Trigonometry in Three Steps: August 2019

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Trigonometry in Three Steps
Student Unit
Omar Hernández Rodríguez & Jorge M. López Fernández
August 19, 2019

Page ii
Contents
1 Trigonometry on the right triangle 7

1.1 Trigonometric ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.1 The trigonometric ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.1.2 Some special values of the trigonometric ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2 Chapter exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2 Trigonometry on the unit circle 13

2.1 Angles and rotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.1 How to “wrap” the number line around the unit circle . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3 Analytic trigonometry: Part I 19

3.1 Addition Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.2 Reference angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.3 Chapter exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4 Analytic trigonometry: Part II 29

4.1 Law of sines and law of cosines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.2 Trignometric Functions and their Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.2.1 Plane Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.2.2 Graphs of the sine, the cosine and the tangent functions . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.2.3 Graphs of the cosecant, secant and cotangent functions . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.3 Amplitude, periodicity and phase displacement: graph of the function y = A sin(αx+
β) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.3.1 Graph of y = A sin(αx + β) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.4 Chapter Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5 Appendix: Numbers, rational and irrational 47

5.1 The rational numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.1.1 Existence of irrational numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6 Appendix: Complex Numbers and De Moivre’s Theorem 51

6.1 Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
6.2 Roots of complex numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
iii
Page iv CONTENTS
6.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
List of Figures
1 Two triangles ABC and A0 B0C 0 with the same angle α (that is to say, with the angles
C AB and C 0 A0 B0 having the same measure). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2 An angle α as a rotation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1 Triangle ABC with right angle at C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.2 Triangle ABC with right angle at C (explain the coordinates assigned to point B
and C.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3 Isosceles triangle ABC with right angle at C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4 Triangle ABC equilateral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5 Use this figure for Exercise 20. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1 Circular sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

2.2 The angles of trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3 Trigonometric points on the unit circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.4 Trigonometric points on the unit circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.5 Values of sin(π/4) and cos(π/4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.1 Proof of Lemma 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

3.2 Trigonométric points on the unit circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.5 Reference angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.1 Law of sines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

4.2 Proof of the Law of Sines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.4 Plane Translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.5 Graphs and Transformations of the PLane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.6 Graph of y = sin x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.7 Gráph of y = cos x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.8 Graph of y = tan x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.9 Graph of y = tan x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.10 Graph of y = csc x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.11 Graph of y = sec x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
v
Page vi LIST OF FIGURES
4.12 Graph of y = cot x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

4.13 Gráfica de y = cot x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.14 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.15 Periodicity interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.16 Interval of periodicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.1 Long division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

List of Tables
1.1 Special values: part I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

1.2 Special values: part II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.1 Special values: measures in degrees and radians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

2.2 Special values of the sine and cosine functions: I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3 Special values of the sine and the cosine functions: II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.1 Special values: measurements in degrees and radians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

3.2 Some notable values for the sine and the cosine (to be completed) . . . . . . . . . 22
3.3 Notable values for the sine and the cosine (completed) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.4 Relation between given angle (α) and reference angle (α0) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
vii
Page viii LIST OF TABLES
Preface
These notes have been designed to teach trigonometry efficiently to the interested student. The
notes consist of three central chapters. The first chapter develops trigonometry for the right triangle
giving an initial definition of the trigonometric ratios for the acute internal angles of a right triangle.
The initial trigonometric ratios (sine, cosine and tangent) are extended to include the reciprocal
ratios (cosecant, secant and cotangent). In the first chapter the main thrust of our emphasis is placed
in the calculation of the actual values of such ratios.
The second chapter extends the trigonometric ratios to angles placed in normal position on the
unit circle and a trigonometric point on the unit circle is defined. In this case, angles have implicit
in them rotations and the emphasis is to develop the trigonometric ratios into functions defined on
subsets of real numbers.
The third and fourth chapters develop the so called “analytic trigonometry” which no less and
no more the name given to the study of the consequences to the addition formulas of the sine and the
cosine. In this final chapter the central and most useful formulas of trigonometry are deduced and
a detailed discussion is developed of the trigonometric functions, their properties and their graphs.
As the student will easily ascertain, the notes have an abundance of practice exercises and examples
of typical problems that the student is expected to be able to solve. It is impossible to exaggerate the
importance of solving problems in the study of any mathematics discipline. Lets remember that in
understanding of a mathematical area is tantamount to being able to solve the plurality of problems
that come about in such an endeavor. For this reason, each chapter end is endowed with a plurality
of practice exercises that we strongly urge the student to solve as many of them as possible, ideally
all of the problems proposed, but certainly a majority of them.
Finally, we have included two appendixes. The first one is a presentation of the real numbers as
the collection of all numbers that have decimal expansions,d infinite or not, periodic or not. The
numerical system of the real numbers is, in fact, the best suited universe of discourse to carry on the
discussions that characterize current mathematics. Together with set theory this system provides
an adequate vehicle to write correctly a great portion of known mathematics. In this appendix we
contrast rational and irrational numbers in terms of the properties of their decimal expansions. The
second appendix has been devoted to discuss the importance of trigonometry for understanding the
system of complex numbers and, specifically, the determination of the nth roots of any complex
number. In this appendix a proof of De Moivre’s Theorem is given and this result is applied to the
computation of the arbitrary nth roots of complex quantities.
Omar Hernández Rodríguez and Jorge M. López Fernández
1
Page 2 LIST OF TABLES
August 26, 2018

Brief remarks for the student about this
course:
• How to study mathematics
• How to use this book efficiently
How to study mathematics

Mathematics, unlike some other studies, is linear that is, to say, in order to understand a new
mathematical subject you are generally expected to have acquired some basic knowledge from the
subjects studied before. The old dictum that a student learns the previous course after completing the
study of the current one, places a well deserved emphasis on the fact that sometimes, the negotiations
between “remembering what you already know” and “understanding the new knowledge” can be
harder that meets the eye. This book is written with a concerted effort to facilitate this process of
“negotiation” when studying new mathematical knowledge, at least in the case of trigonometry.
The word Trigonometry comes from the Greek roots “trigonon” (triangle) and “metron” (to
measure). In fact, the first versions of trigonometry recorded by history were geared towards
calculating the ratios of the sides of right triangles. An example (which you may not understand
completely at this point) will suffice to illustrate the point in question.
Figure 1 shows two right triangles of different sizes and an angles α having the same measure
(we shall say in the future that the angles are congruent). From plane geometry we can see that the
triangles are similar, that is to say the ratios of corresponding sides are the same; in this case,
BC 4 1
= = ,
B 0C 0 8 2
CA 3 1
= = ,
C 0 A0 6 2
BA 5 1
= = .
B0 A0 10 2
For example,
BC side opposite to α
=
AB hypothenuse ∆ABC
3
Figure 1: Two triangles ABC and A0 B0C 0 with the same angle α (that is to say, with the angles C AB
and C 0 A0 B0 having the same measure).
is a trigonometric ratio of the angle α called sine and written as sin. Thus we would write the
previous equation as sin(α) = 54 = 0.8. As we shall see, there are five additional trigonometric
ratios defined for α. In our case, α is an angle of approximately 53.13 degrees. What is really
surprising is that, if we can calculate an acute angle of a right triangle by knowing one or more
of its trigonometric ratios, then we can solve a whole wide gamma of problems in many areas of
science and mathematics.
In the example we saw how the criteria for deciding similarity between triangles in plane
geometry can be useful in the determination of the trigonometric ratios of acute angles of right
triangles. For example, two right triangles are similar provided they each have an acute angle with
the same measure (for then, second acute angle of each will also have the same measurement. Thus
by the criteria angle-angle-angle, the triangles are similar. This as we will see in detail, means
that the trigonometric ratios of each acute angle are the same. The study of the properties of
the trigonometric ratios of the acute angles of a right triangle on the plane is referred to as the
trigonometry of the right triangle. Next, by defining angles as rotations placed in standard position
on the unit circle (we shall also discuss this in this book) we extend the study of trigonometry to
the unit circle. This area of trigonometry is different from the trigonometry of the triangle, but it
is very similar and evident, and we find ourselves repeating the same arguments (or very similar
ones) to those used for the trigonometry of the triangle. This is an example of a generalization of a
mathematical subject matter from one context (right triangles) to another different context (angles
on the unit circle). It should be kept in mind that not all new knowledge in mathematics arises as
a generalization of known mathematics. In some cases, some new inventions or ideas are needed,
and that is the reason that sometimes, historically, mathematics is invented in steps and we wait for
some steps to be completed more than we wait for other, sometimes decades and even centuries.
These cases are truly due to the inventiveness of special mathematitians in the course of history.
This book accomplishes the study of trigonometry in three steps as follows:
Trigonometry of the right triangle

Trigonometry of the unit circle
Analytic trignometry
LIST OF TABLES Page 5
The three areas of trignometry
The transition of the Trigonometry of the right triangle to the Trigonometry of the unit circle
is a classical example of the process of generalization. In the the triangle an angle can measure
any positive value less than 90◦ . So, the trigonometric ratios are defined for angles that has a
measure in degrees that are greater than zero but less than 90◦ . As we shall see, sin β and cos β are
trigonometric ratios for any given acute angle β of a right triangle. We also use the convention that
cos 30 stands for the trigonometric ratio of any acute angle of a right triangle measuring 30◦ . Thus,
using this convention cos 0 and sin 90 are not defined in the Trigonometry of the right triangle since
neither 0 nor 90 represent the values of measures of any acute angle of a right triangle (remember,
the acute angles of a right triangle have a measure in degrees represented by a number d satisfying
0 < d < 90). If we allow angles to represent rotations with presumably more than one turn, in the
positive direction (counter clockwise) or negative direction (clockwise), then an angle is what is
formed when one ray (or half line) with a common point with another ray rotates a certain number
of turns or fraction thereof with respect to the other ray; see Figure 2. The angles given as examples
Figure 2: An angle α as a rotation.
in the Figure are placed in the so called standard position on the unit circle (the original ray of the
angle coincides with the non negative x axis and the terminal ray rotates, perhaps, several turns in
the positive of negative directions and then describes a fraction of a turn in the positive or negative
direction as in the Figure. As you will see, this definition of angle will give you the possibility of
defining the trigonometric ratios for angles that can be greater in absolute value to one complete
turn. But the best thing is that when you understand the definition of an angle as a rotation, you
will be able to prove yourself the properties of such angles and their trigonometric ratios without
too much trouble. We will insist that you do some of this work since the actual work in the details
of the process will strengthened your understanding of trigonometry.
Finally, the third part of trigonometry is the so called analytic trigonometry that has everything
to do with the consequences of the addition formulas (said briefly) or the structure of the complex
numbers viewed as vectors in the plane (more on this later)
A word of advice for the student of this course. We understand that, sometimes, with the
amount of work required of students at school, you may not have the chance to work all the assigned
exercises with the diligence and care you would like (another well known “negotiation”). We urge
all students to study every day, to work all assigned exercises. If you don’t then you should work
and understand all examples. The examples will give you the competencies needed to approve this
course. Exercises are more than mere illustrations, they have been designed to have you reflect on
the procedures and competencies that will constitute the building blocks for an expert understanding
of trignometry.
1
Trigonometry on the right triangle
1.1 Trigonometric ratios
Figure 1.1: Triangle ABC with right angle at C
Figure 1.2 consists of a right triangle with right angle at vertex C. Note that we have adopted the
convention that the sides of the triangle are represented by the small case Latin letters that corre-
spond to the letters that label the vertices opposite to the sides. For instance, a is the side opposite to
vertex A and so on. Similarly, the measures of the internal angles of the right triangle of Figure 1.2
have been represented by the small case Greek letters that correspond to the label of the vertex of the
angle. For instance, α, β and γ denote, the measure of the internal angles of the triangle and also the
angles with vertices A, B and C respectively. The side opposite to the right angle of the triangle is
known as the hypotenuse of the right triangle (in our case c) while the sides opposite to the other two
vertices are known merely as the sides of the triangle. Hence, the word “side” is reserved for any
side of the right triangle except the hypotenuse. An important result of mathematics is the following:
Theorem 1 (Pythagoras; see Figure 1.2).
c2 = a2 + b2 .
7
Page 8 1. TRIGONOMETRY ON THE RIGHT TRIANGLE
1.1.1 The trigonometric ratios

