Doctoral Dissertation Shibaura Institute of Technology

Doctoral Dissertation
Shibaura Institute of Technology
Distribution Network Loss Minimization via Artificial Immune Bee Colony
2014/SEPTEMBER
MOHD NABIL BIN MUHTAZARUDDIN

DISTRIBUTION NETWORK LOSS MINIMIZATION VIA ARTIFICIAL
IMMUNE BEE COLONY
MOHD NABIL BIN MUHTAZARUDDIN
Supervisor
Prof. Dr. Goro Fujita
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the

requirements for the award of the degree of
Doctor of Engineering
Shibaura Institute of Technology
SEPTEMBER 2014
ii
Specially dedicated to my beloved family:

Muhtazaruddin, Rismawaty,Zaredah, Mohd Hadri, Husna Asila, Husna Najiha,
Husna Nabiha, Muhammad Zahin, Husna Kamilah, Muhammad Luqman Hakim,
Danish Hakim, Muhammad Naufal, Marissa Elyna
You are both my strengths and inspirations.
And my supervisor
Prof. Dr. Goro Fujita
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
In the name of Allah, most Gracious and Merciful. I am very grateful with his
permission; I was able to accomplish my Doctoral thesis.
A special thanks to my supervisor, Prof. Dr. Goro Fujita from Department of

Electrical Engineering, Shibaura Institute of Technology. His insightful comments,
guidance and all the useful discussion are very much appreciated. Without his
encouragement and persistent help, this thesis would not have been possible. Not
forgetting my defense committee members: Prof. Dr. Satoshi Matsumoto, Prof. Dr.
Harukazu Igarashi, Prof. Dr. Hiroshi Takami and Prof. Dr. Yoshikazu Fukuyama.
Thank you for your attention, advices and constructive feedback.
Very special thanks to Shibaura Institute of Technology and Universiti

Teknologi Malaysia for giving me opportunity to carry out doctoral program for their
scholarship support and also to all my friends; Dr. Jasrul, Ariff, Dan vu, Dr. Tuyen
and those who supported me during the completion of the thesis. Thank you so
much.
I would also like to express gratitude to my parents and the rest of my

families for unconditional love and constant support. I am truly thanks to my loved
wife, Zaredah, who always been at my side when I was depressed and supporting me
spiritually. Not forgetting to both of my children, Muhammad Naufal and Marissa
Elyna that always invigorate my life.
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ABSTRACT
Transformation of distribution network into the direction of more intelligent

and efficient system suffers with many difficulties. One of most challenges task for
the engineers is to achieve more economic distribution network. Introduction of
Distributed Generation (DG) in the system promise a good solution by means of
reduce dependency on centralized generation and has the capability to reduce power
losses that exists in the distribution system. Another approach to reduce power losses
is network reconfiguration. This approach works by controlling the tie and
sectionalizes switches in order to change the original topology of the system.
Nevertheless, coordination of the approaches are still an issue needs to be solved by
the utility. Many researchers have suggested various tools to compute optimally the
DG coordination (output power and location) and network reconfiguration
(opened/closed switches). Among the methods that preferred by the researchers is
meta-heuristic due to robustness and easy to implement. In this thesis, a new hybrid
optimization technique based on Artificial Bee Colony (ABC) and Artificial Immune
System (AIS) algorithm is proposed. To see the effectiveness of the proposed
method, a comparative study is conducted between the AIBC and the ABC in solving
the DG coordination to minimize total power losses in the distribution system. In
addition, a solution to harmonize between DG coordination with network
reconfiguration is also examined. The analysis shows that the performance of the
proposed method is improved than the original ABC in solving the DG coordination.
Furthermore, determination between two approaches simultaneously gives better
results, particularly in reduction of power losses compared than analysis if using one
of approaches either DG coordination or network reconfiguration.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
ABSTRACT iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS v
LIST OF TABLES viii
LIST OF FIGURES ix
LIST OF SYMBOLS xi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xii
LIST OF APPENDICES xiv
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Research Background 1
1.2 Research Questions 2
1.3 Problem Statement 3
1.4 Research Objectives 4
1.5 Scope of Work 5
1.6 Significance of the Research 5
1.6 Thesis Organization 6
2 LITERATURE REVIEW 7
2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 Network Reconfiguration 7
2.3 Installation of Distributed Generation in 8
Distribution System
2.4 Previous Research Works on Distributed 11
Generation Coordination
2.5 Previous Research Works on Network 14
Reconfiguration
vi
2.6 Previous Research Works on Network 17

Reconfiguration network with DG
Coordination
2.7 Conclusion 18
3 ARTIFICIAL IMMUNE BEE COLONY 20

3.1 Introduction 20
3.2 Overview of Meta-Heuristic Method 20
3.3 Artificial Bee Colony 22
3.4 Artificial Immune Bee Colony 25
3.5 Conclusion 28
4 DETERMINATION OF OPTIMAL OUTPUT 29

POWER AND LOCATION OF DG BY USING
AIBC
4.1 Introduction 29
4.2 Problem Formulation to minimize Power 29
Losses
4.3 Related Data for 33-bus and 69-bus Test 37
System for DG Coordination
4.4 Comparison of Performance between AIBC 38
and ABC
4.5 Comparison between Simultaneous and 45
Separate Analysis in DG Coordination
4.6 Comparison with other Methods 51
4.7 Conclusion 52
5 LOSS MINIMIZATION VIA NETWORK 53

RECONFIGURATION WITH DISTRIBUTED
GENERATION COORDINATION
5.1 Introduction 53
5.2 Problem Formulation for Minimal System 53
Power Losses
vii
5.3 Related Data for 33-bus and 69-bus Test 55

System for DG Coordination with Network
Reconfiguration
5.4 Solutions for Harmonization between DG 57
and Network Reconfiguration
5.5 Conclusion 65
6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION 66

6.1 Overall Conclusion 66
6.2 Contributions 67
6.3 Future Work 67
REFERENCES 69 -74
Appendices A – E 75-84
viii
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE
3.1 Comparison of pseudo code for each algorithm 28
4.1 Summary of Results between ABC and AIBC for 39

33-bus system
4.2 Summary of Results between ABC and AIBC for 42

69-bus system
4.3 Description for case studies in comparison of 46

simultaneous and separate analysis
4.4 Summary of results of 33-bus system for 46

comparison of simultaneous and separate analysis
4.5 Summary of results of 69-bus system for 49

comparison of simultaneous and separate analysis
4.6 Comparison with other methods for 33-bus and 69- 52

bus test system
5.1 Description for case studies in DG coordination 58

with Network Reconfiguration
5.2 Summary of results of 33-bus system for DG 59

coordination and network reconfiguration
5.3 Comparison of different parameter settings for Case 5 63
5.4 Comparison with other method available in 64

literature review
ix
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE
2.1 An example of network reconfiguration process 8
2.2 An example installation of DG 10
3.1 Behavior of bees finding the food sources 22
3.2 Basic flow chart of ABC 23
3.3 Example of bees finding the foods 25
3.4 Basic flow chart of AIS 27
3.5 Basic flow chart of AIBC 27
4.1 Simple test system 30
4.2 Simple test system with DG 32
4.3 Flow chart of AIBC to determine optimal DG 36

coordination
4.4 Flow chart of ABC to determine optimal DG 37

coordination
4.5 33-bus test system without DG 38
4.6 69-bus test system without DG 38
4.7 Comparison of convergence curves between 40

ABC and AIBC on 33-bus
4.8 Comparison of voltage profiles between ABC 41

and AIBC on 33-bus system
4.9 Comparison of optimal location of DG between 41

ABC and AIBC on 33-bus system
x
4.10 Comparison of convergence curves between 43

ABC and AIBC on 69-bus
4.11 Comparison of voltage profiles between ABC 44

and AIBC on 69-bus system

ABC and AIBC on 69-bus system

case 2 and case 3 on 33-bus system
4.14 Comparison of voltage profiles for all cases on 47

33-bus system
4.15 Line losses of 33-bus 48

case 2 and case 3 on 69-bus system

69-bus system
4.18 Line losses of 69-bus 51
5.1 Flow chart of AIBC to determine optimal DG 56

coordination with network reconfiguration
5.2 33-bus test system with optional lines 57
5.3 Final results for case 5 60

33-bus system
5.5 Comparison of stability index for all cases on 62

33-bus system
xi
LIST OF SYMBOLS
FV - Fitness Value
Ob. Func - Objective Function
xijnew - New value of variable
xijold - Old value of variable
xkj - Neighbour value that is selected randomly
range(0,1) - Random value between 0 and 1
probi - Probability value
N - Total number of employed bees
x1 - DG output power
x2 - DG location
nbr - Number of lines
I - Current
i - Line number
R - resistance
n - Bus number
PDG,min - Lower bound of DG output power
PDG,max - Upper bound of DG output power
PDG - DG output power
Vn,min - Minimum allowable voltage
Vn,max - Maximum allowable voltage
Vn - Voltage at each bus
tdg - Total number of DG
tl - Total number of load
Pload - total amount of load consume at each bus
Psubstation - Power from substation
W - Unit for real power
xii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ABC - Artificial Bees Colony

ACO - Ant Colony Optimization
AIS - Artificial Immune System
AIBC - Artificial Immune Bee Colony
ANN - Artificial Neural Network
ACSA - Ant Colony Search Algorithm
BPSO - Binary Particle Swarm Optimization
C-VSI - Combined-Voltage Stability Index
DDG - Dispatchable Distributed Generation
DE - Differential Evolution
DG - Distributed Generation
EP - Evolutionary Programming
EP-ACO Evolutionary Programming-Ant Colony Optimization
FA - Firefly Algorithm
GA - Genetic Algorithm
GA-PSO - Hybrid Genetic Algorithm - Particle Swarm Optimization
HDE - Hybrid Differential Evolution
HSA - Harmony Search Algorithm
NDDG - Non-Dispatchable Distributed Generation
PQ - Power-Reactive
PSO - Particle Swarm Optimization
PV - Power-Voltage
QIEP - Quantum-Inspired Evolutionary Programming
RPF - Reverse Power Flow
SA Simulated Annealing
SPSO - Selective Particle Swarm Optimization
xiii
TS - Tabu Search
TS-SA - Tabu Seacrh-Simulated Annealing
X/R - Reactance/Resistor
xiv
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX TITLE PAGE

A Comparison of Mutation Process Between 75
ABC and AIBC
B Data for 33-bus Test System 76
C Data for 69-bus Test System 78
D Data for 33-bus Test System Including Tie 80
Lines
E List of Publications 82
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Research Background
The classic power system model consists of three important components,

namely generation, transmission line and distribution system. The components are
interdependent to ensure the generated power can be transmitted from the generation
to the distribution system/demand via the transmission line. In addition, the power
system is designed to works with unidirectional power flow due to lack of power
source except in the generation component only. However, as the demands are
expected to escalate in the future, one of the possible solutions could be done is to
ameliorate the entire power system performance [1]. Concerning to this solution, it
will require intensive planning to all the components; thus, increasing the overall cost
of the power system. On the contrary, introduction of micro grid concept [2] offers
an interesting solution to integrate small capacity of Distributed Generation (DG) in
the distribution system instead of rely solely on centralized generation schemes,
thereby reducing the necessary improvements made in the generation and the
transmission lines.
Introduction of the DG has changed the basic nature of operation in the power
systems, particularly the distribution networks where the status has changed from
passive to active network [3]. This means that the DG can actively participate in the
distribution system in order to provide additional support to the main grid in fulfil
load demands. In addition, there are numerous benefits that have been identified by
other researchers, for instances enhance voltage profile, improve reliability and also
reduce power loss [4, 5].The reduction of power losses is an important task that can
2
2
be done to maintain the efficiency of the distribution system. There several

approaches which are commonly proposed by researchers to reduce the power losses;
either network reconfiguration or installing capacitors or installing DGs. However,
the advantage of these approaches can be achieved if they are carefully coordinated
in the distribution system.
There are several groups which have been used to solve coordination
problems such as analytical, heuristic and meta-heuristic technique, where each of
the groups has its own advantages and shortcomings [6].Among these groups, the
meta-heuristic are more prominent in solving the coordination problems due to
robustness and simple to implement [6]. There are several of methods that have been
introduced under the meta-heuristic group such as Simulated Annealing (SA) [7],
Genetic Algorithm (GA) [8], Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) [9], Ant Colony
Optimization (ACO) [10] and Artificial Bee Colony (ABC) [11]. Additionally, some
authors have also proposed hybridized optimization methods by combining two
optimization techniques to cancel out the discrepancies of each for achieving better
solutions. Almost all of these methods were inspired by natural life [12].
Recently, some studies have been done by a number of researchers to
harmonize between the two approaches as an example to solve coordination between
the DG and the capacitors, simultaneously. Means, the location and size of the DG
and the capacitor are determined simultaneously by using one approach. One
significant advantage when combining this approach is the reduction of the power
loss can be obtained more than if executed separately. Nevertheless, the proper
method needed to solve the problem of combination of the two approaches so that a
better solution can be obtained. Therefore, investigation of optimal coordination
between the DG with network reconfiguration should be carried out to achieve better
performance in distribution system.
1.2 Research Questions
The reliability and sustainability of the power distribution system are

important issues that many engineers and researches have studies and proposed
various solutions for increase its efficiency. This matter is important in order to fulfil
3
3
load demands, which increase significantly year by year. However, the progress in
enhancing the efficiency of the system is hindered by one major factor that is the
existence of high real power losses. Furthermore, the current trend of electrical
energy tariff is showing signs of increment and it is expected to escalate in the future;
hence, increasing the significance of power reduction. Consequently, many
researchers have devoted their effort to find the possible solution to minimize the
power losses whilst retaining the stability and security of the system.
There are several approaches suggested by researches to deal with the
reduction of power losses such as determining optimal DG coordination (output
power and location), capacitor coordination (size and location) and network
reconfiguration. However, the incorrect use of these approaches might deteriorate the
system’s performance and appear operational and planning problems of the
distribution system. The aim of this research is to find a solution that can harmonize
the network reconfiguration with DG coordination in order to further reduce the
power loss in the distribution network.
Several research questions that will arise when analyzing the effect of
combining the approaches on the distribution system are listed below:
i. What is the appropriate method that can be applied to solve the

coordination problems?
ii. Which combination gives the best impact to the distribution system?
iii. What happens to the performance of voltage profile and stability index
when the coordination is performed on the system?
All the questions raised will be analysed and discussed later.
1.3 Problem Statement
Transformation of distribution network into the direction of more intelligent

and efficient system suffers with many difficulties. One of the most difficult
4
4
challenges faced by engineers is to achieve a more economical distribution network

through reduction of power loss. In addition, basic nature of the distribution network
itself that has a low X/R ratio lead the distribution system have more impact on the
power loss and voltage profile compared with the transmission line [3, 13].
As previously discussed, there are several approaches have been done to
solve the problem. Generally, these solutions are done separately, which means
power losses reduction is achieved either by using network reconfiguration or via
DGs coordination or via capacitors coordination. Thus, the solution might be trapped
in a local optimum (meaning that there is a better solution - the global optimum)
since the solution to determine one approach (for example: DG coordination) is not
based from another approach (for example: network reconfiguration), and vice versa.
Latterly, some researchers have proposed a solution to harmonize any of the
two approaches into single solution so that it can provide better results than the
separate analysis. However, this solution consists of many variables and wrong
coordination can inflict negative effects on the system especially in power losses,
voltage deviation as well as stability index.
As a result, this research will focus on a new hybrid optimization to handle on
simultaneous approach and at the same time to alleviate such problems.
1.4 Research Objectives
The objectives of this research are as follows:
i. To improve the performance of ABC by combining with Artificial Immune

