Perfume

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This article is about the fragrant substance. For other uses, see Perfume
(disambiguation).

A bottle of perfume by Yves Saint Laurent

Perfume (UK: /ˈpɜːrfjuːm/, US: /pərˈfjuːm/; French: parfum) is a mixture of
fragrant essential oils or aroma compounds, fixatives and solvents, used to give
the human body, animals, food, objects, and living-spaces an agreeable scent.[1] It
is usually in liquid form and used to give a pleasant scent to a person's body.
Ancient texts and archaeological excavations show the use of perfumes in some of
the earliest human civilizations. Modern perfumery began in the late 19th century
with the commercial synthesis of aroma compounds such as vanillin or coumarin,
which allowed for the composition of perfumes with smells previously unattainable
solely from natural aromatics alone.

Contents

 1History
 2Dilution classes
o 2.1Imprecise terminology
o 2.2Solvent types
o 2.3Applying fragrances
 3Describing a perfume
o 3.1Fragrance notes
o 3.2Olfactive families
 3.2.1Traditional
  3.2.2Modern
 3.2.3Fragrance wheel
 4Aromatics sources
o 4.1Plant sources
o 4.2Animal sources
o 4.3Other natural sources
o 4.4Synthetic sources
o 4.5Characteristics
 5Obtaining natural odorants
 6Fragrant extracts
 7Composing perfumes
o 7.1The perfumer
o 7.2Technique
 7.2.1Basic framework
 7.2.2Fragrance bases
o 7.3Reverse engineering
o 7.4Copyright
 8Health and environmental issues
o 8.1Health
 8.1.1Immunological; asthma and allergy
 8.1.2Carcinogenicity
 8.1.3Toxicity
o 8.2Environmental
 8.2.1Pollution
 8.2.2Species endangerment
o 8.3Safety regulations
 9Preserving perfume
 10Lists of perfumes
 11See also
 12References
 13Further reading
 14External links

History[edit]
Main article: History of perfume

Egyptian scene depicting the preparation of lily perfume, 4th century BC

The word perfume derives from the Latin perfumare, meaning "to smoke through".

Perfumery, as the art of making perfumes, began in ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt,
the Indus Valley Civilization and maybe Ancient China. It was further refined by
the Romans and the Arabs.
The world's first-recorded chemist is considered a woman named Tapputi, a
perfume maker mentioned in a cuneiform tablet from the 2nd millennium BC in
Mesopotamia.[2] She distilled flowers, oil, and calamus with other aromatics, then
filtered and put them back in the still several times. [3]
In India, perfume and perfumery existed in the Indus civilization (3300 BC – 1300
BC).[4]

A Byzantine alembic used to distill perfumes

Ancient Egyptian perfume vessel in shape of a monkey; 1550-1295 BC; faience; height: 6.5 cm, width:
3.3 cm, depth: 3.8 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)

In 2003,[5] archaeologists uncovered what are believed [by whom?] to be the world's oldest
surviving perfumes in Pyrgos, Cyprus. The perfumes date back more than 4,000
years. They were discovered in an ancient perfumery, a 300-square-meter
(3,230 sq ft) factory[5] housing at least 60 stills, mixing bowls, funnels, and perfume
bottles. In ancient times people used herbs and spices, such
as almond, coriander, myrtle, conifer resin, and bergamot, as well as flowers.[6] In
May 2018, an ancient perfume “Rodo” (Rose) was recreated for the Greek National
Archaeological Museum's anniversary show “Countless Aspects of Beauty”,
allowing visitors to approach antiquity through their olfaction receptors. [7]
In the 9th century the Arab chemist Al-Kindi (Alkindus) wrote the Book of the
Chemistry of Perfume and Distillations, which contained more than a hundred
recipes for fragrant oils, salves, aromatic waters, and substitutes or imitations of
costly drugs. The book also described 107 methods and recipes for perfume-
making and perfume-making equipment, such as the alembic (which still bears its
Arabic name.[8][9] [from Greek ἄμβιξ, "cup", "beaker"][10][11] described by Synesius in
the 4th century[12]).
The Persian chemist Ibn Sina (also known as Avicenna) introduced the process of
extracting oils from flowers by means of distillation, the procedure most commonly
used today. He first experimented with the rose. Until his discovery, liquid
perfumes consisted of mixtures of oil and crushed herbs or petals, which made a
strong blend. Rose water was more delicate, and immediately became popular.
Both the raw ingredients and the distillation technology significantly influenced
western perfumery and scientific developments, particularly chemistry.
The art of perfumery was known in western Europe from 1221, taking into account
the monks' recipes of Santa Maria delle Vigne or Santa Maria Novella of Florence,
Italy.[citation needed] In the east, the Hungarians produced in 1370 a perfume made of
scented oils blended in an alcohol solution – best known as Hungary Water – at
the behest of Queen Elizabeth of Hungary. The art of perfumery prospered
in Renaissance Italy, and in the 16th century the personal perfumer to Catherine
de' Medici (1519–1589), Rene the Florentine (Renato il fiorentino), took Italian
refinements to France. His laboratory was connected with her apartments by a
secret passageway, so that no formulae could be stolen en route. Thanks to Rene,
France quickly became one of the European centers of perfume
and cosmetics manufacture. Cultivation of flowers for their perfume essence, which
had begun in the 14th century, grew into a major industry in the south of France.
Between the 16th and 17th centuries, perfumes were used primarily by the wealthy
to mask body odors resulting from infrequent bathing. In 1693, Italian barber
Giovanni Paolo Feminis created a perfume water called Aqua Admirabilis, [13] today
best known as eau de cologne; his nephew Johann Maria Farina (Giovanni Maria
Farina) took over the business in 1732. [14][need quotation to verify]
By the 18th century the Grasse region of France, Sicily, and Calabria (in Italy) were
growing aromatic plants to provide the growing perfume industry with raw
materials. Even today, Italy and France remain the center of European perfume
design and trade.
In the early 1900's, David H. McConnell and Alexander D. Henderson created the
California Perfume Company, which later became Avon Products. On July 22,
1914, in a letter to William Scheele and the CPC, Henderson described the
"process of Perfumery and extracting odors from flowers". In this letter Henderson
said, "It is these pomades which we import direct from Grasse for the making of
our perfumes, and thus we have the true flower base which makes our floral odors
so true to natural flowers and so lasting." [15]
 

Ancient Egyptian perfume vase in shape of an amphoriskos; 664–630 BC; glass: 8 × 4 cm (3.1
× 1.5  in); Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)
 

Ancient Greek perfume bottle in shape of an athlete binding a victory ribbon around his head;
circa 540s BC; Ancient Agora Museum (Athens)
 

