Preliminary Eng
Preliminary Eng
Preliminary Eng
MOMRA
Bridges, Tunnels, Culverts and Pedestrian
Bridges Specifications in Urban Areas
Preliminary studies
MA 100-P-V1/1
2013
Kingdom Of Saudi Arabia
Ministry of municipal & Rural Affairs
Deputy Ministry for Technical Affairs
Introduction
As for the importance and vitality of road constructions and the need to control them
so as to perform their function in an appropriate way throughout their service age . So
many countries and Organizations had prepared specifications for design and
construction these structures. These Specifications were differed from one another
according to the environment and the nature of the climate. For instance some
organizations and societies in U.S.A. Such as the American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO). These organizations and societies
have improved and updated design specification. In the same way each state in U.S.A.
has developed its own specification mainly based on AASHTO specification and
refers to them In different situations , but they will be suitable for the circumstances
of the State that has improved them. As for K.S.A. which is one of the countries that has
a large transportation network and many road structures, so the necessity arose to
prepare suitable specification for these structures to suit the environmental
circumstances and the transportation policy that has adopted in K.S.A. So the Kingdom
of Saudi Arabia representative in the Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs has taken
the role of collecting the specification under the title Bridges ,Tunnels ,culverts ,
pedestrian bridges in the urban areas.
These specifications include the following:
1- Preliminary studies
2- Design specifications
3- Construction specifications
The ministry has also updated codes for both bridges and culverts manuals according to
the new specifications.
Kingdom Of Saudi Arabia
Ministry of municipal & Rural Affairs
Deputy Ministry for Technical Affairs
Specifications Books
TABLE OF CONTENTS
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
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Importance and Types of Surveys Section 1: Survey Works
3 October 2013 1
Section 1: Survey Works Importance and Types of Surveys
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Equipment Checking and Calibration Section 1: Survey Works
1.2.1. General
Equipment must be properly maintained, regularly checked, and calibrated for
accuracy at the beginning of any survey project to ensure that the equipment is
operating properly. Errors due to poorly maintained or malfunctioning equipment will
not be accepted. If any equipment errors are found to exist they must be reported to the
Region Survey Coordinator prior to the start of the survey. These errors will need to be
verified and eliminated prior to performing any survey. For surveys lasting longer than
six months, the checking, and calibration of equipment shall be repeated once every six
months to show that the equipment is staying within acceptable tolerances. Any
variation from the specifications shall have the prior approval of the Region Survey
Coordinator.
1.2.2. Equipment
Equipment is defined as any and all types of survey and or office survey equipment
used to perform the functions of land surveying. The specifications and procedures as
stated in this chapter shall apply to any and all makes and models of equipment. The
specific maintenance, adjustment, care, use and, repair information is contained in the
owners/operating manual for your instrument.
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Section 1: Survey Works Equipment Checking and Calibration
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Equipment Checking and Calibration Section 1: Survey Works
its intended purpose. Members of a crew must understand the absolute necessity of
using the proper equipment, in the proper condition, for the given tasks. Proper care
and respect for all equipment is required of every survey crew member.
3 October 2013 5
Section 1: Survey Works Equipment Checking and Calibration
cloth or with a clean chamois. Clean the external surfaces of lenses with a fine lens
brush. If necessary, use lens tissue. Do not use silicone treated tissue that can damage
coated optics. Do not use any liquids other than pure alcohol. Take care not to scratch
lenses or their coating. Never touch optical glass with your fingers. Always use a lens
cover when storing in the instrument case. Do not loosen or attempt to clean the
internal surface of any lens.
If any instrument or equipment has become wet, unpack it at the end of the day and
after wiping it dry with a soft towel or cloth, leave the instrument and any of its
accessories outside of the case to dry. Also leave the case open to dry. If the foam
inserts for the case are wet, also remove them for drying. Do not replace the instrument
in the case until completely dry.
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Equipment Checking and Calibration Section 1: Survey Works
11. Steel Tapes (Chains) - A steel tape is a precision tool manufactured under rigid
specifications and should be treated as such. The steel tape should never be pulled
around a post, stake, or wound on a reel so tightly that the tape will stretch
beyond the elastic limit. Vehicles should not be allowed to run over steel tapes.
The kinks and bends that result will make the tapes inaccurate. Wet or muddy
steel tapes should be wiped dry and clean, oiled lightly, and dried again.
12. Hand Levels - The hand level should be kept in adjustment per manufactures
guidelines.
13. Power and hand tools such as hammers, shovels, picks, axes, brush hooks,
hatchets, etc., should be kept sharp, clean, and the handles in good repair. Broken
or cracked handles are to be replaced. Mushroomed heads on chisels and punches
must be ground off as flying pieces of steel can cause serious, even fatal injuries.
Each member of the survey crew shall assure that all miscellaneous tools are
returned to the vehicle and put in their proper place prior to leaving the work site.
14. Vehicles - The care, organization, and general housekeeping of a vehicle are good
indications of the attitude of the entire crew. Keep the cab and passenger
compartment free of unnecessary clutter and equipment. Store all equipment in
designated places in compartments. Any equipment or material stored in the
passenger compartment should be neatly and firmly secured. A good rule to
follow is "A place for everything and everything in its place." Vehicles must be
kept in good running condition. A regular maintenance program for the vehicle is
essential. Needed repairs should be taken care of as soon as possible. Driving in a
safe and defensive manner is required of employees operating state vehicles and
of contract consultant survey crews.
1.2.9. Calibrations
1.2.9.1. General
A calibration check on all types of electronic survey instrumentation is essential to
obtain and maintain the tolerances required in this manual. At the beginning of any
survey all survey equipment needed to perform the survey shall be calibrated by the
professional land surveyor in responsible charge of the survey under his/her direct
supervision and/or checking. All survey equipment shall be calibrated once every six
months thereafter and as needed during the course of the survey, whichever comes first.
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Section 1: Survey Works Preliminary Survey
monuments spaced at intervals of 150 m, 400 to 430 m, and 1000 to 1400 m will meet
the needs of users for the checking and calibration of EDM.
The basic procedures to perform a calibrated baseline check of GPS equipment in
RTK mode is as follows:
1. A base receiver is setup on any one of the calibrated baseline marks.
2. A rover receiver collects data at each calibrated baseline mark with the same
equipment configuration (i.e. elevation mask, epochs, sync time, maximum PDOP,
satellite tracking, session duration, etc.) and methods that will be used for
performing the survey.
3. After the rover has collected data at each calibrated baseline mark the base receiver
is moved and setup on each calibrated baseline mark and the rover collects data at
each calibrated mark.
4. This procedure is repeated as many times as needed until both a base and a rover
receiver have occupied all calibrated baseline marks and data has been collected at
all calibrated baseline marks.
5. The data is downloaded into the GPS processing software with the same procedures
and settings that will be used for the survey.
6. The unadjusted baselines lengths and vertical differences are calculated and
compared to the published calibrated baseline lengths and vertical differences.
7. For the equipment to be considered as being in adjustment the final unadjusted
baselines lengths and vertical differences shall meet or exceed the manufacturers
ratings for the equipment.
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Preliminary Survey Section 1: Survey Works
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Section 1: Survey Works Preliminary Survey
information about the area is needed as well as information about cover and culture.
This information can be obtained by field surveys; or it can be extracted from aerial
photographs, from existing maps, or from maps compiled specifically for the project.
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Preliminary Survey Section 1: Survey Works
may be necessary to fully evaluate the service afforded by each alternative and to
assess the impacts.
1.3.3. Research
1.3.3.1. General
The location, re-establishment, and perpetuation of land corners involving highway
Right of Way are of the utmost importance to the department and to the public. If any
of these corners are incorrectly positioned, the resulting disruption of property
boundaries could result in costly litigation. The research performed before and during
the preliminary phases of a project will determine the quality of the finished product
and the costs related to the project. Improper research may result in needless delays and
add substantially to the costs of a project. For CDOT purposes, the following
requirements for research shall apply:
1. Investigate thoroughly
2. Perform a careful and diligent search
3. Make studious inquiry or examination; investigation aimed at the discovery and
interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new
facts or practical applications of such new or revised theories or law.
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Section 1: Survey Works Preliminary Survey
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Preliminary Survey Section 1: Survey Works
All found monuments and physical evidence found shall be located and tied into the
Primary Control Monumentation for the project in accordance with the appropriate
Minimum Horizontal and Vertical Accuracy Tolerance for the type of survey being
performed.
The following should be used as a guide in field search:
Reference / accessory ties from monument records for PLSS land corners to
verify the corner. Any discrepancy shall be noted.
If nothing is found using ties, check for the point using a metal detector. A
search of road intersections, fence corners and other areas where land or
property corners may exist is sometimes productive.
If nothing is found excavation of the area may be necessary. Excavation
should be such that either the point is recovered or determined not to exist at
that location. Whatever means are used; care should be exercised to prevent
damage to the point. Excavation should be limited unless evidence indicates a
corner may exist, such as reference ties on poles or by metal detector. Photos
should be taken of any recovered evidence and should show the found
evidence’s relationship to occupation lines and other physical evidence to help
aid in the re-establishment of the monument in the event it is lost in the future.
Any damage caused by excavation shall be repaired immediately.
1.3.4.1. General
The purpose of a drainage survey is to ensure that the necessary information needed
for hydraulic design will be included in the topographic survey. The following
guidelines shall be followed when drainage surveys are conducted:
The Preliminary Survey Scope Form shall include all drainage structure
requirements of the survey. This form shall be supplemented or confirmed through
direct contact with the hydraulic engineer. The project manager should contact the
hydraulic engineer at least two weeks prior to the presurvey conference. After the
survey requirements have been determined and included on the survey scope, a
transmittal of the requirements will be submitted to the Region Survey Coordinator.
Following these guidelines will provide the hydraulic engineer with an adequate
drainage survey.
If there are any questions about the needed information, the hydraulics engineer
should be contacted before starting the survey. The hydraulics engineer will be able to
supply predicted design flows, special survey requirements, and potential use of
upstream area for detention ponding.
Good drainage surveys are necessary for complete hydraulic designs. Channel
locations and changes, bridge skew, water stage, and structure relocations are all
determined from the drainage survey.
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Section 1: Survey Works Preliminary Survey
accuracy of aerial surveys are typically much less than that of conventional or GPS
survey methods, particularly when there is heavy vegetation or areas of drastic changes
in elevation such as mountainous terrain.
Drainage surveys are performed to supplement aerial surveys. The purpose of the
supplemental survey is to locate those features that require a higher level of accuracy
than that of the aerial survey, to locate those features that can not be located by the
aerial survey, and to collect information not apparent to the photogrammetrist from the
aerial survey.
1.3.4.3. Photographs
If the hydraulic engineer deems photographs necessary, they will be requested in
the drainage survey requirements transmittal. When requested, photographs shall show
existing inlet and outlet configurations, areas of erosion, structures that experience
distress during floods, and natural features of the drainage basin. Photographs shall be
labeled with the project number, date of photo, description of photo, orientation of the
camera, and the photographer's name.
1.3.4.4. Guidelines
Guidelines for the extent of a drainage survey upstream and downstream are as
follows:
Large Bridges [Design flows greater than 566 m3 spans greater than 76 m]
a. Consult with the hydraulics engineer before scoping the survey.
Requirements will be further discussed at the presurvey conference.
b. Aerial surveys should be considered for these sites.
Large Culverts/Medium Bridges [Design flows of 56.6 to 566.3 m3 or
6 m×3 m Cross-section of Box Culvert (CBC) to 76 m Total Span Bridge]
o The survey shall extend 365.8 m upstream and 365.8 m downstream from the
existing roadway centerline.
o Additional survey data must be taken near the upstream and downstream edges of
the existing structure including the abutments.
o The elevations of the existing structures lowest girders or clearance must be
included.
o The width of the survey will be determined by the hydraulic engineer.
o Survey requirements will be discussed at the presurvey conference.