System (AIS) in order to solve specific high dimensional problem.
ii. To investigate the effectiveness of the simultaneous approach analysis

compared with the separate analysis.
iii. To investigate the effectiveness of network reconfiguration with DG

coordination which gives better results in term of power losses, voltage
profile as well as stability index.
5
5
1.5 Scope of Work
The scopes of the research are listed below:
i. The total output of the DG unit must be less than the summation of total load
and power losses in the test system, in order to avoid reverse power flow to
the main grid.
ii. The maximum amounts of the DGs are only three units.
iii. The objective function for all case studies only focuses on single objective
which is total power losses.
iv. All the results obtained in this thesis is in the context of operational planning
division only, except the results obtained for DG coordination is a suggestion
to construction planning division for their references.
1.6 Significance of the Research
The main motivation of this research is to determine the optimal network

reconfiguration with DG coordination, in order to enhance distribution system
performance in terms of total power loss reduction, voltage profile improvement as
well as increase the stability.
Installation of the DG in the distribution has helped to improve the overall
system efficiency especially reduction of power losses. Another approach that can be
used to increase system performance is to install the capacitors or reconfigure the
network by controlling tie and sectionalize switches. In addition, further
improvements in the system can be obtained by combining any of these approaches
rather than solve using single approach.
Simultaneously, determining of combination between two approaches
involved high dimension problem in the power system analysis. For example, three
6
6
units of DG are used with five tie switches (for network reconfiguration process) in
the test network. Hence, the total variables involved are 11, Xi= [Location1 Location2
Location3 DG Output1 DG Output2 DG Output3 Switch1 Switch2 Switch3 Switch4
Switch5]. Thus, hybridization between the ABC and the AIS is proposed to solve the
problem and subsequently give minimum total power losses.
Overall, the analysis simultaneously provides a positive impact on
distribution system especially for the reduction of the power loss. Furthermore, the
use of optimization method assists and facilitates utilities in the planning division to
provide optimal coordination.
1.7 Thesis Organization
This thesis is organized in six chapters. The first chapter begins with an
overview of the research background and problem statement. It includes the most
important aspects for overall research including the objectives and scopes. Chapter
two presents a collection of literature from previous research work to tackle the
problems in coordination. Next, in the chapter three describes a new hybrid
optimization methods based on the ABC and the AIS algorithm.
Chapter four focuses on comparison between the ABC and the proposed
method in solving DG coordination. In addition, the proposed method will be
compared with a separate analysis that use single DG placement algorithm to
determine the location and using the AIBC to determine the output of the DG.
Chapter five discusses the effectiveness of simultaneous approach by combining the
DG coordination with network reconfiguration. Furthermore, a comparison with
other optimization methods will be performed.
Chapter six concludes of this research. Additionally, several ideas for future
works are also proposed.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
In the first chapter, the overview of research background and other important
aspects to define this research have been touched. As previously discussed, there are
various approaches that have been used to reduce overall total power losses in the
distribution system. Hence, in this chapter, previous related research works on
network reconfiguration and DG coordination will be discussed.
2.2 Network Reconfiguration
Network reconfiguration is a common practice that performed by the utility to

change the topology of the distribution system. This process is done by closing and
opening the switches that exist in each branch. However, searching process for
optimal combination of opened/closed switches is a complicated task that needs to be
done properly.
As an alternative of loss reduction, the network reconfiguration also offers
other advantages that can be leveraged by the distribution system. In ref. [14-16],
they have listed several advantages of network reconfiguration in the distribution
system, as listed below:
i. Improve reliability of the distribution network.

8
ii. Restrain the distribution line from being overloaded.
iii. Improve the voltage profile at all network buses.
iv. Help to restore supply to the demands when fault occurred.
Figure 2.1 illustrates an example of the basic concept of network

reconfiguration process by controlling sectionalize and tie switches to change the
topology of the distribution system.
Thick line is
Substation original branch Substation
1 (sectionalize switch) 1
2
8 2
8
12 2 12
9 2 9
3 9 3 9
13 10 13 10
15 3 10 15 3 10
13 4 13 4
14 11 14 11
14 4 11 14 4 11
15 5 12 15 5 12
5 5
6 6
16 Dotted line is 16
6 6
7 optional branch 7
7 (tie switch) 7
8 8
(a) Before reconfiguration process (b) After reconfiguration process
Fig. 2.1.An example of network reconfiguration process
Besides network reconfiguration, another different approach to reduce power

loss is by installing the DG. In the next section, the importance of installation the DG
will be discussed.
2.3 Installation of Distributed Generation in Distribution System
As the power system become more complex and challenging, the need for
advanced technology on the system become a priority for electrical utilities in order
to ensure power is supplied to the demands without any interruption. Furthermore,
9
with more concern to achieve high reliability and efficiency of distribution network,
introduction of the DG concept seems as an interesting solution by integrating small
scale of generator in the distribution system. Followed by the expected increase in
energy consumption in the near future, the importance of DG installations has
attracted the attention of many parties, especially electrical utilities.
A recent report conducted by Synapse Energy Economics, Inc. comprised of
several organizations comprised of several organizations estimate that DG capacity
in 2013 will increase by 191% at the end of 2021 in several states in New England,
United State of America [17]. Meanwhile, another report released by the California
public utilities commission on the 18th of March, 2013 stated that the state was
targeting a total DG capacity of 12 GW to be installed by 2020 [18]. Based on these
reports indicate that the installation of DG is indispensable in the future.
There are numerous definitions to describe the DG and until now there are
still long arguments to justify the meaning. Not only that, term and rating of the DG
also have various understanding depending on the region and the institutes [13].
Although there are different interpretations exist, the purpose of this small capacity
of DG is still same. It will act as an additional power support to the system instead of
depending solely on centralized generation; hence, power sharing between them can
benefit the entire power system. In refs. [5, 19-22], they explain in detail the impact
of the DG when connected to the network. Based from these studies, they pointed out
that installation of the DG offer many benefits, especially to the distribution network.
Some of the advantages as mentioned earlier are as follows:
i. Minimize total power losses at the distribution network.
ii. Enhance performance on voltage profile.
iii. Improve stability index and security of the distribution system.
iv. Help in improving the efficiency and reliability of the system.
v. Help in saving costs due to less expansion plan on generation and

transmission lines.
vi. Increase power quality in the distribution system.
vii. Relieve the transmission line due to peak shaving.

10
According to a report issued by the International Energy Agency in 2012, the

percentage of power losses that occur in the transmission lines and distribution
system was 8.78% from the total power supplied [23]. Therefore, in accordance with
one of the advantages that previously mentioned, the installation of DG can
contribute in reducing the amount of losses that occur in the power system. However,
the advantage can only be obtained if the DG properly coordinated in the system.
Furthermore, one of the issues still faced by utilities is uncertainty in determining the
output power and location of the DG. Figure 2.2 shows an example of installation of
single DG in the distribution system at the specified bus.
Improper coordination of the DG can deteriorate the distribution system
performance. Several studies have been conducted by researchers to see the impact
on the system when the location and power output wrongly selected [24-26]. Based
on their findings, different locations and sizes of the DG can affect the total power
losses as well as voltage profiles. Hence, proper methods are needed to address the
problems in determining the location and output power of the DG optimally.
Substation Substation
1 8 1 8
2 2
12 2 12
9 2 9
3 9 3 9
10 13 10
13 3 10 3 10
4 13 4
11 14 11
14 4 11 14 4 11
5 12 15 5 12
5 5
6 6
6 6
7 7
DG
7 7
8 8
(a) Before installation of DG (b) After installation of DG
Fig. 2.2.An example installation of DG

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2.4 Previous Research Works on Distributed Generation Coordination
The power loss is one of the constraints to achieve a more reliable and
economic distribution system. This problem exists due to the nature of the system
which only depends on the generation that located far away to transmit power
supply. In addition, characteristic of the distribution system in which has a low X/R
ratio makes further increment of power losses. One of available solution is by install
the DG in the existing problem where it is close to the load to help reduce
dependence on the generation; hence, minimize the power losses. The presence of
DG in the system without a proper sizing and location will actually worsen the
problem. Therefore, many researchers have studied the effects of optimizing the
location and size of the DG.
There are many methods published in the literature to determine location and
size of DG, which can be categorized into several groups namely analytical,
numerical, heuristic and meta-heuristic [6, 27]. Each of these groups has its own
advantages and disadvantages. In ref. [6], the author has briefly discussed the
comparison of each group in solving the DG coordination problem. Based on their
findings, they concluded that meta-heuristic and heuristic methods are more robust
and easier to implement in solving the complex problems.
Previously, calculations of location and size of DG are treated independently,
which means different method is applied to each of them. Candidate of DG location
can be determined either by using voltage sensitivity factor [28-30] or loss sensitivity
factor [31, 32] or analytical method [33-35] or suggested by the authors [36].
Basically, the voltage and the loss sensitivity factor are operate by placing a DG at
each node in the test system and choose the node which has a high sensitivity on the
changes of power losses. Meanwhile, computation of the DG size is using
optimization approach. However, when the analysis is done separately, the objective
function or goal of the study is not in best solution due to predetermined location and
considered as fixed parameter when to optimize the size of DG. Thus, it could lead
the solution trapped in local optimum.
In ref. [30], the authors have applied Evolution Programming (EP) method to
determine optimal sizing of DG, whereas for the DG location based on loss
sensitivity factor and voltage sensitivity index. From the simulation results, both of
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the sensitivity gives different optimal location for installing the DG. This shows that
these two methods do not provide consistent results to determine the optimal location
of the DG. In addition, there is no further explanation given by the authors which
method should be preferred. In ref. [29] work has proposed a novel optimization
method based on EP, which is known as Quantum-Inspired Evolutionary
Programming (QIEP) to determine optimal size of DG. Conversely, determination of
optimal location is not included in the QIEP, but based on the voltage sensitivity
index. Based from the obtained result, proposed method showed better performance
compared to the EP. However, the analysis had only focused a single mode of DG,
which is PQ (Power-Reactive) mode. In ref. [34], the determination of the optimal
location of DG is based on analytical approach which is known as single DG
placement algorithm, whereas size of DG by using the PSO. The basic concepts of
the algorithm is by insert a DG at each bus one by one and select the bus that give
maximum value of power losses reduction as a candidate for best location. This
process is repeated for the next DG. In another study proposed by ref.[35], the same
concept in ref. [34] have been used to determine the location of DG, but using
different optimization method which is ABC to calculate the size of DG. Although
both of these references successfully provides better results compared to other
analytical approach, but it does not guarantee to give the best solution due to the
analysis in the DG coordination is done separately.
Recently, some authors have proposed a solution to determine both the
location and size of the DG in simultaneous that means using one method to solve
the DG coordination problem. Some of the aforementioned methods are Genetic
Algorithm (GA) [37-39], Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) [40, 41], Artificial Bee
Colony (ABC) [42], Evolutionary Programming (EP) [43] and Firefly Algorithm
(FA) [44].
The work done by ref. [41] applies PSO to deals with DG coordination
problem. In this simulation analysis, the authors consider only one unit of DG to be
optimized. Despite the reduction in power loss can be achieved, there is no
comparison with other methods are done to show the effectiveness of the proposed
method. Ref. [43] suggested EP to determine optimal location and size of single DG
optimally. In this paper, the authors tested the effectiveness of the proposed method
with the AIS. Based on the comparison, the EP method gives better results in term of
power loss reduction, but the AIS method shows better voltage performance
13
compared to the EP. In ref. [44], the authors propose to solve coordination of DG by
using the FA. This method imitate behaviour of fireflies communicate with others
through the brightness of flashing light. In this study, they tested the proposed
method using two units of DG and compare with the GA method. From the analysis
of the simulation results, they concluded that the proposed method gives similar
results with the GA and shows that there is no improvement in the quality of
solutions. Another ref. [42], they propose ABC for the coordination of DG. The
authors consider two types of scenarios for the load conditions, which are normal
load and increase the load up to 50% of the normal value. Furthermore, in the
analysis, they optimize the power factor and consider the DG in the PQ mode.
Nevertheless, based on the proposed method, only one variable is chosen during the
“mutation” process and the selection is done at random (for example randomly
selects either DG location or DG size). Hence, in case of high dimension problems,
the ability of the ABC algorithm to search all possible solution area might be limited
due to the aforementioned construction.
Some authors have also proposed hybridized optimization methods by
combining two optimization methods to cancel out the discrepancies of each method
for achieving global or near global optimal solutions [45, 46].In ref. [45], the authors
propose a hybrid optimization method which combines the PSO and the GA. Each of
these optimization methods has different functions where PSO and GA are used to
determine optimal size and optimal location for DG, respectively. Although the
proposed method succeeded in giving the best answer compared to the PSO and GA
methods, but the solution is divided into two stages, and it is probable that the
solution is trapped in local minimum due to the calculation of the location depends
on the size determined by other method. Similarly, in ref. [46] the authors propose a
combination between Fuzzy logic and ABC. The solution is divided into two phases
where the focus on the first part is to solve the optimal location for DG by using
Fuzzy logic, while in the second phase; the ABC method is used to solve the DG
size. Based on the results obtained, it was found that the proposed method gives the
same power loss reduction with PSO method for all case studies that have been
conducted. In addition, the authors only consider the type of DG in PQ mode.
Despite there are various method that have been used to solve the DG
coordination problem, there are several disadvantages that needs to be considered
before selecting the appropriate methods. For example, the PSO consumes high
14
number of iterations, easy to get trapped in local optimum when solving the complex
problems [47] and weak at local search [48]. For the GA method, the basic operation
is similar to PSO, but the GA has a filtering process (crossover and mutation), thus it
makes the GA process a bit complicated than the PSO [49]. In addition, it stability
depends on the crossover and mutation rates [47]. Unlike the PSO, the AIS shows a
good performance to avoid the local optima [48], however, one of the disadvantages
of AIS, it have many parameter to tune [47]. Another method which is known as
ABC show better performance compared to other methods such as the PSO and the
GA [50]. One of the clear advantages of the ABC, it only have two parameter that
need to be tuned and thus make it easier to implement. However, one of drawbacks
of ABC comes when solving problems with high dimensions. Therefore, in this
thesis a new hybrid optimization based on ABC and AIS, known as Artificial
Immune Bee Colony (AIBC) was introduced to improve the ABC method.
Overall, the coordination of DG can be divided into two groups of analysis,
which are separate and simultaneous analysis. As previously discussed, the separate
analysis is performed by determine location and size of DG separately. On the other
hand, the simultaneous analysis is based on the location and size is determined
simultaneously by using single calculation. The methodology for both analyzes is
typically comprised of several groups of methods such as analytical, numerical,
heuristic and meta-heuristic. However, most of recent work focused on meta-
heuristic optimization either for single DG or multiple DG. In addition, simultaneous
analysis preferred over the separate analysis because it provides an opportunity for
the optimization method to search all possible solutions and thus quality of solution
can be achieved. Moreover, to obtain more reliable results and consistency in the
determination of DG coordination, some researchers have combine two types of
optimization to produce better results than the original optimization.
2.5 Previous Research Works on Network Reconfiguration
As previously explained, the basic concept of network reconfiguration is to