The trigonometric ratios of an acute angle α of a right triangle ABC with right angle at C are:
a Opposite side to A
sin α = =
c Hypotenuse
b Adjacent side to A
cos α = =
c Hypotenuse
a Opposite side to A
tan α = = .
b Adjacent side to A
Expressions like sin α, cos α y tan α are read as “sine of α”, “cosine of α” and“tangent of α”
respectively. There are three additional trigonometric ratios defined by the following relations:
1 c Hypotenuse
sec α = = =
cos α b Adjacent side to A
1 c Hypotenuse
csc α = = =
sin α a Opposite side to A
1 b Adjacent side to A
cot α = = = .
tan α a Oppossite side to A
As the sides of a non degenerate triangle (that is to say, a triangle with three sides none of which
can have length equal to zero), it is clear that all the trigonometric ratios are well defined, that is
to say, that no denominator of the ratios is zero.
We now propose to you an interesting matter. If we have two triangles ABC y A1 B1 C1 with
right angles at C and C1, and if we suppose that α = α1 , we ask ourselves if the values of the
trigonometric ratios are the same when they are calculated using one right triangle as opposed to
using the other (see Figure 1.2).
If two right triangles have the same measure for one of the acute angles of the triangle (in our
case, the internal angles at vertices A and A1), then the other angles of these triangles also have
the same measure. Therefore, the triangles are similar using the criteria “angle, angle, angle”. In
particular, there is some positive number r (the similarity constant) such that a1 = ra, b1 = rb y
c1 = rc. It follows, for instance, that if we calculate the sine of α by means of triangle ABC we get
sin α = ac . But ac = ra
rc1 = c1 , and this last expression is the one we get when we use the right triangle
1 a1
A1B1C1 to calculate the sine of α. In other words, the trigonometric ratios are independent of the
right triangle that we choose to calculate them.
1.1.2 Some special values of the trigonometric ratios

In this section we calculate the values of the trigonometric ratios for some special angles. In fact,
we want to complete table 1.1.2.
We will start by considering a right isosceles triangle as the one in Figure 1.3. It is easy to
see that the triangle
√
is isosceles by using√ the Pythagorean theorem. In particular, this means that
sin 45 = √ = 2 . Also, that cos 45◦ = 22 .
◦ 1 2
2
1. TRIGONOMETRY ON THE RIGHT TRIANGLE Page 9
Figure 1.2: Triangle ABC with right angle at C (explain the coordinates assigned to point B and C.)
Figure 1.3: Isosceles triangle ABC with right angle at C
Now we consider an equilateral triangle all whose internal angles measure 60◦ . In Figure 1.4 we
have drawn a height of the triangle from vertex B to the opposite side. The triangles thus obtained,
APB and CPB have the side PB as a common side and they have the right angles at P. These
triangles are congruent by the criteria lal. In particular, we see,
1/2 1
sin 30◦ = = and
1 2
1/2 1
cos 60◦ = = .
1 2
√ √
Also, since BP measures 2
3
(by Pythagoras’ Theorem) we have BP = 3
2 . Hence, the finished
table is:
α 30◦ 45◦ 60◦

sin α
cos α
Table 1.1: Special values: part I
Figure 1.4: Triangle ABC equilateral
1.2 Chapter exercises

You will need the following figure to solve the exercises that follow:
Exercise 1. Prove:
sin2 α + cos2 α = 1
Here we write sin2 α in place of (sin α) 2 to economize on the use of parenthesis.
Exercise 2. Prove:
tan2 α + 1 = sec2 α
Exercise 3. Answer the following question: If cos α = 31 , what is the value of sin α?
Exercise 4. A cable is connected from a point on a leveled ground to the highest point of a post
perpendicular to the ground. If the point from where the cable is anchored is at a distance of 16 feet
from the base of the post, what is the height of the post? Si cos α = 13 , what is the value of sin α?
α 30◦ 45
√
◦ 60
√
◦
sin α 1
√2 2
2
√2
3
cos α 2
3 1
2 2
2
Table 1.2: Special values: part II

1. TRIGONOMETRY ON THE RIGHT TRIANGLE Page 11
Exercise 5. Prove: sen(180 − α) = sin α.
Exercise 6. Prove: cos(180 − α) = − cos α.
Exercise 7. Prove that the area of any triangle ABC as in the figure is given by 21 AB · sin α.
Exercise 8. In this exercise you will need Figure 1.5. If sin α = 0.75, calculate the area of triangle
ABC.
Exercise 9. Prove: sin α + cos(90 − α) = 2 sin α.
Exercise 10. Prove: cos α + sin(90 − α) = 2 cos α.
Exercise 11. If 2α < 90, prove: tan α + tan(90 − α) = 2 csc(2α). Explain why it is necessary
to assume that 2α < 90 (We shall see that this relation, suitably interpreted, is true without this
hypothesis.)
Exercise 12. Prove: 1 + cot2 α = csc2 α.
Exercise 13. Prove: 1 + tan2 α = sec2 α.
Exercise 14. Prove: if α + β = 90, then sin α = cos β.
Exercise 15. Prove: if α + β = 90, then cos α = sin β.
Exercise 16. Calculate cos α if tan α = 1/2.
Figure 1.5: Use this figure for Exercise 20.

√
Exercise 17. Calculate cos α and tan α if cot α = 2 5/5.
Exercise 18. For what values of angle α relation cos 2α = 2 cos α holds?
Exercise 19. For what values of angle α relation sin 2α = 2 sin α holds? What can you learn from
these examples?
Exercise 20. In this exercise you will need Figure 1.5. In the figure you can see a grid consisting
of squares of unit squares. Calculate the sines, the cosines and the tangents of angles α, β, δ and γ.
2
Trigonometry on the unit circle
2.1 Angles and rotations