Medium to Large Culverts [Design flows of 5.7 to 56.7 m3 or 1.8 m Pipe to
6.1 m×3 m CBC (openings of 2.6 m2 to 18.6 m2.)]
o The survey shall extend 152.4 m upstream and 152.4 m. downstream from the
roadway centerline.
o Additional survey data must be taken near the upstream and downstream end of the
existing structure.
o The width of the survey will be determined by the hydraulic engineer.
o Survey requirements will be discussed at the presurvey conference.
Small Culverts [Design flows less than 5.7 m3 or pipes smaller than 1.83 m
(less than 2.6 m2 openings)]
o The survey shall extend 30.5 m upstream and 30.5 m downstream from the
roadway centerline.
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Preliminary Survey Section 1: Survey Works
o Survey data must also be taken at each end of the culvert to determine the
structure centerline, the depth of silt, headwall dimensions or type of end
section, condition of the present structure, type of flow, vegetation and soil type
of banks and bottom.
o Discuss further needs at the presurvey conference.
Irrigation Canals
o The water surface profile and the channel invert must both be surveyed. This
may result in two separate surveys, unless the surveyors could mark the water
surface elevation during flow and take the measurements at a later date when
the canal is not in operation.
o The survey shall extend 305 m upstream and 610 m down stream from the
roadway centerline. The downstream portion of the survey will not need to
extend the full 610 m if a difference in the water surface elevation of 152 mm
has been achieved. Measurements of the water surface profile shall be taken at
30.5 m intervals to +/- of 15 mm. The date and time of the water surface profile
shall be recorded.
o Name and address of the ditch owner should be noted. Inquire as to the
discharge at the time of the water surface profile. This information should be
available from the ditch rider.
o If the Department's liability is lessened by using the ditch company’s water flow
information this should be the procedure used to determine the water surface
profile.
Storm Drains
o Survey data must be taken of the profile grade and gutter flow line elevations
of the main roadway. The survey must cover all areas of the roadway that
contribute drainage. This may entail surveying beyond the project limits. For
example, if the project ends in the middle of a vertical curve, the survey must
continue to the top of the curve.
o Survey data must be taken of the profile grade and gutter flow line elevations
of all cross streets or road approaches. The survey shall extend up the road
approach or cross street 152.4 m or to it's highest point, whichever is less.
o The location of all curbs, gutters, inlets, culverts, and manholes must be
determined. Indicate inlet and pipe depths and sizes (rim and invert
elevations). Note the direction of flow in the pipes.
o The location of all utilities must be determined. Indicate the type, size, and
depth of the utilities.
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Section 1: Survey Works Construction Survey
16 3 October 2013
Construction Survey Section 1: Survey Works
Points of intersection (PI) are located by angle and distance from basic control point
monuments (backsighting on other basic control survey monuments). Tangent distances
and angles at points of intersection are checked. If they meet the standard of accuracy
of the location survey, the ends of the centerline tangent are established and station
marking stakes are placed at regular intervals. Spirals and circular curves are then
staked. Referencing of centerline points, as required, completes the centerline survey.
Centerlines cannot be established to the accuracy of geodetic traverse surveys. To
establish a point, a backsight is taken, the required angle is turned on the instrument,
and the line of sight is marked, with the telescope "upright" or "direct." The same
procedure is repeated with the telescope "inverted" or "reversed." This complete
procedure may be done a second time to isolate blunders. The point is established
halfway between the two marks or at a point representing the average of the set of
marks. Further repetitions of the process add little to the accuracy.
The points along the centerline which define a curve are established in line with a
transit or theodolite and in stationing by chaining with a steel tape or by an electronic
distance measuring instrument. When using the steel tape, the point is usually
established by a first measurement and checked by a second measurement. When using
an electronic distance measuring instrument, two points are established, one ahead of
and one behind the curve point, and its final position is established by graphical
interpolation.
Setting of station stakes along the curve is usually to a lower standard of accuracy
than that used for establishing of the points which define the curve. A single
measurement with a steel or reinforced cloth tape usually is sufficient.
1.4.3. Profile
Level circuits for the centerline profile are run between basic control survey bench
marks. Ground elevation is measured at each centerline stake. In areas where the
ground surface is not well defined or where it may change rapidly, as in swamps or in
loose sand, a stake or hub, long enough to be firm when flush to the ground surface, is
driven in front of the centerline stake, and its elevation is used as ground elevation.
From the ground elevation at the centerline stake is subtracted the designed centerline
grade for the station to compute the cut or the fill at that point. The cut or fill is usually
written on the back of the centerline stake.
Stakes must be added where there are abrupt changes in the ground level or changes
in the designed cross sections. Stakes must also be added where earthwork at a shoulder
line changes from cut to fill or from fill to cut.
3 October 2013 17
Section 1: Survey Works Global Positioning Systems (GPS)
The cut or fill of this point is measured. If it agrees with the computed cut or fill, the
slope stake is driven there; if it does not agree, other trial points are measured until the
location of the toe of the fill or the top of the cut slope is found.
1.6.1. INTRODUCTION
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SAFETY FOR LOCATION SURVEYORS Section 1: Survey Works
3 October 2013 19
Section 1: Survey Works SAFETY FOR LOCATION SURVEYORS
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SAFETY FOR LOCATION SURVEYORS Section 1: Survey Works
3 October 2013 21
Section 1: Survey Works SAFETY FOR LOCATION SURVEYORS
turn lanes where two (2) flagmen are required and there is opposing traffic in the
adjacent traffic lanes. Where flagmen are used, a FLAGMAN symbol or Legend sign
shall replace the WORKERS symbol or Legend sign. The party chief may at his
discretion use a staffed state police car. A staffed state police car with flashing lights at
the beginning of the work zone is the most effective way to reduce speed in the work
zone and get the attention of drivers.
1.6.3.6. Inspections
To ensure that surveyors and consultants are following the proper safety procedures
for each job, the Engineer will make random safety inspections of all Contractor survey
crews and consultants. The Ministry Safety Program Administrator or his designee will
be making these inspections. The inspector has the right to tell the crew chief to pull the
crew off the road until all safety requirements are met. If a party chief repeats safety
procedure violations, disciplinary action may be taken. It is important to note that this
rule is for consultants as well as Ministry personnel. Violating safety procedures and
rules could constitute a breach of contract by a consultant. Fines can be levied against
those consultants found to be habitually violating safety procedures and rules. It may
also affect his qualification grade since it adversely reflects the consultant's willingness
to cooperate and abide by the Ministry's policies and procedures.
1. When your vehicle is parked in the median without closure of the adjacent
traffic lane.
2. When your vehicle is parked on the shoulder and work is being done in the
immediate vicinity.
3. When your vehicle is accelerating to move from the shoulder, median, or lane
closure into traffic. These lights should also be used when your vehicle is
slowing down in preparation to pull off the road onto a shoulder, median or lane
closure.
4. When highway conditions exist which, in the operator's opinion, warrant the use
of amber warning lights to protect workers and the public during conditions of
reduced visibility such as fog or heavy rain.
5. Use of amber lights can be required at any other time at the discretion of the
supervisor on site.
1. Always face traffic when working on the traveled way of a divided road or on
shoulders of highways. If you cannot do this yourself, have a co-worker act as a
lookout. When working in a zone between two-way traffic stand parallel to the
traveled way and again use a lookout.
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Topographic Survey Requirements and
Reporting: Section 1: Survey Works
2. Do not make sudden movements that might confuse a motorist and cause him to
take evasive action that could result in injury to the motorist as well as to
surveyors.
3. Avoid interrupting traffic as much as possible. There are several ways to do
this. One of the best ways is to use offset lines as much as possible. This
procedure should keep you and your crew safe from oncoming traffic. Minimize
the crossing of traffic lanes on high speed heavily traveled highways. Do not try
to walk or run across traffic lanes. On highways with wide shoulders and
medians the best way to cross is with your vehicle. If necessary go around by
way of a ramp or service road to assure a safe crossing. If traffic lanes must be
crossed on foot, wait for a natural break in traffic. A break in traffic in this
instance is defined as all lanes being clear.
4. Protect your crew with the use of an approved barrier to shield them from
traffic. Whenever possible, place a truck mounted attenuator between your
workers and traffic.
5. Proper equipment carrying procedures: When working near a heavily traveled
highway, or when working parallel to traffic, be careful to keep level rods,
range poles, etc., from extending into a lane of traffic.
6. Wet Pavement: avoid working on wet pavement in an active traffic area, except
for the emergency survey of a danger area which poses grave hazards to the
public. This would probably involve the declaration of an emergency by the
appropriate government agency and the presence of law enforcement for the
safety of surveyors and the public.
1.7.1. Coordinates According to the Surface of the Geodetic Reference for GPS
The method of apparatus installation and the guidance and monitoring the timing,
duration and site conditions and the number and distribution of the observed satellites,
provides all the basics of corrective data are very important to determine the
coordinates of reference points. Depending on the surface of the geodetic reference
Saudi Arabia (SGD 2000 epoch 2004), developed by the Ministry, based on rotational
stereo (WGS 84 Ellipsoid) in the system (ITRF2000) for global positioning.
3 October 2013 23
Section 1: Survey Works REFERENCES
1.8. REFERENCES
24 3 October 2013
Introduction Section 2: Highway Hydrology
2.1. INTRODUCTION
Hydrology is often defined as the science that addresses the physical properties,
occurrence, and movement of water in the atmosphere, on the surface of, and in the
outer crust of the earth.
For the highway designer, the primary focus of hydrology is the water that moves
on the earth's surface and in particular that part that ultimately crosses transportation
arterials (i.e., highway stream crossings). A secondary interest is to provide interior
drainage for roadways, median areas, and interchanges.
Hydrologists have been studying the flow or runoff of water over land for many
decades, and some rather sophisticated theories have been proposed to describe the
process. Unfortunately, most of these attempts have been only partially successful, not
only because of the complexity of the process and the many interactive factors
involved, but also because of the stochastic nature of rainfall, snowmelt, and other
sources of water. Hydrologists have defined most of the factors and parameters that
influence surface runoff. However, for many of these surface runoff factors, complete
functional descriptions of their individual effects exist only in empirical form. Their
qualitative analysis requires extensive field data, empirically determined coefficients,
and sound judgment and experience.
By application of the principles and methods of modern hydrology, it is possible to
obtain solutions that are functionally acceptable and form the basis for the design of
highway drainage structures.
2.2. DEFINITIONS
Portions of the total rainfall that do not contribute to direct runoff,
including rainfall intercepted by vegetation, rain water stored in
Abstractions
depressions, and water that enters the watershed surface and remains
beyond the duration of the storm.
Alluvial Soil and rock material deposited from flowing water.
Annual maximum
The largest instantaneous peak discharge in a year.
discharge
Bankfull discharge The discharge rate when a stream just overflows its natural banks.
rate There is usually no frequency associated with the discharge rate.
Base flow Stream flow arising from the depletion of ground-water storage.
Celerity Propagation speed of a flood wave.
The multiplication-translation-addition process used to route a
Convolution rainfall-excess hyetograph using the unit hydrograph as the routing
model.
3 October 2013 25
Section 2: Highway Hydrology Definitions
26 3 October 2013
Hydrologic Cycle Section 2: Highway Hydrology
Instantaneous unit The hydrologic response of the watershed to 1-cm of rainfall excess
hydrograph concentrated in an infinitesimally small period of time.
Intensity Volume per unit time.
Intensity-duration- A graph or mathematical equation that relates the rainfall intensity,
frequency curve storm duration, and exceedence frequency.
A line on a map of equal rainfall depth for the same duration,
Isohyet
usually the duration of a storm.
The portion of rainfall that causes direct flood runoff. It equals the
Rainfall excess
total rainfall minus the initial abstraction and losses.
3 October 2013 27
Section 2: Highway Hydrology Hydrology of Highway Stream Crossings
sewers, or other drainageways. Water that reaches streams and rivers may be detained
in storage reservoirs and lakes or it eventually reaches the oceans.
