greater gain. E.g. in abortion.

ii. Victims who bring about the detrimental result partly by their own concurrent
effort. E.g. prostitutes

iii. Victims who provoke or instigate the offence. E.g. challenging the opponent to
kill him if he can.

iv. Victims who desire the injury.

Hentig applies psychology, sociological as well as biological factors in the categorization of

the victim typology. His grouping of victims is more elaborate than of Mendelsohn’s.

Hentig differentiates society-made victims, from born victims. His classification is as

follows:
1. The female victim: The female is symbol of weakness .The male criminals have the
benefits of greater physical strength in crimes against women, especially in sexual assault.

2 .The young victim: For Hentig children are weak compared to adults. So they are easy
prey to kidnapping and sex offences. Children also fall victims of criminals and assist in
committing crime.

3. The old victim: They are physically and mentally weak. They often fall victims of crimes.

4. The mentally defective and mentally deranged: They are commonly potential and actual
victims of crimes. The insane the alcoholic the drug addict the psychopath and those who
suffer from any other mental abnormality can frequently be victims.

5. The immigrant: He has to face innumerable problems while adjusting to new society and
its culture. The immigrant might feel helpless and unwanted in necessary human relations
.His capability may evoke hostility of certain persons in the new country.

6. The minority: Because of racial linguistic religions and caste prejudice they often become
victims of powerful groups.

7. The dull normal: Hentig considers them as born victims . He thinks the success of certain
criminals due to the folly of their victims. The dull normal can be a moron or an idiot.

8. The depressed: He is a psychological victim type .He suffers from feelings of inadequacy
and hopeless, apathy submission. He can be his own victim.

9. The acquisitive: He is malicious. His desire motivate crime and lead to being victimized.

10. The wanton: He is malicious. His action are generally unjustifiable. He acts without
adequate motive or provocation. He has often no regard for what is right. He can be sexually
lawless and unrestrained and he frequently falls victim of physically powerful criminals.

11. The lonesome and the heartbroken: These people can have a desire for
companionship and happiness and in his process become the victims.

12. The tormentor: He tortures others and at the the end he himself becomes the victim of
the tormented.

13. The ‘blocked and fighting’ victims: These persons try to save themselves and fall
victims.
Hentig’s knowledge in psychology and psychiatry was limited. Hence his classification is not
in conformity with psychology

Walter Reckless’s typology of Victims: Walter Reckless has talked of two types of victims:

1. Reporting victims: One who does not bother for the consequences of reporting his
victimization but is rather interested in getting the offender punished or getting some
relief for his suffering.

2. Non-Reporting Victims: One who is unwilling to report because he/she fears the
process, social stigma and social consequence.

Wolfgang’s Typology of Victims: Wolfgang (1967) has outlined five types of Victimization
which are:

a) Primary Victimization: A primary victim is a person who is injured as a direct result

of an act of violence being committed against him. For example: a wife being hit by
her husband.

b) Secondary Victimization: where the victim is an impersonal target of the offender

(e.g. a thief in a departmental store).

c) Tertiary Victimization: Which affects the public or the administration of society.

d) Mutual Victimization: Which concerns those who themselves are offenders in a

given mutually consensual act. (e.g. adultery)

e) No Victimization: Which is an act of negligible significance where there is no

recognizable victims.

Ezzat Fattah’s typology of Victims: Fattah in 1967 classified victims on basis of degree of
the victims participation in the offence. This typology consists of five major types of victims
which are:

1. Non-participating victims: Victims who do not contribute to the offence.

2. Latent Victims: People who because of certain predispositions are more likely than
others to be victims of certain types of offence.
 3. Provocative victims: Victims who play a definite role in the commission of a crime,
either by inciting the criminal to commit it or creating a situation likely to lead to
crime.

4. Participating Victims: Victims who play their part while a crime is being committed,
either by adopting a passive attitude or making the crime possible, easier or assisting
the criminal.

5. False victims: Persons who are not victims at all or are victims of their own actions.

Types of Victimology:

Theoretical Type: Theoretical Victimology is primarily driven by statistical data analysis

and formulas to explain variation in victimization risk and to correlate different
characteristics that cause victimization to occur. These kinds of theoretical models can also
weight demographic factors.

Generalized Type: Generalized Victimology is defined as the study of all kinds of victims.
Each type of victim study can then be broken down into other specific types of Victimology
such as those of criminal nature, self-victimization, technological types and victims of
something natural such as a hurricane or tornado.