Etruscan perfume vase, which is inscripted the word "suthina" ("for the tomb"); early 2nd
century BC; bronze; height: 16 cm; Louvre
 
 

Roman perfume bottle; 1st century AD; glass; 5.2 x 3.8cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
 

Partially broken perfume amphora; 2nd century AD; glass; from Ephesus; Ephesus

Archaeological Museum (Selçuk, Turkey)
 

British Rococo perfume vase; circa 1761; soft-paste porcelain; overall: 43.2 × 29.2 × 17.8 cm;
Metropolitan Museum of Art
 
 

British Neoclassical pair of perfume burners; probably circa 1770; derbyshire spar, tortoiseshell,

and wood, Carrara marble base, gilded brass mounts, gilded copper liner; 33 × 14.3 × 14.3 cm;
Metropolitan Museum of Art
 

Art Nouveau perfume bottle; circa 1900; glass with gilt metal cover; overall: 13.4 cm; Cleveland
Museum of Art (Cleveland, Ohio, USA)

Dilution classes[edit]

Original Eau de Cologne flacon 1811, from Johann Maria Farina, Farina gegenüber

Vintage atomizer perfume bottle

Perfume types reflect the concentration of aromatic compounds in a solvent, which

in fine fragrance is typically ethanol or a mix of water and ethanol. Various sources
differ considerably in the definitions of perfume types. The intensity and longevity
of a perfume is based on the concentration, intensity, and longevity of the aromatic
compounds, or perfume oils, used. As the percentage of aromatic compounds
increases, so does the intensity and longevity of the scent. Specific terms are used
to describe a fragrance's approximate concentration by the percent of perfume oil
in the volume of the final product. The most widespread terms [16] are:

 parfum or extrait, in English known as perfume extract, pure perfume, or

simply perfume: 15–40% aromatic compounds (IFRA: typically ~20%);
 esprit de parfum (ESdP): 15–30% aromatic compounds, a seldom used
strength concentration in between EdP and perfume;
 eau de parfum (EdP) or parfum de toilette (PdT) (The strength usually
sold as "perfume"[16]): 10–20% aromatic compounds (typically ~15%);
sometimes called "eau de perfume" or "millésime"; parfum de toilette is a less
common term, most popular in the 1980s, that is generally analogous to eau de
parfum;
 eau de toilette (EdT): 5–15% aromatic compounds (typically ~10%); This is
the staple for most masculine perfumes.
 eau de Cologne (EdC): often simply called cologne: 3–8% aromatic
compounds (typically ~5%); see below for more information on the confusing
nature of the term "cologne";
 eau fraiche: products sold as "splashes", "mists", "veils" and other
imprecise terms. Generally these products contain 3% or less aromatic
compounds and are diluted with water rather than oil or alcohol. [16]
There is much confusion over the term "cologne", which has three meanings. The
first and oldest definition refers to a family of fresh, citrus-based fragrances distilled
using extracts from citrus, floral, and woody ingredients. Supposedly these were
first developed in the early 18th century in Cologne, Germany, hence the name.
This type of "classical cologne" describes unisex compositions "which are basically
citrus blends and do not have a perfume parent." [17] Examples include Mäurer &
Wirtz's 4711 (created in 1799), and Guerlain's Eau de Cologne Impériale (1853).
In the 20th century, the term took on a second meaning. Fragrance companies
began to offer lighter, less concentrated interpretations of their existing perfumes,
making their products available to a wider range of customers. Guerlain, for
example, offered an Eau de Cologne version of its flagship perfume Shalimar. In
contrast to classical colognes, this type of modern cologne is a lighter, diluted, less
concentrated interpretation of a more concentrated product, typically a pure
parfum. The cologne version is often the lightest concentration from a line of
fragrance products.[17]
Finally, the term "cologne" has entered the English language as a generic,
overarching term to denote a fragrance worn by a man, regardless of its
concentration. The actual product worn by a man may technically be an eau de
toilette, but he may still say that he "wears cologne". A similar problem surrounds
the term "perfume", which can be used in a generic sense to refer to fragrances
marketed to women, whether or not the fragrance is actually an extrait.
Classical colognes first appeared in Europe in the 17th century. The first fragrance
labeled a "parfum" extract with a high concentration of aromatic compounds was
Guerlain's Jicky in 1889. Eau de Toilette appeared alongside parfum around the
turn of the century. The EdP concentration and terminology is the most recent.
Parfum de toilette and EdP began to appear in the 1970s and gained popularity in
the 1980s.
Imprecise terminology[edit]

J.B. Filz in Vienna. Perfumeries with long traditions, such as J.B. Filz, created their own scents. [18]

The wide range in the percentages of aromatic compounds that may be present in
each concentration means that the terminology of extrait, EdP, EdT, and EdC is
quite imprecise. Although an EdP will often be more concentrated than an EdT and
in turn an EdC, this is not always the case. Different perfumeries or perfume
houses assign different amounts of oils to each of their perfumes. Therefore,
although the oil concentration of a perfume in EdP dilution will necessarily be
higher than the same perfume in EdT from within a company's same range, the
actual amounts vary among perfume houses. An EdT from one house may have a
higher concentration of aromatic compounds than an EdP from another.
Furthermore, some fragrances with the same product name but having a
different concentration may not only differ in their dilutions, but actually use
different perfume oil mixtures altogether. For instance, in order to make the EdT
version of a fragrance brighter and fresher than its EdP, the EdT oil may be
"tweaked" to contain slightly more top notes or fewer base notes. Chanel No. 5 is a
good example: its parfum, EdP, EdT, and now-discontinued EdC concentrations
are in fact different compositions (the parfum dates to 1921, whereas the EdP was
not developed until the 1980s). In some cases, words such as extrême, intense,
or concentrée that might indicate a higher aromatic concentration are actually
completely different fragrances, related only because of a similar perfume accord.
An example of this is Chanel's Pour Monsieur and Pour Monsieur Concentrée.
Historically, women's fragrances tended to have higher levels of aromatic
compounds than men's fragrances. Fragrances marketed to men were typically
sold as EdT or EdC, rarely as EdP or perfume extracts. This is changing in the
modern fragrance world, especially as fragrances are becoming more unisex.
Women's fragrances used to be common in all levels of concentration, but today
are mainly seen in parfum, EdP and EdT concentrations. [citation needed]

Flower from Kenzo
 

No. 5 from Chanel
 

Tresor from Lancôme
 

L'Ombre dans l'Eau from Diptyque

 

Acqua di Giò from Armani

 
 

Aqua pour homme from Bulgari

 

Infusion d'Iris Cedre from Prada

 

Intenso from Dolce & Gabbana

 
 