reconfigure the original architecture of distribution network by changing status of
sectionalize (normally closed position) and tie switch (normally open position) to
15
open and close positions respectively, whilst maintaining radiality of the system and
network constraints. The appropriate protection scheme for over current relays
demands the radial topology of the system.
There are several methods that have been used to solve the problem of
network reconfiguration. Same as the coordination of the DG approach, these
methods can be divided into several groups such as mathematics, heuristic, optimal
flow pattern and meta-heuristic [14, 15].Based on ref.[51], most of the methods
chosen by the researches to solve the network reconfiguration are heuristic and meta-
heuristic.
One of the early researchers who worked on network reconfiguration is in ref.
[52]. They proposed a simple formula to estimate the loss reduction when
transmitting a cluster of load from one feeder to another feeder. It is further followed
by the authors of the study [53] who introduced approximation of power flow based
on concept presented by the study [52]. In addition, the authors also take into account
the load balancing in their analysis. There are researchers that were based on the
paper [52] and published the studies in ref. [54-56]. All of these solutions are known
as heuristic algorithm.
Recently, modern optimization methods have been applied to network
reconfiguration by many authors. Ref. [57] implements GA to solve the
reconfiguration problem. Later on in ref. [58], they proposed Artificial Neural
Network (ANN) to solve network reconfiguration problem. In the analysis, the
authors use seven ANNs, which have a different topology for each of them.
However, this method has a problem because it depends on the size of the system. If
the size used is large then the amount of time taken to train the ANN takes time. To
solve the problem, the authors in ref. [59] determine the amount of ANN based on
number of sensitive switches where only four ANNs involved for the same test
system. Therefore, the amount of time needed to train the ANN can be greatly
reduced. Further investigation on implementation of ANN in network
reconfiguration has been done in ref. [60]. They use clustering technique to divide
the loads based on load level, which is used as inputs to the ANN. Furthermore, the
training set used does not depend on the size of the test system and only one ANN is
applied to solve the problem.
In ref. [61], the authors suggest a combination of methods between the SA
and Tabu Search (TS). Based on the results obtained, the hybrid method shows
16
similar performance in terms of loss reduction and minimum voltage, but faster in
computation time when compare with SA and TS, separately. Besides that, the
authors in ref. [62] consider Hybrid Differential Evolution (HDE) to solve the
network reconfiguration. One of the advantages of the proposed method compared
with Differential Evolution (DE) is be able to reduce the amount of population;
thereby reducing the computational time. To test the effectiveness of the proposed
method, they make a comparison with SA method and based on the results obtained
it was found that their method gives faster results. In another research work done by
the authors in ref. [63] has used Ant Colony Search Algorithm (ACSA). The
proposed method is inspired from the ants through the process of finding food. In the
study, they were compared with the GA and SA. Based on their findings, the
proposed method provides more consistent results compared with other methods
when the simulation is repeated 100 times.
In ref. [64], the authors have proposed method that combines between the EP
and Ant Colony Optimization (ACO). In the analysis, they take into account the
impact of changes in load on the network reconfiguration. The authors have divided
each day into several slots, where each slot comprises a maximum load current.
Therefore, information on the number of switch conversions that occur for each slot
can be obtained. Another ref. [65], Selective Particle Swarm Optimization (SPSO) is
proposed to solve the network reconfiguration problem. The proposed method is a
result of some modifications in the updating (mutation) process on Binary Particle
Swarm Optimization (BPSO) that enables it to search in selected space. Furthermore,
to facilitate the conversion process in finding the appropriate switches, they close all
the switches (tie and sectionalize) on the test system and as a result several loops are
formed. During the process of searching, only switches that are in these loops will be
considered for network reconfiguration process.
Overall, apart from using the DG approach to reduce power loss in the
distribution system, the network reconfiguration is another approach to help in
enhancing the performance of the system. This method works by controlling the
switches located on the branches and indirectly alter the original topology of the
system. Therefore, the solution by considering two approaches together maybe can
give positive impact, especially in terms of power loss reduction when compared to
the solution that performed separately (DG coordination or network reconfiguration).
17
2.6 Previous Research Works on Network Reconfiguration with DG

Coordination
Ref. [66] is among the earliest researchers examined the impact of DG on the
network reconfiguration. In the study, they used TS method to determine the
appropriate configuration when DG included in the test system. In addition, they also
investigate the effect of Reverse Power Flow (RPF) caused by the DG due to
amounts of power generated exceeds the load requirements. Later on in ref. [67],
they suggest PSO to solve distribution feeder reconfiguration with DG. In this paper,
the authors make a comparison between Dispatchable Distributed Generation (DDG)
and Non-Dispatchable Distributed Generation (NDDG). Based on the results
obtained, they concluded that DDG gives better results in terms of reduced power
loss compared to NDDG. Furthermore, it also managed to reduce conversion process
between switches.
In ref. [68], they propose a heuristic method that is based on sensitivity and
branch exchange to determine the best configuration of the test system. In this paper,
they consider four DGs unit with various capacities. Based on their analysis, it was
found that the reconfiguration of the network in the presence of DG can help to
reduce power loss almost half from the initial power losses. In another study carried
out by the ref. [69], they apply ACO method to determine optimal network
reconfiguration includes several DG units with different capacities and power factor.
Aside from the reduction of power loss, the authors also consider load balancing in
their analysis. In the meantime, the authors in ref. [70] also used ACO to resolve
network reconfiguration with DG. In addition, they also study the ability of network
reconfiguration to ensure that all the loads can be supplied by the DG when test
system is disconnected with main substation (islanding).
According to the refs. [66-70], determination of the location and size of DG is
determined either randomly or based on assumptions or considered as fixed at
particular location by the author. Nevertheless, those solution obtained in the
aforementioned references can be considered not the best solution due to the result
for network reconfiguration is not based from optimal coordination of DG. If the all
locations in the distribution system assumed eligible for the installation of the DG,
18
thus, harmonization between DG coordination and network reconfiguration can

provide opportunity to find a better solution.
In ref. [71], the authors attempted to solve optimal DG coordination with
network reconfiguration. Nevertheless, the solution proposed by them is not carried
out simultaneously due to the location of DG is determined first by using sensitivity
factor. Based on acquired location, they only optimize the size of the DG and the
reconfiguration of the system by using Harmony Search Algorithm (HSA).
Therefore, there is a possibility that the proposed solution fails in finding better
results because the search process for DG size and network reconfiguration
depending on the particular location (fixed location).
Overall, previous studies as described in sections 2.4 and 2.5 are only
focusing on one approach (either DG coordination or network reconfiguration) to
reduce power loss in the distribution network. This will cause the main objective of
which is to further reducing power loss become limited. To solve the problem,
several studies as explained in refs. [66-71] have been conducted by combining two
approaches, but still do not provide the best solution due to not solve both
approaches, simultaneously. Since, there are no research works solve the coordinate
between DG coordination and network reconfiguration, in this thesis, the
effectiveness of combination of both approaches will be examined so that the results
obtained are better than the approach conducted separately. In addition, due to
combination between DG coordination with network reconfiguration involve with
high dimension problem (high number of variables), the AIBC is chosen to solve the
problem.
2.7 Conclusion
In this chapter, previous studies conducted by other researchers in order to

reduce power loss in distribution system have been discussed briefly. There are two
approaches covered in this chapter, namely coordination of DG and network
reconfiguration. Based on the literature review, both of these approaches have been
proven to enhance the performance of distribution system, especially in power loss
reduction. In addition, the reduction can be further reduced by combining the two
19
approaches. Therefore, to ensure that these approaches can be implemented, hybrid

optimization known as the AIBC will be described in the next chapter.
CHAPTER 3
ARTIFICIAL IMMUNE BEE COLONY
3.1 Introduction
In the previous chapter, the significance of the DG and the network

reconfiguration to minimize the power loss was discussed briefly. The power loss is
one of important aspects need to be considered by the utilities during planning stage.
This matter is essential in order to achieve high efficiency of distribution system.
Nevertheless, one of the issues still faced by them is uncertainty to determine the best
coordination. Improper coordinate the approaches can deteriorate the system
performance. Therefore, many researchers have suggested various tools to alleviate
such problem.
At the beginning of this chapter, some discussions related to meta-heuristic
methods will be discussed. Thereafter, the Artificial Bee Colony (ABC) algorithm
will be discussed. Finally, the proposed method which is hybridization of ABC and
Artificial Immune System (AIS) will be explained in details.
3.2 Overview of Meta-Heuristic Method
There are numerous methods that have been introduced by researchers to

solve various engineering problems. Among the methods that are widely used in
solving the problem is mathematical, heuristic and meta-heuristic algorithm. Since,
engineering problems are very complex and difficult to be solved, thus, using meta-
21
heuristic is the best decision, due to simplicity of the algorithm in solving complex
system [72].
According to the Oxford dictionary, the word “meta” is referring to the
“beyond”, while the definition of the heuristic refer to engage in the process of
learning something for themselves. In some sense, meta-heuristic is a refinement
from heuristic algorithm in searching of near-optimal solutions [47]. In general,
meta-heuristic can be categorized into two types which are trajectory-based and
population-based. The difference between these types can be seen in the initial
solution where for the trajectory starts with single point and replaced with another
point (the best solution so far) during the iterative process, whereas the population-
based have multiple point during the initial solution [47].
Under the population-based, there are two classes of algorithm which are
evolutionary and swarm intelligence [50]. Among the examples for the population-
based optimization that has extensively used in wide range of engineering problems
are Genetic Algorithm (GA) [8], Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) [9], Firefly
Algorithm (FA) [73], Ant Colony Optimization (ACO) [10], Artificial Immune
System (AIS) [74], Harmony Search Algorithm (HSA) [75] and Artificial Bee
Colony (ABC) [11].
In ref. [47], the authors have made brief overview on related to several meta-
heuristic methods. In addition, they also make a comparison for each method and list
all the advantages and disadvantages. Based from their observations, they conclude
that none of these methods can solve all engineering successfully. This conclusion is
known as “No Free Lunch Theorem” [76] which means that for certain types of
engineering problem, the optimization approaches may not gives similar results from
each others. Therefore, some improvement or modification must be made to the
original method for solving specific problem.
In the literature review, there are various recommendations that have been
suggested by researchers to improve performance of the original method in solving a
specific problem. Typically, this is done through some modifications on the original
formula or by integrating (hybrid) two methods to become a new method. Some
examples available in the literature review are QIEP [29], GA-PSO [45], Hybrid TS-
SA [61], HDE[62], EP-ACO [64], and SPSO [65].
In ref. [50], a comparative study between the ABC with other methods has
been carried out. They make comparisons with various kinds of numeric test
22
functions and simulation results showed that the ABC method gives better
performance compared with other methods. Therefore, in the thesis, Artificial Bee
Colony (ABC) will be the main focus of the study. Overview of theory for ABC and
mathematical formulation will be covered in the next section.
3.3 Artificial Bee Colony
Artificial Bee Colony or simply known as ABC optimization was proposed

by ref. [11] in 2005. The effectiveness of ABC algorithm had been tested at various
engineering applications and better performance compared to other algorithms [77-
82]. Basic principle of this method describes the replicating activities swarm of bees
in searching for food source around hive [50, 77] as depicted in Fig. 3.1.
Another Food
Source
Food Source
Hive
Food Area
Employed Onlooker
Bees Bees
Dancing
area
Scout Bees
New Food
Area
Fig. 3.1. Behavior of bees finding the food sources [77]
In general, the ABC consists of three types of bees, which are employed,
onlooker and scout, where each type of bees represents different phases and task.
This algorithm can be divided into four phase which are initialization phase,
employed phase, onlookers phase and scout phase as shown in Fig. 3.2. There are
23
two important parameters involved to tune the ABC optimization which are size of
colony and limit. The size of colony is defined as total number of onlooker bees and
employed bees, whereas; for the limit is total numbers of onlooker’s bees multiply by
size of dimensional parameter to be optimized [11].
Start
Initialization
Employed Bees
Stage
Onlooker Bees Stage
Reached
Limit? No
Yes
No
Scout Bee Stage
Reached
Max. Cycle?
Yes
End
Fig. 3.2. Basic flow chart of ABC
The analysis is started by the scout bees; they are deployed out randomly in
the possible search solution area to find the food source. After the acquisition of food
sources, there will be an information exchange between scout bees and employed
bees, according to Eq. 1. Specifically, the employed bees will find new food sources
that are positioned near to the location given by previous scout bees by using Eq. 2.
Based from this new location, they calculate the new fitness to be compared with the
24
old fitness (obtained during the initialization phase) by using greedy selection. In the
greedy selection process, only the higher of fitness value will be memorized by the
bees and used in the onlooker bee phase.
1
FVi 
1  Ob.Funci  (1)
where FVi is the fitness value and Ob.Funci is the objective formula of the study’s
problem.

