Chapter six

6. Data Analysis Methods, Software Application and Elements of Research Report:

6.1 Different Types of Data for Analysis

Different types of data fall into 4 categories: interval variables (also called quantifiable), ordinal
variables, nominal variables and dichotomous variables (these last three types are also called
categorical). Different variables will require different kinds of analysis, so it is important to
identify what are asking for in your research.

6.1.1 Interval Variables- The highest form of measurement and the easiest to manipulate and
analyze. There is a fixed space (interval) between each variable and this is a consistent space. For
example if we ask for someone’s weight in Kg, we are dealing with an interval variable as the
answers will be expressed in a fixed scale: the difference between 70Kg and 80Kg is the same
interval as that between 80Kg and 90Kg and so on. We could also include answers involving
age, income, number of staff, revenue etc. there is an even more precise form of this variable
which is sometimes called a ratio variable.

6.1.3 Ordinal Variables -These can be rank ordered (as can interval variables: 1Kg, 2Kg, 3Kg
etc) but the space between the variables is not equal across the range. For example, suppose we
didn’t ask for an exact weight but for which group of weights a person belonged to such as 50-
60Kg, 60Kg, 60-70Kg, 80Kg, over 90Kg. this last category changes the entire set into ordinal
rather than interval variables, and this will constrain what can be done with the data, although it
is still useful. So why put such potential interval data into groups in a survey? There are good
reasons.

6.1.4 Nominal Variables- These variables cannot be rank ordered at all. An example would be to
offer alternative answers in a multiple choice question such as “hot” “spicy” “sweet” “salty”.

6.1.5 Dichotomous Variables-As the name implies these are answers which can only full into one
of two categories. The usual kind is a yes/no answer or a male/female gender. It is usually best to
treat these variables as a special kind of nominal variables.

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6.2. Coding and Entering Data for Computer Analysis
6.2.1. Data matrix- In order to analyze quantitative data, once we have identified the kinds of
variable we are collecting, we can then set out the data in a matrix. This can be done in Excel or
another spreadsheet first, or put directly into a statistical package such as SPSS for Windows. To
make the transition from, say, questionnaire to data matrix, answers will need coding. For
example, nominal variables will be text names and will need to be given a unique number to
allow entry into a statistical package. Non-responses will also need a unique recognizable
number (which doesn’t appear elsewhere in the data). Dichotomous responses such as
Male/Female will also need a number eg Male 1 Female 2.

6.2.2. Coding -Most sources recommend that you keep a “code book” or list of exactly how the
codes you devise for your data relate to the questionnaire or other research element. This is vital
for two reasons. The first is that codes are often worked out on scraps of paper quite quickly; if
the paper is lost and you have a break between entering your data and coming to make sense of
it, it is possible you will have a hard time remembering exactly what the results mean.

The second is that it is important not to lose sight of the question when analyzing the results of
quantitative data. Unusual patterns in the data must be scrutinized and going back to exact
coding and possible different interpretations of the question wording, which may have caused the
response, will be vital. So keep a retrievable, clear and accurate record of coding as the link
between respondent and data.

6.2.3. Using SPSS for Windows

Coding is a way of enlisting the help of computer analysis techniques – whether these involve
using a spreadsheet, such as Microsoft Excel, or a package like the commonly used SPSS
(Statistical Package for Social Sciences) for Windows package which is specifically designed to
analyze quantitative data from social sciences research. SPSS for Windows is the most
commonly used tool to produce all statistical tests and analysis outlined in the sections below.
Using the package is very straightforward, provided you have access to it on a computer. Start
the program, which should put you into the SPSS Data Editor, which has two components: Data
View and Variable View. Screen tabs allow you to switch between these two views. Data View
is the screen through which you enter your data (like a spreadsheet). You must enter your data so

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that each column represents a variable, and each row represents a case. For example, if you have
information on the age, salary and qualifications of 100 employees, you enter the variable data
for each employee along a row, with column headings of age, salary, qualifications.

It is probably obvious, but in data view you will not enter any text. To describe your variables,
you go to Variable View. Text variable names can be a maximum of 8 characters with no spaces.
This means it is helpful to make a rough plan of how you will enter data into SPSS – in which
order you will show the variables and what variable names you will use. There is a field called
“variable label” in which you can put more detailed text if needed. It is also possible to enter
labels for Values (all except interval values), so for example you may have a variable labeled
Gender, which has values labeled Male and Female, though you have coded Male as 1 and
Female as 2 in the Data View. Value and variable labels will be used by SPSS in the Output
charts. When you perform an analysis with SPSS (by clicking analyze and entering any relevant
information about what you want done) it is held as Output in an Output viewer screen (which
only appears after an analysis has been done).

6.2.4. Choosing Appropriate Ways to Present Data

You may have a clear idea of what you are looking for in the data, but once the data is entered
into either a spreadsheet or an analysis package like SPSS, other possible ways of analyzing the
data become apparent. We usually begin by attempting to describe particular values, their range,
their central tendency, their dispersion around the mean. We can look at the data trends over
time, and look for proportions in the data. This is called univariate analysis because we are
looking usually at one variable at a time. Once we have a clear picture of how the individual
variables are behaving, we can start looking for relationships between variables – bivariate
analysis. A range of methods is shown below for these two kinds of analysis.