Terre d'Hermès from Hermès
 

White Lilac Sachet Perfume (1913) from Avon Products

Solvent types[edit]
Perfume oils are often diluted with a solvent, though this is not always the case,
and its necessity is disputed. By far the most common solvent for perfume-oil
dilution is alcohol, typically a mixture of ethanol and water or a rectified spirit.
Perfume oil can also be diluted by means of neutral-smelling oils such as
fractionated coconut oil, or liquid waxes such as jojoba oil.
Applying fragrances[edit]
The conventional application of pure perfume (parfum extrait) in Western cultures
is at pulse points, such as behind the ears, the nape of the neck, and the insides of
wrists, elbows and knees, so that the pulse point will warm the perfume and
release fragrance continuously. According to perfumer Sophia Grojsman behind
the knees is the ideal point to apply perfume in order that the scent may rise. [19] The
modern perfume industry encourages the practice of layering fragrance so that it is
released in different intensities depending upon the time of the day. Lightly scented
products such as bath oil, shower gel, and body lotion are recommended for the
morning; eau de toilette is suggested for the afternoon; and perfume applied to the
pulse points for evening.[20][self-published source] Cologne fragrance is released rapidly, lasting
around 2 hours. Eau de toilette lasts from 2 to 4 hours, while perfume may last up
to six hours.[21]
A variety of factors can influence how fragrance interacts with the wearer's own
physiology and affect the perception of the fragrance. Diet is one factor, as eating
spicy and fatty foods can increase the intensity of a fragrance. [22] The use of
medications can also impact the character of a fragrance. [22] The relative dryness of
the wearer's skin is important, since dry skin will not hold fragrance as long as skin
with more oil.[21]

Describing a perfume[edit]

An original bottle of Fougère Royale by Houbigant. Created by Paul Parquet in 1884, it is one of the most
important modern perfumes and inspired the eponymous Fougère class of fragrances.

Fragrance pyramid

The precise formulae of commercial perfumes are kept secret. Even if they were
widely published, they would be dominated by such complex ingredients and
odorants that they would be of little use in providing a guide to the general
consumer in description of the experience of a scent. Nonetheless, connoisseurs of
perfume can become extremely skillful at identifying components and origins of
scents in the same manner as wine experts.[23]
The most practical way to start describing a perfume is according to the elements
of the fragrance notes of the scent or the "family" it belongs to, all of which affect
the overall impression of a perfume from first application to the last lingering hint of
scent.[24][25]
The trail of scent left behind by a person wearing perfume is called its sillage, after
the French word for "wake", as in the trail left by a boat in water.
Fragrance notes[edit]
Main article: Note (perfumery)
Perfume is described in a musical metaphor as having three sets of notes, making
the harmonious scent accord. The notes unfold over time, with the immediate
impression of the top note leading to the deeper middle notes, and the base notes
gradually appearing as the final stage. These notes are created carefully with
knowledge of the evaporation process of the perfume.

 Top notes: Also called the head notes. The scents that are perceived
immediately on application of a perfume. Top notes consist of small, light
molecules that evaporate quickly. They form a person's initial impression of a
perfume and thus are very important in the selling of a perfume. Examples of
top notes include mint, lavender and coriander.
 Middle notes: Also referred to as heart notes. The scent of a perfume that
emerges just prior to the dissipation of the top note. The middle note
compounds form the "heart" or main body of a perfume and act to mask the
often unpleasant initial impression of base notes, which become more pleasant
with time. Examples of middle notes include seawater, sandalwood and
jasmine.
 Base notes: The scent of a perfume that appears close to the departure of
the middle notes. The base and middle notes together are the main theme of a
perfume. Base notes bring depth and solidity to a perfume. Compounds of this
class of scents are typically rich and "deep" and are usually not perceived until
30 minutes after application. Examples of base notes include tobacco, amber
and musk.
The scents in the top and middle notes are influenced by the base notes;
conversely, the scents of the base notes will be altered by the types of fragrance
materials used as middle notes. Manufacturers who publish perfume notes typically
do so with the fragrance components presented as a fragrance pyramid,[26] using
imaginative and abstract terms for the components listed.
Olfactive families[edit]
The grouping perfumes can never be completely objective or definitive. Many
fragrances contain aspects of different families. Even a perfume designated as
"single flower" will have subtle undertones of other aromatics. There are hardly any
true unitary-scent perfumes consisting of a single aromatic material.
The family classification is a starting point to describe a perfume, but does not fully
characterize it.
Traditional[edit]
Opium by YSL, of amber or oriental fragrance class

A floral bouquet, Joy from Jean Patou

The traditional categories which emerged around 1900:

 Single Floral: Fragrances dominated by a particular flower; in French called

a soliflore. Example: Serge Lutens Sa Majeste La Rose.)
 Floral Bouquet: Compound of several flower scents.
Examples: Houbigant Quelques Fleurs, Jean Patou Joy.
 Amber or "Oriental": Large class featuring sweet, slightly animalic scents
of ambergris or labdanum, often combined with vanilla, tonka bean, flowers and
woods. Can be enhanced by camphorous oils and incense resins,
evoking Victorian era "Oriental" imagery. Traditional
examples: Guerlain Shalimar, Yves Saint Laurent Opium, Chanel Coco
Mademoiselle.[27]
 Woody: Fragrances dominated by woody scents,
typically agarwood, sandalwood, cedarwood, and vetiver. Patchouli, with
its camphoraceous smell, is commonly found in these perfumes. Traditional
examples: Myrurgia Maderas De Oriente, Chanel Bois des
Îles. Modern: Balenciaga Rumba.
 Leather: A family of fragrances featuring honey, tobacco, wood and
wood tars in the middle or base notes and a scent that alludes to leather.
Traditional examples: Robert Piguet Bandit, Balmain Jolie Madame.
 Chypre (IPA: [ʃipʁ]): Meaning Cyprus in French, this includes fragrances built
on bergamot, oakmoss, and labdanum. Named after François
Coty Chypre (1917). Modern example: Guerlain Mitsouko.
 Fougère (IPA: [fu.ʒɛʁ]): Meaning fern in French, built on a base
of lavender, coumarin and oakmoss, with a sharp herbaceous and woody
scent. Named for Houbigant's Fougère Royale, many men's fragrances belong
to this family. Modern examples: Fabergé Brut, Guy Laroche Drakkar
Noir, Penhaligon's Douro.
Modern[edit]
Since 1945, new categories have emerged to describe modern scents, due to
great advances in the technology of compound design and synthesis, as well as
the natural development of styles and tastes:

 Bright Floral: Combining Single Floral & Floral Bouquet traditional

categories. Example: Estée Lauder Beautiful.
 Green: Lighter, more modern interpretation of the Chypre type, with
pronounced cut grass, crushed green leaf and cucumber-like scents.
Examples: Estée Lauder Aliage, Sisley Eau de Campagne, Calvin
Klein Eternity.
 Aquatic, Oceanic, Ozonic: The newest category, first appearing in
1988 Davidoff Cool Water (1988), Christian Dior Dune (1991). A clean smell
reminiscent of the ocean, leading to many androgynous perfumes. Generally
contains calone, a synthetic discovered in 1966, or more recent synthetics.
Also used to accent floral, oriental, and woody fragrances.
 Citrus: An old fragrance family that until recently consisted mainly of
"freshening" eau de colognes, due to the volatility of citrus scents.
Development of newer fragrance compounds has allowed for the creation of
more tenacious citrus fragrances. Example: Penhaligon's Quercus.
 Fruity: Featuring fruits other than citrus, such as peach, cassis (black
currant), mango, passion fruit, and others. Example: Ginestet Botrytis.
 Gourmand (French: [ɡuʁmɑ̃]): Scents with "edible" or "dessert-like" qualities,
often containing vanilla, tonka bean, and coumarin, as well as synthetic
components designed to resemble food flavors. A sweet Example: Thierry
Mugler's Angel (sweet).
Fragrance wheel[edit]
Main article: Fragrance wheel
Fragrance Wheel perfume classification chart, ver. 1983

This newer classification method is widely used in retail and the fragrance industry,
created in 1983 by the perfume consultant Michael Edwards. The new scheme
simplifies classification and naming, as well as showing the relationships among
the classes.[28]
The five main families are Floral, Oriental, Woody, Aromatic Fougère, and Fresh,
the first four from the classic terminology and the last from the modern oceanic
category. Each of these are divided into subgroups and arranged around a wheel.
In this scheme, Chanel No.5, traditionally classified as an aldehydic floral, is placed
under the Soft Floral sub-group, while amber scents are within the Oriental group.
Chypre perfumes are more ambiguous, having affinities with both the Oriental and
Woody families. For instance, Guerlain Mitsouko is under Mossy Woods, but
Hermès Rouge, a more floral chypre, is under Floral Oriental.

Aromatics sources[edit]
Plant sources[edit]

Citrus tree blossom

Resins in perfumery include myrrh

Frankincense

Plants have long been used in perfumery as a source of essential oils and aroma
compounds. These aromatics are usually secondary metabolites produced by
plants as protection against herbivores, infections, as well as to attract pollinators.
Plants are by far the largest source of fragrant compounds used in perfumery. The
sources of these compounds may be derived from various parts of a plant. A plant
can offer more than one source of aromatics, for instance the aerial portions and
seeds of coriander have remarkably different odors from each
other. Orange leaves, blossoms, and fruit zest are the respective sources
of petitgrain, neroli, and orange oils.

 Bark: Commonly used barks include cinnamon and cascarilla. The fragrant

oil in sassafras root bark is also used either directly or purified for its main
constituent, safrole, which is used in the synthesis of other fragrant
compounds.
 Flowers and blossoms: Undoubtedly the largest and most common source
of perfume aromatics. Includes the flowers of several species
of rose and jasmine, as well
as osmanthus, plumeria, mimosa, tuberose, narcissus, scented
geranium, cassie, ambrette as well as the blossoms of citrus and ylang-
ylang trees. Although not traditionally thought of as a flower, the unopened
flower buds of the clove are also commonly used. Most orchid flowers are not
commercially used to produce essential oils or absolutes, except in the case
of vanilla, an orchid, which must be pollinated first and made into seed pods
before use in perfumery.
 Fruits: Fresh fruits such as apples, strawberries, cherries rarely yield the
expected odors when extracted; if such fragrance notes are found in a perfume,
they are more likely to be of synthetic origin. Notable exceptions include
blackcurrant leaf, litsea cubeba, vanilla, and juniper berry. The most commonly
used fruits yield their aromatics from the rind; they include citrus such
as oranges, lemons, and limes. Although grapefruit rind is still used for
aromatics, more and more commercially used grapefruit aromatics are
artificially synthesized since the natural aromatic contains sulfur and its
degradation product is quite unpleasant in smell.
 Leaves and twigs: Commonly used for perfumery
are lavender leaf, patchouli, sage, violets, rosemary, and citrus leaves.
Sometimes leaves are valued for the "green" smell they bring to perfumes,
examples of this include hay and tomato leaf.
 Resins: Valued since antiquity, resins have been widely used
in incense and perfumery. Highly fragrant and antiseptic resins and resin-
containing perfumes have been used by many cultures as medicines for a large
variety of ailments. Commonly used resins in perfumery
include labdanum, frankincense/olibanum, myrrh, balsam of
Peru, benzoin. Pine and fir resins are a particularly valued source
of terpenes used in the organic synthesis of many other synthetic or naturally
occurring aromatic compounds. Some of what is called amber and copal in
perfumery today is the resinous secretion of fossil conifers.
 Roots, rhizomes and bulbs: Commonly used terrestrial portions in
perfumery include iris rhizomes, vetiver roots, various rhizomes of
the ginger family.
 Seeds: Commonly used seeds include tonka bean, carrot
seed, coriander, caraway, cocoa, nutmeg, mace, cardamom, and anise.
 Woods: Highly important in providing the base notes to a perfume, wood
oils and distillates are indispensable in perfumery. Commonly used woods
include sandalwood, rosewood, agarwood, birch, cedar, juniper, and pine.
These are used in the form of macerations or dry-distilled (rectified) forms.
 Rom terpenes. Orchid scents
Animal sources[edit]

A musk pod. Extensive hunting of male musk deer for their pods in recent history has resulted in the
detriment of the species.
Ambergris

 Ambergris: Lumps of oxidized fatty compounds, whose precursors were

secreted and expelled by the sperm whale. Ambergris should not be confused
with yellow amber, which is used in jewelry. Because the harvesting of
ambergris involves no harm to its animal source, it remains one of the few
animalic fragrancing agents around which little controversy now exists.
 Castoreum: Obtained from the odorous sacs of the North American beaver.
 Civet: Also called civet musk, this is obtained from the odorous sacs of the
civets, animals in the family Viverridae, related to the mongoose. World Animal
Protection investigated African civets caught for this purpose. [29]
 Hyraceum: Commonly known as "Africa stone", is the petrified excrement of
the rock hyrax.[30]
 Honeycomb: From the honeycomb of the honeybee. Both beeswax and
honey can be solvent extracted to produce an absolute. Beeswax is extracted
with ethanol and the ethanol evaporated to produce beeswax absolute.
 Musk: Originally derived from a gland (sac or pod) located between the
genitals and the umbilicus of the Himalayan male musk deer Moschus
moschiferus, it has now mainly been replaced by the use of synthetic
musks sometimes known as "white musk".
Other natural sources[edit]

 Lichens: Commonly used lichens include oakmoss and treemoss thalli.