xijnew  xijold  range(0,1)  xijold  xkj  (2)
where xijnew and xijold are the new and previous value of variable, respectively. xkj is a
neighbor value that is selected randomly from jth dimension and range(0,1) is a
random value between 0 and 1.
The obtained information about the amount of food will be share with the
onlooker via dancing area. However, the possibility for the onlooker bees to be
chosen for extracting the food at the area where given by the employed bees is
dependent on the amount of nectar available as in Eq. 3. If the food in the area is
exhausted, the onlooker will be change to scout bees and search for new food source
locations. The process is repeated until the maximum cycle that has been set by the
user is reached. However, if the fitness value didn’t improve for a specified number
of times (until it reaches a certain predetermined limit), they will abandon the food
source and assign a scout bee to explore new food source location randomly. Figure
3.3 shows an overall process of bees finding the foods.
FVi
probi  N (3)
 FVi
i 1
where probi is probability value and N is the total number of employed bees.
25
Food Area 1
Hive Scout Bees Food 3

Scout Bees Food 2
Initialization Employed Bees
Onlooker Bees Food 1
Scout Bees
Food Area 1
Hive Employed Bees Food 3
Employed Employed Bees Food 2

Phase
Employed Bees
Food Area 1
Hive Employed Bees Food 3
Onlooker Food 2
Phase Onlooker Bees
Food 1
Employed Bees
Food Area 1
Hive
Scout Bees Food 3
Scout Phase Employed Bees Food 2

Scout Bees
Food Area 2
Food 4 Food 5
Food 6
Fig. 3.3. Example of bees finding the foods
3.4 Artificial Immune Bee Colony Optimization
In original ABC, mutations process (Eq. 2) for new value of variables are
determined randomly for one variable at one time (for example either location or
output power of DG) for each cycle. However, for a problem that involved with
many variables, hence, the ability of the ABC algorithm to search all possible
26
solution area might be limited due to the aforementioned construction. Therefore,

some modifications are done to the original ABC algorithm. The Artificial Immune
Bee Colony Optimization, which is a combination of ABC and AIS, is introduced for
solving the specific high dimensional problem. An example of comparison for
mutation process between ABC and AIBC is explained in Appendix A.
The AIS is an algorithm that imitates the behavior of the immune system
(human particularly), a natural defense mechanism to protect the human body from
foreign substances [74]. Fig. 3.4 shows the general flow chart of AIS in searching
optimal solution. Based from that figure, it can be observed that the AIS method
involves several processes which are the initialization process, the duplication
process, the mutation process, the sorting process and the selection process. The
incorporation of the AIS method (duplicate, sort and selection) to the ABC algorithm
implies that the hybrid optimization can gives reliable results than the original ABC
algorithm. The basic flow chart of AIBC algorithm is depicted in Fig. 3.5. The main
difference between AIBC and ABC is searching process, according to the
comparison of the Fig. 3.2 and the Fig. 3.5.
Therefore, by implementing the AIS concept, the initial group of ABC will be
duplicated based on group of variable (DG location, DG output and open/close
switch) in the analysis. For example, if there are three groups of variable, the initial
group will be duplicated three times. After that, each variable group is updated to a
new value as described in Eq. 2. It can be seen that, after completing the updating
process, at least three variables (DG location, DG output and Configuration) have
been changed in each cycle but in the original ABC, only one variable (Either DG
location, DG output or Configuration) is updated. Furthermore, after completing the
“greedy selection” process, the results of three different variable groups are
combined and will be sorted based on their fitness value. Only the high potential
solution will be chosen (selection process) to be used for the next cycle, while the
other values will be deleted. By using this approach, all variable groups will have the
possibility to be updated in the analysis and the process to search all possible
solutions can be achieved.
27
Start
Read all
parameter
Generate parent
population
Duplicate
parent
population
Mutate the duplicate parent

population No
Sort and Select the best

fitness
Achieved convergence
criterion?
Yes
End
Fig. 3.4. Basic flow chart of AIS
Start
Calculate fitness by using Eq. (1)

Read all
parameter
Applied greedy selection
between new and previous
Generated initial population fitness
and calculate fitness by using
Eq. (1)
Reached
Duplicate population based on Limit?
variables category
Yes
No
Generated new population (For each Generated new population for the Scout
population) for the Employed bees using bees and evaluate the fitness
Eq. (2) and calculate the fitness

Applied greedy selection fitness
between new and previous
fitness
Reached
Max. Cycle?
Evaluate the fitness by
using Eq. (3) and allocated Yes
the Onlooker bees
End
No
Fig. 3.5. Basic flow chart of AIBC

28
Table 3.1 shows comparison of pseudo code for each algorithm. It can be
observed that the differences between the ABC and the AIBC are on duplication,
sorting and selection process taken from the AIS algorithm.
Table 3.1: Comparison of pseudo code for each algorithm

ABC AIS AIBC
1) Initialize population 1) Initialize population 1) Initialize population
2) Place employed 2) Duplicate population 2) Duplicate population
bees 3) Mutation process 3) Place employed bees
3) Place onlookers 4) Sorting the results 4) Place onlookers bees
bees 5) Selection the best 5) Check the Limit
4) Check the Limit results if the Limit reached
if the Limit reached 6) Check stopping criteria then send scout bees
then send scout bees if fulfill all else
5) Memorize the best requirements 6) Sorting the results
results then STOP 7) Selection the best
6) Check the else results
maximum cycle Repeat steps 2 to 6 8) Memorize the best
if YES results
then STOP 9) Check the maximum
else cycle
Repeat steps 2 to 6 if YES
then STOP
else
Repeat steps 2 to 9
3.5 Conclusion
In this chapter, an overview of various methods under meta-heuristic that is

widely used to solve engineering problems have been discussed. In addition, the
ABC method which also the main focus of this study is discussed briefly. This
method is the replication of foraging activity of bees around the hive. To improve the
performance of this method, some modifications were made to the ABC by
incorporating with the AIS. In the next chapter, the proposed method will be used to
determine the coordination of DG in the distribution network.
CHAPTER 4
DETERMINATION OF OPTIMAL OUTPUT POWER AND LOCATION OF

DG BY USING AIBC
4.1 Introduction
In this chapter, the advantages of the proposed method will be tested to

determine the DG coordination on the designated test systems. The analysis will be
divided into two parts. For the first part, the proposed method will be compared with
the ABC in solving the location and output power of the DG, simultaneously. This
comparison will be done on two test systems that have different sizes which are 33-
bus and 69-bus. Multiple units of DG will be imposed on that system in order to
investigate at various dimensional problems. In the next section, a comparison
between the simultaneous analysis (same as proposed method in the first part) and
separate analysis will be done. The separate analysis is a combination between single
DG placement algorithm and Artificial Bee Colony (ABC).
4.2 Problem Formulation to Minimize Power Losses
Power flows in the test system are calculated by using Newton-Raphson

approach. For example, let assumed the test system as shown in the Fig. 4.1. The
current enter to bus i is given as in Eq. 4.
30
Vi Vj
Ii Iij Ri X L,i
X C ,i X C ,j
Fig. 4.1. Simple Test System
n
Ii 
 YijV j (4)
j 1
where Yij is the nodal admittance and Vj is bus voltage at bus j.
Transform the Eq. 4 into polar form and thus the new equation can be
expressed as follows:
n
Ii 
 Yij V j ij  j (5)
j 1
where ij is the angle of nodal admittance, whereas δj is voltage angle at bus j.
The complex power at the bus i can be compute as in Eq. 6 and substitute the
equation into the Eq. 4. The complex power at bus i can be expressed as below:
n
Pi  jQi  Vi   i
 Yij V j ij  j (6)
j 1
Separating the real and imaginary and the equations can be expressed as
follows,
n
Pi 
 Vi V j Yij cos(ij i  j )
j 1 (7)
31
n
Qi  
 Vi V j Yij sin(ij i  j ) (8)
j 1
After the Eqs. 7 and 8 are computed; the values of voltage and phase angle
can be determined by using formula below.
Vi (k 1)  Vi (k )   Vi (k )
(9)
i(k 1) i(k )  i(k ) (10)

where Δ Vi(k) and Δ δi(k) can be calculated from Jacobian matrix as shown in Eq. 11.
 Pi   J1 J 2  i 
   
Qi   J 3 J 4  V  (11)
The power losses at each line and total power losses can be determined as in
Eqs. 12 and 13, respectively.
Plinelossij  Iij 2 Rij

(12)
nbr
PTotallossij 
 Ii 2 Ri (13)
i 1
where nbr is total number of line/branch.
Figure 4.2 shows the test system with DG. Similar as calculation of power
losses without the DG, the line losses and total power losses can formulated as
below:
Plineloss ij  I ' 2 Rij

ij (14)
32
nbr
PTotallossij 
 Ii ' 2 Ri (15)
i 1
where Iij’ and Ii’ are the new current flow at line between two buses after DG is
connected.
Vi Vj
Ii Iij’ Ri X L,i
I DG
DG X C ,i X C ,j
Fig. 4.2. Simple Test System with DG
For the optimization process, coordination of DG can be formulated as a

mixed-integer nonlinear optimization which is involved with continuous state
variable (DG output power) and discrete state variable (DG location). Since, the aim
of this study is to reduce the total line losses in the distribution system, while
maintaining all constraints within permissible limit. Therefore, objective function of
the problem formulation can be expressed in Eq. 16
2
min f x1 , x2    I i  Ri
nbr
(16)
i 1
where,
x1 continuous variables (DG output power),
x2 discrete variables (DG location),
nbr number of lines,
Ii current at line, i of distribution system.
Ri resistance at line, i of distribution system.
33
Four constraints are considered in the optimization process to ensure all

parameters in the distribution network are within allowable limit. The lists of
constraints are shown below:
a) DG operation constraint (continuous variable):
PDG,min  PDG  PDG,max (17)
All DG units must operate within the tolerable value where PDG,min and PDG,max are
minimum and maximum limit of DG output power. In this study, all DGs are
assumed to have the same minimum and maximum output.
b) Bus voltage constraint
Vn,min  Vn  Vn,max (18)
The voltage value for all buses in the network must be within the acceptable limit
where Vn,min and Vn,max are minimum and maximum allowable voltage at bus n.
c) Total power injection constraint
tdg tl nbr 2
 PDG ,k   Pload ,n   I i  Ri (19)

k 1 n 1 i 1
The total power output from all DG units in the system must less than the total load
and total power loss in the test system. Therefore, the reverse power flow to the main
can be avoided with this constraint. The tdg and tl are total number of DG and total
number of load, respectively. PDG is size of DG and Pload is total amount of load
consume at bus n.
34
d) Power balance constraint
tdg tl nbr 2
 PDG ,k  Psubstation   Pload ,n   I i  Ri (20)

k 1 n1 i 1
The total power injected into the system which is from the DG unit and main
substation, Psubstation must be same with total load and the total power loss (power
equilibrium concept).
In order to solve this problem, DG power output and DG location are selected
as variable x1 and x2, respectively. Total power losses of the system are selected as
objective function, Ob.Funci, whereas, the fitness value, FVi can be obtained from
the Ob.Funci by using the relation as in Eq. 1. At the first step of solution process,
initial population, xi, is randomly generated that consists of DG output power and
location with the size of the population is N number. Based from this initial
population, the fitness value is calculated. After that, the population will be
duplicated based on the number of categories involved (For example DG location
and DG output power) and new population will be generated by using Eq. 2 and then
new fitness is calculated. Since, x2 is considered as a discrete value, so the results
obtained from the Eq. 2 will be rounded off to the nearest real number. In this
“mutation” process, only variable that belong to each category will be modified by
using Eq. 2, whereas other variable retained at previous value.
Next, the new and old fitness will be compared with greedy selection method
where only high fitness is selected. From this selected value, the probability value
will be calculated by using Eq. 3 for selection in onlooker phase. This selection is
using the roulette wheel selection process that normally used in original ABC. Each
of the fitness value will be normalized to 1.0 and will be randomly selected by the
onlooker bees. After that, new population is obtained and new fitness value is
calculated. Again, greedy selection will be used to obtain best fitness value.
However, if the fitness value is not improved for a certain numbers (limit) during
iteration process, the current variables will be abandoned and replaced with the new
value that is selected randomly (scout bee phase). All fitness values for each
population will be combined together and next, sorting and selection process will be
35
done. This process is repeated until maximum cycle is reached. The proposed of DG
coordination by using AIBC is summarized as follows:
Step 1: Randomly generated initial population, xi consisting of DG output

power and location with size of N number of Employed bees.
Step 2: Calculate fitness value, FVi by using Eq. 1 for each solution of xi.
Step 3: Duplicate the population based on number of category (DG output
power and DG location).
Step 4: Compute new value of DG output and DG location by using Eq. 2 on
each population and calculate the new FVi.
Step 5: Apply greedy selection (Only higher FVi is saved) between old and
new FVi.
Step 6: Calculate probability, Probi value by using (3) and assigned the
onlooker bees.
Step 7: Calculate new FVi for the new population.
Step 8: Apply greedy selection and save the best fitness value.
Step 9: If the number of trial (limit) had been exceeded, one scout bee is
assigned by randomly generate new value of both parameters and
replace the solution, xi with the new ones.
Step 10: Sort all population and select only N number of best fitness
Step 11: Memorize the best results so far.
Step 12: Repeat the process from step 3 to 11 until maximum cycle.
Figure 4.3 shows flow chart for AIBC to determine the optimal DG location
and DG output power in the distribution system whilst as a comparison, Fig. 4.4
shows flowchart for ABC in solving the problem.
36
Start
Read all
parameter
Initialize and evaluate their

fitness by using Eq. (1)
Duplicate based on the category (DG

power output and DG Location)
DG output
Yes category? No
Generated new population for the Generated new population for the
Employed Bees using Eq. (2) (DG Employed Bees using Eq. (2) (DG
output power only while DG location location only while DG output
maintain the same value) and calculate power maintain the same value) and
the fitness by using (1) calculate the fitness by using (1)
Applied greedy selection Applied greedy selection

between new and previous between new and previous
fitness fitness
Evaluate the fitness by using Eq. Evaluate the fitness by using Eq.
(3) and allocated the Onlooker (3) and allocated the Onlooker
Bees Bees

between new and previous between new and
fitness previous fitness
Calculate fitness by using Eq. Calculate fitness by using Eq. No

(1) (1)

between new and previous between new and previous
fitness fitness
Reached Reached
No No
Limit? Limit?
Yes Yes
Randomly generate a new output Randomly generate a new location
power of DG (Scout Bee phase) of DG (Scout Bee phase) and
and calculate the fitness calculate the fitness

fitness
Save the best results.