6.2.4. 1. Frequency tables – Univariate

Tables show a list of categories (types of response) and the numbers of people responding to
each. Sometimes Just as a number, sometimes a percentage of the total choosing this response.
When building a frequency table for interval variables, categories will usually be grouped (if not
the table would probably be too long). Make sure your groups of categories are exclusive eg for
ages 21-30, 31-40 etc not 20 – 30, 30 – 40 as this leads to difficulties of coding for age 30.

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6.2.4. 2. Measures of central tendency – univariate

This will be mean (average), median (midpoint value in ranked list) or mode (most frequently
occurring value) in a range of values. The measure is a single figure so is not represent able in a
chart, however, a series of means, medians etc can be charted or shown in a table. Mean is
calculated only for interval variables. Median is calculated for interval or ordinal variables.
Mode can be calculated for any variable.

6.2.4. 3. Measures of dispersion – univariate

This will be the range (difference between maximum and minimum value in a list f interval
variables), the inter-quartile range (data must be in rank order, then this will show the difference
within the middle 50% of values) or the standard deviation (data should be normally distributed
for this to be effective). The standard deviation is the average amount of variation around the
mean (calculated by taking the difference between each value and the mean, totaling these
differences and dividing the total by the number of values). A higher standard deviation therefore
means greater variation around the mean.

We might use a box plot to look at both central tendency and dispersion in a chart format (SPSS
can produce these from your data). The box plot shows where the median of the data lies and
how the data clusters around that median or middle value. 50% of the data will lie in the “inter-
quartile range” shown in the box plot as a rectangle with the median line cutting vertically
through it.

6.2.4. 4. Charts, diagrams and tables – the detail

It is probably quite obvious, but all diagrams etc which are presented in a research report will
need to be checked for detail. When you are putting the last minute touches to a report before a
deadline (at study and at work) it is easy to imagine that everyone will know what this graph
shows. This leads to a big problem if we leave it at that. You must check each graph to ensure it
has a clear title, the units of measurement involved are shown, any data source is shown, the
sample size is shown where revenant, the axes are labeled, the variables read in a comparable
way if more than one chart uses the same axes and variables eg left to right or top to bottom and
there is a key or legend which is readable (importing from Excel often leads to very tiny illegible

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legends – they must be reformatted). It can also be helpful to introduce a chart in the text with an
idea for the reader of what it will show, then after the chart in the text, explain what you think it
showed. Of course, readers will want to make up their own minds, but is helpful to let them
know what you think they should look for in the cart.

6.3. Qualitative research methods: Collecting and Analyzing Qualitative data

Qualitative studies nearly always involve in-person interviews, and are therefore very labor
intensive and costly. They rely heavily on a researcher's ability to exclude personal biases. The
interpretation of qualitative data is often highly subjective, and different researchers can reach
different conclusions from the same data. However, the goal of qualitative research is to develop
a hypothesis--not to test one. Qualitative studies have merit in that they provide broad, general
theories that can be examined in future research.

6.3.1. Key Issues in Qualitative Research

Clearly qualitative research is a different kettle of fish from a quantitative study – we explored
the differences in earlier weeks. At first sight, it may seem that qualitative research is more
difficult to pin down, less precise. In fact, qualitative methods are usually governed by clear rules
and offer a way of exploring issues, which cannot be expressed by number.

Qualitative methods are increasingly accepted in social science and business research as this
branch of enquiry differentiates itself from a scientific positivist paradigm. Human organizations
and human behavior are difficult to hold still and isolate, since they change constantly and can
offer different dimensions of themselves of different audiences. Think about the function of
Public Relations and the different faces of an organization which may be shown to shareholders,
customers, staff, and suppliers for example. So it rarely makes sense to look only at numerical
measured evidence when trying to understand what is going on in an organization or other group
of people. This is not to rule out quantitative study – naturally there are financial data and other
quantitative data which can be established and monitored around business organizations and
which will be of vital importance in their study and their day-to-day management. But there is
also clearly a place for perception studies, looking at what people think or feel is going on at
work, as this will also affect day-to-day strategic long-term practice in organizations.

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It is helpful to reflect on the influence of the researcher in qualitative research. As we have
already discussed, there is a researcher influence to some extent in all research and analysis,
however qualitative methods are more likely to suggest subjectivity. For this reason, it is
essential to reflect on ways in which your qualitative data and analysis could be affected by your
standpoint and contextual understanding, as well as your expectations of the research, and to
make this explicit within your research report. It will also be necessary to be very clear and
explicit about the method of research and analysis adopted, just as we must be in quantitative
research.