 "Seaweed": Distillates are sometimes used as essential oil in perfumes. An
example of a commonly used seaweed is Fucus vesiculosus, which is
commonly referred to as bladder wrack. Natural seaweed fragrances are rarely
used due to their higher cost and lower potency than synthetics.
Synthetic sources[edit]
Main article: Aroma compound
Many modern perfumes contain synthesized odorants. Synthetics can provide
fragrances which are not found in nature. For instance, Calone, a compound of
synthetic origin, imparts a fresh ozonous metallic marine scent that is widely used
in contemporary perfumes. Synthetic aromatics are often used as an alternate
source of compounds that are not easily obtained from natural sources. For
example, linalool and coumarin are both naturally occurring compounds that can
be inexpensively synthesized from terpenes. Orchid scents (typically salicylates)
are usually not obtained directly from the plant itself but are instead synthetically
created to match the fragrant compounds found in various orchids.
One of the most commonly used classes of synthetic aromatics by far are the white
musks. These materials are found in all forms of commercial perfumes as a neutral
background to the middle notes. These musks are added in large quantities to
laundry detergents in order to give washed clothes a lasting "clean" scent.
The majority of the world's synthetic aromatics are created by relatively
few companies. They include:

 International Flavors and Fragrances (IFF)

 Givaudan
 Firmenich
 Takasago
 Symrise
Each of these companies patents several processes for the production of aromatic
synthetics annually.
Characteristics[edit]
Natural and synthetics are used for their different odor characteristics in perfumery

Naturals Synthetics

Natural scents will vary from each supplier

based on when and where they are harvested,
how they are processed, and the extraction
method itself. This means that a certain flower
Much more consistent than natural
grown in Morocco and in France will smell
aromatics. However, differences in
different, even if the same method is used to
organic synthesis may result in
grow, harvest, and extract the scent. As such,
minute differences in concentration
each perfumer will prefer flowers grown in one
Variance of impurities. If these impurities
country over another, or one extraction method
have low smell (detection)
to the next. However, due to a natural scent's
thresholds, the differences in the
mixed composition, it is easy for unscrupulous
scent of the synthetic aromatic will
suppliers to adulterate the actual raw materials
be significant.
by changing its source (adding Indian jasmine
into Grasse jasmine) or the contents (adding
linalool to rosewood) to increase their profit
margin.

Components Contains many different organic compounds, Depending on purity, consists

each adding a different note to the overall scent. primarily of one chemical
Certain naturally derived substances have a compound.
 Sometimes chiral mixtures of
isomers, such as in the case of Iso E
long history of use, but this cannot always be Super.[31] Due to the almost pure
used as an indicator of whether they are safe or composition of one chemical
not. Possible allergenic or carcinogenic compound, the same molecules
compounds. found diluted in nature will have a
different scent and effect on the
body, if used undiluted.

Similar to natural scents yet

different at the same time. Some
Reminiscent of its originating material,
synthetics attempt to mimic natural
although extraction may capture a different
Scent notes, while others explore the
"layer" of the scent, depending on the how the
uniqueness entire spectrum of scent. Novel
extraction method denatures the odoriferous
scent compounds not found in
compounds.
nature will often be unique in their
scent.

Pure and pronounced fragrance

Deep and complex fragrance notes. Soft, with
Scent notes. Often monotonous in nature,
subtle scent nuances. Highly valued for ideal
complexity yet reminiscent of other natural
composition.
scents.

Price Dependent on extraction method. More Dependent on synthesis method.

expensive, but not always, as prices are Generally cheaper, but not
determined by the labor and difficulty of necessarily. Synthetic aromatics are
properly extracting each unit of the natural not necessarily cheaper than
materials, as well as its quality. Typically the naturals, with some synthetics
relationship between, longevity of a perfume, being more costly than most natural
cost and the concentration of essential oils ingredients due to various factors
follows the graph below:  such as the long synthesis routes,
low availability of precursor
chemicals, and low overall yield.
However, due to their low odor
threshold, they should be diluted
when making a perfume.

This chart shows the typical relationship between

price of perfume, its longevity and the concentration
of essential oils.
 [32]

Obtaining natural odorants[edit]

Main article: Fragrance extraction

Itar (herbal perfume) vendor on the street of Hyderabad, India, who can compose an original perfume for
the customer

Before perfumes can be composed, the odorants used in various perfume

compositions must first be obtained. Synthetic odorants are produced
through organic synthesis and purified. Odorants from natural sources require the
use of various methods to extract the aromatics from the raw materials. The results
of the extraction are either essential oils, absolutes, concretes, or butters,
depending on the amount of waxes in the extracted product.[33]
All these techniques will, to a certain extent, distort the odor of the aromatic
compounds obtained from the raw materials. This is due to the use of heat, harsh
solvents, or through exposure to oxygen in the extraction process which will
denature the aromatic compounds, which either change their odor character or
renders them odorless.

 Maceration/Solvent extraction: The most used and economically

important technique for extracting aromatics in the modern perfume industry.
Raw materials are submerged in a solvent that can dissolve the desired
aromatic compounds. Maceration lasts anywhere from hours to months.
Fragrant compounds for woody and fibrous plant materials are often obtained
in this manner as are all aromatics from animal sources. The technique can
also be used to extract odorants that are too volatile for distillation or
easily denatured by heat. Commonly used solvents for maceration/solvent
extraction include ethane, hexane, and dimethyl ether. The product of this
process is called a "concrete."
o Supercritical fluid extraction: A relatively new technique for extracting
fragrant compounds from a raw material, which often employs Supercritical CO2.
Due to the low heat of process and the relatively nonreactive solvent used
in the extraction, the fragrant compounds derived often closely resemble
the original odor of the raw material.
 o Ethanol extraction: A type of solvent extraction used to extract
fragrant compounds directly from dry raw materials, as well as the impure
oily compounds materials resulting from solvent extraction or enfleurage.
Ethanol extraction from fresh plant materials contain large quantities of
water, which will also be extracted into the ethanol.
 Distillation: A common technique for obtaining aromatic compounds
from plants, such as orange blossoms and roses. The raw material is heated
and the fragrant compounds are re-collected through condensation of the
distilled vapor.