Throughout this path, water is continually evaporated back to the atmosphere, and
the hydrologic cycle is repeated.
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Hydrology of Highway Stream Crossings Section 2: Highway Hydrology
3 October 2013 29
Section 2: Highway Hydrology Hydrology of Highway Stream Crossings
structures are then sized to convey the design peak discharge within other constraints
imposed on the design. If possible, the peak discharge that almost causes highway
overtopping is estimated, and this discharge is then used to evaluate the risk associated
with the crossing.
Hydrograph development is important where a detailed description of the time
variation of runoff rates and volumes is required. Similarly, urbanization, storage, and
other changes in a 1-5 watershed affect flood flows in many ways. Travel time, time of
concentration, runoff duration, peak flow, and the volume of runoff may be changed by
very significant amounts. The flood hydrograph is the primary way to evaluate and
assess these changes. Additionally, when flows are combined and routed to another
point along a stream, hydrographs are essential.
Neither peak flow nor hydrographs present any real computational difficulties
provided data are available for their determination. A problem faced by the highway
designer is that insufficient flow data, or often no data, exist at the site where a stream
crossing is to be designed. Although data describing the topography and the physical
characteristics of the basin are readily attainable, rarely is there sufficient time to
collect the flow data necessary to evaluate peak flows and hydrographs. In this case, the
designer must resort to synthetic methods to develop design parameters. These methods
require considerably more judgment and understanding in order to evaluate their
application and reliability.
Finally, the designer must be constantly alert to changing or the potential for
changing conditions in a watershed. This is especially important when reviewing
reported stream flow data for a watershed that has undergone urban development, and
channelization, diversions, and other drainage improvements. Similarly, the
construction of reservoirs, flow regulation measures, stock ponds, and other storage
facilities in the basin may be reflected in stream flow data. Other factors such as change
in gauge datum, moving of a gauge, or mixed floods (floods caused by rainfall and
snowmelt or rainfall and hurricanes) must be carefully analyzed to avoid
misinterpretation and/or incorrect conclusions.
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Rainfall/Runoff Processes Section 2: Highway Hydrology
will be subjected to a discharge equal to or greater than the 100-year discharge. The
longer the design life of a structure, the more likely it will be subjected to a discharge
much greater than the design discharge. This risk can be quantified based upon the laws
of probability, and this is discussed in more detail in Chapter 4 (risk assessment).
Checking for the effects of a rare event is one method of focusing the designer's
attention upon this aspect of design. However, factors other than discharge must be
evaluated. These include the occurrence of earthquakes, forest fires, dam breaks, and
other unlikely but possible events.
The designer needs to assess the vulnerability of the particular site with respect to
the effects of these occurrences and consider secondary outlets for the flows. It is very
difficult to assign a recurrence interval to such natural disasters, but their impacts need
to be assessed.
The effects of forest fires upon the rainfall-runoff response of a watershed can be
estimated based upon previous experience.
After a natural disaster strikes, detailed studies of the effects may be made and
reports generated that can serve as guidance to the designer.
2.5.1. Precipitation
Precipitation is the water that falls from the atmosphere in either liquid or solid
form. It results from the condensation of moisture in the atmosphere due to the cooling
of a parcel of air. The most common cause of cooling is dynamic or adiabatic lifting of
the air. Adiabatic lifting means that a given parcel of air is caused to rise with resultant
cooling and possible condensation into very small cloud droplets. If these droplets
coalesce and become of sufficient size to overcome the air resistance, precipitation in
some form results.
3 October 2013 31
Section 2: Highway Hydrology Rainfall/Runoff Processes
Intensity is defined as the time rate of rainfall depth and is commonly given in the
units of millimeters per hour). All precipitation is measured as the vertical depth of
water (or water equivalent in the case of snow) that would accumulate on a flat level
surface if all the precipitation remained where it fell. A variety of rain gauges have
been devised to measure precipitation. All first-order weather stations use gauges that
provide nearly continuous records of accumulated rainfall with time. These data are
typically reported in either tabular form or as cumulative mass rainfall curves.
The location of a localized storm in the drainage basin also affects the time
distribution of the surface runoff. A storm near the outlet of the watershed will result in
the peak flow occurring very quickly and a rapid passage of the flood. If the same
storm occurred in a remote part of the basin, the runoff at the outlet due to the storm
would be longer and the peak flow lower due to storage in the channel.
Storm movement has a similar effect on the runoff distribution particularly if the
basin is long and narrow.
Frequency is also an important characteristic because it establishes the frame of
reference for how often precipitation with given characteristics is likely to occur. From
the standpoint of highway design, a primary concern is with the frequency of
occurrence of the resulting surface runoff, and in particular, the frequency of the peak
discharges. While the designer is cautioned about assuming that a storm of a given
frequency always produces a flood of the same frequency.
Precipitation is not easily characterized although there have been many attempts to
do so. References and data sources are available that provide general information on
the character of precipitation at specified geographic locations. It is important,
however, to understand the highly variable and erratic nature of precipitation. Highway
designers should become familiar with the different types of storms and the
characteristics of precipitation that are indigenous to their regions of concern. They
should also understand the seasonal variations that are prevalent in many areas. In
addition, it is very beneficial to study reports that have been prepared on historic storms
and floods in a region.
Such reports can provide information on past storms and the consequences that they
may have had on drainage structures.
2.5.2.1. Evaporation
Evaporation is the process by which water from the land and water surfaces is
converted into water vapor and returned to the atmosphere. It occurs continually
whenever the air is unsaturated and temperatures are sufficiently high. Air is 'saturated'
when it holds its maximum capacity of moisture at the given temperature. Saturated air
has a relative humidity of 100 percent. Evaporation plays a major role in determining
the long-term water balance in a watershed. However, evaporation is usually
insignificant in small watersheds for single storm events and can be discounted when
calculating the discharge from a given rainfall event.
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Rainfall/Runoff Processes Section 2: Highway Hydrology
2.5.2.2. Transpiration
Transpiration is the physical removal of water from the watershed by the life
actions associated with the growth of vegetation. In the process of respiration, green
plants consume water from the ground and transpire water vapor to the air through their
foliage. As was the case with evaporation, this abstraction is only significant when
taken over a long period of time, and has minimal effect upon the runoff resulting from
a single storm event for a watershed.
2.5.2.3. Interception
Interception is the removal of water that wets and adheres to objects above ground such
as buildings, trees, and vegetation. This water is subsequently removed from the
surface through evaporation. Interception can be as high as 2 mm during a single
rainfall event, but usually is nearer 0.5 mm. The quantity of water removed through
interception is usually not significant for an isolated storm, but, when added over a
period of time, it can be significant.
2.5.2.4. Infiltration
Infiltration is the flow of water into the ground by percolation through the earth's
surface. The process of infiltration is complex and depends upon many factors such as
soil type, vegetal cover, antecedent moisture conditions or the amount of time elapsed
since the last precipitation event, precipitation intensity, and temperature. Infiltration is
usually the single most important abstraction in determining the response of a
watershed to a given rainfall event. As important as it is, no generally acceptable model
has been developed to accurately predict infiltration rates or total infiltration volumes
for a given watershed.
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Section 2: Highway Hydrology Rainfall/Runoff Processes
becomes channelized is the main consideration to highway stream crossing design since
it influences the size of a given drainage structure. The rate of flow or runoff at a given
instant, in terms of volume per unit of time, is called discharge. Some characteristics of
runoff that are important to drainage design are: (1) the peak discharge or peak rate of
flow; (2) the discharge variation with time (hydrograph); (3) the stage-discharge
relationship; (4) the total volume of runoff; and (5) the frequency with which
discharges of specified magnitudes are likely to be equaled or exceeded (probability of
exceedence).
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Rainfall/Runoff Processes Section 2: Highway Hydrology
zero flow in the given stream. The stage of a river is directly related to the discharge,
which is the quantity of water passing a given point (Figure 2.2). As the discharge
increases, the stage rises and as the discharge decreases, the stage falls. Generally,
discharge is related to stage at a particular point by using a variety of techniques and
instrumentation to obtain field measurements of these (and related) parameters.
2.5.3.5. Frequency
The exceedence frequency is the relative number of times a flood of a given
magnitude can be expected to occur on the average over a long period of time. It is
usually expressed as a ratio or a percentage. By its definition, frequency is a
probabilistic concept and is the probability that a flood of a given magnitude may be
equaled or exceeded in a specified period of time, usually 1 year. Exceedence
frequency is an important design parameter in that it identifies the level of risk during a
specified time interval acceptable for the design of a highway structure.
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Section 2: Highway Hydrology Rainfall/Runoff Processes
2.5.4.2. Slope
Steep slopes tend to result in rapid runoff responses to local rainfall excess and
consequently higher peak discharges Figure 2.3b. The runoff is quickly removed from
the watershed, so the hydrograph is short with a high peak. The stage-discharge
relationship is highly dependent upon the local characteristics of the cross-section of
the drainage channel and, if the slope is sufficiently steep, supercritical flow may
prevail. The total volume of runoff is also affected by slope. If the slope is very flat, the
rainfall will not be removed as rapidly. The process of infiltration will have more time
to affect the rainfall excess, thereby increasing the abstractions and resulting in a
reduction of the total volume of rainfall that appears directly as runoff.
Slope is very important in how quickly a drainage channel will convey water and,
therefore, it influences the sensitivity of a watershed to precipitation events of various
time durations. Watersheds with steep slopes will rapidly convey incoming rainfall and,
if the rainfall is convective (characterized by high intensity and relatively short
36 3 October 2013
Rainfall/Runoff Processes Section 2: Highway Hydrology
duration), the watershed will respond very quickly with the peak flow occurring shortly
after the onset of precipitation. If these convective storms occur with a given frequency,
the resulting runoff can be expected to occur with a similar frequency. On the other
hand, for a watershed with a flat slope, the response to the same storm will not be as
rapid and, depending on a number of other factors, the frequency of the resulting
discharge may be dissimilar to the storm frequency.
2.5.4.4. Storage
It is common for a watershed to have natural or manmade storage that greatly
affects the response to a given precipitation event. Common features that contribute to
storage within a watershed are lakes, marshes, heavily vegetated overbank areas,
natural or manmade constrictions in the drainage channel that cause backwater, and the
storage in the floodplains of large, wide rivers. Storage can have a significant effect in
reducing the peak rate of discharge, although this reduction is not necessarily universal.
There have been some instances where artificial storage redistributes the discharges
very radically, resulting in higher peak discharges than would have occurred had the
storage not been added. As shown in Figure 2.3d, storage generally spreads the
hydrograph out in time, delays the time to peak, and alters the shape of the resulting
hydrograph from a given storm.
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Section 2: Highway Hydrology Rainfall/Runoff Processes
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Rainfall/Runoff Processes Section 2: Highway Hydrology
The total volume of runoff is not directly influenced by the presence of storage.
Storage will redistribute the volume over time, but will not directly change the volume.
By redistributing the runoff over time, storage may allow other abstraction processes to
decrease the runoff (as was the case with slope and roughness).
Changes in storage have a definite effect upon the frequency of discharges of given
magnitudes. Storage tends to dampen the response of a watershed to very short events
and to accentuate the response to very long events. This alters the relationship between
frequency of precipitation and the frequency of the resultant runoff.
3 October 2013 39
Section 2: Highway Hydrology Hydrologic Data
appreciably, it is not unusual for the higher flood discharges to overtop the banks and
essentially flow in a straight line in the floodplain, thus reducing the effective channel
length.
The stage-discharge relationship and the total volume of runoff are practically
independent of channel length. Volume, however, will be redistributed in time, similar
in effect to storage but less pronounced.