Penal Type: Penal Victimology focuses on the role that the victim plays relative to the social
factors that lead to and continue to follow acts that are defined as criminal under applicable
laws and legislation. Research in this type of Victimology is primarily concerned with the
victim's role in the crime and its associated criminal proceedings.

Critical Type: Critical Victimology is a recently emerged type of Victimology focused on

larger societal and social factors related to criminal victimization. Victimologists in this field
are focused on social structure and context in its relation to victimization. It also includes
studying those who are overlooked by the criminal justice system or overlooked by society as
a whole.

Radical type: Radical Victimology which argues that current images of Victimology, which
involve the State rather than the victim, serve a conservative crime control agenda and have
increased the power of the State in criminal proceedings. Radical Victimology can be used to
explain social reactions to crime and crime victims and to explore society's preference for
truly innocent victims and the limited ability of the system to avenge them through victim
assistance programs. 

Theories:

Life style theory: The lifestyle/exposure theory is a model of Victimology that posits that the
likelihood an individual will suffer a personal victimization depends heavily upon the concept
of life style. Developed by Michael J. Hindelang, Michael R. Gottfredson and James
Garofalo in 1978, Lifestyle theory posits that certain behavioral patterns create an
opportunistic structure for criminals. For example, people who frequently goes to bars and
consume alcohol are available at these locations at night. People who choose to engage in any
or all of these activities increase their risk for victimization. After looking at problems of
victimization, the authors drew the following 8 conclusions about the nature patterning
victimization:

1. The more time an individual spends in public places the more the chance of them being
victimized.
2. Following certain lifestyles makes individuals frequent in public places.
3. The interactions that individuals maintain are limited to persons who share their lifestyles.
4. The Probability of an individual becoming a victim if victim and offenders belong to same
lifestyle category.
5. The proportion of time which an individual spends with Non-family members varies
according to their lifestyle.
6. The chance of an individual being the victims of crime depends upon the time they spend
among Non-family members
7. Difference Differences in lifestyles relate to the ability of individuals to isolate themselves
from those with offender characteristics.
8. Variations in lifestyles influence the convenience, desirability, and ease of victimizing
individuals.
Analysis: Lifestyle theory suggests that patterning our lives to the point of creating regular
routines can place us at risk for victimization. Furthermore, according to the study of the
developers it is held that regular consumption of alcohol increase our chance for
victimization. Given that the majority of victimizations are carried out by non-family
members, these conclusions suggest that the more we are in large public and in contact with
non-family members the grater our risk for victimization.
Criticism: Firstly, the theory puts too much emphasis on a particular life pattern and totally
rules out the victimization of those who are not regular to a particular lifestyle and has more
than one lifestyle.

Secondly, Again it puts too much emphasis on alcohol consuming and disregards societies
were no person consumes alcohol and from this perspective the theory is not global.

Thirdly, The theory suggests that hat the majority of victimizations are carried out by non-
family members, these conclusions suggest that the more we are in large public and in contact
with non-family members the grater our risk for victimization again ruling out crimes by
family members.

Fourthly, It doesn't explain why patterns of victimization differ from men to women.

Opportunity Model Theory: Crime Opportunity theory is a theory that suggests that

offenders make rational choices and thus choose targets that offer a high reward with little
effort and risk. The occurrence of a crime depends on two things: the presence of at least one
motivated offender who is ready or willing to engage in a crime, and the conditions of the
environment in which that offender is situated, to wit, opportunities for crime. All crimes
require opportunity but not every opportunity is followed by crime. Similarly a motivated
offender is necessary for the commission of a crime but not sufficient. A large part of this
theory focuses on how variations in routine activities affect the opportunities for crime
Opportunities play a role in causing crime. This theory emphasizes on Crime opportunities
are highly specific. Crime opportunities are concentrated in time and space and also depend
on everyday movements. Opportunities for crime can be reduced and focused opportunity can
produce declines in crime. There are three aspects of opportunity model which are as follows:

1. Environmental Criminology: Environmental criminology is the study of crime,

criminality, and victimization as they relate, first, to particular places, and secondly, to the
way that individuals and organizations shape their activities spatially, and in so doing are in
turn influenced by place-based or spatial factors.
The environmental criminology approach was developed in the 1980s , putting focus of
criminological study on environmental or context factors that can influence criminal activity.
These include space geography, time, law, offender, and target or victim. These five
components are a necessary and sufficient condition, for without one, the other four, even
together, will not constitute a criminal incident. Despite the obvious multi-faceted nature of
crime, scholars and practitioners often attempt to study them separately. For instance, lawyers
and political scientists focus on the legal dimension; sociologists, psychologists and civil
rights groups generally look to the offenders and victims, while geographers concentrate
upon the location of the event. Environmental criminologists examine the place and the time
when the crime happened. They are interested in land usage, traffic patterns and street design,
and the daily activities and movements of victims and offenders. Environmental
criminologists often use maps to look for crime patterns,

2. Rational Choice Perspective: Developed by Derek Cornish and Roland Clarke the
rational choice perspective seeks to explain the offenders motivation and decision making
process. Crime is the result of the rational thinking in the offender's mind. This idea doesn't
mean that offender's choices are completely rational but that victimizing behavior is the
process of successful realization based on the offender motivated to committing crime.
According to this perspective, victims come along in the form of opportunities to be taken
advantage of. Although not explicitly stated that, the perspective assumes that all people are
rational, not just those who are potential offenders including victims who are also rational
and make choices in similar way to offenders, they are assumed to be having the risk of
victimization in everyday activities rather than focusing on an offence. For example, an
offender may wander into a park looking for a potential victim. He scans the park for
someone who looks like an easy target and who does not pose a threat, perhaps someone who
is smaller than him or herself, someone who is in an isolated part of the park, someone who is
elderly. At the same time, potential victims evaluate the risk of being in a public place and
make choices about their behavior and activities. Again the decision of both parties do not
have to be fully rational but are the result of this rational choice process.

3. Routine Activity Approach: Developed by Lawrence Cohen and Marcus Felson (1979),
posits that three elements must be present in order for a criminal event to occur (i) a
motivated offender, (ii) a suitable target And (iii) lack of capable guardian. If one or more of
these elements are missing a crime will not occur. While the theory does say that the
offender must be motivated to offend but specific motivation is not important. The theory
requires only that motivation be present. Offenders cannot offend without a suitable target
such as location or a potential victim. Another aspect of the theory is absence of capable
guardianship, protection from a guardian can take several forms like dogs, security cameras
Etc.

In this theory, it is assumed that people must engage in a process called target hardening to
protect against victimization like education about how offenders operate or taking protective
measures against Victimization. The expectation of target hardening and the perception of the
victim and the offender as being active and rational participants in the criminal event place
the onus for the victimization on both parties and focuses that the victim can lessen the
offenders motivation by being less of a suitable target.

Repeat Victimization: Theories of Repeat victimization refers to the repeated criminal

victimization of a person, household, place, business, vehicle or other target however defined.
Near repeat victimization or near repeats refer to targets with similar characteristics or
situations. Repeats can be the same or different crime types. It is generally accepted that a
small proportion of any population of potential targets experience a vastly disproportionate
amount of the crime because they are repeatedly victimized. Even within the population of
repeats, a smaller set of super targets experience chronic crime. The significance for many
policy purposes, but particularly crime prevention, is that a focus upon repeats can greatly
increase the efficiency with which resources are used. Most repeat victimization research
relates to how it can be prevented, there is an increasing incorporation of key concepts such
as hot products, risky facilities, hot places and hot routes, into repeat victimization research.

Hot spots of crime: Crime hotspots are areas on a map that have high crime intensity. They
are developed for researchers and analysts to examine geographic areas in relation to crime.
Researchers and theorists examine the occurrence of hotspots in certain areas and why they
happen, and analysts examine the techniques used to perform the research. Developing maps
that contain hotspots are becoming a critical and influential tool for policing; they help
develop knowledge and understanding of different areas in a city and possibly why crime
occurs there. Crime theories can be a useful guide for researchers and analyst, in regard to
analyzing crime hotspots. There are many theories of crime that explain why crime occurs in
certain places and why crime does not in others. Place theories look at crime at specific
places, which can also be viewed as “points on a map.” Another crime theory used in regard
to crime hotspots is neighborhood theories. These theories view crime at a larger level, and in
a larger viewing area. When viewing these types of areas, statistical information is typically
used to determine hotspots. A widely used theory to explain crime is crime pattern theory.
Crime pattern theory explains that crime is not random. Crime hotspots can help aid in
determining spatial-temporal patterns.