An old perfume still on display at Fragonard


o Steam distillation: Steam from boiling water is passed through the
raw material, which drives out their volatile fragrant compounds. The
condensate from distillation are settled in a Florentine flask. This allows for
the easy separation of the fragrant oils from the water. The water collected
from the condensate, which retains some of the fragrant compounds and
oils from the raw material is called hydrosol and sometimes sold. This is
most commonly used for fresh plant materials such as flowers, leaves,
and stems.
o Dry/destructive distillation: The raw materials are directly heated in a
still without a carrier solvent such as water. Fragrant compounds that are
released from the raw material by the high heat often undergo
anhydrous pyrolysis, which results in the formation of different fragrant
compounds, and thus different fragrant notes. This method is used to obtain
fragrant compounds from fossil amber and fragrant woods where an
intentional "burned" or "toasted" odor is desired.
o Fractionation: Through the use of a fractionation column, different
fractions distilled from a material can be selectively excluded to modify the
scent of the final product. Although the product is more expensive, this is
sometimes performed to remove unpleasant or undesirable scents of a
material and affords the perfumer more control over their composition
process.
 Expression: Raw material is squeezed or compressed and the essential
oils are collected. Of all raw materials, only the fragrant oils from the peels of
fruits in the citrus family are extracted in this manner since the oil is present in
large enough quantities as to make this extraction method economically
feasible.
 Enfleurage: Absorption of aroma materials into solid fat or wax and then
extraction of odorous oils with ethyl alcohol. Extraction by enfleurage was
commonly used when distillation was not possible because some fragrant
compounds denature through high heat. This technique is not commonly used
in the modern industry due to prohibitive costs and the existence of more
efficient and effective extraction methods.[24]

Fragrant extracts[edit]

Indian Patchouli - Tincture

Although fragrant extracts are known to the general public as the generic term
"essential oils", a more specific language is used in the fragrance industry to
describe the source, purity, and technique used to obtain a particular fragrant
extract. Of these extracts, only absolutes, essential oils, and tinctures are directly
used to formulate perfumes.

 Absolute: Fragrant materials that are purified from

a pommade or concrete by soaking them in ethanol. By using a
slightly hydrophilic compound such as ethanol, most of the fragrant compounds
from the waxy source materials can be extracted without dissolving any of the
fragrantless waxy molecules. Absolutes are usually found in the form of an oily
liquid.
 Concrete: Fragrant materials that have been extracted from raw materials
through solvent extraction using volatile hydrocarbons. Concretes usually
contain a large amount of wax due to the ease in which the solvents dissolve
various hydrophobic compounds. As such concretes are usually further purified
through distillation or ethanol based solvent extraction. Concretes are typically
either waxy or resinous solids or thick oily liquids.
 Essential oil: Fragrant materials that have been extracted from a source
material directly through distillation or expression and obtained in the form of an
oily liquid. Oils extracted through expression are sometimes called expression
oils.
 Pomade: A fragrant mass of solid fat created from the enfleurage process,
in which odorous compounds in raw materials are adsorbed into animal fats.
Pommades are found in the form of an oily and sticky solid.
 Tincture: Fragrant materials produced by directly soaking and infusing raw
materials in ethanol. Tinctures are typically thin liquids.[24]
Products from different extraction methods are known under different names even
though their starting materials are the same. For instance, orange blossoms
from Citrus aurantium that have undergone solvent extraction produces "orange
blossom absolute" but that which have been steam distilled is known as "neroli oil".

Composing perfumes[edit]

Perfume formula

Perfume compositions are an important part of many industries ranging from the
luxury goods sectors, food services industries, to manufacturers of various
household chemicals. The purpose of using perfume or fragrance compositions in
these industries is to affect customers through their sense of smell and entice them
into purchasing the perfume or perfumed product. As such there is significant
interest in producing a perfume formulation that people will find aesthetically
pleasing.
The perfumer[edit]
Main article: Perfumer
The Perfume Maker, by Rodolphe Ernst

The job of composing perfumes that will be sold is left up to an expert on perfume
composition or known in the fragrance industry as the perfumer. They are also
sometimes referred to affectionately as a "Nez" (French for nose) due to their fine
sense of smell and skill in smell composition.
The composition of a perfume typically begins with a brief by the perfumer's
employer or an outside customer. The customers to the perfumer or their
employers, are typically fashion houses or large corporations of various industries.
[34]
 The perfumer will then go through the process of blending multiple perfume
mixtures and sell the formulation to the customer, often with modifications of the
composition of the perfume. The perfume composition will then be either used to
enhance another product as a functional fragrance (shampoos, make-
up, detergents, car interiors, etc.), or marketed and sold directly to the public as
a fine fragrance.[23]
Technique[edit]

Paper blotters (fr:mouillettes) are commonly used by perfumers to sample and smell perfumes and
odorants.

Although there is no single "correct" technique for the formulation of a perfume,

there are general guidelines as to how a perfume can be constructed from a
concept. Although many ingredients do not contribute to the smell of a perfume,
many perfumes include colorants and anti-oxidants to improve the marketability
and shelf life of the perfume, respectively.
Basic framework[edit]
Perfume oils usually contain tens to hundreds of ingredients and these are typically
organized in a perfume for the specific role they will play. These ingredients can be
roughly grouped into four groups:

 Primary scents (Heart): Can consist of one or a few main ingredients for a

certain concept, such as "rose". Alternatively, multiple ingredients can be used
together to create an "abstract" primary scent that does not bear a
resemblance to a natural ingredient. For instance, jasmine and rose scents are
commonly blends for abstract floral fragrances. Cola flavourant is a good
example of an abstract primary scent.
 Modifiers: These ingredients alter the primary scent to give the perfume a
certain desired character: for instance, fruit esters may be included in a floral
primary to create a fruity floral; calone and citrus scents can be added to create
a "fresher" floral. The cherry scent in cherry cola can be considered a modifier.
 Blenders: A large group of ingredients that smooth out the transitions of a
perfume between different "layers" or bases. These themselves can be used as
a major component of the primary scent. Common blending ingredients
include linalool and hydroxycitronellal.
 Fixatives: Used to support the primary scent by bolstering it. Many resins,
wood scents, and amber bases are used as fixatives.
The top, middle, and base notes of a fragrance may have separate primary scents
and supporting ingredients. The perfume's fragrance oils are then blended
with ethyl alcohol and water, aged in tanks for several weeks and filtered through
processing equipment to, respectively, allow the perfume ingredients in the mixture
to stabilize and to remove any sediment and particles before the solution can be
filled into the perfume bottles.[35]
Fragrance bases[edit]

A "perfume organ", where perfumers play around with hundreds of essences, in Grasse