2.5.4.8. Urbanization
As a watershed undergoes urbanization, the peak discharge typically increases and
the hydrograph becomes shorter and rises more quickly. This is due mostly to the
improved hydraulic efficiency of an urbanized area. In its natural state, a watershed will
have developed a natural system of conveyances consisting of gullies, streams, ponds,
marshes, etc., all in equilibrium with the naturally existing vegetation and physical
watershed characteristics. As an area develops, typical changes made to the watershed
include:
o Removal of existing vegetation and replacement with impervious pavement
or buildings,
o Improvement to natural watercourses by channelization, and
o Augmentation of the natural drainage system by storm sewers and open
channels. These changes tend to decrease depression storage, infiltration
rates, and travel time. Consequently, peak discharges increase, with the
time base of hydrographs becoming shorter and the rising limb rising more
quickly.
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Hydrologic Data Section 2: Highway Hydrology
2.6.2. Photographs
Upstream and downstream (non-aerial) photographs shall be taken of all crossings
whose design flow exceeds 20m3/sec. whenever possible, aerial photographs of
upstream watersheds shall also be included in the hydrologic report. These photographs
shall be of sufficient quality to enable the engineer to estimate channel roughness
characteristics, the nature and extent of vegetation cover, and land use. Photographs,
historic or recent, which support any hydrologic data, shall be included in the report.
These pictures can be placed in the text or referenced in the text and compiled at the
end of the report.
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Section 2: Highway Hydrology Hydrologic Analysis
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Hydrologic Analysis Section 2: Highway Hydrology
2.7.2.4. Infiltration
This parameter can be estimated by making field infiltration tests or using typical
infiltration rates for a particular soil type. Infiltration reflects the ability of the soil to
absorb moisture. This parameter shall be expressed in centimeters per hour. The
infiltration rate may also be expressed as a decay equation with infiltration rates being
high at the beginning of a storm and decreasing as the storm continues and the soil
becomes saturated.
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Section 2: Highway Hydrology Hydrologic Analysis
V
FR= (0.2)
gd
where
V = the mean velocity of flow in meters per sec (m/s).
g = the acceleration of gravity in meters per sec2 (m/s2).
d = the hydraulic depth that is defined as the cross sectional area of the water normal to
the direction of flow in the channel divided by the width of the free surface.
Flow is supercritical when FR > 1.
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Hydrologic Analysis Section 2: Highway Hydrology
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Section 2: Highway Hydrology Hydrologic Analysis
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Section 2: Highway Hydrology Hydrologic Analysis
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Section 2: Highway Hydrology Hydrologic Analysis
Discharge estimates employing these indirect methods are based on the correlation
between peak runoff values and measurable watershed parameters. The last method,
Regression Equations, is formulas that were developed for use in the State of Arizona
of the United States of America. Sections of Arizona closely resemble parts of Saudi
Arabia. Where either rainfall or gaging data is unavailable, this resemblence may be
used to establish a storm runoff.
The following Table 2.4 shall be used in selecting a particular flood estimate
procedure.
Gumbel Distribution Areas greater than 100 ha with gaging station data at the site.
Areas greater than 100 ha with gaging station data from neigh
Indirect Estimates
boring watersheds.
Regression Equations rainfall data.
Whether one of these methods or any other method is chosen to estimate the
watershed runoff, the Engineer shall include in the final design report a copy of sample
computations and any references used.
The recurrence intervals for use with hydrologic computations shall be as follows in
Table 2.5:
where
Q = flow in cubic meters per second for a return period equal to that of the rainfall
intensity, I.
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Hydrologic Analysis Section 2: Highway Hydrology
C = A runoff coefficient expressing the fraction of the rainfall that is assumed to become
direct runoff.
I = The rainfall intensity in millimeters per hour for a duration corresponding to the
catchment area and having a recurrence period appropriate to the project conditions.
A = The drainage area in hectares.
1. Runoff Coefficient
Typical values of runoff coefficients for use in either rural or urban areas are listed
in Table 2.6 and Table 2.7.
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Hydrologic Analysis Section 2: Highway Hydrology
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Section 2: Highway Hydrology Hydrologic Analysis
2. Rainfall Intensity
The rainfall intensity value used in the Rational Equation is based on essentially
three items. These are: the amount of rainfall that occurs, the time it takes for this
amount of rainfall to occur, and the recurrence interval associated with each design
class. These three factors are brought together in an intensity-duration frequency curve
(IDF). These curves may be available from AGWAT. If not available locally, they can
be developed with local rainfall data using the following steps.
Using the rainfall data, list the maximum depth of rainfall (mm) for a specific
duration for each year of record. This list shall be made for the following
durations: 10, 20, 30 minutes; 1, 2, 3, 6, 12, and 24 hours.
These data are then ranked from lowest to highest and assigned a plotting
position. The formula for the plotting position is
100m
Plotting Position (0.4)
N 1
where
N = the total number of ranked rainfall data.
m = the rank value of the rainfall data.
The rainfall data are then plotted versus their plotting positions on standard
probability paper. These points are then fitted with a curve. This procedure is
repeated for all rainfall durations.
Once these data have been plotted and the appropriate curves drawn, the
Engineer then determines the rainfall depths for the 25, 50, and 100 year
events from these curves. This is done by first computing the nonexceedance
probability for each event. The following formula is used:
1
Nonexceedance Probability 100(1 ) (0.5)
Tr
where
Tr = the return interval for each event.
This nonexceedance probability is then located along the horizontal axis. By
drawing a line vertically through this point and intersecting the rainfall curve, the
rainfall depth for that particular return interval is obtained. These rainfall depths are
then converted to rainfall in tensities (mm/hr) by multiplying by 60 minutes and
dividing by the appropriate rainfall duration.
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Hydrologic Analysis Section 2: Highway Hydrology
This new set of data is then plotted on standard graph paper comparing
rainfall intensity versus duration. Curves are then drawn connecting points
with similar frequencies. This final graph is the Intensity Duration-Frequency
curve we need to complete our design.
In using this type of statistical approach in determining an IDF curve, one can see
the need for large amounts of rainfall data. The more information used in the analysis
the better the accuracy in the runoff estimation. Unfortunately, information does not
always exist where the Engineer would like to have it. In response to this problem,
AGWAT has established zones with similar hydrologic conditions. It is their intent that
rainfall data within a zone be considered homogeneous and independent and apply
uniformly throughout the zone. The zone boundaries are delineated on Figure 2.4
When using this assumption, the Engineer shall check the independence and correlation
of data by using standard statistical tests.
3. Time of Concentration
The next step is to employ the information on the IDF curve and compute the time
of concentration of the runoff from the watershed. The time of oncentration (Tc) is
defined as the interval of time in minutes required for the flow at a given point to
become a maximum. This generally occurs when all parts of the drainage area are
contributing to the flow. In other words, the time of concentration is the interval of time
from the beginning of rainfall to the time when water from the most remote portion of
the drainage area reaches the inlet of the drainage structure. The time of concentration
for urban areas may be determined using Figure 2.5 when the flow is overland.
3 October 2013 55
Section 2: Highway Hydrology Hydrologic Analysis
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Hydrologic Analysis Section 2: Highway Hydrology
When the flow is concentrated in curb and gutters, drainage channels, or conduits,
the time of concentration can be determined using the flow velocity. The flow velocity
may be estimated by using the Manning equation:
X i Qi
1 2/3 1/2
b 2
V R S (0.6)
X i n
where
V = Mean velocity in meters per second.
n = Manning coefficient of roughness.
R = Hydraulic radius in meters.
S = Slope in percent.
The time of concentration will then be the flow distances divided by the velocity of
flow.
The rainfall intensity can now be determined using the time of concentration and
the IDF curves. The duration of the storm is set equal to the time of concentration.
Using his duration value, the Engineer locates the proper value on the x-axis of the IDF
curve. He then draws a vertical line through the 25, 50, or 100 year recurrence interval
lines. Projecting these intersections horizontally to the y-axis he thus determines the
rainfall intensity for each recurrence interval for a given storm duration.
A study of the standard storm duration rainfall intensity curves indicates that, for
short duration storms, the rainfall intensity changes rapidly with a change in the storm
duration. Consequently, attention should be given to computing an accurate time of
concentration for small drainage areas.
4. Drainage Area
The drainage area is then determined for each particular segment of the watershed.
With these three factors; the runoff coefficient, the rainfall intensity, and the
drainage area, the Engineer can complete his design. Inserting these values into the
Rational Equation the peak discharge for the watershed is calculated.
Example:
Using the runoff coefficient (0.57) and the rainfall intensity (43 mm/hr) previously
developed and a drainage area measurement of 65 ha, the runoff from the basin would
be
CIA
Q (0.7)
360
Q50 = (0.57) (43) (65) /360 =4.43 m3/sec
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Section 2: Highway Hydrology Hydrologic Analysis
1. Graphical Solution
Often the simplest way to examine frequency relationships for a given set of gaging
station data is to plot the data on graph paper, fit a curve to the data, and predict future
flood flows from the curve.
To use this method, follow the steps listed below:
a. Select the annual flood peaks from the gaging station information listed
in Article 2.6.6. (Gaging Station Data). Array the annual series in
descending order and assign an order number "m" to each annual event.
b. Determine the plotting position (return interval) for each annual event.
The formula for the plotting position is
N 1
Tr (0.8)
m
where
N = The total number of annual events.
m = The order number of each particular event.
Tr = The plotting position or return interval.
The data are then plotted, discharge versus return interval, on Gumbel
Distribution paper.
A straight line is then fitted through these points and flood flows for any given
frequency can be read from the graph.
2. Analytical Solution
Flood events are a succession of natural events that, as far as can be determined, do
not fit anyone specific statistical distribution. However, studies have shown that the
Gumbel Distribution closely approximates a natural series of flood events.
The recommended method for fitting the Gumbel Distribution to observed peaks is
to compute the mean and standard deviation of the data and substitute into the
following equation:
Q X K (T ,N )S (0.9)
Where X and S are defined below and K is a factor that is a function of the
recurrence interval. Values of K can be obtained from Table 2.8.
The mean and standard deviation of the data may be computed by using the following
equations:
X
X i
(0.10)
N
S
(X i X )2
(0.11)
N 1
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Hydrologic Analysis Section 2: Highway Hydrology
where
Xi = Annual peak flows
X = Mean
S = Standard deviation
T = Recurrence interval
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Section 2: Highway Hydrology Hydrologic Analysis
1. Graphical
Once the peak flows for the desired recurrence intervals have been determined for
the neighboring watersheds, these values are plotted versus a watershed parameter on
either normal or logarithmic graph paper. Plotting the discharge versus the drainage
area is recommended. After these points have been plotted, a curve is drawn through
them. The discharge for the desired site is then determined using this curve.
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2. Analytical
The discharges as determined by the Gumbel Distribution on the gaged watersheds
are listed in a tabular form along with several of the watershed parameters for each
basin used. A linear or multiple regression analysis, as described in any standard
statistical manual, can then be performed on the data. The results of this type of
analysis will enable the prediction of discharge from any watershed within that
particular region of the country.
An example of this method using only one parameter, a linear regression analysis, is
described as follows:
The equation for predicting the discharge would have the form
Q a bx (0.12)
Where
Q is the discharge, x is a basin parameter (possibly precipitation) and " a " and " b "
are coefficients to be estimated. These estimates are determined by the following
formulas:
X i Qi
b (0.13)
X i2
(Q i b X i )
a (0.14)
n
where
Xi = A basin parameter (precipitation)
Once " a " and " b " have been determined, the basin parameter for the particular site
to be crossed is substituted into the equation and the discharge is calculated. Using a
range of recurrence intervals from the other watersheds, a flood frequency relationship
can be determined.
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Highway Culverts Design Section 2: Highway Hydrology
2.8.1. Introduction
The function of a culvert is to convey surface water across or from the highway
right of way. In addition to this hydraulic function it must also carry construction and
highway traffic and earth loads, therefore, culvert design involves both hydraulic and
structural design.
Culverts are available in a variety of sizes, shapes, and materials. These factors,
along with several others, affect the capacity and overall performance of the culvert.