Cycle = Cycle +1;
Max. Cycle?
Yes
END
Fig. 4.3. Flow chart of AIBC to determine optimal DG coordination

37
Start Calculate fitness by using Eq.

(1)
Read all Applied greedy selection

parameter between new and previous
fitness
Initialize and evaluate their
fitness by using Eq. (1) Reached
Limit?
Generated new population for the Yes No

Employed Bees using Eq. (2) (Either
DG output or DG location) and Randomly generate a new output
calculate the fitness by using (1) power of DG (Scout Bee phase)
and calculate the fitness
Applied greedy selection

between new and previous Save the best results.
fitness Cycle = Cycle +1;
Evaluate the fitness by using Eq.

(3) and allocated the Onlooker
Bees Max. Cycle?
Applied greedy selection Yes

between fitness of
Employed and Onlooker END
No
Fig. 4.4. Flow chart of ABC to determine optimal DG coordination
4.3 Related Data for 33-bus and 69-bus Test System for DG Coordination
All the case studies are applied to the 33-bus and 69-bus test system as shown
in Fig. 4.5 and Fig. 4.6, respectively. The 33-bus system consists of 33 buses and 32
branches, whereas for the 69-bus system have 69 buses with 68 branches. Both of the
test system connected to the main substation of 132/12.66 kV. All data related to the
test systems can be obtained in Appendix B [83] and C [84]. The power and voltage
base values are 100 MVA and 12.66 kV, respectively. In addition, all the DGs
assumed to function in Power-Voltage (PV) mode whilst the loads are presumed to
be power constant.
38
19 20 21 22
26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33
19 20 21
18 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
25
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
132/12.66 kV 2 6 7 8 10 11 12 13 14
2 3
3
4
4
5
5
6 7 99 15 16 17 18
22
23 24
23 24 25
Fig. 4.5. 33-bus test system without DG
36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46
66 67
36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 65 66
47 48 49 50 51 52
68 69
35
47 48 49 50 51 67 68
46
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
132/12.66 kV 6 10 11 12 13 14 15
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5 6 77 8 99 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
27 52
28 29 30 31 32 33 34
8 8 8 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64
28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65
Fig. 4.6. 69-bus test system without DG
4.4 Comparison of Performance between AIBC and ABC
To test the effectiveness of proposed method at various dimensional

problems, comparison with original ABC has been conducted for both the test
system. In this comparison, both of techniques are runs independently for 50 times
(100 cycles for each run) to determined output power and location for various
number of DG.
Table 4.1 shows summary of the results between ABC and AIBC in solving
coordination problems for multiple DG on 33-bus system. Based on the results
obtained, both methods give similar results when the amount of DG installed on the
39
test system is one and two, except the standard deviation of the AIBC is slightly
higher than the ABC. The difference of the standard deviation values is contributed
by the proposed method sometimes trapped at local optimum, but does not preclude
the proposed method to obtain best results. When the number of the DG increased to
three units, which means that the number of variables increases, it can be observed
that the power losses reduction acquired by the AIBC is slightly better than the ABC
at 11.6420 kW and 11.6433 kW, respectively. Even though this value is the same
value when the number is rounded to two decimal places, but it showed that the ABC
failed to obtain the same value as AIBC. Another significant difference that is
expected is calculation time to solve the problem. The proposed method takes a
longer time to solve the problem due to the AIBC have additional steps compared to
the original ABC.
Table 4.1: Summary of Results between ABC and AIBC for 33-bus system
Number of DG
Method Descriptions 1 2 3
Control Parameters
(L=Limit L=40 L=140 L=300
NoB=Number of NoB=40 NoB=70 NoB=100
Bees)
Optimal Location 6 13,30 14, 24, 30
Optimal Output 0.8381, 0.7515, 1.0589,
2.4736
Power (MW) 1.1194 1.0368
ABC
Best (kW) 61.5481 28.5127 11.6433
Mean (kW) 61.5482 28.5367 11.7215
Worst (kW) 61.5488 28.6751 12.4054
Standard Deviation
1.1861×10-4 4.0536×10-2 1.4531×10-1
(kW)
Calculation Time
48.84 87.92 145.30
(Seconds)
Control Parameters
(L=Limit L=40 L=140 L=300
NoB=Number of NoB=40 NoB=70 NoB=100
Bees)
Optimal Location 6 13, 30 14, 24, 30
Optimal Output 0.8381, 0.7496, 1.0644,
2.4736
AIBC Power (MW) 1.1194 1.0375
Best (kW) 61.5481 28.5127 11.6420
Mean (kW) 61.5481 28.5734 11.9189
Worst (kW) 61.5481 28.9612 13.3664
Standard Deviation 5.1500×10-6 1.0977×10-1 4.4385×10-1
(kW)
Calculation Time 57.30 97.17 170.35
(Seconds)
40
Further analysis was conducted to compare the convergence curves for ABC
and AIBC method in solving the problem. Figure 4.7 shows comparison of
convergence characteristic (50 runs at different random seeds) for both methods to
solve case for three DGs. It can be clearly seen that for all runs in the proposed
method converge faster than the original ABC and this indicates that the AIBC is
capable to find the optimal results at about half from total cycles compared to the
ABC that requires more cycles to converge.
100
ABC
90
80
70
Total Power Losses (kW)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 99
Cycle
(a) Convergence characteristic of original ABC

100
AIBC
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 99
Cycle
(b) Convergence characteristic of AIBC

Fig. 4.7.Comparison of convergence curves between ABC and AIBC on 33-bus
41
Figure 4.8 illustrates voltage profiles based from the results for both methods.
Voltage profile of the system without DG included for comparison and to investigate
the impact of installed the DG on the test system. All the voltage values are
normalized to 1.0 p.u (Per Unit) where the voltage that closer to 1.0 p.u is better. It
can be observed that both voltage profiles show similar performance. Figure 4.9
shows the optimal location of all three units of DG on the 33-bus test system based
on the results obtained by the ABC and the AIBC.
1.02
0.98
0.96
Voltage (p.u)
0.94 ABC
AIBC
0.92 Without DG
0.9
0.88
0.86
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33
Bus Number
Fig. 4.8. Comparison of voltage profiles between ABC and AIBC on 33-bus
system
ABC &
19 20 21 22
AIBC
26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33
19 20 21
18 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
25
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
132/12.66 kV 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
2 3 4 5 6 7 9
22 ABC &
AIBC
23 24
23 24 25
ABC &
AIBC
Fig. 4.9. Comparison of optimal location of DG between ABC and AIBC on 33-
bus system
42
For the 69-bus system, the results obtained are shown in Table 4.2. It can be
observed that AIBC gives better results than the ABC when the number of DG
increased to three, where the best results provided by the AIBC is 4.2730 kW and the
ABC is 4.9241 kW. In addition, the optimal locations for both methods are different
too. This proves that when number of variables is huge, the ABC fails to search
better results. Nevertheless, for the cases when the DG connected are one and two,
the ABC and the AIBC gives similar total power loss reduction.
Table 4.2: Summary of Results between ABC and AIBC for 69-bus system
Number of DG
Method Descriptions 1 2 3
Control
Parameter
L=40 L=140 L=450
(L=Limit
NoB=40 NoB=70 NoB=150
NoB=Number of
Bees)
Optimal Output 0.5284, 0.5278, 0.7080,
1.8369
ABC Power (MW) 1.7392 1.7386
Best (kW) 23.2151 7.2115 4.9241
Mean (kW) 23.2151 7.2521 5.0192
Worst (kW) 23.2151 7.4979 5.3361
Standard
2.8368×10-6 7.2504×10-2 1.0446×10-1
Deviation (kW)
Calculation Time
208.24 470.11 888.41
(Seconds)
Control
Parameter
L=40 L=140 L=450
(L=Limit
NoB=40 NoB=70 NoB=150
NoB=Number of
Bees)
Optimal Output 0.5284, 0.5023, 0.3789,
1.8369
AIBC Power (MW) 1.7388 1.6742
Best (kW) 23.2151 7.2115 4.2730
Mean (kW) 23.2151 7.2949 5.0317
Worst (kW) 23.2151 8.5087 6.9156
Standard
2.4472×10-6 2.0906×10-1 5.6626×10-1
Deviation (kW)
Calculation Time
234.42 506.59 907.60
(Seconds)
43
Comparison of convergence curves for the ABC and AIBC in solving

coordination of two DG in 69-bus system is illustrated in Fig. 4.10. Based from that
graphs, it can be observed that the AIBC converge more faster for all runs compared
to ABC.
200
ABC
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
11
13
15
17
19
21
23
25
27
29
31
33
35
37
39
41
43
45
47
49
51
53
55
57
59
61
63
65
67
69
71
73
75
77
79
81
83
85
87
89
91
93
95
97
99
1
3
5
7
9
Cycle
(a) Convergence characteristic of original ABC

90
AIBC
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
11
13
15
17
19
21
23
25
27
29
31
33
35
37
39
41
43
45
47
49
51
53
55
57
59
61
63
65
67
69
71
73
75
77
79
81
83
85
87
89
91
93
95
97
99
1
3
5
7
9
Cycle
(b) Convergence characteristic of AIBC

Fig. 4.10.Comparison of convergence curves between ABC and AIBC on 69-bus
44
Comparison of voltage profile for ABC and AIBC is depicted in Fig. 4.11.
Both of these graphs show almost performance. Although there are several nodes that
have low voltage compared to other nodes, but still in the allowed range and stable
condition. This voltage differences is caused by two different locations of DG.
Figure 4.12 shows the optimal locations proposed by both methods. All locations for
DG is different except at node 61.
1.02
0.98
Voltage (p.u)
0.96
ABC
AIBC
Without DG
0.94
0.92
0.9
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69
Bus Number
Fig. 4.11. Comparison of voltage profiles between ABC and AIBC on 69-bus
system
36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46
66 67
36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 65 66
47 48 49 50 51 52
68 69
35 ABC
47 48 49 50 51 67 68 AIBC
46
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
132/12.66 kV 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
2 3 4 5 6 7 9 24 25 26 27
27 AIBC ABC ABC

52
28 29 30 31 32 33 34
8 8 8 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64
28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65
AIBC
Fig. 4.12. Comparison of optimal location of DG between ABC and AIBC on

69-bus system
45
Based on all the results obtained from the comparison between ABC and
AIBC, it can be concluded that the proposed method (AIBC) shows better results
than ABC. Although both of these methods give the same results in determination of
one and two units of DG, but when the number of DG is three, significant differences
can be observed in the results for the location, output power of DG and total power
loss. In next section, comparison between the coordination of DG performed
simultaneously and separately will be conducted.
4.5 Comparison between Simultaneous and Separate Analysis in DG

Coordination
As previously discussed in section 2.2, coordination of DG can be done either

simultaneously or separately. For simultaneous analysis, determination of the
location and the power output of the DG performed simultaneously where only one
method is involved. On contrary, for separate analysis, the calculation of location and
output power are done separately by using two different methods. Therefore, focus of
this section is to investigate the quality of solution in solving DG coordination by
using both analysis.
For separate analysis, combination between single DG algorithm [34] and
AIBC will be utilized. The optimal location of the DG will be determined by using
the single DG algorithm, whereas for optimal output power of DG is based on the
AIBC optimization. In general, the basic concepts of single DG algorithm is operate
by inserting single DG one by one at each bus in the system and choose the bus
which gives the highest power lost reduction as a candidate of DG location, this
process is repeated for next DG.
Three cases studies were conducted on both the test system (33-bus and 69-
bus) as presented in Table 4.3. Case 1 is set as a reference (without any DG is
installed) for comparison in term of total power losses and voltage profile with other
two cases. In case 2, optimal DGs are determined by using AIBC optimization
whereas for location of DGs, it is based from single DG placement algorithm. For
last case, both of location and size of DGs are determined from AIBC algorithm
simultaneously.
46
Table 4.3: Description for case studies in comparison of simultaneous and

separate analysis
Case Studies Description

This case is original network of test system without DG and
1
set as a base case for comparison with other cases.
Locations are based on single DG placement algorithm,
2
whereas optimal output of multiple DG by using AIBC.
Determine optimal output and location simultaneously for
3
multiple DG by using AIBC.
Table 4.4 shows summary of results for all three cases in term of DG
locations, outputs power and total power losses in the system. Without presence of
DG in the system, an initial power loss is 203.19 kW. Further power losses reduction
can be acquired when the DGs are consider in the system as shown in the results for
case 2 and 3. A total of 83.63% of power losses reduction can be obtained for case 2
compared to case 1. However, more power losses reduction can be achieved when
the DG location and size are determined simultaneously as shown in results of case
3. Based on this result, it indicates that the solution for case 2 trapped in a local
minimum due to the chosen for the installation of DG is not the best location and in
turn affects the selection of optimal output power. As a consequence, greater power
loss reduction could not be achieved. Optimal locations of the DG that obtained by
both case 2 and 3 are totally different as shown in Fig. 4.13. By using single DG
placement algorithm, the optimal locations are at bus 6, 16 and 25, whereas by using
the AIBC for the case 3 are at bus 14, 24 and 30.
Table 4.4: Summary of results of 33-bus system for comparison of simultaneous

and separate analysis
DG Locations Total Power Losses
Case DG output power (MW)
(Bus number) (kW)
1 - - 203.19
2 6,16,25 1.71, 0.55, 0.77 33.26
3 14, 24,30 0.75, 1.06, 1.04 11.64
47
19 20 21 22 Case 3
26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33
19 20 21
Case 2
18 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
25
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
132/12.66 kV 2 6 7 8 10 11 12 13 14
2 3
3
4
4
5
5 6 7 99 15 16 17 18
Case 2
Case 3
22
23 24 Case 2
23 24 25
Case 3
Fig. 4.13. Comparison of optimal location of DG between case 2 and case 3 on

33-bus system
Fig. 4.14 illustrates voltage profiles of the network for all cases. Based from
the results obtained, voltages at each bus for case 2 are between 0.96 p.u and 1 p.u
whereas for case 3, they vary from 0.99 p.u to 1.0 p.u. Although the performance of
case 2 and case 3 increased significantly compared to the case 1, but there are still
some buses showed a slight voltage reduction at 28, 29, 30 31, 32 and 33 as shown in
case 2. Overall, the determination of the location and output power of DG
simultaneously gives better voltage profile compared to the base case and case 2.
1
33 1 2
32 3
31 0.99 4
0.98
30 0.97 5
29 0.96 6
0.95
28 0.94 7
0.93
27 0.92 8
0.91
26 0.9 9
25 10
24 11
23 12
22 13
21 14
20 15
19 18 17 16
Case 1 Case 2 Case 3
Fig. 4.14. Comparison of voltage profiles for all cases on 33-bus system
48
Figure 4.15 shows line loss at each branch for 33-bus system. The base case
shows worst performance of line losses compared to other case studies, especially at
branch number 2 and 5 which give high power loss as shown in Fig. 4.15(a).
Nevertheless, it can be clearly seen that by applying simultaneous approach of DGs
size and location, each branch gives lower power losses compared to the base case.
Although case 2 also gives low power losses pattern same as in case 3, but several
lines showed a significant increase of power losses which are at branch 25, 26, 27, 28
and 29 as illustrated in Fig. 4.15(b).
50
40
Case 1
Line Losses (kW)
30 Case 2
Case 3
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
Line Number
(a) Line losses for all cases
10
Case 2
8
Case 3
Line Losses (kW)
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
Line Number
(b) Comparison line losses between case 2 and 3