Victim Precipitation theory: Victim precipitation is also sometimes referred to as victim

blaming or victim facilitation and refers to the idea of shared responsibility between the
offender and the victim in a victimizing event. Behaviors that can be interpreted as
contributing to victim precipitation are those of the victim that bring about, in whole or in
part, his or her own victimization. Implicit in this definition is the assumption that the
victimization process is an interaction between two or more people that results in
victimization. The criminal event is therefore a social event, that influences persons. The
event is not a positive experience for victims and therefore is is a negative social event. Key
to victim precipitation is assigning the victim an active rather than a passive role as opposed
to assigning this role to offenders. Victim precipitation is evident in Wolfgang's study of
homicides.

Impact of Victimization: Crime affects everyone differently. Victimization often causes

trauma and depending upon the level of trauma that a person has already experienced in their
lifetime, crime can be devastating. In general, victimization often impacts people on an
emotional, physical, financial, psychological, and social level.

The Emotional Impact of Victimization

Shock, disbelief and denial – Initially, victims may find it difficult to believe they have
become a victim of crime. They may even pretend that it did not happen at all.

Anger or rage – Victims may be angry with God, the offender, service providers, family
members, friends, the criminal justice system, or even themselves. Many victims experience
strong desires for revenge or getting even. Hate may even felt by victims.

Fear or Terror – It is common for victims to feel terror or fear following a crime that
involved a threat to one’s safety or life, or to someone else a victim cares about. Fear can
cause a person to have panic attacks if they are ever reminded of the crime. Fear can last for
quite some time following the commission of a crime and under certain circumstances, it can
become debilitating.

Frustration – Many victims are frustrated by the feelings of helplessness or powerlessness

that surface when the crime takes place.

Confusion – Victims of crime may become confused if they are unsure of what actually
happened, as crimes often occur quickly and are chaotic. Victims might also become
confused while searching for answers to questions like “why did this happen to me?”
Guilt or self-blame – Blaming oneself is common. Many victims believe they were “in the
wrong place at the wrong time.” If the victim does not have someone to blame, they will
often blame themselves.

Shame and humiliation – Sadly, some victims blame themselves, particularly victims of
sexual abuse/assault or domestic violence. In crimes involving sexual acts, offenders often
degrade the victim by making them do humiliating things. Victims of rape, for example, have
long-lasting feelings of “being dirty”, and those feelings cannot be “washed away.”

Grief or Sorrow – Intense sadness is often the most powerful long-term reaction to crime. It
is common for victims to become depressed after a crime occurs.

Lastly, some victims will experience ‘survivor guilt’ – they feel guilty that they survived
while someone else was injured or even killed. If a loved one is murdered, surviving family
and friends may even blame the victim. Too often, society blames victims as well.

The Physical Impact of Victimization: At the time of the crime, or upon discovering that a
crime has occurred, victims are likely to experience a number of physical reactions. These
may include an increase in the adrenalin in the body, increased heart rate, hyperventilation,
shaking, tears, numbness, a feeling of being frozen or experiencing events in slow motion,
dryness of the mouth, enhancement of particular senses such as smell, and a ``fight or flight''
response. Some of these physical reactions may occur immediately and others may occur
after the danger has passed. Physical reactions to crime can be so powerful that they reoccur
quite some time after the crime, for example with the victim’s memory of the events.
Physical injuries that result from crime may be classified as: minor (bumps, scratches),
moderate (bruises, broken bones), and severe (stabbing, gunshot wounds). Some physical
injuries will be visible, while others will not. After the crime, victims may suffer a range of
physical effects including insomnia, appetite disturbance, lethargy, headaches, muscle
tension, nausea, and decreased libido. It is common for these reactions to persist for some
time after the crime has occurred. Some victims may experience long-term side effects as a
result of the crime committed against them. Other victims may experience ongoing health-
related problems such as headaches, stomachaches, and emotional outbursts

The Financial Impact of Victimization: Victims who may have money stolen, or
possessions stolen or damaged have been financially injured. In many cases, stolen money
and prized possessions are never recovered. Understandably, this is very distressing to
victims who may feel guilt, anger, and frustration if they are unable to recover a family
heirloom. Although the financial impact of crime is less documented than the physical,
emotion or social impacts, victims may certainly incur costs in the following ways:

- Repairing property or replacing possessions.

- Higher insurance premiums as a result of victimization.

- Installing security measures.