Culvert sizes may vary from 0.4 m circular pipes up to extremely large arch sections
which are sometimes used in place of bridges.
The most commonly used culvert shape is circular, but arch, box, and elliptical
shapes are also used. Pipe arch and elliptical shapes are generally used in lieu of
circular pipe where there is limited cover or overfill. Arch culverts have application in
locations where less obstruction to a waterway is a desirable feature, and where
foundations are adequate for structural support. Box culverts can be designed to pass
large flows and to fit nearly any site condition. A box or rectangular culvert lends itself
more readily than other shapes to low allowable headwater situations since the height
may be decreased and the total span increased to satisfy the location requirement.
The material selected for a culvert is dependent upon several factors such as
durability, structural strength, roughness, bedding conditions, abrasion and corrosion
resistance, and water tightness. The more common culvert materials used are concrete
and steel (smooth and corrugated).
Another factor that significantly affects the performance of a culvert is the culvert
inlet configuration. The culvert inlet may consist of a culvert barrel projecting from the
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Section 2: Highway Hydrology Highway Culverts Design
roadway fill or mitered to the embankment slope. Other inlets have headwalls,
wingwalls, and apron slabs or standard end sections of concrete or metal.
2.8.2.2. Headwater
Culverts generally constrict the natural stream flow that causes a rise in the
upstream water surface. The elevation of this water surface at the culvert entrance is
termed headwater elevation and the total flow depth in the stream measured from the
culvert inlet invert is termed headwater depth. In selecting the design headwater
elevation, the designer should consider the following:
Upstream property damage.
Damage to the culvert and the roadway.
Traffic interruption.
Hazard to human life.
Headwater/culvert depth (HW /D).
Low point in the roadway grade line.
Roadway elevation above the structure.
The headwater elevation for the design discharge shall be at least 0.5 m below the
edge of shoulder elevation. The designer should verify that the watershed divides are
higher than the design headwater elevations. In flat terrain drainage divides are often
64 3 October 2013
Highway Culverts Design Section 2: Highway Hydrology
undefined or nonexistent and culverts should be located and designed for least
disruption of the existing flow distribution.
2.8.2.3. Tailwater
Tailwater depth is the flow depth in the downstream channel measured from the
invert at the culvert outlet. It can be an important factor in culvert hydraulic design
because a submerged outlet may cause the culvert to flow full rather than partially full.
A field inspection of the downstream channel should be made to determine whether
there are obstructions which will influence the flow depth. Tailwater depth may be
controlled by the stage in another stream, headwater from structures downstream of the
culvert, reservoir water surface elevations, or other downstream features.
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Section 2: Highway Hydrology Highway Culverts Design
When a culvert operates under inlet control, the roughness and length of the culvert
barrel and outlet condition (including tailwater) do not affect the culvert hydraulic
performance. Headwater depth and the inlet edge configuration determine the culvert
capacity with the culvert barrel usually flowing only partially full. An increase in barrel
slope reduces headwater to a small degree and any correction for slope can be
neglected for conventional or commonly used culverts flowing with inlet control.
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Section 2: Highway Hydrology Highway Culverts Design
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arch and box culverts with width greater than height should also be considered. Final
selections should be based on an economic analysis.
For tail water TW elevations less than the top of the culvert at the outlet, find
headwater HW by the above equation, except that:
ho = dc+ D /2 (0.16)
or
TW, whichever is the greater.
where
dc = Critical depth in meters (Note: dc cannot exceed D) (Figure 2.12).
D = Height of culvert opening in meters.
Compare the headwaters found in Step3 (1) and Step3 (2), (inlet control and
outlet control). The higher headwater governs and indicates the flow control
existing under the given conditions for the trial size selected.
If outlet control governs and HW is higher than is acceptable, select a larger
culvert size and find HW as instructed under Step3(2).
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Section 2: Highway Hydrology Highway Culverts Design
2.8.5.4. Step 4- Try a culvert of another type or shape and determine size and HW
by the above procedure.
2.8.5.5. Step 5-Compute outlet velocities for size and types to be considered in
selection and determine need for channel protection
If outlet control governs in Step 3(2) above, outlet velocity equals Q/Ao.
where
Ao = The cros-sectional area of the flow in the culvert barrel at the outlet.
2.8.5.6. Step 6-Record final selection of culvert, the size, type required headwater,
outlet velocity, and economic justification.
Data can be compiled in a variety of ways and should include these items:
Copies of all pertinent correspondence.
Topography of site.
Drainage area map.
Stream profile and cross sections.
Historical high water documentation.
Information on existing structures in the vicinity.
Hydrologic design computations.
Hydraulic design calculations and culvert performance curves.
Foundation investigation.
Structure plans.
Economic analysis of structure selection.
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Figure 2 10: Headwater Depth for Concrete Box Culverts Flowing Full , n = 0.012
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Section 2: Highway Hydrology Highway Culverts Design
Table 2.10: Entrance Loss Coefficients, Outlet Control, Full or Partly Full Entrance Head Loss
V2
H e Ce
2g
Type of Structure and Design of Entrance Coefficients Ce
Pipe, Concrete
Projecting from fill, socket end (groove-end) 0.2
Projecting from fill, square. cut end 0.5
Headwall or headwall and wingwalls:
Socket end of pipe (groove-end ) 0.2
Square-edge 0.5
Rounded (radius = D/12 ) 0.2
Mitered to conform to fill slope 0.7
*End-Section conforming to fill slope 0.5
Beveled edges, 33.7o or 45o bevels 0.2
Side- or slope-tapered inlet 0.2
Pipe. or Pipe-Arch. Corrugated Metal
Projecting from fill (no headwall) 0.9
Headwall or headwall and wingwalls square-edge 0.5
Mitered to conform to fill slope, paved or unpaved slope 0.7
*End-Section conforming to fill slope 0.5
Beveled edges, 33.7o or 45o bevels 0.2
Side- or slope-tapered inlet 0.2
Box, Reinforced Concrete
Headwall parallel to embankment (no wingwalls) :
Square-edged on 3 edges 0.5
Rounded on 3 edges to radius of D/12 or B/12 or beveled edges on 3
0.2
sides
Wingwalls at 30o to 75oto barrel :
Square-edged at crown 0.4
Crown edge rounded to radius of D/12 or beveled top edge 0.2
Wingwall at 10oto 25o to barrel
Square-edged at crown 0.5
Wingwalls parallel (extension of sides)
Square-edged at crown 0.7
Side- or slope-tapered inlet 0.2
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*Note: "End Sections conforming to fill slope," made of either metal or concrete, are the sections
commonly available from manufacturers. From limited hydraulic tests they are equivalent in operation to
a headwall in both inlet and outlet control. Some end sections, incorporating a closed taper in their
design have a superior hydraulic performance.
2.8.6. Protection
2.8.6.2. Buoyancy
The forces acting on a culvert inlet during high flows are variable and highly
indeterminate. Vortexes and eddy currents cause scour which can undermine the
culvert inlet, erode the embankment slope, and make the inlet vulnerable to failure.
Flow is usually constricted at the inlet and inlet damage or lodged drift can accentuate
this constriction. The large unequal pressures resulting from this constriction are in
effect buoyant forces which can cause entrance failures, particularly on corrugated
metal pipe with mitered, skewed, or projecting ends. The failure potential will increase
with depth of the potential headwater (which may be increased by debris blockage),
flatness of the fill slope over the upstream end of the culvert, and the height of the fill.
Anchorage at the culvert entrance helps to protect against these failures by
increasing the dead load on the end of the culvert, protecting against bending damage,
and by protecting the fill slope from the scouring action of the flow. The following two
general approaches are recommended to prevent failure caused by buoyancy:
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Section 2: Highway Hydrology REFERENCES
2.8.7. Sedimentation
Sediment may be deposited within the culvert barrels. This deposition usually
occurs at flow rates smaller than the design flow. The deposits may be removed during
larger floods dependent upon the relative transport capacity of flow in the stream and in
the culvert compaction and composition of the deposits, flow duration, ponding depth
above the culvert, and other factors.
Culvert location in both plan and profile is of particular importance to the
maintenance of sediment-free culvert barrels. Deposition occurs in culverts because the
sediment transport capacity of flow within the culvert is often less than in the stream.
The following factors contribute to deposition in culverts:
At moderate flow rates the culvert cross section is larger than that of the
stream, thus the flow depth and sediment transport capacity is reduced.
Point bars form on the inside of stream bends and culvert inlets placed at
bends in the stream will be subjected to deposition in the same manner. This
effect is most pronounced in multiple-barrel culverts with the barrel on the
inside of the curve often becoming almost totally plugged with sediment
deposits.
Abrupt changes to a flatter grade in the culvert or in the channel adjacent to
the culvert will induce sedimentation. Gravel and cobble deposits are common
downstream from the break in grade because of the reduced transport capacity
in the flatter section.
2.9. REFERENCES
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3.1.1. General
3.1.1.1. Introduction
Geotechnical Engineering in this context is intended to include all tasks
concerning the exploration and utilization of soil and rock. The section describes
activities which form part of both the design phase and the construction phase, but
which, for convenience, have been grouped together here.
The importance of comprehensive and accurate geotechnical information cannot
be overemphasized. The objective of highway geotechnical work should be to seek,
interpret, and evaluate subsurface and surface data in order to predict the behavior of
the soils and materials along, and adjacent to, the alignment. The resulting information
should be presented in a logical and intelligible manner so that it can be used correctly
and efficiently by the nonspecialist, bearing in mind that geotechnics should not be
isolated from the planning, design and construction activities, but should form an
integral part of each.
3.1.1.2. Objective
The objective of this section is to provide an overall framework for geotechnical
work, to describe procedures for investigation, to describe the format for reporting
geotechnical information, and, as appropriate, to define the relationship between
geotechnical work and other planning, design and construction activities.
It is, however, intended to give a set of guidelines and not to take the role of a
design handbook. It has been written for practicing designers, and emphasis is placed
on what is required to be submitted to the Ministry, rather than how the work should be
done. Those seeking further information can consult the many textbooks on the subject
of geotechnics and materials or refer to the references given in the bibliography. In
addition, by the very nature of naturally-occuring materials, this section cannot provide
guidance for all geotechnical situations. It is assumed that the geotechnical work will
be undertaken by someone with specialist knowledge, who will be able to arrive at
economic and safe solutions based on theory and experience.
3.1.1.3. Reports
During the course of highway design, the Ministry will normally require the
production of the following reports:
1. Reconnaisance Report
2. Preliminary Design Report
3. Final Design Report
The remainder of this section describes the geotechnical input required for each.
Also included is a subsection on the role of geotechnical engineering during the course
of construction and later maintenance with, finally, a number of appendices dealing
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Section 3: Geotechnical Studies Project Geotechnical Planning
with ground investigations, soil and rock description and classification, hazards, and
data assessment.
For certain projects, one or more of the reports may not be required by the Ministry.
In these cases, the geotechnical input for the remaining report(s) may need to be
expanded.
3.1.3.1. Objective
The Reconnaissance Report will normally examine the feasibility of constructing a
particular highway in a particular area and, as a result, will encompass social,
economic, and environmental factors.
The resulting information will form part of the recommendations for the adoption
(or otherwise) of a particular corridor or corridors within which the future highway
should be located. The purpose of the geotechnical input to the reconnaissance phase is
to provide a summary of the geotechnical factors which could influence the evaluation
for the corridor(s), to define the potential geological hazards, and to provide a basis for
future more detailed geotechnical investigations.
3.1.3.2. Tasks
The geotechnical tasks can be summarized as:
1. Data Collection
a. Topographical Maps
Topographical maps are currently published by Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral
Resources. Scales range from 1:50,000 to 1:2,000,000.
b. Geological Reports
- Geological maps are currently published by the K.S.A. Geological Survey,
Jeddah and the by Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral Resources. These can
give a good indication of the general lithology, stratigraphy and structure within
a particular corridor, and range in scale from 1:100,000 to 1:10,000,000.