Fig. 4.15. Line losses of 33-bus
49
Table 4.5 shows summary of results for 69-bus system. The initial power loss
in the test system without DG is 225.06 kW. Based on the results obtained, the
proposed method shows promising results in reducing the amount of power loss. A
total of 98.10% power loss reduction was achieved when the optimal location for DG
are 11, 18 and 61 with the optimal output power of 0.50, 0.38 MW and 1.67 MW,
respectively. However, when a separate analysis is used to determine the
coordination of DG, the percentage of reduction in power loss is at 97.81% where the
total power losses increase at about 15.46% from the proposed method. In addition,
the optimal location and output power of the DG obtained are quite different with the
case 3 where the locations are 17, 50 and 61 with the corresponding output power of
0.53 MW, 0.72 MW and 1.74 MW, respectively. Figure 4.16 depicts comparison of
optimal location of multiple DG for case 2 and case 3.
Table 4.5: Summary of results of 69-bus system for comparison of simultaneous

and separate analysis
DG Locations
Case DG output power (MW) Total Power Losses (kW)
(Bus number)
1 - - 225.06
2 17,50,61 0.53, 0.72, 1.74 4.93
3 11, 18,61 0.50, 0.38, 1.67 4.27
36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46
66 67
36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 65 66
47 48 49 50 51 52
68 69
35 Case 2
Case 3
47 48 49 50 51 67 68
46
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
132/12.66 kV 6 10 11 12 13 14 15
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5 6 77 8 99 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
Case 2 Case 2
27 52 Case 3
28 29 30 31 32 33 34
8 8 8 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64
28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65
Case 3
Fig. 4.16. Comparison of optimal location of DG between case 2 and case 3 on

69-bus system
50
Figure 4.17 shows a comparison of the voltage profiles of 69-bus system for
all cases. It can be clearly seen that cases 2 and 3 shows significant voltage
improvement compared to the case 1. Nevertheless, case 3 shows a better voltage
improvement. This can be observed at bus 5 to 15, 51 to 56 and 66 to 69 in which the
voltage increases slightly compared to the case 2. On the other hand, there are
several buses which are not experiencing voltage increments such as bus number 49
and 50, due to no DG connected at a nearby location. This can be proved as in case 2
there is one DG connected at bus 50 and thereby improving the voltage. Overall, case
3 shows better improvements in voltage profile compared to other cases.
1
68 69 1 2 3 4
66 67 5
65 0.99
6
64 7
63 0.98
8
62 9
61 0.97 10
60 0.96
11
59 12
58 0.95 13
57 0.94 14
56 0.93 15
55 0.92 16
54 0.91 17
53 0.9 18
52 19
51 20
50 21
49 22
48 23
47 24
46 25
45 26
44 27
43 28
42 29
41 30
40 39 32 31
38 37 36 35 34 33
Case 1 Case 2 Case 3
Figure 4.18 shows line losses in each line for case 2 and case 3. Based on the
results obtained, it can be observed that all the lines losses are low. Although there is
a line at 48 gives a relatively high (due to no DG connected at a nearby location) fro
case 3, but overall simultaneous approach is better than in the case 2.
51
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
Line Losses (kW)
0.8 Case 2
Case 3
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011121314151617181920212223242526272829303132333435363738394041424344454647484950515253545556575859606162636465666768
Line Number
Fig. 4.18. Line losses of 69-bus
4.6 Comparison with other Methods
In order to show the effectiveness of the proposed method, several

comparisons have been made with other references as presented in Table 4.6. Based
on the results obtained, it shows that the proposed method gives better solutions in
term of power losses reduction for both of test system. In the results of single DG
case, the comparison between the proposed methods with other methods showed not
too many difference in term of total power losses. This is due to the optimal location
for all methods have same location, thus during the searching process (eg. PSO or
GA or ABC) for DG output, the difference is not too significant. This can be
observed through the results obtained. However, when the number of DG increased
to two and three, differences on location plays a very significant role to reduce power
losses.
52
Table 4.6: Comparison with Other Methods for 33-bus and 69-bus test system
Test DG Total Power
Approach DG Output (MW)
System Locations Losses (kW)
Proposed 6 2.47 61.55
Analytical
Approach 6** 2.49 61.56
[33]*
33-Bus CSA [31]* 6** 2.28 63.26
Proposed 13,30 0.85,1.12 28.52
GA [32]* 6, 8** 1.72,0.84 55.67
Proposed 14,24,30 0.75,1.06,1.04 11.64
PSO[34] 6,15,25*** 1.76,0.58,0.78 33.19
Proposed 61 1.84 23.22
Analytical
Approach 61** 1.81 23.39
69-Bus [33]*
Proposed 17,61 0.53,1.74 7.21
CSA [31]* 59,61** 0.37,1.47 23.37
*The result had been simulated again due to different mode of DG and power flow in original manuscript.
**Locations are based on sensitivity index.
***Locations are based on single DG placement via differential equation technique.
****Locations are based on loss sensitivity factor.
4.7 Conclusion
This section presented a solution to determine optimal output power and

location of multiple DG simultaneously by using AIBC. The performance
comparison in solving DG coordination has been made between the AIBC and the
ABC. The results showed that the proposed method gives better results in term of
power losses reduction and voltage profile for higher dimensions of the problem
compared to the ABC method. In the second part, several case studies have been
conducted to investigate the effectiveness of simultaneous approach in solving the
DG coordination compared to separate analysis. Based on the results obtained, the
proposed method gives better results in term of quality solutions. In addition,
comparisons with other methods showed promising results. Therefore, at the next
chapter, studied on the simultaneous network reconfiguration with DG coordination
will be reviewed.
CHAPTER 5
LOSS MINIMIZATION VIA NETWORK RECONFIGURATION WITH

DISTRIBUTED GENERATION COORDINATION
5.1 Introduction
In the previous chapter, the study of the coordination of DG has been

discussed. Based on the results of this study, it was found that the location and output
power by DG plays a very important role in reducing power loss. In addition, if the
solution is done simultaneously, further reduction of power loss can be obtained. As
discussed in chapter 2, another approach that can be used to reduce power loss is
through network reconfiguration. Therefore, the main objective of this chapter is to
determine the optimal network reconfiguration with DG coordination,
simultaneously. The same method will be used as in chapter 4 (AIBC) to determine
the coordination of the DG and network reconfiguration.
5.2 Problem Formulation for Minimal System Power losses
The optimal network reconfiguration with DG coordination problems can be

formulated as a mixed-integer nonlinear optimization, which consists of continuous
and discrete state variable. In addition, the main interest of this research is to find a
solution that can harmonize both network reconfiguration and DG coordination
solutions in order to further reduce total power loss in the test system. Hence, the
54
objective function of this approach is similar as in chapter 4 and can be expressed as

in Eq.16. For the constraint, six constraints are considered in the optimization
process where four constraints are the same as in chapter 4 (Eq.17-20) and others
constraints are listed below:
a) Radial configuration constraint:
The network must maintain the radial configuration for the whole duration of
the optimization process. It means that, when a tie switch in the network is
closed; one of the lines (sectionalizes switch).in the network must be opened.
b) Isolation constraint:
The configuration process must ensure that all nodes (load and lines) in the
system are connected to the main supply (substation). In other words, there is
no load or line disconnected from the system after the configuration process.
Method for solving this problem is the same as in solving the coordination for
DG, except there are three categories of variables are involved, namely DG output
power, DG location and list of switches for network reconfiguration, where it can be
expressed as x1, x2 and x3, respectively. To facilitate the search for closing/opening
switches, the method in ref. [65] was used. In general, the search is performed by
isolating certain number of switches in each group where the total group depends on
the number of loops that exist when all tie switches are closed. In addition, only
switches that are in the loop is included in the search space. Therefore, this will
reduce the number of solutions that not feasible.
The proposed of DG coordination with network reconfiguration by using
AIBC is summarized as follows:
Step 1: Randomly generated initial population, xi consisting of DG output

power, location and list of switches with size of N number of
Employed bees.
Step 2: Calculate fitness value, FVi by using Eq. 1 for each solution of xi.
Step 3: Duplicate the population based on number of category (DG output
power, DG location and switches).
Step 4: Compute new value of DG output, DG location and switches by using
55
Eq. 2 on each population and calculate the new FVi.

Step 5: Apply greedy selection (Only higher FVi is saved) between old and
new FVi.
Step 6: Calculate probability, Probi value by using (3) and assigned the
onlooker bees.
Step 7: Calculate new FVi for the new population.
Step 8: Apply greedy selection and save the best fitness value.
Step 9: If the number of trial (limit) had been exceeded, one scout bee is
assigned by randomly generate new value of both parameters and
replace the solution, xi with the new ones.
Step 10: Sort all population and select only N number of best fitness
Step 11: Memorize the best results so far.
Step 12: Repeat the process from step 3 to 11 until maximum cycle.
Figure 5.1 shows flow chart for AIBC to determine the optimal DG
coordination with network reconfiguration in the distribution system.
5.3 Related Data for 33-bus Test System for DG Coordination with Network
Reconfiguration.
The proposed approach (network reconfiguration with DG coordination) is

applied to the 33-bus test system as shown in Fig. 5.2, which consists of 37 branches
(sectionalize switches from branches 1 to 32), including optional 5 tie switches from
branches 33 to 37 for network reconfiguration purpose. All data related to test system
can be obtained in Appendix D [53]. The system is connected to the main substation
of 132/12.66 kV, where the power and voltage base values are 100 MVA and 12.66
kV, respectively. In addition, all the DGs assumed to function in Power-Voltage
(PV) mode whilst the loads are presumed to be power constant.
56
Start
Read all
parameters
Generated initial population (DG size,

Location and switches) and calculate
their fitness
No
Fulfill all the constraints?
Yes
Duplicated the results based
on the category (DG size,
Location and switches)
DG sizing
Yes
category?
No
DG Location
No
category?
Yes
Generated new population for the Generated new population for the Generated new population for the
Employed Bees using Eq. (2) (DG Employed Bees using Eq. (2) (DG Employed Bees using Eq. (2) (DG
output power only while DG location output power only while DG location output power only while DG location
maintain the same value) and calculate maintain the same value) and calculate maintain the same value) and calculate
the fitness by using (1) the fitness by using (1) the fitness by using (1)
Applied greedy selection Applied greedy selection Applied greedy selection

between new and previous between new and previous between new and previous
fitness fitness fitness
Evaluate the fitness by using Eq. Evaluate the fitness by using Eq. Evaluate the fitness by using Eq.
(3) and allocated the Onlooker (3) and allocated the Onlooker (3) and allocated the Onlooker
Bees Bees Bees

between fitness value of between fitness value of between fitness value of No
Employed and Onlooker Employed and Onlooker Employed and Onlooker
Calculate fitness by using Eq. Calculate fitness by using Eq. Calculate fitness by using Eq.
(1) (1) (1)

between new and previous between new and previous between new and previous
fitness fitness fitness
No Reached Reached No Reached No

Limit? Limit? Limit?
Yes Yes Yes

Randomly generate a new output Randomly generate a new output Randomly generate a new output
power of DG (Scout Bee phase) power of DG (Scout Bee phase) power of DG (Scout Bee phase)
and calculate the fitness and calculate the fitness and calculate the fitness

fitness
Save the best results.

Cycle = Cycle +1;
Reached Max.
Cycle?
Yes
END
Fig. 5.1. Flow chart of AIBC to determine optimal DG coordination with

network reconfiguration
57
132/12.66 kV
1 18
2
2 19
22 3 19
23 20
23 3 20
4
24
4 33 21
24 5
21
25 22
5 25
6
26
6
37 7 26 27
7
8 27 28
8
9 28 29
35
9 29
10 30
10 30 31
11
34 11 31 32
12
12 32
13 33
13
14
14
15
15 36
16
16
17
17
18
Fig. 5.2. 33-bus test system with optional lines
5.4 Solutions for Harmonization between DG and Network Reconfiguration
Five case studies are considered in this section as presented in Table 5.1.
Case 1 is set as a reference case that doesn’t imposed any coordination methods
(network reconfiguration or DG installations). For case 2, network reconfiguration is
applied on the case 1 (base case), whereas for the case 3, DGs are installed at
predetermine location and the outputs are optimize via AIBC. In Case 4, three DG
units are installed at a predetermined location and determination of optimal output
power and reconfiguration of the network will done simultaneously by using the
AIBC. On the other hand, for the case 5, both of DG coordination (locations and DG
outputs) and network reconfiguration will be executed simultaneously.
58
Table 5.1: Description for case studies in DG coordination with Network

Reconfiguration
Case Studies Description

This case is original network of test system without DG and
1
network reconfiguration (base case).
2 Applied network reconfiguration technique in the base case.
Installed three DG units at similar location as in chapter 4