A sector of a circumference or a circular sector is a plane figure delimited, on the one hand, by two
radii of a circumference that share a common center and forming an angle α, and on the other by
the arc of the circumference located in the interior of the angle. We warn the reader that terms like
“the interior” of an angle can be defined in unambiguous terms, but we shall not stop to make this
more precise than it may already be, but rather, rely on the intuition of the student who reads these
notes. The arc S of the circumference is said to be subtended by the angle α (and the same term
is used to describe the corresponding chord defined by the arc). Figure 2.1 shows a sector of a
circumference of radius R with a central angle α. In the Figure we have also represented the radius
r of a smaller circumference concentric to the circumference of radius R. In other words, the figure
shows two sectors of concentric circumferences. The length of the arc of the original circumference
has been labeled as S and the length of the arc of the smaller circumference by s. The lengths of
the subtended arcs are proportional to the radii of the corresponding sectors, that is,
R S
= .
r s
If we take r = 1, the value of s obtained that corresponds is the measure of angle α in radianes. We
can easily determine the relation between the measure in degrees Gr of an angle α and its measure
in radians Ra. The lengths arcs subtended by the sectors of radius 1 and of radius R have the same
proportion as the perimeters of the corresponding given circumferences, that is to say, since the arc
corresponding to the total perimeter measures 360 Gr = 360◦ , and also, 2π Ra, we have:
Gr Ra
(2πR) = (2πR), that is to say,
360 2π
π
Ra = Gr .
180
If we assign values for angles measured in degrees (Gr) like 0, 30, 45, 60 y 90, we Ra = 0, π/6, π/4, π/3, π/2
respectively. In particular, a right angle measures π/2 radians and an angle of 60◦ measures π/3
radians.
13
Page 14 2. TRIGONOMETRY ON THE UNIT CIRCLE
Figure 2.1: Circular sector
2.1.1 How to “wrap” the number line around the unit circle
Figure 2.2: The angles of trigonometry
The angles of interest for trigonometry are different tan those usually studied in classical geom-
etry, since all angles in trigonometry entail an implicit rotation, that is to say, they come about by
a rotation of the plane. In Figure 2.2 an angle α is shown and, according to the indicated direction
in the figure, it supposes a counterclockwise rotation. An angle consists on an initial side that
is rotated in one of two possible directions (clockwise –negative— rotations and counterclockwise
–positive– rotations. Of course, the measure of an angle depends on the choice of the initial side
and the rotation (both the amount and the direction). To place an angle α innormal position on
the unit circle, we place its initial side on the positive real axis of the plane so that the vertex of
the angle coincides with the origin of Cartesian coordinates and its initial side coincides with the
positive real axis of x. The ray that constitutes the final side of the angle α takes the point P of the
unit circle and on the initial side of the angle and moves it to the point P0 on the terminal side of
α and on the unit circle (see Figure 2.3). Note that this rotation may suppose several rotations of
the initial side around the circle (in the positive or negative directions) as it positions itself in the
terminal side of the angle. We say that the angle α, so positioned, is in normal position on the unit
2. TRIGONOMETRY ON THE UNIT CIRCLE Page 15
circle and we denote by P(α) the point on the unit circle that lies on the terminal side of the angle.
Note that in Figure 2.3, t represents the radian measure of angle α. We will write P(t) or P(α)
to denote this point. Equivalently, the trigonometric point determined by an angle α measuring t
radians, is the point that we get when we measure the distance of t units along the circumference
of the unit circle starting at the point (0, 1) following the direction of the rotation that defines the
angle (positive if counterclockwise and negative otherwise). The first coordinate of P(t) is cos(α)
or cos t. Analogously, we write the second coordinate as sin(α) or sin t. If an angle α measures
Gr degrees or t radians, then we define cos α = cos(t) = cos t. It is easy to see that this definition
agrees with the ones given for the trigonometric ratios to the acute angles of a right triangles. The
new definition makes it possible to define the trigonometric ratios of other angles that need not be
acute.
Note: We ask you to observe that the definitions provided for the trigonometric ratios in Chapter 1
applied to the acute angles of a right triangle. If α is such an angle, we wrote cos α and sin α for
the two trigonometric ratios given; the other ratios were defined in terms of the latter. In the present
chapter we have defined the trigonometric ratios cos(α) and sin(α) for arbitrary real numbers α,
where α is interpreted as the measure in radians of an angle in normal position on the unit circle.
In this case we write, for instance, cos(α) instead of cos α and the parenthesis are included on
purpose, since in the present chapter we start to place emphasis on the trigonometric functions. In
Chapter 1 we were mainly interested in computing números. Now, in this chapter we begin to make
the transition from numbers into functions, this being the main difference between Chapter 1 and
the present chapter. As we move along, you will notice that we place less importance in how we
write, for instance, sin α or sin(α) for a given value of the sine function.
Figure 2.3: Trigonometric points on the unit circle
In Figure 3.2 several trigonometric angles on the unit circle are shown. In this section we will
pursue the calculation of some special values of the trigonometric functions of angles in normal
position on the unit circle that correspond to trigonometric points located in the first quadrant of
the coordinate axis. For convenience, we present in tabular form the relation between the measures
in degrees and radians of some such angles:
Degrees Radians
0 0
30 π/6
45 π/4
60 π/3
90 π/2
Table 2.1: Special values: measures in degrees and radians
Note that in Chapter 1, cos 0 was not defined as there is no right triangle with one of its acute
angles having zero for its measure in degrees. The same happens for the trigonometric ratios of the
angle measuring 90◦ . We now wish to complete the entries of table with the missing entries.
Figure 2.4: Trigonometric points on the unit circle
The work needed to complete the described task we have already done in the previous chapter
when we computed the trigonometric ratios for some of the acute angles of a right triangle.
We shall review the briefly, anyway. We begin with the row corresponding to α = π/4. For this
purpose we remit the reader Figure 3.3. In it we see an isosceles right triangle having 1 for the length
hypotenuse and acute angles of 45 degrees or π/4 radians. The sides of this triangle measure
of its √ √
each 2/2 units (by Pythagoras’ Theorem). Hence, it follows that cos(π/4) = sin(π/4) = 2/2.
To calculate the values of sin(π/3) and cos(π/3) we ask the reader to examine once again Figure
3.4. In the figure
To calculate the required values of angle π/6 radians or 30 degrees, we place the top triangle on
the left of the figure so that the P(π/6) angle is in normal position. Both triangles of Figure 3.4 are
obtained from the equilateral right triangle of side 1 in which we have drawn its height from one of
2. TRIGONOMETRY ON THE UNIT CIRCLE Page 17
α sin(α) cos(α)
0
π/6
π/4
π/3
π/2
Table 2.2: Special values of the sine and cosine functions: I
Figure 2.5: Values of sin(π/4) and cos(π/4)
its vertex to the corresponding opposite side. We then place the triangles thus obtained by drawing
the height mentioned before so that the angle measuring π/6 radians is in normal position on the
unit circle (the reader can be guided by the center of the circle (0, 0) and the point (1, 1), both of
which are indicated on the triangles√ of the figure. Reading off the trigonometric ratios we see that
sin(π/6) = √ 1/2 and cos(π/6) = 3/2. Carrying on analogously with the figure on the right, we get
sin(π/3) = 3/2 y cos(π/3) = 1/2. Filling in these values on the table we get,
Note that, in the table, the first column of the values of the sine function is obtained by taking the
successive integers
√ from√ 0 to 4, in order, finding their square roots and dividing the results by two.
We get, 0, 1/2, 2/2, 3/2, 1, and this list of numbers, written as a column gives the first column
of the table, that is to say, the column of the values of the sine of the angles with radian measure
0, π/6, π/4, π/3, π/2. If we now invert the order of the column we get the column of the values of the
α sin(α) cos(α)
0 0 1
√
π/6 1/2 3/2
√ √
π/4 2/2 2/2
√
π/3 3/2 1/2
π/2 1 0
Table 2.3: Special values of the sine and the cosine functions: II
cosine function. We could augment the table by adding the column of the values of the tangent, but
we leave this easy task for the interested reader to complete.
3
Analytic trigonometry: Part I
3.1 Addition Formulas

We call “Analytic Trigonometry” to that branch of trigonometry that explores the consequences of
the addition formulas.
Lema 1. If x is a real number,
sin(−x) = − sin(x) (3.1.1)

cos(−x) = cos(x) (3.1.2)
π
sin x + = cos(x) (3.1.3)
2
π
cos x + = − sin(x) (3.1.4)
2
(3.1.5)
Proof. For this proof we will make reference to Figure 3.1. In the figure we see an angle x and
another angle x + π2 in normal position on the unit circle. These angles determines two trigonometric
points, P(x) and P(x + π2 ). From the figure we see that the triangles OX P(x) and Y P(x + π2 )O are
congruent (they have been labeled so that the corresponding vertices are those determined by the
congruence). In particular, Y P(x + π2 ) and OX are congruent segments and they have equal lengths.
The length of Y P(x + π2 ) is sin(x + π2 ) and the length of OX is cos(x). This shows (3.1.3). Note
that if for some angle α the trigonometric point P(α) has coordinates (u, v) then the trigonometric
point P(−α) has coordinates (u, −v) (draw a figure to convince yourself of this). In particular,
cos(−α) = cos(α) and sin(−α) = − sin(α). These statements are (3.1.1) and (3.1.2). Finally,
cos(α + π2 ) = sin((α + π2 ) + π2 ) = sin(α + π) = − sin(α), and (3.1.4) follows. In the latter argument
we have used the following fact: if the coordinates of the trigonometric point P(x) are (x, y), then
P(x + π) = (−u, −v); explain why this last statement is true.
19
Page 20 3. ANALYTIC TRIGONOMETRY: PART I
Figure 3.1: Proof of Lemma 1
Theorem 2 (Addition Formulas). If x y y are real numbers,
cos(x − y) = cos(x) cos(y) + sin(x) sin(y) (3.1.6)

cos(x + y) = cos(x) cos(y) − sin(x) sin(y) (3.1.7)
sin(x + y) = sin(x) cos(y) + cos(x) sin(y)) (3.1.8)
sin(x − y) = sin(x) cos(y) − cos(x) sin(y) (3.1.9)
Proof. We begin by proving (3.1.6). With x and y as in the statement of the theorem, the arc of the
unit circle determined by the trigonometric points P(0) and P(y − x) must have the same length
as the arc of the same circle determined by P(x)P(y), namely, |y − x| units (we must take the
absolute value since the difference can be negative and arc lengths are positive quantities or zero).
In particular, the chords subtended by these arcs have also equal lengths, since congruent arcs on
a given circle subtend chords of equal lengths as well as congruent central angles. The squares of
thse chords are also equal and
2
P(0)P(y − x) = (cos(y − x) − 1) 2 + sin2 (y − x
2
P(x)P(y) = (cos(y) − cos(x)) 2 + (sin(y) − sin(x)) 2 .
From these relations we get
(cos(y − x) − 1) 2 + sin2 (y − x) = (cos(y) − cos(x)) 2 + (sin(y) − sin(x)) 2,
In other words,
cos2 (y − x) + sin2 (y − x) + 1 − 2 cos(y − x)

= (cos2 (y) + sin2 (y)) + (cos2 (x) + sin2 (x))
− 2 cos(x) cos(y) − 2 sin(x) sin(y).
From this and the basic trigonometric relation (cos2 w) + sin2 (w) = 1), we conclude,
2 − 2 cos(x − y) = 2 − 2 cos(x) cos(y) − 2 sin(x) sin(y).

3. ANALYTIC TRIGONOMETRY: PART I Page 21
Hence,
cos(x − y) = cos(x) cos(y) + sin(x) sin(y).
This argument proves (3.1.6). Also, by Lemma 1, 3.1.1 and 3.1.2, we conclude cos(x + y) =
cos(x − (−y)) = cos(x) cos(−y) + sin(x) sin(−y) = cos(x) cos(y) − sin(x) sin(y). Clearly, this
completes the proof of 3.1.7. For the proof of 3.1.8 observe that sin(x + y) = − cos((x + y) + π/2) =
− cos(x + (y + π/2) = − cos(x) cos(y + π/2) +sin(x) sin(y + π/2) = cos(x) sin(y) +sin(x) sin(y). It
follows that sin(x+y) = sin(x) cos(y)+cos(x) sin(y); here we have used 3.1.7 and Lemma 1 Finally,
the proof of 3.1.9 follows from sin(x − y) = sin(x + (−y)) = sin(x) cos(−y) + cos(x) sin(−y) =
sin(x) cos(y) − cos(x) sin(y), where we have used, once more, Lemma 1. This concludes the proof
of 3.1.9 and the proof of the theorem .
In Figure 3.2 several trigonometric angles on the unit circle are shown. In this section we will
pursue the calculation of some special values of the trigonometric functions of angles in normal
position on the unit circle that correspond to trigonometric points located in the first quadrant of
the coordinate axis. For convenience, we present in tabular form the relation between the measures
in degrees and radians of some such angles:
Degrees Radians
0 0
30 π/6
45 π/4
60 π/3
90 π/2
Table 3.1: Special values: measurements in degrees and radians
Note that in Chapter 1, cos 0 was not defined as there is no right triangle with one of its acute
angles having zero for its measure in degrees. The same happens for the trigonometric ratios of the
angle measuring 90◦ .
Figure 3.2: Trigonométric points on the unit circle

α sin(α) cos(α)
0
π/6
π/4
π/3
π/2
Table 3.2: Some notable values for the sine and the cosine (to be completed)
We now wish to complete all missing entries of the table shown. The work needed to complete the
described task we have already done in the previous chapter when we computed the trigonometric
ratios for some of the acute angles of a right triangle. We shall review the discussion briefly, anyway.
We begin with the row corresponding to α = π/4. For this purpose we remit the reader Figure 3.3.
In it we see an isosceles right triangle having 1 for the length of its hypotenuse
√ and acute angles
of 45 degrees or π/4 radians. The sides of this triangle measure,
√ each, 2/2 units (by Pithagoras’
Theorem). Hence, it follows that cos(π/4) = sin(π/4) = 2/2.
To calculate the values of sin(π/3) and cos(π/3) we ask the reader to examine once again
Figura 3.4.