-
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c. Remote Sensing
Remote sensing includes both satellite imagery and air photography. The absence of
vegetation for much of the Kingdom means that remote sensing can play an important
role in providing useful information on potential geological hazards and materials
resources. Sources of imagery and photography include the Ministries of
Communications, Agriculture & Water, Petroleum and Mineral Resources,
Municipalities & Rural Affairs.
e. Other Studies
Other pertinent information related to other studies may be available and contained
in reports to the appropriate Ministries, in professional publications, or in conference
proceedings.
2. Site inspection
a. Geomorphology
The inspection should first be directed at comparing the geological and remote
sensing features with the physical features on the ground. The geomorphological
processes which formed these physical features should be studied and understood. The
present day effects of wind, water, seismicity, and temperature need to be assessed.
b. Potential Hazards
Local enquiries should be made to identify potential hazards. These might include
seismicity, sabkha deposits, collapsing soils, swelling soils, cavities, slope instability,
soft or loose ground, sand dunes, and aggressive groundwater. The occurrence and
potential effect of all such hazards should be evaluated.
3.1.3.3. Report
The Reconnaissance Report should include a section on the geotechnical work
carried out, giving a brief outline of the procedures followed and the sources consulted.
The following topics should be reviewed:
The overall topography and regional and structural geology within the
proposed corridor(s).
Geological features and hazards and their relationship to design, construction,
and maintenance. This should include a description of the physical properties
of the various strata. Features with a high cost or time impact should be
examined in more detail.
The overall groundwater conditions.
Corridor soils and materials resources.
A terrain evaluation map is required. For the purpose of the Reconnaissance Report
this need not be very detailed, but should at least include the geology, the locations of
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Section 3: Geotechnical Studies Project Geotechnical Planning
the various geological features and hazards, and the locations of potential materials
sources.
3.1.4.1. Objective
The approval of the Reconnaissance Report will normally result in the Ministry's
agreement to the adoption of a single corridor for the highway alignment. Input for the
Preliminary Design Phase includes the examination of various alignments within the
adopted corridor and the selection and staking of a final route.
In this phase, the geotechnical engineer expands upon the information and
recommendations presented in the Reconnaissance Report. The scope of the
geotechnical work narrows down from the broad general approach to more specific
topics. The objective is to provide information that can be used confidently by the
design team to produce preliminary design and cost estimates.
3.1.4.2. Tasks
The amount of geotechnical work required will vary according to the length and
geometrical standards of the highway, the geology, and the nature of the problems
identified in the Reconnaissance Phase. The lists of tasks which follow are given for
general guidance only:
a. Horizontal Alignment
The horizontal alignment will evolve from a number of considerations, some of
them conflicting. Road geometry, wadi locations, topography, centers of population,
geotechnical hazards such as sabkha and wind-blown sands, are some of the many
factors. In assessing a tentative center-line location or locations, a close liaison between
the remainder of the design team and the geotechnical engineer will be of prime
importance.
b. Vertical Alignment
A tentative vertical alignment will be required at an early stage so that the
geotechnical engineer can examine in more detail the areas where deep cuts, tunnels, or
high fills are proposed.
c. Structures
The location of major structures will require careful planning for optimal choice of
foundation type. In many cases, a simple site inspection may highlight locations where
foundation problems can be minimized.
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a. Borings
Soil and/or rock borings may be necessary in areas where embankments are to be
constructed over suspected soft ground, where deep cuts are proposed, or to examine
major bridge foundations. Standard Penetration Tests, Field Vane Shear Tests, and
undisturbed sampling should be carried out, as appropriate.
b. Soundings
A supplement to borings would be to carry out soundings by hand portable or truck
mounted equipment. This method is not suitable in dense gravels, boulders, or bedrock.
c. Test Pits
Excavation of test pits can be carried out by hand or machine. This can be a very
cost effective way to determine the structure of the sub-soil and to retrieve disturbed
and undisturbed samples within a few meters of the ground surface. In certain types of
soils, such as collapsing soils, test pits are an essential aid to identification and
sampling of subsoils.
d. Geophysical Investigations
Two geophysical methods, seismic refraction and resistivity, have proved useful as
rapid means of obtaining sub-surface information and as cost-effective supplements to
borings. Such geophysical explorations need to be supervised and interpreted by a
specialist in geophysics.
e. Geological Mapping
Geological mapping may be required in rocky areas to determine structure; dip and
strike of the various strata, rippability, and potential cut slope instability.
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Section 3: Geotechnical Studies Project Geotechnical Planning
a. Laboratory Tests
Laboratory tests may need to be carried out on selected disturbed and undisturbed
samples. Tests on disturbed samples are likely to include classification, moisture
content, moisture/density relationship and California Bearing Ratio tests. Tests on
undisturbed samples may include direct shear, unconfined compression,
unconsolidated-undrained or consolidated-un drained triaxial and consolidation tests.
All these tests should aim to provide the geotechnical engineer with sufficient
information so that he may estimate the geotechnical properties and parameters for
design with confidence.
3.1.4.3. Report
The Preliminary Design Report should include an appendix on the geotechnical
work carried out comprising:
A description of the topography and regional and structural geology along the
proposed alignment(s), including a geological map.
A description of the geotechnical investigations conducted for this phase. A brief
summary of the results of the investigation should be included, as well as any
significant findings or conclusions.
A map showing the predominant soil and rock types along the proposed
alignment(s) and the locations of potential borrow areas for embankment and subgrade
materials.
Photographs of predominant and unusual features to highlight topography, hazards,
the selection of borrow areas, etc.
Logs of all borings, test pits, trenches, shafts and adits.
Cross-sections showing subsurface soil, rock, and groundwater profiles,
where appropriate.
A description of the type and extent of geotechnical analyses performed.
A description of any specific hazards together with recommendations for measures
to minimize their impact.
The location, estimated quantity, type, and suitability of locally naturally-occurring
construction materials. This should include sand, gravel, and rock, for granular road
bases, asphalt mixes and concrete, and water for earthworks and concrete.
An assessment of excavation problems likely to be caused by the vertical alignment
of the highway or by foundations of the structures.
Recommendations for measures to minimize embankment scour and erosion.
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3.1.5.1. Objective
The objective of the geotechnical work carried out during the Final Design Phase is
to provide sufficient information to the design team so that the design can be completed
and an accurate cost estimate made, and to assess all geotechnical factors which could
have an impact on construction and maintenance.
3.1.5.2. Tasks
The geotechnical tasks can be summarized as:
b. Structures
The precise geometry of the structures needs to be established at an early stage in
this phase so that final borings and test pits can be accurately located. The results of the
ground investigation may highlight the need for a re-appraisal of the geometry.
a. Borings
Soil and/or rock borings will be required for all bridge foundations, deep cuts, and
suspected areas of soft ground. Standard Penetration Tests, field vane shear tests,
disturbed and undisturbed sampling should be carried out as appropriate.
b. Soundings
A supplement to borings would be to carry out soundings by hand-portable or truck
mounted equipment. This method is not suitable in dense gravels, boulders, or bedrock.
c. Test Pits
Excavation of test pits can be carried out by hand or machine. This can be a very
cost effective way to determine the structure of the subsoil and to retrieve disturbed and
undisturbed samples within a few meters of the ground surface. Hand-dug test pits are
often carried out to enable the subgrade soils to be sampled along the alignment,
particularly in areas where machine access is difficult. Test pits are of paramount value
where potentially hazardous soils such as collapsing or swelling soils are identified or
suspected.
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Section 3: Geotechnical Studies Project Geotechnical Planning
d. Geophysical Investigations
Geophysical investigations are more likely to have been carried out during the
Preliminary Design Phase than during the Final Design Phase. Such investigations have
proved useful as a rapid means of obtaining sub-surface information and as cost-
effective supplements to borings, but need to be supervised and interpreted by a
specialist in geophysics.
e. Groundwater Monitoring
Groundwater monitoring may be advisable in certain circumstances, particularly where
fluctuations in the groundwater table could affect construction. Measurement is usually
carried out by means of piezometers installed in borings.
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of the various geotechnical components of the project should then be prepared and
these could include:
Excavations
Drainage (including dewatering)
Cut Slopes (Soils and rock)
Tunnels (including support systems)
Lateral support (including retaining walls, reinforced earth, gabions, etc.)
Foundations
Soil Modification or Stabilization
3.1.5.3. Report
The Final Design Report should include a section or a volume on the geotechnical
work carried out, comprising:
An Introduction giving a brief description of the project and location. An area map
and a project map showing the route, major wadi crossings and intersecting highways
should also be included.
a Background section describing the general geology, topography, hydrology,
climate and any other overall factors that could affect the geotechnical aspects of the
project. A general geologic/topographic map of the project area should be included.
an Investigation Procedures section describing the scope and type of geotechnical
investigation performed for the project. This should include the number and type of
borings, test pits, geophysical surveys, field tests, etc.; the dates when the fieldwork
was performed; details about who performed the fieldwork, the equipment used, the
field procedures carried out, any unusual field or equipment conditions which could
affect the results, the amount and type of soil and rock laboratory testing, and the
laboratory procedures carried out.
a Findings section describing the findings and significant results of the geotechnical
investigation. This should include geological cross sections for specific sites, as
appropriate. Descriptions should be given of predominant soil types and depths, rock
types and bedding orientation, faults, weathered zones, groundwater conditions and any
other major conditions that could affect the design or construction of the project.
Except for those projects that are especially complex or lengthy, the Findings section
may be brief and concise.
an Analyses and Recommendations section describing the procedures used by the
geotechnical engineer to develop the design recommendations based upon the findings,
and a list of actions, procedures, or methods to be used by the highway designer in the
preparation of the contract documents. Concise recommendations are necessary to
ensure that there is no misunderstanding of the geotechnical engineer's intent, and to
simplify their implementation. Information on each of the following typical items shall
be provided, as appropriate:
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Section 3: Geotechnical Studies Project Geotechnical Planning
1. Earth works
a. Slope Stability
Cut and fill slope gradients in soil and rock. Proposed support measure for rock
cuts.
b. Drainage
Specific types and locations of any surface/ subsurface drainage systems.
d. Hazards
Details of measures to minimize the effects of large scale hazards such as sabkha,
sand dunes, soft or organic soils, etc.
2. Materials
a. Sources
Locations of sand, gravel, rock, and water sources, with quality and estimated
quantities.
3. Structures
a. Foundations
Foundation types, allowable bearing capacities, pile lengths, estimated settlements,
details of measures to mitigate aggressive soils and/or groundwater conditions,
requirements for pile load testing during construction.
b. Earth Pressure
Earth pressure coefficients and/or distribution for abutments and retaining walls.
Equivalent fluid pressures may also be given.
c. Excavations
Details of any special construction techniques likely to be necessary, including
dewatering and lateral support.
a. Foreseeable problems
Details of potential problems which could occur during and after construction;
recommendations for surveillance and mitigation.
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1. Bridges
For all bridges projects, at least one boring will be placed at each bent location.
Borings should be placed at opposite sides of adjacent bent locations when practical.
For bridges that are (30m) wide and larger, at least two borings will be placed at each
bent. When spread footings are proposed, two borings at opposing corners of the
footing are advisable. Spread footings located on the banks of rivers and streams should
be investigated with at least two borings - one on the down-slope and one on the
upslope side of the proposed footing. If wing walls greater than 6 meters long are to be
constructed, then a boring should be placed at the end of each wing wall and at (15m)
intervals from the end of the wing wall to the bridge abutment. Trestle type bridges
(usually for detours) should also be investigated at every bent. Preferably, the borings
should be staggered from opposite ends of adjacent bents. Where highly variable
conditions are anticipated, then a boring should be advanced at both ends of each bent.
For drilled shaft foundations, one boring should be placed at the location of each
proposed shaft of (1.8m) in diameter and larger.