3
and optimize the DGs output by using AIBC.
Installed three DG units at similar location as in chapter 4
(optimal location obtained in ABC) and optimize the DG
4
output with network reconfiguration simultaneously on the
base case.
Optimize the location and output of the DG with network
5 reconfiguration simultaneously (proposed approach) on the
base case.
Table 5.2 shows the results for open switches, DGs’ outputs and locations,
total power loss, statistical analysis (best, average, worst and standard deviation),
saving percentage, increment of minimum voltage improvement and calculation time
achieved by all cases. In the case 3, since there is no reconfiguration technique
applied, the opened switch’s numbers are similar to the initial condition (case 1).
Furthermore, for the cases 3 and 4, the location of the DGs are based from results in
chapter 4 (separate analysis) and only the output and/or reconfiguration action are
optimized, whereas, for the case 5, all the variables are optimized by AIBC. All the
cases are runs independently for 50 times. In addition, all control parameters for
limit, maximum cycle and total number of bees are set at 120, 100 and 140,
respectively.
From the obtained results, the simultaneous reconfiguration and DG
coordination gives the lowest power losses value compared to the other cases. Nearly
to 95.53% of power loss reduction is achieved in the case 5 compared to original
total power losses value, 203.19 kW (Case 1). The power losses value that is given
by the case 5 is actually being influenced by combination of both factors: network
reconfiguration and DG coordination. This can be proved by referring to the results
for reconfiguration and DG sizing in the cases 2 and 3, respectively. In the case 2,
performing the reconfiguration process, the power losses in the network only reduced
59
up to 31.11 %, whereas, for the case 3 about 83.63 %. This shows that that the power
loss reductions for single approach (either optimal reconfiguration or optimal DG
output power) are not superior as in the power loss reductions as in the case 5. In the
case 4, savings of power loss reduction increases about 10.15 % from the saving in
the case 3. This increment is caused by DGs output power and reconfigurations are
determined, simultaneously. Figure 5.3 shows final result for case 5 when the
coordination of DG and network reconfiguration is carried out simultaneously.
Table 5.2: Summary of results of 33-bus system for DG coordination and network
reconfiguration
Case
Method Descriptions 1 2 3 4 5
33, 34,
Branch 7, 9, 33, 34, 3,23,28, 5, 11, 13,
35, 36,
Opened 14,28,32 35, 36, 37 34, 35 23, 27
37
Optimal
- - 6,16,25 6,16,25 8,25,32
Location
Optimal
1.70,0.53, 0.99,0.69, 1,1.14,
Output - -
0.77 1.44 0.79
Power (MW)
Total Power
203.19 139.98 33.26 12.63 9.08
Loss (kW)
Best (kW) - 139.98 33.26 12.63 9.08
Mean (kW) - 157.07 33.26 13.45 12.46
AIBC
Worst (kW) - 193.05 33.26 14.95 18.52
Standard
Deviation - 12.97 1.06×10-6 0.53 2.04
(kW)
Saving (%) 0 31.11 83.63 93.78 95.53
Minimum
Voltage
- 3.43 6.44 8.95 8.95
Improvement
(%)
Calculation
Time - 302.40 81.44 1194.94 1550.70
(Seconds)
60
19 20 21 22
DG
35
26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33
19 20 21
36
18 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
33 25
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9
132/12.66 kV 2 3 44 5
6
6 7
7
8
8 9
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
2 3
DG
34
22 23 24 37
23 24 25
DG
Fig. 5.3. Final result for case 5
The voltage profile of the system is enhanced simultaneously with the

reduction of the power losses. The Fig. 5.4 shows the comparison of voltage profile
for all cases. It can be clearly seen that the cases 3, 4 and 5 shows the significant
voltage improvement compared to the base case due to the presence of DG in the test
system. Moreover, the reconfiguration process improves the voltage profile
according to the case 2. In case of the case the DG’s connection (case 3), the voltage
profile is improved contrary to the case 2. Furthermore, the application of
configuration technique and DG’s coordination implies that that almost all bus
voltage is close to unity value (cases 3, 4 and 5). Overall, the simultaneous
combination technique of DG coordination and network reconfiguration technique
increases the voltage performance in the distribution system.
61
1
33 1 2
32 3
0.99
31 4
0.98
30 5
0.97
29 0.96 6
0.95
28 0.94
7
0.93
27 8
0.92
0.91
26 9
0.9
25 10
24 11
23 12
22 13
21 14
20 15
19 16
18 17
Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4 Case 5
Overall, the results show significant improvements in voltage performance.

This can be observed through increment of minimum voltage for all cases with
respect to the base case. For the case 2, minimum voltage increase by 3.43% when
network reconfiguration is applied. A further voltage enhancement can be obtained
in the case 3 which is 6.44%. It can be seen that the presence of DG in the
distribution network gives a substantial increment of the minimum voltage compared
with network reconfiguration in the case 2. Nevertheless, when the solution has both
approaches, more increment of minimum voltage can be achieved as shown in the
cases 4 and 5, which both have the same percentage improvement at 8.95%.
The simultaneous analysis also gives a positive impact to the stability of the
system. Since there are a lot of voltage stability methods available nowadays,
suitable method for measuring the voltage stability should be chosen carefully. In
this analysis, Combined-Voltage Stability Index (C-VSI) [85], is used as
performance evaluation technique. In the ref. [85], the authors shows that the C-VSI
is more sensitive to voltage drop compared to other evaluation techniques, especially
for the system that have DG. This index is work based on the closer of the C-VSI is
to “1”, the higher tendencies for the system to collapse. In other words, when the
index value is near to zero, the network is stable whereas when the value is near to 1,
the system becomes unstable.
62
The Figure 5.5 presents results of the maximum C-VSI value after the
application of the reconfiguration and/or optimal DG coordination. It is mentioned
that the C-VSImax decreases for the case 2 to 5. Specifically, the C-VSImax equals to
0.1276, 0.0876, 0.0509 and 0.0339 for the cases 2, 3, 4 and 5, respectively. Thus, the
combination of DG and reconfiguration action implies the improvement of the
system stability. Consequently, the technique of the DG location, output power and
reconfiguration (case 5) provides the most stable system compared with other cases.
Case 1
Case 2
Case 3
Case 4
Case 5
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2

CVSImax
Fig. 5.5. Comparison of stability index for all cases on 33-bus system
In order to prove the effectiveness of the proposed method, several

comparisons with other techniques are summarized in Table 5.3. However, the
studies in refs. [34] and [71] are assumes that the DGs are in PQ mode instead of PV
mode. Thus, in order to make a fair comparison with the proposed method, the refs.
[34] and [71] are simulated in PV mode. All comparisons are made based on optimal
switching option, power losses, DG sizes and DG locations, for the same test system.
For the case 2, the proposed method provides better results compared with ref. [53];
nevertheless, the study in ref. [71] has the best result in this category. The open
branches for the proposed method are almost similar with them of the paper [71],
with an exception of one branch open (branch number 28 for the proposed method
and 37 for the ref. [71] result). In the case 3, the AIBC gives lower power losses with
the ref. [71] study, but almost the same result as ref. [34]. For the case 4, AIBC
presents better power losses reduction compared with the results of the ref. [71]
63
paper. The open branches for the case 2 are totally different with other reference,
with an exception of one branch open (branch number 28) is similar. In addition, all
DGs location for this case has different locations. While, for the last case which is
the case 5, there are no comparison due to the lack of available results in existing
literature. Ultimately, the proposed method produces the best results when compared
to the other methods.
From the whole analysis, optimization of DG location, output and
reconfiguration simultaneously gives the best option to the power system planner to
have the lowest power loss value in the existing network. However, this approach
can be applied only if the DG units are not being installed yet in the system. If the
DG unit has already existed, the simultaneous analysis between DG output power
and reconfiguration technique still can give superior results.
Table 5.4 shows variation of the best result of total power losses at different
parameters settings for solving the case 5. All simulation results are performed at 50
trials with different random seeds and each of trial is run for 100 cycles. Based on the
results obtained, it can be observed that the total number of bees and limit plays a
vital role to obtain better results. Increase the total number of bee’s means that the
algorithm will increase the exploitation process; meanwhile, for higher number of
limits mean exploration process will be reduced.
Table 5.3: Comparison of different parameter settings for Case 5
Parameter Setting
Total Total Power
Scenario
Number of Limit Losses (kW)
Bees
100 120 9.71
1 140 120 9.08
200 120 9.13
100 550 10.25
2 140 770 9.61
200 1100 9.51
64
Table 5.3: Comparison with other method available in literature review
Method Case 2 Case 3 Case 4 Case 5

33, 34,
Branch 3,
7,9,14,28,32 35, 36, 5,11,13,23,27
open 23,28,34,35
37
Power
Losses 139.98 33.26 12.63 9.08
AIBC
(kW)
DG size
1.70(6) 0.99(6) 1.00(8)
in MW
- 0.53(16) 0.69(16) 1.14(25)
(Bus
0.77(25) 1.44(25) 0.79(32)
number)
Branch
6,11,31,34,37 - - -
open
Power
Branch Losses 143.50 - - -
Exchange (kW)
[53] DG size
in MW
- - - -
(Bus
number)
33, 34,
Branch
- 35, 36, - -
open
37
Particle Power
Swarm Losses - 33.19 - -
Optimization (kW)
[34] DG size
1.76(6)
in MW
- 0.58(16) - -
(Bus
0.78(25)
number)
33, 34,
Branch 7, 10, 14,
7,9,14,32,37 35, 36, -
open 28, 32
37
Harmony Power
Search Losses 138.06 47.11 *38.89 -
Algorithm (kW)
[71] DG size
0.57(17) 0.56(31)
in MW
- 0.11(18) 0.53(32) -
(Bus
1.05(33) 0.58 (33)
number)
*The result had been simulated again due to different mode of DG and power flow in original manuscript.
65
5.5 Conclusion
In this chapter, distribution network loss minimization via simultaneous

distributed generation coordination with network reconfiguration was proposed. The
AIBC method is used to execute the proposed approach. Five case studies are
conducted to test the performance of the proposed approach (case 5). The results
showed that determination of optimal DG location, output power and network
reconfiguration simultaneously gives better results with 95.53% of power loss
reduction, minimum voltage improvement by 8.95% as well as low C-VSI index
value compared to other case studies. In addition, a comparison with other
optimization technique showed promising results in decreasing the total loss
reduction in the distribution system, regardless of whether the methods are executed
sequentially (case 4) or simultaneously (case 5).
CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
6.1 Overall Conclusion
The power loss is one of important issues need to be consider by the utility
especially to the operational planning division. Improper planning of power system,
especially distribution system can gives negative impacts such as high power losses
and unstable voltage condition. As previously discussed, there are several approaches
can be used to reduce the power losses, which are installed DG, installed capacitor
and change the original topology of the system (network reconfiguration). To deal
with any of this approach, special techniques or methods are required. In general,
these methods can be categorized into four main groups, which are analytical,
numerical, heuristic and meta-heuristic. Each of this group has its own advantages
and disadvantages.
Based from literature review, meta-heuristic is more popular among the
researchers due to easy to implement and robust. Therefore, in this thesis, a new
hybrid optimization, which is known as Artificial Immune Bee Colony (AIBC) was
introduced. The effectiveness of the proposed method has been tested at various
dimensional problems in solving the DG coordination and successfully gives better
quality of solutions compared to the original ABC.
Further investigation was carried to achieve better results (power loss
reduction) than the previous analysis. As discussed in the literature review section,
many researchers consider only one approach to reduce power loss, for example,
installing DG in the test system without regard to other approaches. This will cause
the process to further reduce the power loss may be difficult to achieved. Therefore,
67
in this thesis, a combination between network reconfiguration and DG coordination

has been proposed. In the analysis, it was shown that simultaneous analysis between
the two approaches produce better compared to separate analysis.
Overall, it can be concluded that the introduction of the network
reconfiguration and DG with help of AIBC has improves the system performance,
particularly reduction of power loss which the results are important reference for the
construction and operation planning division.
6.2 Contributions
The main contributions of this research can be listed as below:
a) A new optimization technique, which is known as Artificial Immune Bee

Colony (AIBC) has been introduced in this research. In the analysis, it was
shown that this technique can solve DG coordination problem better than the
original ABC. In addition, the AIBC is able to provide faster convergence.
b) Simultaneous approach between the DG coordination and network

reconfiguration has been proposed. By using this approach, further
improvement on power loss reduction, voltage profile and stability index can
be achieved.
6.3 Future Work
Some future works that can be done to improve this in the future are as
follows:
a) By combining three approaches simultaneously. For example, combine DG

coordination; capacitor coordination and network reconfiguration,
68
simultaneously. By performing this approach, greater power loss reduction

can be obtained.
b) Towards more practical analysis, different types of loads should be
considered instead of constant power as in this thesis.
c) Multi-objective function should be implemented in the optimization process,
for example, minimize power loss and total cost.
d) In the simultaneous between the DG coordination and network
reconfiguration, capacity limit for each line should be considered.
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APPENDIX A
COMPARISON OF MUTATION PROCESS BETWEEN ABC AND AIBC
A comparison between ABC and AIBC method was carried out to see the
differences in the mutation process. To simplify this example, let assumed the total
number of variables are four (two for DG locations and another two for DG output
power) and number of Employed bees are two. For i=1, it can clearly been seen that
for the ABC, only one variable is changed after mutation process, whereas for the
AIBC, two variables changed.
ABC
Locations Output Power
x  2 3 0.5 0.7
 1  
5 0.4 0.8
i=1,j=3,k=2
 x 2 
4
After Mutation Process
x  2 3 0.6 0.7
 1  Other variables retain
 x 2  4 5 0.4 0.8
at previous values

AIBC
Locations Output Power
x  2 3 0.5 0.7
 1 
 x   5 0.4 0.8
 2  4
Duplicate process i=1,j=3,k=2
2 3 0.5 0.7 2 3 0.5 0.7
4 5 0.4 0.8 4 5 0.4 0.8
   
Mutation process
2 6 0.5 0.7 2 3 0.6 0.7

4 5 0.4 0.8 4 5 0.4 0.8
   
APPENDIX B
DATA FOR 33-BUS TEST SYSTEM
From To R X P-load Q-load

Bus Bus (ohm) (ohm) (MW) (MVAr)
1 2 0.0922 0.0477 0.100 0.060
2 3 0.4930 0.2511 0.090 0.040
3 4 0.3660 0.1864 0.120 0.080
4 5 0.3811 0.1941 0.060 0.030
5 6 0.8190 0.7070 0.060 0.020
6 7 0.1872 0.6188 0.200 0.100
7 8 0.7114 1.2351 0.200 0.100
8 9 1.0300 0.7400 0.060 0.020
9 10 1.0400 0.7400 0.060 0.020
10 11 0.1966 0.0650 0.045 0.030
11 12 0.3744 0.1238 0.060 0.035
12 13 1.4680 1.1550 0.060 0.035
13 14 0.5416 0.7129 0.120 0.080
14 15 0.5910 0.5260 0.060 0.010
15 16 0.7463 0.5450 0.060 0.020
16 17 1.2890 1.7210 0.060 0.020
17 18 0.7320 0.5740 0.090 0.040
2 19 0.1640 0.1565 0.090 0.040
19 20 1.5042 1.3554 0.090 0.040
20 21 0.4095 0.4784 0.090 0.040
21 22 0.7089 0.9373 0.090 0.040
3 23 0.4512 0.3083 0.090 0.050
23 24 0.8980 0.7091 0.420 0.200
24 25 0.8960 0.7011 0.420 0.200
6 26 0.2030 0.1034 0.060 0.025
26 27 0.2842 0.1447 0.060 0.025
27 28 1.059 0.9337 0.060 0.020
77
28 29 0.8042 0.7006 0.120 0.070