α sin(α) cos(α)
0 0 1
√
π/6 1/2 3/2
√ √
π/4 2/2 2/2
√
π/3 3/2 1/2
π/2 1 0
Table 3.3: Notable values for the sine and the cosine (completed)
To calculate the required values of angle π/6 radians or 30 degrees, we place the top triangle
on the left of the figure so that the P(π/6) angle is in normal position. Both triangles of Figure
3.4 ae obtained from the equilateral right triangle of side 1 in which we have drawn its height from
one of its vertex to the corresponding opposite side. We then place the triangles thus obtained by
drawing the height mentioned before so that the angle measuring π/6 radians is in normal position
on the unit circle (the reader can be guided by the center of the circle (0, 0) and the point (1, 1),
both of which are indicated on the triangles √ of the figure. Reading off the trigonometric ratios
we see that sin(π/6) = 1/2 and √ cos(π/6) = 3/2. Carrying on analogously with the figure on
the right, we get sin(π/3) = 3/2 y cos(π/3) = 1/2. Filling in these values on the table we get,
Note that, in the table, the first column of the values of the sine function is obtained by taking the
successive integers
√ from √ 0 to 4, in order, finding their square roots and dividing the results by two.
We get, 0, 1/2, 2/2, 3/2, 1, and this list of numbers, written as a column gives the first column
of the table, that is to say, the column of the values of the sine of the angles with radian measure
0, π/6, π/4, π/3, π/2. If we now invert the order of the column we get the column of the values of the
cosine function. We could augment the table by adding the column of the values of the tangent, but
we leave this easy task for the interested reader to complete.
3.2 Reference angles

Suppose we want to determine the value of sin(16π/6). Note that if α is a real number, then
P(α), P(α + 2π) and P(α − 2π) all represent the same point of the plane, since the points
P(α + 2π) and P(α − 2π are obtained from P(α) by adding or subtracting (respectively) one
whole turn around the unit circle to the real number α. In general, for each positive or negative
integer n, we have P(α + 2πn) = P(α). Hence cos( 9π 2 ) = cos(π/2 + 4π) = cos(π/2) = 0 and
sin(18π/6) = sin(3π) = sin(π) = 0.
If an angle is placed in normal position on the unit circle, the terminal side of the angle lies
in one of the four quadrants of the plane or in the boundary of two such quadrants. The various
possibilities for the terminal side have been represented in Figura 3.5.
The reference angle of an angle α in normal position on the unit circle is the angle that the
terminal side of α makes with the x axis. The reference angle of α0 depends on where is the terminal
side of α. In Figure 3.5 we see that, if the terminal side of α is located in Quadrant I, then α0 = α;
if it is located in Quadrant II, then α0 = π − α; if in Quadrant III, α0 = α − π; and if the terminal
Figure 3.5: Reference angles
Quadrant I II III IV
sin(α0 ) = sin(α) sin(α) − sin(α) − sin(α)
cos(α0 ) = cos(α) − cos(α) = − cos(α) cos(α)
Table 3.4: Relation between given angle (α) and reference angle (α0)
side of α lies on Quadrant IV, α0 = 2π − α. If we place the reference angle in normal position on
the unit circle, it is easy to see that:
In determining reference angles we will sometimes need to use rational approximations for π/2
and π, and we shall take these to be, respectively, 3.1416 and 1.5708 , correct to two decimal
places. We can improve on these approximations if we take more digits of the decimal expansion of
π, depending on the rational approximation of the given angle. In Appendix ?? of these notes we
present a short discussion about rational and irrational numbers and how the rational numbers are
used in mathematics to approximate numerically real numbers.
We now return to the discussion of reference angles and for this we refer the reader to Figure
3.5. The idea involved in the process is really simple. We place the angle of interest in normal
position on the unit circle, say angle α, and we see how the angle falls short or exceeds the x axis.
This will determine an arc of the unit circle that subtends the reference angle α0. The coordinates
of P(α0 ), as we shall presently see, will only differ in sign from the coordinates of the trigonometric
point determined by P(α). Thus, once we know the placement of the terminal side of the angle
α, we can determine the signs of the coordinates of P(α) in accordance to the quadrant in which
the terminal side of al pha lies when placed in normal position on the unit circle. For simplicity,
as is customary, we will write α to label, both, the angle as well as its measure, be it in radians
or degrees. The first thing to do is to determine the placement of the terminal side of the angle in
relation to the points (1, 0) and (−1, 0) of the unit circle. For this we add repeatedly the amount of
π until we reach the closest possible position of the resulting angle to the x axis. In other words,
we wish to determine an integer n such that nπ ≤ α < (n + 1)π. Clearly, such integer exists and is
characterized as the largest of all integers n that satisfy the condition n ≤ απ . It can be shown that
such an integer exists and is, in fact, unique. Also, the fact that it is the largest such integer implies
that
α
n ≤ < n + 1.
π
We say that n is the integral part or the floor of α/π and we write n = b απ c. This means that nπ is
equal or falls short of point P(0) = P(2π) or point P(π). By definition of the integer n, it follows
that nπ ≤ α < (n + 1)π and that the amount by which the angle falls short or exceeds the x axis
(the reference angle) is, either α˘nπ, or (n + 1)π − α. If the terminal side of α lies in Quadrant I
(see Figure 3.5), then α0 = α while, if the terminal side of α lies in Quadrant IV then α‘ = 2π − α.
Similarly, if the terminal side of α is in Quadrant II then α‘ = π − α while if the terminal side of α
lies in Quadrant III, then α‘ = al pha − π. We illustrate the process by means of examples.
Example 1. Find sin(27π/4): Note that
27π 3π
= 3(2π) + .
4 4
4 in normal position on the unit circle is the same as the terminal

Hence, the terminal side of α = 27π
side of the angle of measure 3π
4 radians also, in normal position on the unit circle. The latter terminal
√
side lies on the second quadrant. It follows that sin(27π/4) = sin(3π/4) = 2/2.
Example 2. Find cos(221.36): Using your calculator or your pone, note that 221.36 = 35(6.28319+
0.2305(6.28319). Hence, cos(221.36) = cos(0.2305(6.28319)) = cos(1.454827) = 0.122216,
since the terminal side of the angle with measure 1.454827 radians in normal position on the unit
lies in Quadrant I.
Example 3. Find the value of tan(87◦ 430 1300 ): Note that the angle with measure 87◦ 430 1300
stands for the angle of 87 degrees, 43 minutes and 13 seconds. Its measure in decimal degrees
is 87 + 60
43
+ 3600
13
= 0.122216. By arguments known by now, it follows that, tan(87◦ 430 1300 ) =
0.122828, and the last equality is really an approximation, correct to all decimal figures indicated.
3.3 Chapter exercises

Exercise 21. What is the radian measure of an angle measuring 312◦ ?
Exercise 22. What is the radian measure of an angle measuring 30◦ ?
Exercise 23. What is the radian measure of an angle measuring 16◦ 3601200?
Exercise 24. What is the measure in degrees of an angle measuring 3π

8 radians.
Exercise 25. What is the measure in degrees of an angle measuring 5π

12 radians.
Exercise 26. What is the degree measure of an angle measuring 3π

8 radians.
π
Exercise 27. Determine the length of the arc subtended by a central angle of 12 radians if the radius
of the implied circle is 36 cm.
Exercise 28. In a circle of radius 10 cm, find the length of the arc subtended by a central angle of
35◦ .
Exercise 29. In a circle of radius 1.5 m, what is the measure in degrees of the central angle subtended
by an arc of length 1 m?
Exercise 30. Find the measure in degrees of an angle that measures 3π

8 radians.
Exercise 31. Find all the trigonometric ratios of an angle measuring 4π

3 radians.
Exercise 32. Find all the trigonometric ratios of an angle measuring 11π
4 radians.
Exercise 33. Find the rest of the trigonometric ratios if sin θ = 3

5 and 0 < θ < π2 .
Exercise 34. Find the rest of the trigonometric ratios:

tan α = 2 if 0 < α < π2 .

sec α − 1.5 if π2 < α < π.

cos x = − 31 if π < x < 3π
2 .

cot β = 3 if 0 < β < 2π.

csc θ = 43 if 3π
2 < θ < 2π.
Exercise 39. Find the value of x correct to four decimal places:
Exercise 40. Find the value of x correct to four decimal places:

4
Analytic trigonometry: Part II
A direct consequence of this result is the following 1:
Corollary 3. If x is a real number, then
cos(2x) = cos2 (x) − sin2 (x) (4.0.1)

sin(2x) = 2 sin(x) cos(x) (4.0.2)
In particular,
cos(2x) = 2 cos2 (x) − 1(x) (4.0.3)