- Accessing health services.

- Medical expenses.

- Participating in the criminal justice system, for example traveling to court, child care and
attending the trial.

- Obtaining professional counseling to come to terms with the emotional impact.

- Taking time off work or from other income generating activities.

- Funeral or burial expenses. In some cases, such as stalking, victims may feel a need to
move, a process likely to incur financial costs. Also property value may diminish as a result
of a violent crime occurring in the house. In the long-term, crime can adversely impact the
victim's employment. The victim may find it impossible to return to work, or their work
performance may be adversely affected, resulting in demotion, loss of pay, and possibly
dismissal. This is particularly likely where the crime occurred at work, as it may be difficult
for the victim to avoid people or situations which led to the initial victimization. Marital and
other relationships are also likely to be affected by crime and this may have a significant
effect on the family's financial position.

The Psychological Impact of Victimization It is almost impossible to predict how an

individual will respond to crime. Psychological injuries created by crime are often the most
difficult to cope with and have long-lasting effects. As crime is usually experienced as more
serious than an accident or misfortune, it is difficult to come to terms with the fact that loss
and injury have been caused by the deliberate act of another human being. Common reactions
to crime can be split into four stages: The initial reaction may include shock, fear, anger,
helplessness, disbelief and guilt. As mentioned previously, some of these reactions may
reoccur at a later stage as well, for example when attending a trial or going to hospital for
medical treatment. A period of disorganization may follow these initial reactions. This phase
may manifest itself in psychological effects such as distressing thoughts about the event,
nightmares, depression, guilt, fear, and a loss of confidence and esteem. Life can seem to
slow down and become meaningless. Previously held beliefs and faiths may no longer
provide comfort. Behavioral responses might include increased alcohol or substance abuse,
fragmentation of social relationships, avoidance of people and situations associated with the
crime, and social withdrawal. The third stage is reconstruction and acceptance, which leads to
the fourth stage of normalization/adjustment. Victims often try to come to terms with crime
by longing for everything to be as it was before and to turn the clock back. In this crucial
stage of recovery victims begin to fully accept the reality of what has happened. Victims may
try to reinterpret their experience and possibly find an explanation for what has happened or
to decide that the crime has lead to personal growth

Social Injuries & Secondary Victimization: Social injuries are those that may be caused by
society in the aftermath of the crime. They may include being treated insensitively or not
receiving the services and/or information that a victim requires. Anyone can cause a social
injury: a family member, a friend, a law enforcement officer, a Crown prosecutor, a member
of the clergy, a crisis counselor or a victim services worker. Secondary victimization refers to
the victimization which occurs, not as a direct result of the criminal act, but through the
response of institutions and individuals to the victim. The following are a few examples of
secondary victimization:

- The refusal to recognize their experience as criminal victimization. - Intrusive or

inappropriate conduct by police or other criminal justice personnel

. - The whole process of criminal investigation and trial

- The victim perceives difficulties in balancing their rights with those of the accused or the
offender. - Criminal justice processes and procedures do not take the perspective of the
victim into account.

- Relatives may have restricted access to the body of a loved one due to hospital policies and
procedures.

- The hurried schedule of the emergency room may affect a sexual assault victim's privacy or
sense of dignity. - School personnel may discount child disclosure of abuse.
- Doctors may not acknowledge signs of spouse abuse.

- Spiritual leaders may attempt to guide victims into paths of forgiveness or accommodation
before they are ready or against their wishes.

- Intrusive or inappropriate investigation and filming, photographing, and reporting by the

media.

Even agencies set up to help the victims of crime, such as victim services, victim
compensation systems, refugee services, and mental health institutions may have some
policies and procedures that lead to secondary victimization. The attitude of individuals is
also important. Some people with whom the victim has contact (e.g. family, friends and
colleagues) may wish to distance themselves from the distress of the crime by blaming the
victim for what has occurred. They may view the victim's behavior as having contributed to,
or even having caused, the victimization The shock and loneliness of victimization can be
much greater for these victims.

Human rights Concerns: The concern Subject Follows UDHR of United Nations.

Article 1.

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with
reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

Article 2.

Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without
distinction of any kind, such as race, color, sex, language, religion, political or other
opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. Furthermore, no
distinction shall be made on the basis of the political, jurisdictional or international status
of the country or territory to which a person belongs, whether it be independent, trust,
non-self-governing or under any other limitation of sovereignty.

Article 3.

Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person.

Article 4.

No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be
prohibited in all their forms.
Article 5.

No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or

punishment.

Article 7.

All are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to equal
protection of the law. All are entitled to equal protection against any discrimination in
violation of this Declaration and against any incitement to such discrimination.

Article 8.

Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the competent national tribunals for acts
violating the fundamental rights granted him by the constitution or by law.

Article 9.

No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile.

Article 11.

(1) Everyone charged with a penal offence has the right to be presumed innocent until
proved guilty according to law in a public trial at which he has had all the guarantees
necessary for his defence.
(2) No one shall be held guilty of any penal offence on account of any act or omission
which did not constitute a penal offence, under national or international law, at the time
when it was committed. Nor shall a heavier penalty be imposed than the one that was
applicable at the time the penal offence was committed.

Article 12.

No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or
correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honor and reputation. Everyone has the right to
the protection of the law against such interference or attacks.

Article 15.

(1) Everyone has the right to a nationality.

(2) No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality nor denied the right to change
his nationality.

Article 16.

(1) Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality or religion,
have the right to marry and to found a family. They are entitled to equal rights as to
marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution.
(2) Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending
spouses.
(3) The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to
protection by society and the State.
Article 17.

(1) Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as in association with others.
(2) No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property.

Article 18.

Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes
freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with
others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice,
worship and observance.

Article 19.

Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom
to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and
ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers.

Article 20.

(1) Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association.
(2) No one may be compelled to belong to an association.

Article 21.

(1) Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or
through freely chosen representatives.
(2) Everyone has the right of equal access to public service in his country.
(3) The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of government; this will shall
be expressed in periodic and genuine elections which shall be by universal and equal
suffrage and shall be held by secret vote or by equivalent free voting procedures.

Article 22.

Everyone, as a member of society, has the right to social security and is entitled to
realization, through national effort and international co-operation and in accordance with
the organization and resources of each State, of the economic, social and cultural rights
indispensable for his dignity and the free development of his personality.

Article 23.

(1) Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favorable
conditions of work and to protection against unemployment.
(2) Everyone, without any discrimination, has the right to equal pay for equal work.
(3) Everyone who works has the right to just and favorable remuneration ensuring for
himself and his family an existence worthy of human dignity, and supplemented, if
necessary, by other means of social protection.
(4) Everyone has the right to form and to join trade unions for the protection of his
interests.
Article 24.

Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, including reasonable limitation of working
hours and periodic holidays with pay.

Victimization Of the Homeless:

Two categories of homelessness recognized by the United Nations were adopted (UNECE,
2004)2 :
• Absolute homelessness: These individuals do not have access to physical shelter of their
own. They may be sleeping in temporary shelters or “sleeping rough” on the streets in
locations not deemed acceptable for human habitation.
• Relative homelessness: These individuals experience hidden or concealed homelessness,
living in spaces and shelters that do not meet minimum standards. They may be lacking
protection from environmental elements, access to clean water and sanitation, or personal
safety.
Victimization is often a precipitating factor for homelessness, and living on the street
increases the likelihood of victimization exponentially. The life histories of homeless persons
reveal common shared experiences, including violent victimization, that contribute to their
becoming homeless:
• A study of 300 homeless persons found that 49% of women and 16% of men experienced
childhood sexual abuse compared with rates of 13% and 4% in the general population .
• High levels of family violence, lack of care, and sexual abuse are common in the histories
of homeless persons, suggesting that they may be contributing factors. A history of family
violence also predicts failure to exit homelessness.
• About 44% of people living in the capital are deprived of any sort of housing facilities
which are very alarming for the country, according to a survey conducted by Center for
Urban Strategies in 2007. Of the 44% homeless, 35% stay in slums while 8%-9% floating
section of them beside roads, rail lines and parks. In Dhaka, 37% of shelter users were
physically abused during childhood .
• Involvement of homeless persons with the legal system is positively correlated with family
poverty and childhood sexual abuse
Actionable recommendations: To have a reduced homeless victimization followings should
be improvised
1) Housing and supports
• Develop a national Housing First program;
• Provide advocacy and advice for homeless people;
• Increase social assistance and minimum wage; and,
• Invest more resources at all orders of government into strategic tools to measure and reduce
homelessness in Canada.
2) Homelessness and victimization
• Improve release mechanisms, support and victim assistance for youth in care;
• Invest in programs to help at-risk youth to stay in school and acquire life skills;
• Improve mental health services for those with persistent mental illness;
• Invest in the prevention of family violence and violence against women; and,
• Educate the public about homelessness.
Victimization of Prisoners:
Prisoner: A prisoner, also known as an inmate or detainee, is a person who is deprived of
liberty against his or her will. This can be by confinement, captivity, or by forcible restraint.
The term applies particularly to those on trial or serving a prison sentence in a prison.