29 30 0.5075 0.2585 0.200 0.600
30 31 0.9744 0.963 0.150 0.070
31 32 0.3105 0.3619 0.210 0.100
32 33 0.341 0.5302 0.060 0.040
APPENDIX C
DATA FOR 69-BUS TEST SYSTEM

1 2 0.0005 0.0012 0 0
2 3 0.0005 0.0012 0 0
3 4 0.0015 0.0036 0 0
4 5 0.0251 0.0294 0 0
5 6 0.366 0.1864 0.003 0.002
6 7 0.3811 0.1941 0.04 0.03
7 8 0.0922 0.047 0.075 0.054
8 9 0.0493 0.0251 0.03 0.022
9 10 0.819 0.2707 0.028 0.019
10 11 0.1872 0.0619 0.145 0.104
11 12 0.7114 0.2351 0.145 0.104
12 13 1.03 0.34 0.008 0.005
13 14 1.044 0.345 0.008 0.006
14 15 1.058 0.3496 0 0
15 16 0.1966 0.065 0.046 0.03
16 17 0.3744 0.1238 0.06 0.035
17 18 0.0047 0.0016 0.06 0.035
18 19 0.3276 0.1083 0 0
19 20 0.2106 0.0696 0.001 0.001
20 21 0.3416 0.1129 0.114 0.081
21 22 0.014 0.0046 0.005 0.004
22 23 0.1591 0.0526 0 0
23 24 0.3463 0.1145 0.028 0.02
24 25 0.7488 0.2745 0 0
25 26 0.3089 0.1021 0.014 0.01
26 27 0.1732 0.0572 0.014 0.01
3 28 0.0044 0.0108 0.026 0.019
79
28 29 0.064 0.1565 0.026 0.019

29 30 0.3978 0.1315 0 0
30 31 0.0702 0.0232 0 0
31 32 0.351 0.116 0 0
32 33 0.839 0.2816 0.014 0.01
33 34 1.708 0.5646 0.02 0.014
34 35 1.474 0.4673 0.006 0.004
3 36 0.0044 0.0108 0.026 0.019
36 37 0.064 0.1565 0.026 0.019
37 38 0.1053 0.123 0 0
38 39 0.0304 0.0355 0.024 0.017
39 40 0.0018 0.0021 0.024 0.017
40 41 0.7283 0.8509 0.001 0.001
41 42 0.31 0.3623 0 0
42 43 0.041 0.0478 0.006 0.004
43 44 0.0092 0.0116 0 0
44 45 0.1089 0.1373 0.039 0.026
45 46 0.0009 0.0012 0.039 0.026
4 47 0.0034 0.0084 0 0
47 48 0.0851 0.2083 0.079 0.056
48 49 0.2898 0.7091 0.385 0.275
49 50 0.0822 0.2011 0.385 0.275
8 51 0.0928 0.0473 0.041 0.028
51 52 0.3319 0.1114 0.004 0.003
9 53 0.174 0.0886 0.004 0.004
53 54 0.203 0.1034 0.026 0.019
54 55 0.2842 0.1447 0.024 0.017
55 56 0.2813 0.1433 0 0
56 57 1.59 0.5337 0 0
57 58 0.7837 0.263 0 0
58 59 0.3042 0.1006 0.1 0.072
59 60 0.3861 0.1172 0 0
60 61 0.5075 0.2585 1.244 0.888
61 62 0.0974 0.0496 0.032 0.023
62 63 0.145 0.0738 0 0
63 64 0.7105 0.3619 0.227 0.162
64 65 1.041 0.5302 0.059 0.042
11 66 0.2012 0.0611 0.018 0.013
66 67 0.0047 0.0014 0.018 0.013
12 68 0.7394 0.2444 0.028 0.02
68 69 0.0047 0.0016 0.028 0.02
APPENDIX D
DATA FOR 33-BUS TEST SYSTEM INCLUDING TIE LINES

1 2 0.0922 0.0477 0.100 0.060
2 3 0.4930 0.2511 0.090 0.040
3 4 0.3660 0.1864 0.120 0.080
4 5 0.3811 0.1941 0.060 0.030
5 6 0.8190 0.7070 0.060 0.020
6 7 0.1872 0.6188 0.200 0.100
7 8 0.7114 1.2351 0.200 0.100
8 9 1.0300 0.7400 0.060 0.020
9 10 1.0400 0.7400 0.060 0.020
10 11 0.1966 0.0650 0.045 0.030
11 12 0.3744 0.1238 0.060 0.035
12 13 1.4680 1.1550 0.060 0.035
13 14 0.5416 0.7129 0.120 0.080
14 15 0.5910 0.5260 0.060 0.010
15 16 0.7463 0.5450 0.060 0.020
16 17 1.2890 1.7210 0.060 0.020
17 18 0.7320 0.5740 0.090 0.040
2 19 0.1640 0.1565 0.090 0.040
19 20 1.5042 1.3554 0.090 0.040
20 21 0.4095 0.4784 0.090 0.040
21 22 0.7089 0.9373 0.090 0.040
3 23 0.4512 0.3083 0.090 0.050
23 24 0.8980 0.7091 0.420 0.200
24 25 0.8960 0.7011 0.420 0.200
6 26 0.2030 0.1034 0.060 0.025
26 27 0.2842 0.1447 0.060 0.025
27 28 1.059 0.9337 0.060 0.020
81
28 29 0.8042 0.7006 0.120 0.070

29 30 0.5075 0.2585 0.200 0.600
30 31 0.9744 0.963 0.150 0.070
31 32 0.3105 0.3619 0.210 0.100
32 33 0.341 0.5302 0.060 0.040
33 7 2 2 - -
34 8 2 2 - -
35 11 2 2 - -
36 17 0.5 0.5 - -
37 24 0.5 0.5 - -
APPENDIX E
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS
A. List of Journals
1. M.N. Muhtazaruddin, J.J. Jamian, G. Fujita, M.A. Baharudin, M.W. Wazir

and H. Mokhlis “Distribution Network Loss Minimization via Simultaneous
Distributed Generation Coordination with Network Reconfiguration”,
Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering, Springer, Vol. 39, No. 6, pp.
4923-4933, June 2014.
2. Mohd Nabil Bin Muhtazaruddin, Jasrul Jamani Bin Jamian and Goro Fujita
“Determination of Optimal Output Power and Location for multiple
Distributed Generation Sources Simultaneously by using Artificial Bee
Colony”, IEEJ Transactions on Electrical and Electronic Engineering , John
Wiley & Sons , Vol. 9, No. 4, pp. 351-359, July 2014.
3. Mohd Nabil Muhtazaruddin, Jasrul Jamani Jamian, Danvu Nguyen, Nur
Aisyah Jalalludin and Goro Fujita “Optimal Capacitor Placement and Sizing
via Artificial Bee Colony”, International Journal of Smart Grid and Clean
Energy, Engineering and Technology Publishing, Vol. 3, No. 2, April 2014.
B. List of Published Conference Papers
1. Mohd Nabil Bin Muhtazaruddin, Mohd Wazir Mustafa, Goro Fujita “Short –
Term Load Forecasting Via Artificial Neural Network”, SEATUC
Symposium, Bangkok, Thailand, 5 – 7 March 2012.
83
2. Mohd Nabil Bin Muhtazaruddin, Mohd Wazir Mustafa, Goro Fujita

“Artificial Neural Network for forecasting Next Day”, Annual Meeting IEE
Japan, Hiroshima, Japan, 23 – 14 March 2012.
3. M.N. Muhtazaruddin, J.J Jamian, G. Fujita “Reactive Power Control in PV
Grid Connected for Overvoltage prevention”, Annual Conference of Power
and Energy Society IEE of Japan, Hokkaido, Japan, 12 – 14 September 2012
4. M.N. Muhtazaruddin, G. Fujita “Voltage Control in PV Grid Connected
Mode for Overvoltage Reduction”, IEEE PES International Conference on
Power System Technology (POWERCON), Auckland, New Zealand, 30
October – 2 November 2013.
5. Mohd Nabil Bin Muhtazaruddin, Jasrul Jamani Bin Jamian and Goro Fujita
“Determine Location and Sizing of DG via Artificial Bee Colony”, SEATUC
Symposium, Bandung, Indonesia, 4 – 6 March 2013.
6. Mohd Nabil Bin Muhtazaruddin and Goro Fujita “Optimal Distributed
Generation Coordination by using Aritificial Bee Colony”, International
Conference on Intelligent System Applications to Power System (ISAP),
Tokyo, Japan, 1 – 4 July 2013.
7. Mohd Nabil Bin Muhtazaruddin and Goro Fujita “Distribution Network
Power Loss by using Artificial Bee Colony”, International Universities’
Power Engineering Conference, Dublin, Ireland, 2 – 5 September 2013
8. Mohd Nabil Bin Muhtazaruddin, Jasrul Jamani Bin Jamian, Nguyen Duc
Tuyen and Goro Fujita “Distribution Generation Coordination by using
Artificial Immune Bee Colony”, SEATUC Symposium, Johor Bahru,
Malaysia, 4 – 5 March 2014.
9. Mohd Nabil Bin Muhtazaruddin, , Nguyen Duc Tuyen, Goro Fujita and
Jasrul Jamani Bin Jamian “Optimal Distributed Generation and Capacitor
Coordination for Power Loss Minimization”, IEEE PES Transmission and
Distribution, Chicago, United State of America, 14 – 17 April 2014.
10. Mohd Nabil Bin Muhtazaruddin, Jasrul Jamani Bin Jamian, Nguyen Duc
Tuyen and Goro Fujita “Effect of Reverse Power Flow in Determine Optimal
Distributed Generation Sizing and Location”, International Conference on
Electrical Engineering (ICEE), Jeju Island, South Korea, 15 – 19 June 2014.
84
C. List of Others Published Conference Papers
1. J.J Jamian, G. Fujita, H. Mokhlis, M.W. Mustafa, M.N. Muhtazaruddin

“Optimizing Distributed Generators Size with consideration of Voltage
Stability Index in Radial Distribution network using TVA-REPSO”, Annual
Conference of Power and Energy Society IEE of Japan, Hokkaido, Japan, 12
– 14 September 2012.
2. Jasrul Jamani Bin Jamian, Mohd Nabil Bin Muhtazaruddin and Goro Fujita,
“Optimal Allocation of Battery Switching Based on Pre-determined Stability
Condition Indicator”, SEATUC Symposium, Bandung, Indonesia, 4 – 6
March 2013.
3. Dieu Ngoc Vo, Khai Phuc Nguyen, Goro Fujita, Mohd Nabil Bin
Muhtazaruddin and Dung Anh Le, “Pseudo-Gradient Based Particle Swam
Optimization for Security Constrained Optimal Power Flow”, International
Conference on Intelligent System Applications to Power System (ISAP),
Tokyo, Japan, 1 – 4 July 2013.
4. Nguyen Duc Tuyen, Mohd Nabil Bin Muhtazaruddin, Goro Fujita and
Toshihisa Funabashi, “Shunt Active Power Filter for 3-phase 3-Wire
Nonlinear Load under Unbalanced and Distorted PCC Voltage using Notch
Adaptive Filter”, IEEE PES Transmission and Distribution, Chicago, United
State, 14 – 17 April 2014.
5. Nguyen Duc Tuyen, Junpei Takehara, Mohd Nabil Bin Muhtazaruddin, and
Goro Fujita, “Adaptive Notch Filter: A solution for 3-phase 4-wire Shunt
Active Power Filter under Non-ideal”, International Conference on Electrical
Engineering (ICEE), Jeju Island, South Korea, 15 – 19 June 2014.
6. Nguyen Duc Tuyen, Goro Fujita and Mohd Nabil Bin Muhtazaruddin, “3-
phase 4-wire Shunt APF under Non-ideal PCC Voltage using Adaptive Notch
Filter”, IEEE Power & Energy General Meeting, Washington DC, United
State of America, 27 – 31 July 2014.

Doctoral Dissertation Shibaura Institute of Technology

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Doctoral Dissertation Shibaura Institute of Technology

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Doctoral Dissertation

Shibaura Institute of Technology

Distribution Network Loss Minimization via Artificial Immune Bee Colony

MOHD NABIL BIN MUHTAZARUDDIN

MOHD NABIL BIN MUHTAZARUDDIN

Prof. Dr. Goro Fujita

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the

Shibaura Institute of Technology

Specially dedicated to my beloved family:

A special thanks to my supervisor, Prof. Dr. Goro Fujita from Department of

Very special thanks to Shibaura Institute of Technology and Universiti

I would also like to express gratitude to my parents and the rest of my

Transformation of distribution network into the direction of more intelligent

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

2.6 Previous Research Works on Network 17

3 ARTIFICIAL IMMUNE BEE COLONY 20

3.3 Artificial Bee Colony 22

3.4 Artificial Immune Bee Colony 25

4 DETERMINATION OF OPTIMAL OUTPUT 29

5 LOSS MINIMIZATION VIA NETWORK 53

5.3 Related Data for 33-bus and 69-bus Test 55

6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION 66

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE

3.1 Comparison of pseudo code for each algorithm 28

4.1 Summary of Results between ABC and AIBC for 39

4.2 Summary of Results between ABC and AIBC for 42

4.3 Description for case studies in comparison of 46

4.4 Summary of results of 33-bus system for 46

4.5 Summary of results of 69-bus system for 49

4.6 Comparison with other methods for 33-bus and 69- 52

5.1 Description for case studies in DG coordination 58

5.2 Summary of results of 33-bus system for DG 59

5.3 Comparison of different parameter settings for Case 5 63

5.4 Comparison with other method available in 64

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE

2.1 An example of network reconfiguration process 8

2.2 An example installation of DG 10

3.1 Behavior of bees finding the food sources 22

3.2 Basic flow chart of ABC 23

3.3 Example of bees finding the foods 25

3.4 Basic flow chart of AIS 27

3.5 Basic flow chart of AIBC 27

4.1 Simple test system 30

4.2 Simple test system with DG 32

4.3 Flow chart of AIBC to determine optimal DG 36

4.4 Flow chart of ABC to determine optimal DG 37

4.5 33-bus test system without DG 38

4.6 69-bus test system without DG 38

4.7 Comparison of convergence curves between 40

4.8 Comparison of voltage profiles between ABC 41

4.9 Comparison of optimal location of DG between 41

4.10 Comparison of convergence curves between 43

4.11 Comparison of voltage profiles between ABC 44

4.12 Comparison of optimal location of DG between 44

4.13 Comparison of optimal location of DG between 47

4.14 Comparison of voltage profiles for all cases on 47

4.15 Line losses of 33-bus 48

4.16 Comparison of optimal location of DG between 49