= 1 − 2 sin2 (x), and (4.0.4)
sin(2x) = 2 sin(x) cos(x) (4.0.5)
Thus we obtain the so called “doublé angle formulas”:
1 + cos(2x)
cos2 (x) = (4.0.6)
2
1 − cos(2x)
sin2 (x) = (4.0.7)
2
Example 4. Prove: sin(x) cos(y) = 21 [sin(x + y) + sin(x − y)]. In fact, sin(x + y) + sin(x − y) =
(sin(x) cos(y) + cos(x) sin(y)) − (sin(x) cos(y) − cos(x) sin(y)) = 2 sin(x) cos(y).
Example 5. Prove: cos(x) cos(y) = 12 [cos(x + y) + cos(x − y)]. Note, cos(x + y) + cos(x − y) =
(cos(x) cos(y) − sin(x) sin(y)) + (cos(x) cos(y) + sin(x) sin(y)) = 2 cos(x) cos(y).
1A “corollary” is a result that follows directly, either from the proof of the given theorem or from the theorem itself,
needing little or no proof.)
29
Page 30 4. ANALYTIC TRIGONOMETRY: PART II
Example 6. Prove: tan2 (x) + 1 = sec2 (x). Note,
sin2 (x)
tan2 (x) + 1 = +1
cos2 (x)
sin2 (x) + cos2 (x)
=
cos2 (x)
1
=
cos2 (x)
= sec2 (x).
Example 7. Prove:
tan(x) + tan(y)
tan(x + y) = ,
1 + tan(x) tan(y)
if the denominator of the expression is not zero.
Note: in order to economize on the use of parenthesis, we will write from now on sin x for sin(x),
tan x, for tan(x) and so on. Of course, at times the use of parenthesis is unavoidable, like in
tan(x + y).
4.1 Law of sines and law of cosines
Figure 4.1: Law of sines
In this section we discuss the law of sines and the law of cosines, two central results of trigonometry.
In Figure 4.1.1 a triangle ABC labeled in our conventional way is shown, that is to say, vertices
are labelled with upper case latin letters, the internal angles corresponding to these vertices are
labelled with the lowercase Greek letters corresponding to the vertices and the opposite sides to the
4. ANALYTIC TRIGONOMETRY: PART II Page 31
vertices of the triangle are labeled with the corresponding lower case Latin letters. The first result
of this section is the following:
Theorem 4 (Law of Sines). If ABC is a triangle with internal angles α, β, γ corresponding to

vertices A, B and C respectively, then
a b c
= = = 2R, (4.1.1)
sin α sin β sin γ
where R is the radius of the circle that circunscribes triangle ABC.
Note: In the statement of the Law of Sines it is stated that there is a circle that circumscribes the
given triangle, that is to say, that there is a circumference that contains all three vertices of triangle
ABC. In fact, the Law makes a reference to the radius of the circle that circumscribes the triangle.
In Exercise 67 it is indicated how to construct this circle.
Figure 4.2: Proof of the Law of Sines
Proof. We refer in this proof to Figure 4.2. In it we have drawn ABC and its circumscribed circle
with center O and diameter EOB measuring 2R units. Note that if C is any point on the circle on
the same side of segment AB, then angle γ doesn’t change its measure since it always subtends the
same arc of the circle. When C coincides with E, then triangle ABC is a right triangle with right
angle at A, since, in that case, A subtends an arc that consists of half a circumference. In this case,
triangle E AB has a right angle at A with hypotenuse E B measuring 2R. From this we conclude
c
sin γ = .
2R
The other angles of the triangle are treated in an analogous fashion.
Theorem 5 (Law of Cosines). Consider triangle ABC (See Figura ??). Then,
a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos α.
Note: Explain why this Theorem is a generalization of Pythagoras’s Theorem, that is to say,
Pythagoras’ Theorem is a special case of the Law of Cosines. The Law of Cosines has analogous
statements ofr the other internal angles of the triangle. We get, in fact, several versions of the
Theorem:
a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos α.
b2 = a2 + c2 − 2ac cos β.
c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos γ.
Proof. The proof will make use of Figure 4.3 in which we have taken a triangle ABC and we
have placed it in a coordinate system in which vertex A coincides with the origin of the coordinate
system, side AB lies on the nonnegative side of the x axis and angle α lies on the first quadrant. If
Figure 4.3:
we calculate the distance between the points C and B we get (here we write |CB| for the length of
segment CB):
a2 = |CB| 2
= (b cos α − c) 2 + (b sin α) 2
= b2 cos2 α − 2bc cos α + c2 + b2 sin2 α
= b2 + c2 − 2bc cos α.
This completes the proof.

Example 8. A triangle ABC has an angle measuring 88◦ between two sides of lengths 12 and 15
units. Determine the other angles of the triangle and the remaining side.
Solution: Note that it follows from the Law of Cosines that the remaining side a is
a2 = 122 + 152 − 2(12)(15) cos 83◦

= 144 + 225 − 360 cos 83◦
= 325.127036337415, por lo tanto,
√
a = 325.127036337415 = 18.0313.
The other angles are determined by using the Law of Sines: sin γ/15 = sin α/a = sin 83◦ /16.7083 =
0.156684. Hence sin γ = 15×0.825686. This says γ = 55.6581◦ . Finally, β = 180−83−55.6581 =
41.3410.
4.2 Trignometric Functions and their Graphs
Figure 4.4: Plane Translations

Figure 4.5: Graphs and Transformations of the PLane
4.2.1 Plane Transformations

If y = f (x) is a function with a graph like the one shown (among others) in Figure 4.5. We shall
assume, also, that point (x 0, y0) is an arbitrary point of the plane. A translation is a function
T that transforms the points of the plane into themselves such that T[(x, y)] = (x + x 0, y + y0 )
for every point of the plane (x, y). The first coordinate of the image of the transformation gets
moved to the right and the second coordinate of the point gets moved up (if x 0 and y0 are positive).
Remember that the graph of y = f (x) consists of all points on the plane (x, y) that satisfy the
relation y = f (x). We can write this relation employing the usual notation for representing sets:
Graf( f ) = {(x, y) | f (x) = y}. If we consider the translation defined before, then a point in the
graph of f , say (x, f (x)) gets translated into the point (x + x 0, f (x) + y0 ). If we write T[Graf( f )]
to represent the set of all points that come from some translation by T of some point of the plane,
then
T[Graf( f )] = {(x + x 0, y + y0 ) | (x, y) ∈ Graf( f )}

= {(x + x 0, f (x) + y0 ) | x ∈ Dom( f )};
here Dom( f ) represents the domain of function y = f (x). If we define new variables u = x+x 0 y v =
f (x)+y0 then, it is clear that, as x varies in the set Dom( f ), u varies in the set {x+ x 0 | x ∈ Dom( f )}.
We shall (perhaps, abusing the notation somewhat) suggestively write this set as Dom( f ) + x 0 In a
similar fashion, variable v itself varies in the set f [Dom( f )] = { f (x) | x ∈ Dom( f )} + y0 . It goes
without saying that the set f [Dom( f )] is known as the set of images of the function y = f (x. All
this goes to show that
T[Graf( f )] = {(u, v) | u ∈ Dom( f ) + x 0 , y v ∈ f [Dom( f )]}

= {(u − x 0, v − y0 ) | u ∈ Dom( f ), y v ∈ f [Dom( f )]
= {(u, v) | u ∈ Dom( f ), y v ∈ f [Dom( f )] − {(x 0, y0 )}
= T[Graf( f )] − {(x 0, y0 )}
Our suggestive notation should make Figure 4.4 more familiar. Note that this says that the
translation T[(x, y)] = (x + x 0, y + y0 ) takes the graph of y = f (x) on the plane and transforms it
onto the graph of y − y0 = f (x − x 0 ). In other words, to obtain the graph of y − y0 = f (x − x 0 )
we take the graph of y = f (x), move it horizontally to the right x 0 units and y0 units up (the sign is
important here, −3 units to the right are 3 unis to the left).
All trigonometry students should be able to make a quick plot of the basic trigonometric functions,
showing zeroes as well as its maxima and minima on any suitable interval containing a complete
cycle of its period. In the rest of this manual we shall invest our efforts in understanding better the
graphs of trigonometric functions.
4.2.2 Graphs of the sine, the cosine and the tangent functions
Figure 4.6: Graph of y = sin x
To plot the graph of y = sin x we can imagine that we have a circle in which we have marked the
trigonometric points that correspond to the following angles in radians: 0, π/2, π, 3π/2 y 2π. Then
we add the points in the graph of y = sin x that correspond to the following additional values:
x = π/6, π/4, π/3, 2π/3, 3π/4, 5π/6, 7π/6, 5π/4, 4π/3, 7π/4 y 11π/6. This is a quick way to repre-
sent a plot of the graph and see its general appearance on the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π. We can also use
the fact that sin x = sin(x + 2π), valid for all real values of x, to extend the graph to other points
and other intervals of length 2π. Since cos x = sin(x + π/2) for all real x, given our discussion
about translations on the plane and their relations to with the graphs of functions, we can take the
graph of y = sin x and displace it π/2 units to the left to get the graph of y = cos x.
Figure 4.7: Gráph of y = cos x
In the case of the function y = tan x, it is important to realize that it is not defined for all values
of x. Since tan x = cos x , the tangent function is not defined for the values of x such that cos x = 0,
sin x
that is to say, when x = (2n+1)π

2 where n is any integer whatsoever (this is a quick way and conclusive
way to say that x cannot take on values that are odd multiples of π2 . It is also useful to ask about the
behavior of the tangent close to these excluded values. Perhaps, the first surprise we experience is
one related to the period of the tangent:
sin(x + π)
tan(x + π) =
cos(x + π)
− sin x
=
− cos x
= tan x.
Figure 4.8: Graph of y = tan x
In particular, this says that the tangent has a period which is less or equal to π (remember that
the período is the smallest value p > 0 such that tan(x + p) = tan x for all possible values of x
in Dom(tan), that is to say, in the domain of the tangent function. We will now plot the graph of
y = tan x for values − π2 ≤ x ≤ π2 . In order to have additional information regarding the graph
of this function, we ask you to observe that if x belongs to the interval − π2 < x < π2 and is close
to the end points of the interval, you can observe an interesting behavior of the tangent function
values. Note that if x < π2 and x is close to π2 , then the denominator of y = tan x = cos
sin x
x is positive
and close to zero, while its numerator is close to 1. Hence, tan x is a large positive number. This
behavior is expressed as follows:
lim tan x = +∞.

x→ π2 +
The“+” sign to the right of π2 indicates that we are getting close to π/2 while coming from the left.
An analogous reasoning shows also that
lim tan x = −∞,

x→ π2 −
with a similar interpretation. We say taht the vertical lines y = −π/2 and y = π/2 are vertical
assymptotes of the graph of y = tan x. Furthermore, the graph of y = tan x repaeats each interval
of length π.
Figure 4.9: Graph of y = tan x
4.2.3 Graphs of the cosecant, secant and cotangent functions
Analogous considerations to the ones discussed in the case of the tangent function show that the
following are the graphs for the trigonometric co-functions. We include a synopsis of the properties
of the corresponding graphs. We draw the graphs in some interval with length equal to the period of
the corresponding function, but you should remember that all graphs are periodic and their graphs
repeat on each suitable translation of the original interval chosen to represent each one of the
graphs. One last comment regarding a vocabulary the student must be able to use in relation to this
topic. Two trigonometric functions are co-functions of each other, if the value of one of the functions
for a real number α is the value of the other function for the complementary angle of measure (in
radians) π2 − α. In the Exercises 68, 69 and 70 you will be asked to show that each function of each
the pair of functions (sin, cos), (tan, cot) and (sec, csc) is a co-function of the other.
Graph of the cosecant
In Figure 4.10 you can see the graph of the function csc on the interval −π ≤ x ≤ π. Note that the
lines x = − π2 , x = 0 and x = π2 are vertical asymptotes of the secant function. In other words, the
Figure 4.10: Graph of y = csc x
points on the graph of y = csc x get progressively close to the lines x = − π2 , x = 0 and x = π2 :
lim x→−π+ csc x = −∞,

lim csc x = −∞,
x→0−
lim csc x = +∞ y
x→0+
lim csc x = +∞.
x→π−
Graph of the secant function
Figure 4.11: Graph of y = sec x
In Figure 4.11 we can see a graph of the secant function plotted for all the points on the interval
−π ≤ x ≤ π for which the function is defined. Of course, the interval we choose for the plot is
conventional and other intervals are possible. Making a similar analysis as that we went through
in the case of the graph y = sec x = cos1 x we discover that the graph has two vertical asymptotes on
this interval, namely, x = −π and x = π. We write in this case,
lim csc x = −∞,

x→− π2 −
lim csc x = +∞,

x→− π2 +
lim csc x = +∞ y
x→ π2 −
lim csc x = −∞.