Instead of building a perfume from "ground up", many modern perfumes and
colognes are made using fragrance bases or simply bases. Each base is
essentially modular perfume that is blended from essential oils and aromatic
chemicals, and formulated with a simple concept such as "fresh cut grass" or "juicy
sour apple". Many of Guerlain's Aqua Allegoria line, with their simple fragrance
concepts, are good examples of what perfume fragrance bases are like.
The effort used in developing bases by fragrance companies or individual
perfumers may equal that of a marketed perfume, since they are useful in that they
are reusable. On top of its reusability, the benefit in using bases for construction
are quite numerous:

1. Ingredients with "difficult" or "overpowering" scents that are tailored into a

blended base may be more easily incorporated into a work of perfume
2. A base may be better scent approximations of a certain thing than the
extract of the thing itself. For example, a base made to embody the scent
for "fresh dewy rose" might be a better approximation for the scent concept
of a rose after rain than plain rose oil. Flowers whose scents cannot be
extracted, such as gardenia or hyacinth, are composed as bases from data
derived from headspace technology.
3. A perfumer can quickly rough out a concept from a brief by combining
multiple bases, then present it for feedback. Smoothing out the "edges" of
the perfume can be done after a positive response.
Reverse engineering[edit]
Creating perfumes through reverse engineering with analytical techniques such
as Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC/MS) can reveal the "general"
formula for any particular perfume. The difficulty of GC/MS analysis arises due to
the complexity of a perfume's ingredients. This is particularly due to the presence
of natural essential oils and other ingredients consisting of complex chemical
mixtures. However, "anyone armed with good GC/MS equipment and experienced
in using this equipment can today, within days, find out a great deal about the
formulation of any perfume... customers and competitors can analyze most
perfumes more or less precisely."[36]
Antique or badly preserved perfumes undergoing this analysis can also be difficult
due to the numerous degradation by-products and impurities that may have
resulted from breakdown of the odorous compounds. Ingredients and compounds
can usually be ruled out or identified using gas chromatograph (GC) smellers,
which allow individual chemical components to be identified both through their
physical properties and their scent. Reverse engineering of best-selling perfumes
in the market is a very common practice in the fragrance industry due to the
relative simplicity of operating GC equipment, the pressure to produce marketable
fragrances, and the highly lucrative nature of the perfume market. [35]
Copyright[edit]
Counterfeit perfumes

It is doubtful whether perfumes qualify as appropriate copyright subject matter

under the US Copyright Act. The issue has not yet been addressed by any US
court. A perfume's scent is not eligible for trademark protection because the scent
serves as the functional purpose of the product.[37]
In 2006 the Dutch Supreme Court granted copyright protection to Lancôme's
perfume Tresor (Lancôme v. Kecofa). The French Supreme Court has twice taken
the position that perfumes lack the creativity to constitute copyrightable
expressions (Bsiri-Barbir v. Haarman & Reimer, 2006; Beaute Prestige
International v. Senteur Mazal, 2008).[37]

Health and environmental issues[edit]

Perfume ingredients, regardless of natural or synthetic origins, may all cause
health or environmental problems when used. Although the areas are under active
research, much remains to be learned about the effects of fragrance on human
health and the environment.
Health[edit]
Immunological; asthma and allergy[edit]
Evidence in peer-reviewed journals shows that some fragrances can cause
asthmatic reactions in some individuals, especially those with severe or atopic
asthma.[38] Many fragrance ingredients can also cause headaches, allergic skin
reactions[39] or nausea.[40][41][42]
In some cases, an excessive use of perfumes may cause allergic reactions of the
skin. For instance, acetophenone, ethyl acetate[citation needed] and acetone[35] while present
in many perfumes, are also known or potential respiratory allergens. Nevertheless,
this may be misleading, since the harm presented by many of these chemicals
(either natural or synthetic) is dependent on environmental conditions and their
concentrations in a perfume. For instance, linalool, which is listed as an irritant,
causes skin irritation when it degrades to peroxides, however the use of
antioxidants in perfumes or reduction in concentrations can prevent this. As well,
the furanocoumarin present in natural extracts of grapefruit or celery can cause
severe allergic reactions and increase sensitivity to ultraviolet radiation. [43]
Some research on natural aromatics have shown that many contain compounds
that cause skin irritation.[44] However some studies, such as IFRA's research claim
that opoponax is too dangerous to be used in perfumery, still lack scientific
consensus.[45] It is also true that sometimes inhalation alone can cause skin
irritation.[citation needed]

Patch test

A number of national and international surveys have identified balsam of Peru,

often used in perfumes, as being in the "top five" allergens most commonly
causing patch test reactions in people referred to dermatology clinics. [46][47][48] A study
in 2001 found that 3.8% of the general population patch tested was allergic to it.
[49]
 Many perfumes contain components identical to balsam of Peru. [50]
Balsam of Peru is used as a marker for perfume allergy. Its presence in a cosmetic
is denoted by the INCI term Myroxylon pereirae.[51] Balsam of Peru has been
banned by the International Fragrance Association since 1982 from use as a
fragrance compound, but may be present as an extract or distillate in other
products, where mandatory labelling is not required for usage of 0.4% or less. [50]
Carcinogenicity[edit]
There is scientific evidence that nitro-musks such as musk xylene could cause
cancer in some specific animal tests. These reports were evaluated by the EU
Scientific Committee for Consumer Safety (SCCS, formerly the SCCNFP [52]) and
musk xylene was found to be safe for continued use in cosmetic products. [53] It is in
fact part of the procedures of the Cosmetic Regulation in Europe that materials
classified as carcinogens require such a safety evaluation by the authorities to be
allowed in cosmetic consumer products.
Although other ingredients such as polycyclic synthetic musks, have been reported
to be positive in some in-vitro hormone assays,[54][55] these reports have been
reviewed by various authorities. For example, for one of the main polycyclic
musks Galaxolide (HHCB) these reviews include those of the EU Scientific
Committee on Consumer Safety,[56] the EU's Priority Substances Review,[57] the EU
Scientific Committee on Health and Environmental Risk, [58] and more recently also
the US EPA.[59] The outcome of all of these reviews over the past decade or so is
that there are no safety concerns for human health. Reviews with similar positive
outcomes also exist for another main polycyclic musk (AHTN)—for instance, on its
safe use in cosmetics by the EU.[60]
Many natural aromatics, such as oakmoss absolutes,[44][61] basil oil, rose oil and
many others contain allergens or carcinogenic compounds, the safety of which is
either governed by regulations (e.g. allowed methyl eugenol levels in the EU
Cosmetics Regulation (Entry 102, Annex III of the EU Cosmetics Regulation.[62]) or
through various limitations set by the International Fragrance Association. [63]
Toxicity[edit]
Certain chemicals found in perfume are often toxic, at least for small insects if not
for humans. For example, the compound Tricyclodecenyl allyl ether is often found
in synthetic perfumes[64][65] and has insect repellent property.
Environmental[edit]