6.4 Preparation and presentation of research report

The last step in the research process is the preparation and presentation of the research report.
The best of research efforts will be of little value unless the result can be summarized and
communicated to the management in a form that is both understandable and useful. Preparation
and presentation of the research report is the most important part of the research process. If the
report is confusing or poorly written, time and money spent on collecting and analyzing data will
be wasted.

Parts of a Scientific Research Report

• The research paper must have all the sections in the order given below; following the
specifications outlined for each section.

1. Preliminary Pages: In its preliminary pages the research report should carry:

– Title page

– Abstract (on a separate single page)

– Acknowledgements

– Table of Contents

– List of Tables

– Acronyms

– Operational definition

2. Main Text: The main text provides the complete outline of the research report along with
all details. Title of the research study is repeated at the top of the first page of the main

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 text and then follows at the other details on pages numbered consecutively, beginning
with the second page.

1. Each main section of the report should begin on a new page. The main text
of the report should have the following section:

– Chapter 1: Introduction

– Chapter 2: Review of the Literature

– Chapter 3: Methods (sample , measures, design, procedures, instruments ,data

analysis tools)

– Chapter 4: Data presentation and analysis

– Chapter 5: Discussion

– Chapter 6: Conclusions and recommendations

3. End Matter: At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical
data such as questionnaires, mathematical derivations and the like ones. Bibliography of sources
consulted should also be given. Index(an alphabetic listing of names, places and topics along
with the number of the pages in a book or report on which they are mentioned or discussed)
should invariably be given at the end of the report. Particularly the following elements should be
included:

» References

» Tables

» Figures

» Appendices

4. Title Page

• On separate lines and centered, the report shall have the title of the study, the author's
name, and the institutional affiliation.

5. Abstract

The abstract is the most important part of your report because it may be the only part that
some people will read. It is the short summary of the complete content of the project report
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 (usually limited to one page). The abstract itself should be written in paragraph form and
should be a concise summary of the entire paper including: the problem; major hypotheses;
sample and population; a brief description of the measures; the name of the design or a short
description (no design notation here); the major results; and, the major conclusions.
Obviously, to fit this all on one page you will have to be very concise.

Five principles for writing of a good abstract.

1. It should be short

2. It must be self contained

3. It must satisfy your reader’s needs

4. It must convey the same emphasis as the report, with the consequence that the reader
should get an accurate impression of the report’s contents from the abstract.

5. It should be objective, precise and easy to read

6. Introduction

The first section in the body is the introduction-it should give the reader a clear idea about
the central issue of concern in your research and why you thought that this was worth
studying. Every introduction will have the following (roughly in this order): a statement of
the problem being addressed; research objectives, a statement of the cause-effect relationship
being studied; a description of the major constructs involved; a brief review of relevant
literature (including citations); and a statement of hypotheses. The entire section should be in
paragraph form with the possible exception of the hypotheses, which may be indented.

7. Literature review
This section usually comes as second chapter of your research report and it is usually
suggested to be placed before the methodology chapter. The main purposes of your
literature review are to set your study within its wider context and to show the reader how
your study supplements the work that has already been done on your topic.
8. Methods

This should be a detailed chapter giving the reader sufficient information to make an estimate
of the reliability and validity of your methods. It should has four subsections: Sample;
Measures; Design; and, Procedure. The Methods section should begin immediately after the
introduction (no page break) and should have the centered title 'Methods'. Each of the four
subsections should have an underlined left justified section heading.

• Sampling: This section should describe the population of interest, the sampling frame, the
method for selecting the sample, and the sample itself. A brief discussion of external

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 validity is appropriate here, that is, you should state the degree to which you believe
results will be generalizable from your sample to the population.

• Data presentation and analysis

 This is the section when the factual dada are presented and analyzed.

 Use of tables, graphs, charts and diagrams to present your dada makes your data
presentation more attractive, meaningful and understandable.

9. Discussion (Findings)

• Sometimes it may be important to have more than one result section- Is more than one
results chapter necessary to communicate my findings clearly?

• This section is probably the most straight forward to write and it gives you an opportunity
to report the facts that you have discovered in your research. You should indicate
concisely what results you found in this research.

• The focus shall be to present the facts not to offer opinions on the facts-this is left for the
conclusions section.

• This section presents the facts in a clear, logical and understandable manner.

10. Conclusions

• Logically for each finding, there should be at least one conclusion. It is part of the report
that is mostly difficult as you are going to make your professional and rational judgments
than reporting facts-so this is where your maturity of understanding can shine

• Here you should describe the conclusions you reach (assuming you got the results
described in the findings section above). You should relate these conclusions back to the
level of the construct and the general problem area which you described in the
Introduction section. You should also discuss the overall strength of the research
proposed (e.g. general discussion of the strong and weak validity areas) and should
present some suggestions for possible future research which would be sensible based on
the results of this work.

11. References

• A range of conventions are used to refer other writer's material that you have cited in
your text.

• There are really two parts to a reference citation.

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 First, there is the way you cite the item in the text when you are discussing it.

 Second, there is the way you list the complete reference in the reference section in the
back of the report.

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