x→ π2 +
Graph of the cotangent function
We leave you the task to explain the asymptotes of the graph in terms of limits and indicate the
behavior of the graph around its asymptotes.
Figure 4.12: Graph of y = cot x
4.3 Amplitude, periodicity and phase displacement: graph of

the function y = A sin(αx + β)
Figure 4.13: Gráfica de y = cot x
A function y = f (x) is periodic if there is a positive number p such that for each x ∈ Dom( f )
we have x + p ∈ Dom( f ) and f (x + p) = f (x). If p is the smallest number with this property,
we say that p is the period of y = f (x). It is easy to see that if y = f (x) has period P and
y = f (αx) is defined for all x ∈ Dom( f ), where α is a real number different from zero, then the
function y = f (αx) is periodic with period P/|α|. We leave the details of the latter statement to
the interested reader. It is known to us that the sine, the cosine and the cosecant and the secant
are periodic functions of period 2π.The tangent and the cotangent are functions periodic functions
of period π. Thus, for example, y = sin(2x) and y = cos(−2x) are periodic functions of period π
(= 2π/2); see Figure 4.13.
4.3.1 Graph of y = A sin(αx + β)

We shall apply what we have learned so far to make quick but accurate plot of the graph of the function
y = A sin(αx + β), where we choose (without loss of generality) A and α positive (if A were negative
and α positive, then the given function can be written as y = −| A| sin(αx), and this is a graph of the
tipe discussed, in fact, its graph is a reflection on the x axis of the graph of y = | A| sin(αx). If, α is
also negative, then y = A sin(αx) can be written as y = −| A| sin(−|al pha|x) = | A| sin(|al pha|x)
and this is a graph with both parameters of interest positive. We thus supposse that for this discussion
A > 0 and α > 0.
To make a plot of the kind we want we pay special attention to three central issues: the amplitude
of the graph, periodicity interval of the graph and the reference points of the graph. Here is an
itemized discussion of each one of these issues.
Amplitude: A function y = f (x) is bounded provided there is a constant A > 0 such that | f (x)| ≤ A
for all x ∈ Dom( f ). If y = f (x) is bounded, there is always a value of A that satisfies the stated
condition and has a smallest possibble value. This value is the amplitude of the function y = f (x).
The sine and the cosine functions satisfy | sin x| ≤ 1 and | cos x| ≤ 1 for all real x. Hence, by defi-
nition, the sine and cosine functions are bounded and the minimum possible values of the bounding
constant, in this case, is 1. Thus, the amplitude of the sine and the cosine functions is, in each
case, 1. Since the tangent and the secant functions are not bounded, none of these functions has an
amplitude2.
Interval of periodicity: For trigonometric functions any interval whose length is the period of the
function is, by definition an interval of periodidicty. If we know the graph of a periodic function on
an interval of periodicity we can reconstruct the function graph on all of its domain by translating
the graph of the function on the given interval. It should be clear to the reader that a periodic
function has an infinite number of intervals of periodicity. In the case of the trigonometric functions
we have conveniently chosen those intervals as −pi ≤ x ≤ π o 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π for the sine, the cosine,
the secant and the cosecant functions and one of the intervals −π/2 ≤ x ≤ π/2 or 0 ≤ x ≤ π for
the tangent or the cotangent.
Reference plot points: The phrase refers to points in the graph of a function helpful in constructing
a complete graph of the function. One needs to have an idea of amplitude, periodicity behavior
2If y = f (x) is a bounded trigonometric function, there are constants A and B such that A ≤ f (x) ≤ B for all
x ∈ Dom( f ). It can be shown that the amplitude of y = f (x) is B − A. All this goes to show that there are two
stories about the boundedness of functions one “above” and another one “below”, and that for non periodic functions
amplitude is a notion open to several definitions. For trigonometric functions these definitions all coincide.
around asymptotes, etc. for any trigonometric function and these reference plot points will be
helpful in attaining such an end. For instance, choosing the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π as an interval of
periodicity for the sine, we can take the points of the graph corresponding to the values needed for
dividing the periodicity interval in four equal parts. That is to say, the values 0, π/2, π, 3π/2, 2π;
the function values at these points of the domain are, in order, 0, 1, 0, −1, 0. In fact, we think of the
functional values of the sine as beginning at 0, then increasing all the way to 1, attained at π/2,
then diminishing in value all the way down to zero at the domain value π, continuing to diminish to
reach the value −1 at 3π/2, and finally, increasing to 0, value attained at the domain value 2π.
We now revisit our discussion of the graph of y = A sin(αx + β), where A and α are non zero
real numbers and β is any real number. We want to get a quick but accurate plot of the graph
of y = A sin(αx + β) . We can easily solve this problem given what we already now about
trigonometric functions. In fact, if we have the graph of y = sin x in a periodicity interval, say
0 ≤ x ≤ 2π, then the graph of interest assumes as maximum and minimum values A and −A
respectively and has a period of 2π/α. In other words, the reference plot points occur at the domain
points 0, π/2α, πα, 3π/2α, 2π/α. Finally, the complete graph of A sin(αx + β) = A sin(α(x + αβ ))
can be gotten, as we have seen, by translating αβ units to the left the graph of y = A sin(αx).
Example 9. Make a plot of the graph of y = 4 sin(5x − 3).
Figure 4.14: Example
In Figure 4.14 we see the final result of the plot of the graph of the given fucntion. We ask you to
read the explanation that follows, always comparing the plot obtained at each stage with the graphs
on Figure 4.14. The graph of departure is, clearly, the graph of y = sin x, so that the amplitude is
1 and the interval of periodicity taken is, as before, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π. Note that the four domain values
of interest, in this case, are 0, π/2, π, 3π/2 y 2π which have been plotted on the x axis and that the
properties of the function y = sin x are correct with respect to such domain values. We next observe
that the graph of y = 4 sin x (not plotted) is an enlargement by a factor of 4 of the graph of the sine
function. Now, the graph of y = 4 sin 3x has periodicity 2π/3. Identify the graph in Figure 4.14.
Note that the period is 2π/3 and the periodicity interal is 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π/3; see Figure 4.15.
Figure 4.15: Periodicity interval
Finally, since y = 4 sin(3x − 5) = 4 sin(3(x − 53 )), we see that if the graph of y = 4 sin(3x) is
displaced 5/3 units to the left we get the plot of the desired graph. This can be seen in Figure 4.14.
The interval of periodicity for the final function is shown in Figure 4.16.
Figure 4.16: Interval of periodicity
A little practice will show the reader that this is an easy and efficient method to produce quickly
plots of trigonometric graphs.
4.4 Chapter Exercises

Exercise 41. Calculate the exact value: tan π3
π
Exercise 42. Calculate the exact value of sin 12 by using two methods. First by using the double
1π π π
angle formulas and using the relation 2 6 = 12 and the second, by using the relation 12 = π3 − π4 and
using the sine addition formula. Convince yourself that both results represent the same real number.
Exercise 43. Prove: 1 + cot2 x = csc2 x.
Exercise 44. Prove:
tan x − tan y
tan(x − y) = ,
1 + tan x tan y
if the denominator is non zero.
Exercise 45. Prove:

2 tan x
tan(2x) = ,
1 + tan2 x
if the denominator is non zero.
Prove:
1
sin x sin y = [cos(x − y) − cos(x + y)].
2
Exercise 46. Express in radians: 900◦ .
Exercise 47. Express in degrees: 3π

8 radianes.
Exercise 48. Find the length of the subtended chord by a central angle of π/12 radians in a circle
of radius 36 cm.
Exercise 49. What is the length of the arc subtended by a central angle of 72 degrees in a circle of
radius 10 cm?
Exercise 50. What is the central angle that subtends an arc of 1 meter in a circle of radius 1.5
meters?
Exercise 51. Find the exact values of all the trigonometric ratios of 5π/6.
Exercise 52. Find the exact values of all the trigonometric ratios of 11π/4.
Exercise 53. Find the remaining trigonometric ratios of x if sin x = 3/5 and 0 < x < π/2.
Exercise 54. Find the remaining trigonometric ratios of x if sec x = −1.5 y π/2 < x < π.
Exercise 55. Find the remaining trigonometric ratios of x if csc x = −4/3 y 3π/2 < x < 2π.
Exercise 56. A right triangle has a hypotenuse of 10 cm and one of the acujte angles measures 35◦ .
What is the lenth of the side of the trianlgle opposite to the angle measuring 35◦ ?
Exercise 57. Prove:
tan2 x − sin2 x = tan2 x sin2 x.
Exercise 58. Prove:
sec y − cos y = tan y sin y.
Exercise 59. Prove:

1 1
+ = 2 sec2 x.
1 − sin x 1 + sin x
Exercise 60. Prove:

sin x
= csc x + cot x.
1 − cos x
Exercise 61. Prove:
sin(x + y)
tan x + tan y = .
cos x cos y
Exercise 62. If sin x = 13 y sec y = 5

4 and x, y correspond to trigonometric points on the first
quadrant, Find cos(x + y) and csc 2y.
Exercise 63. Find all values of x such that 0 ≤ x < 2π and 2 cos x − 1 = 0.
Exercise 64. Find all values of x such that 0 ≤ x < 2π and | tan x| = 1.
Exercise 65. Find all values of x such that 0 ≤ x < 2π and 2 cos x + sin 2x = 0.
Exercise 66. Prove: The triangle with sides a, b and included angle θ has area A given by the
following relation:
ab sin θ
A= .
2
Exercise 67. Show that the angle bisectors of the internal angles of any triangle intersect at a point
equidistant from the vertices of the triangle. Conclude that this point is the center of the circle that
circumscribes the triangle. [Hint: Take two of the bisectors and from the point of intersection of
these bisectors draw draw the segment to the third vertex. Show that the drawn segment bisects the
third internal angle.]
Exercise 68. Show that each of the sine and the cosine functions is a co-functions of the other.
Exercise 69. Show that the tangent and the cotangent are co functions one of the other.
Exercise 70. Show that the secant and the cosecant are co functions one of the other.
5
Appendix: Numbers, rational and irrational
5.1 The rational numbers