2. Culverts
All proposed new and replacement culverts require some level of subsurface
investigation. Typically, culverts with a diameter of (1.8m) and larger are investigated
with test borings while smaller culverts are investigated with hand-dug test pits or hand
auger holes. However, judgments should be made regarding the actual site conditions
and the facility in question to determine the number and spacing of borings. Complex
geologic conditions merit a more intense investigation, while larger embankments,
adjacent facilities, and proximate unstable slopes may result in a more detailed
investigation for smaller-diameter culverts. At least two borings should be completed
for each culvert up to (30m) long. For culverts longer than (30m) borings should have a
maximum spacing of (15m). In complex geologic conditions, boring spacing may be
decreased to (6m). Borings will typically be located along the axis of the proposed
culvert. For culvert replacements, the borings should be located immediately outside or
partially within the excavation limits of the original culvert installation with particular
care to not locate a boring where it will penetrate the existing pipe. Box culverts (30m)
and longer require two borings at each end and at the prescribed interval between the
ends.
3. Retaining Walls
Retaining walls higher than (1.2m) and any wall with a foreslope and/or backslope
angle steeper than horizontal require a subsurface investigation. At least two borings
are required for every retaining wall regardless of length with the exception of retaining
walls less than (8m) long. The maximum borehole spacing along any retaining wall is
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Section 3: Geotechnical Studies Engineering Properties of Soil and rock
(30m). One boring is required at each end of the proposed wall. Where the proposed
wall is longer than (30m) long, and less than (61m), the third boring may be placed at
either the midpoint of the wall, or at the location of the maximum wall height.
Embankments supported by retaining walls on each side should be investigated as two
separate walls.
Borings are typically located on the wall alignment at the proposed location of the
wall face however; they may be staggered to either side of the wall line but should
remain within the wall footprint to evaluate the wall foundation conditions. For soil
nail, tieback, and similarly reinforced walls, additional borings should be completed in
the wall reinforcement zones. Borings should be located behind the wall in the
predicted bond/anchorage zones for tieback walls, or horizontally 1 to 1.5 times the
wall height back from the wall face. Borings for tiebacks/anchors should be
interspersed with the borings along the wall face. Thus, a (61m)-long wall would have
(at a minimum) 5 borings - 3 along the wall centerline at the ends and the midpoint and
2 in the prescribed locations behind the wall at the (15m) and (46m) points along the
wall centerline.
The preceding recommended borehole spacing should be halved for walls that will
be constructed to retain landslides. Landslide retaining walls should have a minimum of
2 borings along the wall line regardless of length. The maximum borehole spacing
along such walls is (15m) with corresponding holes interspersed between located in the
bond/anchorage zone. These boreholes are specifically for characterizing the
subsurface conditions at the location of the proposed retaining wall, and are in addition
to any borings advanced to characterize the landslide. Landslide investigation borings
may suffice for the retaining wall investigation only where they fall within the
prescribed locations.
3.3.1.1. Permeability
Permeability is a property indicating the ease with which water flows or passes
through a material. This water movement is called percolation. The knowledge and
extent of this condition is especially important in the design and construction of
underground excavations. Soil texture, gradation, degree of compaction, and primary
structure strongly influence the relative permeability of soil. Generally, coarse-grained
soils are much more permeable than fine-grained soils, although this is easily altered by
presence of fines or cementing agents, openings, etc.
3.3.1.2. Elasticity
Elasticity is a property indicating the ability of a material to return to its original
shape or form after having been deformed by a load for a short period of time. Any
load applied that exceeds the shear strength of a soil will also exceed the elastic limit of
the soil, and it will not return to its original shape or form but will fail by plastic
deformation. When a soil is disturbed by pile driving, the elastic limit of the soil must
be exceeded to advance the pile. For this reason, the soil structure and properties in the
vicinity of a pile may be radically changed.
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3.3.1.3. Plasticity
Plasticity is a property indicating the ability of a material to be deformed
permanently without cracking or crumbling.
3.3.1.4. Cohesion
Cohesion is a very important property contributing to the shear strength of a soil,
and is the capacity to resist shearing stresses as indicated by Coulomb's equation.
Cohesion varies depending on water content, density, and plasticity of the soil.
3.3.1.7. Density
Dry density is the unit weight of the solid particles of soil or rock per unit volume.
Wet density is the unit weight of the solid particles and the natural moisture and is used
in computations for determining design values for foundations above the water table.
Submerged density is wet density less the unit weight of water and is used when the
foundation is below the water table. Typical values for wet density of soils range from
(1920-2160 kg/m3).
3.3.1.9. Compressibility
Compressibility is a property greatly influenced by soil structure and the load
history of the deposit. Drilled shafts or footings should not bear in a material that is
susceptible to a high degree of compression (consolidation). Negative friction, in which
the soil pulls down (down-drag) on the shaft or piling instead of supporting load, often
occurs in regions of incompletely consolidated soft clay, silt and organic soil, but may
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Section 3: Geotechnical Studies Engineering Properties of Soil and rock
also be the result of soils shrinking during extended dry periods. The best solution is to
found in a material below the point of possible moisture fluctuation, deep enough to
cancel out any negative skin friction. It is also recommended that all foundations for a
particular structure element, such as a bridge abutment, be founded at roughly the same
elevation.
1. Soil Permeability
The grain size distribution or range of particle sizes in a sample influence several
soil properties. One of these properties is the permeability of the soil. A granular soil
with a wide range of grain sizes (Well Graded) especially in the finer ranges will be
less permeable than a granular soil with most of the particle sizes within a narrow
range. As a result, soils with low permeability drain much slower, which in turn may
lead to difficulties in obtaining proper compaction in the field.
2. Soil Compactability
While the compactability is indirectly influenced by permeability, it is also directly
influenced by grain size distribution. Soils consisting solely of particles within a narrow
size range (Uniformly or Poorly Graded) may be difficult to compact due the lack of
other particles to interlock with the predominate particle size. The result is that density
is difficult to achieve at the surface of the soil.
Figure 3.1: Typical Particle size gradations (grain size distribution chart)
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3.3.3.1. Density
The strength of rock is in direct proportion to its crystalline makeup and compaction
or cementation. In general, the strongest rocks are the densest. However, rock with
ferrous constituents may have a high density and low strength.
3.3.3.3. Durability
A rock’s physical and chemical characteristics determine its durability. The
crystalline igneous and metamorphic rocks (such as granite, basalt, quartzite and
gneiss) are the most durable. Sedimentary rock, which is the least durable, is greatly
affected by weathering; a typical example is limestone or sandstone with carbonate
cement.
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Section 3: Geotechnical Studies Slope Stability analysis
Joint description
Fault description
Cut stability
1. Joint Description
Joints are fractures in rock resulting from previous stresses to which the rock mass
has been subjected. Joints are normally nearly vertical, but they may occur at almost
any orientation. Joints differ from faults in that little or no displacement is present
along the joint. Joints typically occur at fairly regular intervals in a rock mass.
2. Fault Description
Faults are breaks in rock where movement has occurred. The movement can range
from a few inches (50 mm) to hundreds meters. Faults with large displacements
typically have a zone of fractured and weathered rock on each side of the fault that is
unstable and behaves more like soil than rock. They are normally not vertical but
inclined at an angle.
3. Cut Stability
Joints and faults impact the stability of cuts in rock. Since these features divide the
rock mass into discrete pieces, the pieces may fall out of the cut face. If these features
are inclined downward into a cut, large masses of rock can fail unexpectedly into a cut
with little warning. If these conditions occur, rock bolting or nailing to stabilize the
face should be considered.
3.4.1. Overview
3.4.1.1. Introduction
Slope stability addresses the tendency of soil masses to attain an equilibrium state
between the strength of the soil and the force of gravity. Extremely strong soils can
stand vertically for years while very weak soils cannot support short fills with gentle
slopes for even a few days. This is best observed in the coastal region of the state where
the topography is relatively flat and the soils fairly weak. Attempts to build
embankments with the native soft soils often fail as the soil attempts to resume its
natural relatively level state.
Areas considered here under the purview of slope stability are:
Slopes, whether they be cut or fill
Retaining walls which are the special case of a locally stable vertical slope
This subsection offers a brief discussion on:
Soil properties
Slope external and internal stability
Slope considerations
Failure modes
Slope protection
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1. Soil Properties
Soils possess a number of properties that can be measured in the laboratory. These
properties include index properties that describe the character of the soil (Atterberg
limits), grain size distribution, and strength parameters.
a. Atterberg Limits
The Atterberg limits define the transitions between the liquid, plastic, and solid
states. These limits are:
Liquid limit
Plastic limit
Plasticity index
The liquid limit (LL) is the transition from liquid to plastic states, and the plastic
limit (PL) the transition from plastic to semi-solid states. The plasticity index (PI) is the
difference between the liquid and plastic limits. All the limits are stated in the percent
moisture content in the soil to attain the specific state.
The plasticity index is a commonly used indicator for the long-term stability of a
soil. Sand exhibits a zero or a very low plasticity index and is very stable with time.
Sand would be a very good construction material if not for a lack of cohesion. This
leads to a very high potential for erodibility. Clays may exhibit plasticity indices well in
excess of 100. The highest values typically found in Texas are in the upper eighties.
Soils with high plasticity indexes exhibit poor slope stability and high shrink-swell
potential. Sand or silt clay mixtures typically exhibit plasticity indexes in the 10 to 40
range. Soils with plasticity indexes of less than 25 tend to be relatively stable.
c. Strength Parameters
The strength of a soil is the combination of the cohesion between the soil particles
and the frictional interaction of the particles. These two components are time dependent
for fine grained soils such as clays. When fine-grained soils are rapidly loaded, the low
permeability of the soil matrix does not allow water in the pore spaces to escape. As a
result, when fully saturated clay is rapidly loaded, the cohesion is the primary
component of strength since the elevated pore water pressures do not allow increased
intergranular contact pressures. The rapid loading enhances the cohesive strength (c) of
the soil due to the buildup of negative pore pressures. The condition of rapid loading
produces an undrained strength response in the soil. The angle of friction (Φ) measured
under these conditions is usually quite low for saturated samples and higher for
unsaturated samples. While the undrained strength is fine for modeling such conditions
as the construction of an embankment over several weeks or months, the long-term
conditions after construction allow for a different response in the soil.
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The drained strength of a soil is the strength measured when load is applied to a
sample slowly enough to allow water to drain from the pore space between soil
particles. The result is that increased intergranular contact occurs and the increased
frictional strength is measured. For clays, this long-term or drained angle of friction
(Φ′) is typically between 15 and 25 degrees. The long-term cohesive component (c′)
typically ranges from (0-7 kPa) since no negative pore pressures are generated. While
this is a greatly oversimplified explanation that does not address the chemical or
electrostatic forces at work, it is functionally correct.
a. External Stability
The rapid placement of a fill on a fine-grained foundation soil can produce
temporarily elevated pore water pressures in the foundation soil. The result can be that
the unbalanced force of the fill cannot be resisted by the shear strength of the
foundation soil with the result being a slope failure which encompasses all or a
significant portion of the slope. This is generally referred to as an external failure. If the
fill is placed slowly enough to allow the pore water pressures to dissipate, the fill can
be safely placed without danger of failure. The rate at which such drainage or
dissipation of pore pressures occurs is based on the permeability of the soil and the
length of the drainage path (usually the thickness of the layer). If the soil is confined
between two sand layers, the length of the drainage path is onehalf the layer thickness.
The rate of dissipation is determined by consolidation testing. The testing determines
the length of time for the pore water to drain from a sample for an applied load as well
as the volume of water (settlement).
b. Internal Stability
During the construction of a fine-grained soil embankment, the fill material is
placed at the optimum moisture content. Due to the compactive effort used in placing
the fill, the final fill is not in an equilibrium state. The upper region of the fill exhibits
high negative pore pressures as a result of the compaction pressure being greater than
the overburden pressure.