Perfume stall in Cairo

Pollution[edit]
Synthetic musks are pleasant in smell and relatively inexpensive, as such they are
often employed in large quantities to cover the unpleasant scent of laundry
detergents and many personal cleaning products. Due to their large-scale use,
several types of synthetic musks have been found in human fat and milk, [66] as well
as in the sediments and waters of the Great Lakes.[67]
These pollutants may pose additional health and environmental problems when
they enter human and animal diets.
Species endangerment[edit]
The demands for aromatic materials such as sandalwood, agarwood, and musk
have led to the endangerment of these species, as well as illegal trafficking and
harvesting.
Safety regulations[edit]
The perfume industry in the US is not directly regulated by the FDA, instead the
FDA controls the safety of perfumes through their ingredients and requires that
they be tested to the extent that they are Generally recognized as safe (GRAS).
Due to the need for protection of trade secrets, companies rarely give the full listing
of ingredients regardless of their effects on health. In Europe, as from 11 March
2005, the mandatory listing of a set of 26 recognized fragrance allergens was
enforced.[68] The requirement to list these materials is dependent on the intended
use of the final product. The limits above which the allegens are required to be
declared are 0.001% for products intended to remain on the skin, and 0.01% for
those intended to be rinsed off. This has resulted in many old perfumes like
chypres and fougère classes, which require the use of oakmoss extract, being
reformulated.

Preserving perfume[edit]
Perfumes in a museum

Fragrance compounds in perfumes will degrade or break down if improperly stored

in the presence of heat, light, oxygen, and extraneous organic materials. Proper
preservation of perfumes involves keeping them away from sources of heat and
storing them where they will not be exposed to light. An opened bottle will keep its
aroma intact for several years, as long as it is well stored. [23] However, the presence
of oxygen in the head space of the bottle and environmental factors will in the long
run alter the smell of the fragrance.
Perfumes are best preserved when kept in light-tight aluminium bottles or in their
original packaging when not in use, and refrigerated to relatively low temperatures:
between 3–7 °C (37–45 °F). Although it is difficult to completely remove oxygen
from the headspace of a stored flask of fragrance, opting for spray dispensers
instead of rollers and "open" bottles will minimize oxygen exposure. Sprays also
have the advantage of isolating fragrance inside a bottle and preventing it from
mixing with dust, skin, and detritus, which would degrade and alter the quality of a
perfume.
There exist several archives and museums devoted to the preservation of historical
perfumes, namely the Osmothèque, which stocks over 3,000 perfumes from the
past two millennia in their original formulations. All scents in their collection are
preserved in non-actinic glass flasks flushed with argon gas, stored in thermally
insulated compartments maintained at 12 °C (53.6 °F) in a large vault.[69]

Lists of perfumes[edit]
Further information: List of perfumes and List of celebrity-branded fragrances

See also[edit]

Potpourri, by Edwin Austin Abbey, 1899

 List of essential oils

 Aromatherapy
 Do-it-yourself
 Cologne
 FiFi Awards – annual fragrance awards
 Fragrance companies
 Fragrance lamp
 Fragrance Museum
 Johann Maria Farina gegenüber dem Jülichs-Platz
 Odor
 Maker culture
 Pheromone
 Pomander
 Potpourri
 Sachet (scented bag)
 Scented water
 Sex in advertising
 Toilet water

References[edit]
1. ^ "Perfume – Definition and More from Dictionary". Merriam-Webster.
2. ^ Strathern, Paul (2000).  Mendeleyev's Dream – The Quest For the Elements. New
York: Berkley Books. ISBN 0-425-18467-6.
3. ^ Levey, Martin (1973). Early Arabic Pharmacology: An Introduction Based on Ancient
and Medieval Sources. Brill Archive. p.  9.  ISBN  90-04-03796-9.
4. ^ A.K. Sharma; Seema Wahad; Raśmī Śrīvāstava (2010).  Agriculture Diversification:
Problems and Perspectives. I. K. International Pvt Ltd. p. 140.
5. ^ Jump up to:a b Roach, John (29 March 2007).  "Oldest Perfumes Found on "Aphrodite's
Island"". Archived from  the original on 12 October 2013. Retrieved 21 June  2014.
6. ^ "Ancient Perfumes Recreated, Put on Display in Rome". Fox News.
7. ^ Elis, Kiss (2 June 2018).  "Ancient perfume recreated for anniversary
show". Kathimerini English Edition. Retrieved 6 June 2018.
8. ^ al-Hassani, Woodcok and Saoud (2006) 1001 Inventions; Muslim Heritage in Our
World, FSTC, p.22.
9. ^ M. Ullmann (1986), "AL-KĪMIYĀ", The Encyclopaedia of Islam, 5  (2nd ed.), Brill,
p.  111b
10. ^ E. Wiedemann; M. Plessner (1986), "AL-ANBĪḲ", The Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1  (2nd
ed.), Brill, p. 486a
11. ^ Henry George Liddell; Robert Scott, eds. (1897),  "ἄμβιξ", Greek-English Lexicon  (8th
ed.), Harper & Brothers, p.  73
12. ^ Marcellin Berthelot (1889),  Introduction à l'étude de la chimie des anciens et du
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Further reading[edit]
 Burr, Chandler (2004). "The Emperor of Scent: A True Story of Perfume and
Obsession" Random House Publishing. ISBN 978-0-375-75981-9
 Edwards, Michael (1997). "Perfume Legends: French Feminine
Fragrances". Crescent House Publishing. ISBN 0-646-27794-4.
 Klymentiev, Maksym. "Creating Spices for the Mind: The Origins of Modern
Western Perfumery". The Senses and Society. Vol. 9, 2014, issue 2.
 Moran, Jan (2000). "Fabulous Fragrances II: A Guide to Prestige Perfumes
for Women and Men". Crescent House Publishing. ISBN 0-9639065-4-2.
 Turin, Luca (2006). "The Secret of Scent". Faber & Faber. ISBN 0-571-
21537-8.
 Stamelman, Richard: "Perfume – Joy, Obsession, Scandal,
Sin". Rizzoli. ISBN 978-0-8478-2832-6. A cultural history of fragrance from
1750 to the present day.
 Süskind, Patrick (2006). "Perfume: The Story of a Murderer". Vintage
Publishing (English edition). ISBN 978-0-307-27776-3. A novel of perfume,
obsession and serial murder. Also released as a movie with same name in
2006.
 External links[edit]
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