We have seen how long division of integers lead to decimal expressions of fractions. For instance,
if we divide 1 by 2 we obtain .5, the decimal expansion of the fraction 1/2. We remark in passing
that this is an example of a fraction that can be expressed as a finite decimal: 21 = 0.5. If we were
to try the same procedure to get a decimal representation for 1/3, by using long division to divide
1 by 3, we notice that the division seems to “never end”. What we get is a division that at each step
3 = 0.333 · · · . From now on we will write infinite decimals that have repeating blocks of digits by
1
placing a bar over the block of digits that gets repeated. For instance, f rac13 = 0.3 is an alternate
way of writing 0.333 · · · . Certainly, there are many ways of doing this, for instance 0.33 is another
one, and there are others. We have seen that 1/2 has a finite decimal expansion, namely 0.5; but it
also has an infinite decimal expansion, namely, 21 = 0.49. The decimal with all of its digits equal
to zero is a decimal representation of zero. Another important point is related to the fact that all
decimal expansions obtained by using the method of long division, yield either repeating or periodic
decimals. This is easy to see, in fact. If we think of the long division process applied to a fraction
a/b (a, b non negative integers with b > 0), we see that the process consists of successive divisions
in which the remainder has to be a digit smaller than the divisor (the denominator of the fraction
b). Hence, since the possible remainders are numbers in the set {0, 1, 2, · · · b − 1}, it is clear that
the number of divisions possible without repetition is the number of elements in this set, namely, b.
As we shall soon discuss, the numbers of mathematics are of the form N + 0.d 1 d 2 d 3 · · · d n d n+1 · · ·
where d 1, d 2, d 3, · · · are digits, that is, integers from 0 to 9. As we shall see, an infinite decimal
0.d 1 d 2 d 3 · · · is periodic if there is a positive integer p and an index k ≥ 1 such that d k+p = d k for
all k ≥ k 0 (remember, we have ruled out the decimal with all its digits equal to zero as an infinite
decimal). A decimal is finite if its digits are all zero from some point on. We have:
Theorem 6. Let a, b be non negative integers with a < b and b > 0.
i. The fraction a/b can be written as a finite or an infinite decimal.
ii. Every finite decimal of a non zero fraction can be written as an infinite decimal.
47
Page 48 5. APPENDIX: NUMBERS, RATIONAL AND IRRATIONAL
Figure 5.1: Long division
iii. A number of the form N + 0.d 1 d 2 d 3 · · · where N is an integer and d 1, d 2, d 3, · · · are digits, is
the decimal expansion of a fraction if and only if the decimal 0.d 1 d 2 d 3 · · · is periodic.
iv. There are real numbers whose decimal expansions are not periodic. These numbers are not
rational numbers.
For a proper proof of Theorem 6 requires a significant understanding of the theory of limits
which is the realm of calculus. For this reason, we have no intention of presenting a detailed
demonstration of this result. We will, however, discuss informally the ideas of the proof as we
believe that there is something to be gained from that exercise. Firstly, we interpret our decimal
notation in terms of finite sums whose “limits” we take. We begin by reminding the student that
the term “digit” is reserved to designate integers d whose values could range from 0 to 9. A finite
decimal is an object we all understand. For instance, 12 = 0.5 = 10 , 4 = 0.25 = 10
5 1 2
+ 1052 = 100
25
and so on. The first interesting question is the following: what is the meaning of the expression
0.d 1 d 2 d 3 · · · in the case of an infinite decimal? Clearly, for each n ≥ 1,
d1 d2 dn
0.d 1 d 2 d 3 · · · d n = + 2 +···+ n
10 10 10
9 9 9
≤ + 2 + ··· + n.
10 10 10
These sums are common in mathematics and they are, in fact, sums of the terms of a geometric
sequence. A geometric sequence is a sequence of the form ar, ar 2, ar 3 · · · , that is to say, a sequence
for which each term is obtained from the previous one by multiplying by a fixed factor that we call
the ratio of the sequence. For any geometric sequence the ratio of a given term divided by the
previous one is the quantity we have called the ratio. In our case, a = 9 y r = 10 1
. Considering the
5. APPENDIX: NUMBERS, RATIONAL AND IRRATIONAL Page 49
proposed sum, with n ≥ 1 an integer:

a a a
Sn = + 2 + ··· + n.
10 10 10
Note that
1 a a a
Sn = 2 + 3 + · · · + n+1
10 10 10 10
a
= Sn+1 − .
10
Thus
a
1− n
a 10
Sn =
19
1
1−
10
From this simple work we can infer several interesting conclusions. First, if we let n become
arbitrarily large (we say, actually if we let n go to infinity, then, since the quantity 1 − 10an+1 gets
progressively closer to 1 (why?), we see then, that there is a number S(called limit) to which the
sums Sn get progressively closer as n goes to infinity. We write S = limn→∞ Sn . Also,
a
S= 10
1
1−
10
a
a
= 10 = .
9 9
10
Note, in particular, that if a = 9, then S = 1, that is to say, 0.9 = 1. In particular, if 12 = 0.5, then
our work shows that 0.09 = 10 1
0.9 = 10
1
.Thus, 12 = 0.5 = 0.4 + .1 == .4 + 101
= 0.4 + 0.9 = 0.49.
This reasoning always work; for example, 2.419 = 2.42 and 3.3339 = 3.334. In other words an
unending block of nines correspond to adding 1 to the digit that precedes the block of nines.
All numbers that can be written in the form N + r where r is a periodic decimal form a numeric
set known as the rational numbers and, as a set, it is represented as Q. The operations that we
will study on the set Q is ordinary addition and multiplication of fractions. As infinite decimals
can be approximated by finite ones, the properties of the usual operations on fractions (which are
particularly simple for finite decimals) can be extended to Q by using limits. On the other hand, we
now show that that a periodic decimal represents a fraction. For instance, if x = 7.89123, then
100x = 789.123, y
x = .123.
Page 50 5. APPENDIX: NUMBERS, RATIONAL AND IRRATIONAL
Subtracting the expressions we have,
99x = 789, y
789 263
x= = .
99 33
The argument, by the way, is a completely general one.
5.1.1 Existence of irrational numbers

Long division allow us to show that if x ∈ Q, then there is a sequence of digits (integers from zero
to nine), d 1, d 2, d 3, · · · , d n · · · such that for each n ≥ 1,
d1 d2 d3 dn 1
0≤ + 2 + 3 + · · · + n < n−1 . (5.1.1)
10 10 10 10 10
The important fact that the student should remember is the mathematical statement that asserts the
existence of a number system R with the property that if any sequence of digits d 1, d 2, d 3, · · · , d n · · ·
satisfies 5.1.1, then
d1 d2 d3 dn 1
+ 2 + 3 + · · · + n < n−1 · · · , is a number in R,
10 10 10 10 10
and this happens whether the digits are periodic or not. In fact, there are many sequences of digits
d 1, d 2, d 3, · · · , d n · · · that satisfy 5.1.1 and do not represent any periodic decimal. This important
condition can be stated in many mathematical equivalent forms. We subsume this property by
saying that the numerical system R is complete. For instance, x = 112123123412345123456 · · ·
is an irrational number, that is to say, x < Q. In fact, in some specific mathematical sense that
can be defined with all precision and formality, the number system R constitutes an algebraic
system in which every number can be approximated as much as desired by using rational numbers.
It is impossible to exaggerate the importance of the real numbers in mathematics as well as the
inadequacy of the rational numbers to serve as a vehicle for mathematical exploration and research.
6
Appendix: Complex Numbers and De

Moivre’s Theorem
6.1 Complex Numbers

In this appendix R will represent the algebraic system of the real numbers, that is to say, the set of
numbers of the form N + r where N is an integer, r a number with an infinite decimal expansion,
finite or not, periodic or not. In fact, the system (R, +, ·, <) is an example of an algebraic structure
called an Archimedian ordered field with the additional property of completeness. This means:
i. The addition operation + is associative and commutative in R; there is an element 0 ∈ R with

the property that for each real number x, x + 0 = 0 + x = x; all x ∈ R have an additive inverse,
that is, there is a real number −x ∈ R such that x + (−x) = (−x) + x = 0 (we say that −x the
additive inverse of x.
ii. The multiplication operation · is associative and commutative; there is an element 1 ∈ R such
that for all x ∈ R we have x · 1 = 1 · x = x; all real x , 0, has a multiplicative inverse, that
is to say, there is some x −1 ∈ R (called the reciprocal or multiplicative inverse of x such that
x · x −1 = x −1 · x = 1
iii. Multiplication distributes over addition, that is to say, for all x ∈ R, y ∈ R and z ∈ R,
x · (y + z) = (x · y) + (x · z). Here we have written some superfluous parenthesis avoidable if we
follow the usual convention regarding the precedence of multiplication over addition. With this
convention the last relation (called the distributive law) can be written as: x · (y+z) = x · y+ x · z.
we also omit sometimes the dot that indicates multiplication and a mere juxtaposition of two
variables representing real numbers is taken to mean multiplication. These with all previously
defined properties define a field
iv. The order in x ∈ R, y ∈ R satisfies the condition of trichotomy (for any pair of real numbers
x, y) one and only one of the following holds: x < y, x = y or y < x; for all x, y, z ∈ R, if
x < y then x + z < y + z; for all x, y, z ∈ R if x < y and 0 < z, then, if x < y, then xz < yz.
51
Page 52 6. APPENDIX: COMPLEX NUMBERS AND DE MOIVRE’S THEOREM
We define x ≤ y to mean that x < y or x = y; x ≥ y means y ≤ x. These and all the previous
properties define an ordered field.
These algebraic facts which can h advanced courses of mathematics will not be discussed any
further except to the extent already done. We imagine in that the student has invested some
time in learning the rules relating to the use of the operations of real numbers as well as those
rules applying to its order.
Furthermore, we assume too that
v. The system isArchimedean: That is to say, given x, y ∈ R with x > 0, there is an n ∈ N such
that nx > y. Here N is the set of natural numbers, that is to say, N = {0, 1, 2, 3 · · · }.
Finally,
vi. (R, +, ·, <) is complete, that is to say, every number in the interval 0 ≤ x < 1 has a unique
decimal expansion. Furthermore, every sequence of digits represents a unique real number.
There is a standard way of defining to operations on the plane that transforms it into a special
type of field. First, the plane is defined as the set C = R × R = {(x, y) | x ∈ R and y ∈ R}. With the
operations we are about to define we will call the plane the set of complex numbers. Note that we
do not regard point in the plane or complex numbers as different; they are both ordered pairs of
real numbers. These are the operations:
An addition operation defined by (u, v) + (w, z) = (u + w, v + z);
A multiplication operation defined by (u, v) · (w, z) = (uw − vz, uz + vw). In these definitions all
ordered pairs are complex numbers. The reader will have no difficulty in proving that both operations
are stable, that is to say, the sum and the product of two complex numbers is another complex
number. The complex number (0, 0) is an additive identity (that is to say, (u, v) = (u, v) + (0, 0)
for all (u, v) ∈ C); Each complex number (u, v) has an additive inverse −(u, v) and it is none other
than the complex number (−u, −v); The complex number (1, 0) is a multiplicative identity (that is
to say, if (u, v) is any complex number, then (u, v) · (1, 0)) = (u, v) for all (u, v) ∈ C) and every non
zero complex number (u, v) has a multiplicative inverse or reciprocal given by:
u −v
, ;
u2 + v 2 u2 + v 2
We leave the verification that the proposed expression for the reciprocal actually works. This
expression when multiplied by (u, v) yields (1, 0). You will note that the identification u 7→ (u, 0)
serves for identifying the real numbers as a subfield of C (a subset of C containing the additive and
multiplicative identities that satisfies the properties that define a field). In addition, if (u, v) ∈ C,
you can easily verify that (u, v) = (u, 0) + (v, 0) · (0, 1). If we identify the complex numbers of the
form (u, 0) with the real numbers u, and if we write i = (0, 1) and observe that (0, v) = (v, 0) · i,
then, the complex number (u, v) = (u, 0) + (v, 0) · i can be identified with the expression u + iv,
where u y v are real numbers. These numbers are added and multiplied as if they were binomials,
that is polynomials of two terms, always remembering that i 2 = (−1, 0), which we write as, i 2 = −1,
by virtue of the same identification. Note that the expression for the reciprocal of u + i · v is given by
−1 u v
u + iv = 2 −i 2 .
u +v 2 u + v2
6. APPENDIX: COMPLEX NUMBERS AND DE MOIVRE’S THEOREM Page 53
We subsume this information as follows::
i. The system of complex numbers {u + iv | u ∈ R y v ∈ R}, with addition and multiplication