Prison violence is common. Many inmates in prison in U.S.A are both sexually and
physically victimized by other inmates and staff. However, conducting research on this
population is difficult because it relies on the approval of the institutions administration. The
prison system in Bangladesh is very downgraded and actually in perspective of Bangladesh it
is not only the victimization by the inmates and staff the environment itself is a prime matter.
The victimization rates on sexual offences varies from man to women and it is seen in a study
that the frequency of female victimization is 27% high then male victimization. This picture
can relatively change on practical measurement due to avoidance by respondent for fear of
social stigma and abusive authority. Male victimization as sexual victim has grown in past
decades but it is almost untraceable due to fear of stigma. Juvenile in correction homes are
also frequent to victimization in prisons due to their fragility. Physical from of victimization
involves physical assault which involves both female and male population but male assault
rates are very high compared to females.

The reason for prisoner victimization is that they are convicted criminals of society and
society heeds no care or duty towards them, as the society has forsaken them they become
easy prey for victimization. Research evidence suggests vulnerability to victimization and
violence in prison is associated with a number of factors (younger age, race, homosexuality,
transexuality, status of offence) and that certain prisoners both feel, and in fact, are more
vulnerable to victimization and violence.

For situational strategies for the reduction of prisoner-prisoner and other forms of violence,
Some examples would be:

• single-cell accommodation can reduce crowding and respect a prisoner’s territory

(precipitation-control), while ‘target hardening’ a prisoner (opportunity reduction, or
regulation-control);

• increasing prisoner control over their environments can encourage compliance and reduce
frustration (precipitation-control);
• small or subdivided prisons can reduce anonymity (precipitation-control);

• age-heterogeneous populations can reduce both inappropriate imitation and conformity

(precipitation-control);

• increasing women staff may encourage compliance and reduce frustration (precipitation-
control), reducing assaults on staff;

• elimination of blind spots may improve formal and natural surveillance (regulation-control).

Victimization of persons with disabilities: The victimization of persons with disabilities

involves the abuse of an individual with a physical and/or mental disability. Victimization
can include physical violence, sexual violence, psychological or emotional abuse, and
neglect. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention acknowledges such victimization as
a serious and preventable public health problem.
Types of Abuse
 Physical Abuse is any act of violence or rough treatment that causes injury or
discomfort, such as slapping, pushing or hitting. It may include over or under-
medicating and the use of physical restraints.
 Emotional Abuse is any act which lowers a person’s dignity and self-worth.
This may include regularly yelling at, criticizing, threatening, humiliating or
isolating the elderly or disabled person.
 Sexual Abuse is any unwanted sexual act. This may include unwanted touching,
kissing or fondling.
 Financial Abuse is any act involving the misuse of the elderly or disabled
person’s money or property without their full knowledge and consent. This
includes theft of money, pension cheques or property as well as misuse of a power
of attorney.
 Neglect happens when a caregiver does not properly care for and attend to an
elderly or disabled person who cannot fully look after him or herself. Neglect can
be intentional or unintentional. It may include withholding food, personal hygiene
care, health services, clothing, help or companionship. Neglect may also be self-
neglect. This happens when a person refuses, delays or is unable to arrange for his
or her own care and attention.
An abusive person is usually someone the victim knows and trusts – someone with control
and influence over the person with a disability. Abusers often isolate the victim from friends,
neighbors and caring family members. However, an abuser might be anyone. This may
include:
 a spouse/family member
 a friend
 any caretaker
 anyone working for a person
 staff in a facility
 a stranger
 a landlord
Helping a Victim of Abuse and Neglect
 Talk to the person privately
 Listen to what the person is saying
 Try to understand what is happening
 Write down everything the person says
 Do not panic or make assumptions. This is a difficult time for the person.
 Explain the options available to the person
 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each option or contact someone
who can
 Encourage the person to choose the most appropriate option for his/her situation
 Let the person make his/her own decision
 If the person’s safety is at risk, tell the police or Victim Services