Depending on the height of the fill, the lower regions of the fill may have neutral or
positive pore pressures. Upon the completion of a fill, the action of climatic cycles
begins to bring the outer regions of a fill into equilibrium. Repeated wetting and drying
cycles soften and create fissures in the outer portions of a fill. This softening results in a
layer with a relatively higher permeability over one of low permeability. The low
permeability under lying soil allows water to accumulate in the pore spaces resulting in
a substantially saturated surface layer in the fill. This process usually takes at least 15
years to occur. The result is that the effective stress soil parameters are achieved with
the resultant stability implications. For instance, a 3:1 slope (18.4 degrees) built with a
clay with Φ1 = 15 degrees and c1 = 2.4 kPa will not be stable since the slope angle
exceeds the angle of friction of the fill. This type of slope failure is usually fairly
shallow occurring within the side slope and is considered internal. This type of failure
is also commonly referred to as a mudflow-type failure due to the consistency and
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jumbled appearance of the failed material. These failures mostly occur after periods of
heavy rainfall that results in increased soil pore pressures that reduce the effective shear
strength.
3. Slope Considerations
The next subsections deal with these slope considerations:
Fill slopes
Cut slopes
Slope angle
Submergence
a. Fill Slopes
Fills are constructed from material supplied by the contractor. Unless properties
such as plasticity index or liquid limit are specified in the plans, the contractor supplies
the most economical material, which may be the worst possible soil from the standpoint
of long term stability. Base the best maximum values for plasticity index or liquid limit
to specify should be based on the materials available locally. Should suitable materials
not be available, consider either flatter slopes or soil stabilization of some kind.
b. Cut Slopes
Soils in cuts are similar to fills in that, immediately after excavation, the soil is not
in an equilibrium state. After removal of the overburden, the soil begins to absorb water
and swell. The magnitude of swell depends on the plasticity index. This can be a
particular problem for the long-term ride smoothness of a roadway in a cut. Another
problem with cuts can be groundwater seepage on the cut slopes and up through the
subgrade. Seepage pressures and associated high water levels in the slopes can further
reduce long-term stability by reducing intergranular stresses (effective stresses)
between soil particles.
c. Slope Angle
The angle of a slope determines how stable it will be. Maintenance is also a
consideration, since slopes steeper than 2:1 are very difficult to mow. Slopes
constructed from high plasticity index clays should not be steeper than 3:1 and, more
preferably, 4:1. Even slopes constructed at 4:1 have failed after 20 to 25 years of
service.
The use of riprap on steep slopes is of questionable stabilizing value. The use of
riprap causes moisture to accumulate in the fill, since the evaporation rate is reduced.
The only possible benefit of the riprap is the elimination of severe moisture fluctuations
in the embankment material, possibly resulting in a longer service life before failure.
d. Submergence
Evaluate slopes subjected to inundation for stability. As previously mentioned, the
effect of submergence is to reduce the effective stress between soil particles, thereby
reducing shear strength. Another consideration is the duration of submergence. Analyze
slopes that are temporarily submerged for the drawdown condition where the slope is
totally saturated without the benefit of submergence to reduce the driving forces for
instability.
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4. Failure Modes
Slope failures are often difficult to assign to a single failure mode. Several failure
modes often occur simultaneously, such as a rotational failure accompanied by a sliding
failure of the lower portion of the slope. The following subsections discuss these most
common failure modes encountered:
Bearing capacity
Rotation
Settlement
Undercutting
a. Bearing Capacity
Fill placed on very soft foundations may undergo a rapid vertical settlement with an
associated horizontal displacement of the foundation soil from under the fill. This
condition is typically encountered in coastal areas where fills are constructed over
recent marine or marsh sediments. Bearing capacity is sometimes desired when the
construction method intends to displace a thin soft layer, thereby allowing the fill to
found directly on a deeper firm layer of soil. This is often impractical in coastal areas
where very soft soils may extend to depths as great as 18 to 24 meters. Another
drawback to this construction method is the possible failure to displace all of the soft
material with subsequent uneven settlement of the roadway.
b. Rotation
Rotation failures result in a noticeable rotation of a portion of a fill with the
resultant formation of a scarp at the back edge of the failed area. Most classical
depictions of this failure mode portray a single mass of soil bounded by a circular
failure plane. In reality, the rotating soil mass is often sheared into numerous discreet
blocks because of the large deformation. The soil mass is typically bounded by an
irregular failure plane. Purely circular failure surfaces are not usually observed in the
state due to the lack of relatively deep deposits of uniform moderate strength materials
necessary for this type of failure. Thinner layered foundation soil profiles favor the
formation of noncircular failures.
c. Settlement
Quite often, foundation soils are firm enough to allow successful embankment
construction without an immediate failure. In these cases, the long-term load on the
foundation soil results in the consolidation of the foundation soil with the resulting
settlement of the embankment. In coastal areas, (0.6-1 m) of settlement have been
observed for embankments only (2.5 m) over a period of years.
Post-construction settlement can be minimized by consolidating soft foundation soil
rapidly during construction by the use of vertical drainage paths such as sand or wick
drains. Vertical drains are sometimes supplemented with a soil surcharge to accelerate
settlement. For fairly permeable soils, surcharge alone may produce an acceptable rate
of consolidation to suit the construction schedule. The most desirable situation is to
build embankments over highly compressible foundation soils well in advance of final
roadway construction. Provide ample time for settlement to occur, since the rate of
settlement is difficult to accurately predict.
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d. Undercutting
A phenomenon associated mainly with cuts in rock is called undercutting or
undermining. This is when a hard layer overlies a weaker material. Weathering of the
softer lower soil layer results in erosion of the layer, resulting in instability of the
harder upper layer. A common example would be a limestone layer over a shale. The
best solution to this type of failure is to protect the lower layer with riprap or gunnite.
Scour can also cause undercutting of a slope. Closely monitor any signs of
instability. A typical example of distress might be cracks in a bridge column.
5. Slope Protection
Slope protection can reduce or eliminate soil erosion. This is especially important
for slope composed of granular materials that are easily eroded. The following
subsections cover these aspects of slope protection:
Riprap
Natural cover
a. Riprap
Either rock or concrete riprap may be applied to slopes. Rock riprap is flexible and
may deform without showing distress.
Concrete riprap, on the other hand, is rigid and impermeable. The idea that concrete
riprap improves slope stability by reducing moisture infiltration into a slope may not be
completely true. The impermeable nature of concrete riprap does not allow water to
evaporate and may actually cause soil under the riprap to have higher moisture content.
b. Natural Cover
The establishment of vegetation on a slope will reduce or eliminate erosion. Certain
plants establish deep roots, which also remove water from the soil, thus increasing the
soil strength.
3.4.2.1. Overview
The analysis and design of earth slopes for stability is an inexact science at best.
The realities of widely spaced soil core borings coupled with the scarcity of detailed
triaxial test data make analysis difficult. Furthermore, economics dictates safety factors
in the 1.3 to 1.5 range. Under these conditions, there is always the possibility of failing
to detect an exceptionally soft area in the field, with the subsequent result being less
than superior performance. Unlike deep foundation design, which tends to average soil
strengths over a considerable depth with the result being very predictable performance,
slope stability can depend on relatively thin soil layers near the surface which are far
more variable than the deeper, more uniform, soils.
This section discusses the following analysis and design topics:
Strength parameters
Groundwater
Geometry
Computer analysis
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Safety factor
1. Strength Parameters
The strength parameters used for analysis and design are cohesion (c) and angle of
internal friction (Φ). These parameters may either be the undrained or drained
parameters. Triaxial testing determines these parameters. Deep-seated failures are
normally rapid in nature and, because of the lack of time for pore pressures to reach
equilibrium, are analyzed using undrained soil parameters. Shallow side slope
(mudflow) failures occur over long periods of time. While the actual soil movement
may occur over several days, the development of the drained condition in the soil
requires years to occur. The next subsections cover Time frame compatibility,
Embankment strength.
b. Embankment Strength
Since the embankment material is supplied by the contractor, advance testing of the
material is not practical. As a result, a strength must be assumed for the material. For
mostly clay embankments, c = 48kPa and Φ = 0 degrees is usually a safe assumption.
This strength would also apply to sandy clay or silty clay soils. Lower assumed
strengths for cohesive embankments may be justified if triaxial testing is performed.
For sand embankments, c = 0 kPa and Φ = 30 degrees is a reasonable assumption.
2. Ground Water
Ground water affects the shear strength of soil by the reduction of intergranular
stresses due to the buoyancy effect of submergence. For fill situations, the most
conservative assumption is that the ground water level is at the surface of the natural
ground. For a more exact analysis, the ground water levels can be observed during and
after obtaining soil core borings. Normally the water level in a borehole is checked
several days after the boring is completed.
For slopes in cut sections, ground water is much more important. For this type of
installation, monitor ground water levels over a long period of time to observe any
seasonal changes. Piezometers are installed for long term observation of water levels.
Design depressed section drainage systems considering the anticipated base flow from
ground water.
3. Geometry
The overall geometry is crucial to the accuracy of slope stability analysis. Changing
the height of a retaining wall several feet can have a dramatic effect on stability. Also,
changing slope angles can significantly affect stability. In one case, an existing 3:1
slope had been stable for years, but the temporary 1:1 slope for construction failed in a
matter of months. It is always important to consider the temporary as well as final
geometry of a project.
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4. Computer Analysis
The only practical method for quickly evaluating slope stability is with a computer
program. Slope stability programs judge slope stability by evaluating thousands of
potential failure surfaces. The failure surface with the lowest factor of safety is
considered the most critical.
5. Safety Factor
The safety factor is the ratio of the resisting forces to the driving forces for a given
failure configuration. A typical minimum factor of safety of 1.3 is considered adequate.
Higher minimum safety factors are sometimes required. A minimum safety factor
higher than 1.5 is not recommended.
3.4.3.1. Overview
Numerous slopes have been constructed in the state with unstable materials. These
slopes are prone to failure, especially after heavy rains. After a slope fails, a method
must be selected to repair the failure. In the cases where the failed material is simply
pushed back into place, the repair may last several weeks to several months. Obviously,
a more permanent repair must be undertaken. Also, it must be considered whether to
modify the slope beyond the failed area to avoid the inevitability of future failures in
adjacent parts of the slope. The following are some of the choices available for
stabilizing failing slopes:
Recompaction
Removal and replacement
Strengthening
Slope angle reduction
1. Recompaction
The simplest and fastest repair for a failed area is to remove the failed part of the
slope, dry the soil to the optimum moisture content for maximum density, then
recompact the soil to the original slope configuration. While this method repairs the
failed area, it does nothing for the adjacent portions of the slope. Removal and
recompaction is not recommended for use on adjacent unfailed parts of a slope because
better, more permanent stabilization techniques should be applied to large-scale side-
slope stabilization.
3. Strengthening
Failed portions of slopes or entire slopes may be strengthened by the addition of
various materials to the soil. The materials added to the soil change the properties of
the soil by chemical strengthening or mechanical strengthening.
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Section 3: Geotechnical Studies REFERENCES
a. Chemical Strengthening
Lime is the most common modifier added to poor quality clay soils. The lime reacts
chemically with the clay particles over a period of days to weeks. The chemical
reaction reduces the plasticity of the soil. Quick lime may be added to fairly wet soils to
speed up the drying process.
b. Mechanical Strengthening
Slopes may be mechanically strengthened. The most common reinforcement
materials are synthetic polymers, and the most common forms are
b1. Fibers
One form of polymer reinforcement is short fibers that are thoroughly mixed into
the soil as the soil is placed in the slope. The mode of action of this reinforcement is to
increase the tensile strength of the soil on a very small scale. The long-term
performance of reinforcement fibers is uncertain at this time.
b2. Geogrid
The other common form of polymer reinforcement is geogrids. These are placed
horizontally between lifts of soil. These grids add stability to the slope by providing a
tensile force component along the potential failure plane. This method of reinforcement
is more easily analyzed and has more predictable long-term performance.
3.5. REFERENCES