defines as (u, v, u0, v 0 are real numbers)
(u + iv) + (u0 + iv 0 ) = (u + u0 ) + i(v + v 0 ), y

(u + iv) · (u0 + iv 0 ) = (uu0 − vv 0 ) + i(uv 0 + vu0 ).
With these operations (C, +, )˙ becomes a field, that is to say:
a. Sum and addition in the algebraic system (C, +, ·) are associative and commutative oper-
ations. If 0 = 0 + i · 0 then z + 0 = z for all z ∈ C. Also, if 1 = 1 + i · 0 then, for all
z = u + iv ∈ C, z · 1 = z and for all z = u + iv ∈ C, −z ≡ −u + i · (−v), is the additive inverse
of z, in other words, z + (−z) = (−z) + z = 0.
b. Multiplication in (C \ {0}, ·) is associative and commutative and every z = u + iv , 0 has a
multiplicative identity, namely,
u −v
(u + iv) −1 = +i 2 .
u2 +v 2 u + v2
c. If x, y y z are complex numbers,
x · (y + z) = xy + xz.
This is a statement of the distributive law.
6.2 Roots of complex numbers

From now on, we will write T to represent the unit circle, that is to say, T = {z ∈ C | |z| = 1}.
Note: We use T for Torus, a generic term used in mathematics to refer to circumferences and to the
surfaces they generate when the are subjected to various types of rotations.
The torus has some interesting properties.It is closed under the operation of multiplication of
complex numbers, that is to say, if u ∈ T and v ∈ T then uv ∈ T. In the rest of the present appendix
we will make use of the following principle:
Torus Principle: T consists of all the trigonometric points of the unit circle. This says that if z ∈ T,
then there is a real number θ, such that 0 ≤ θ < 2π s and the angle that measures θ radians, placed
in normal position on the unit circle has z on its terminal side.
. Conversely, for every real θ, P(θ) = cos θ + i sin θ ∈ T when we identify points in the plane as
complex numbers in the way recently discussed. Succinctly stated, T{cos θ + i sin θ | 0 ≤ θ < 2π}.
Henceforth we shall write cis θ for cos θ + i sin θ. Ti is clear that if z , 0, then z
|z| ∈ T and by the
Torus Principle, for some θ such that 0 ≤ θ < 2π,
z
= cis θ, , or equivalent,
|z|
z = |z| cis θ.
This is the polar representation of the complex number z. Since the correspondence θ 7→ P(θ)
establishes a one to one correspondence between the interval 0 ≤ x < 2π and the unit circle 1, the
polar representation is unique. The number θ in the representation is called the “argument” of z
and the number |z| is the “modulus” or absolute value of z.
Example√10. Find the polar form

√ of the complex number z = 3 + 4i. Note that the modulus of z
is |z| = (3 + 4i)(3 − 4i) = 25 = 5. The tangent of the segment that connects the origin with
the point in the plane that corresponds to 3 + 4i is 43 = 1 · 3, we see by means of a calculator that
θ = arctan(1 · 3) = 0.9273 radians or 53.1301◦ approximately.
Theorem 7. For each natural number n,
cisn (θ) = cis(nθ).
Proof. Clearly, cisn (θ) means (cis(θ)) n . The proof uses mathematical induction. It is clear that the
result is trivially true for the cases n = 0, 1. Suppose that the result is valid for some natural number
n. Then,
cisn+1 (θ) = cis(θ) cisn (θ)

= (cos θ + i sin θ) cisn (θ)
= (cos θ + i sin θ) cis(nθ) (using the inductive hypothesis)
= (cos θ + i sin θ)(cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ))
= (cos θ cos(nθ) − sin θ sin(nθ)) + i(sin θ cos(nθ) + cos θ sin(nθ))
= cos((n + 1)θ) + i sin((n + 1)θ)
= cis((n + 1)θ).
By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, the result holds all natural numbers.
Theorem 8. Let z ∈ C ans suppose z , 0 has argument θ. If n ≥ 1 is a natural number, then z has
n distinct root, namely,
1 θ + 2πk
w k = |z| n cis k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1.
n
Furthermore, if w and w0 are two distinct nth roots of z, then |w − w0 | ≥ 2|z| n sin πn .
1
1one to one correspondence means that the correspondence send different point on the interval to different points
on the unit circle and that every point in the circle is of the form P(θ) for some θ in the interval 0 ≤ x < 2π.
6. APPENDIX: COMPLEX NUMBERS AND DE MOIVRE’S THEOREM Page 55
Proof. Let z , 0 be a complex number. Then, z = |z| cis θ, where θ is the argument of z. If
w = r cis φ, where r > 0 and 0 ≤ φ < 2π is an nth root of z, then
w n = r n cisn (φ)
= r n cis(nφ)
= z,
where we have used Theorem 8. By the definition of the argument of a complex number, we
conclude that
θ + 2πk
φ= para k = 0, 1, 2, · · · n − 1.
n
Thus, the n distinct roots of z are
1
θ + 2πk
w k = |z| cis
n para k = 0, 1, 2, · · · , n − 1.
n
Finally, the n-th roots of z/|z| ∈ T corresponds to the regular n-gon inscribed in the unit circle, whose
side measures 2 sin(π/n). From this we conclude the remaining assertions of the Theorem.
6.3 Exercises
√
Exercise 71. Prove that if z and w are distinct cube roots of 1, then |z − w| ≥ 3.
In the following exercises find the polar form of the given complex numbers:
Exercise 72.
−1 + 3i
2 + 5i
Exercise 73.
√
3−i
Exercise 74.
√
(1 + i)( 3 − i)
Exercise 75.
1
1−i
Exercise 76. Find all the cube roots of 2.
Exercise 77. Find the three cube roots of 8.
Exercise 78. Calculate:
(1 + i) 20
Exercise 79. Find the five fifth roots of 32.
Exercise 80. If z = 1 + i, write 1

z in the form a + bi.
Exercise 81. (Optional exercise) Show that the fraction r = m,

n
where n and m are integers with
m > 0, satisfies cisr (θ) = cis(rθ).
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Trigonometry in Three Steps

Book · August 2019

Jorge M. López Fernández Omar Hernandez Rodriguez

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Disertación doctoral: Sentido numérico View project

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Omar Hernández Rodríguez & Jorge M. López Fernández

August 19, 2019

1 Trigonometry on the right triangle 7

2 Trigonometry on the unit circle 13

3 Analytic trigonometry: Part I 19

4 Analytic trigonometry: Part II 29

5 Appendix: Numbers, rational and irrational 47

6 Appendix: Complex Numbers and De Moivre’s Theorem 51

1.1 Triangle ABC with right angle at C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2.1 Circular sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

3.1 Proof of Lemma 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

4.1 Law of sines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

4.12 Graph of y = cot x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

5.1 Long division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

1.1 Special values: part I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2.1 Special values: measures in degrees and radians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

3.1 Special values: measurements in degrees and radians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Omar Hernández Rodríguez and Jorge M. López Fernández

August 26, 2018

• How to study mathematics

• How to use this book efficiently

How to study mathematics

Trigonometry of the right triangle

The three areas of trignometry

Figure 2: An angle α as a rotation.

Trigonometry on the right triangle

1.1 Trigonometric ratios

Figure 1.1: Triangle ABC with right angle at C

Theorem 1 (Pythagoras; see Figure 1.2).

1.1.1 The trigonometric ratios

1.1.2 Some special values of the trigonometric ratios

Figure 1.3: Isosceles triangle ABC with right angle at C

α 30◦ 45◦ 60◦

Table 1.1: Special values: part I

Figure 1.4: Triangle ABC equilateral

1.2 Chapter exercises

Here we write sin2 α in place of (sin α) 2 to economize on the use of parenthesis.

Table 1.2: Special values: part II

Exercise 5. Prove: sen(180 − α) = sin α.

Exercise 6. Prove: cos(180 − α) = − cos α.

Exercise 9. Prove: sin α + cos(90 − α) = 2 sin α.

Exercise 10. Prove: cos α + sin(90 − α) = 2 cos α.

Exercise 12. Prove: 1 + cot2 α = csc2 α.

Exercise 13. Prove: 1 + tan2 α = sec2 α.

Exercise 14. Prove: if α + β = 90, then sin α = cos β.

Exercise 15. Prove: if α + β = 90, then cos α = sin β.

Exercise 16. Calculate cos α if tan α = 1/2.

Figure 1.5: Use this figure for Exercise 20.

Trigonometry on the unit circle

2.1 Angles and rotations