PTC A, B1.1 & B2 Basic Notes - Sub Module 8.2 (Aerodynamics)
PTC A, B1.1 & B2 Basic Notes - Sub Module 8.2 (Aerodynamics)
PTC A, B1.1 & B2 Basic Notes - Sub Module 8.2 (Aerodynamics)
MODULE 8
Sub Module 8.2
AERODYNAMICS
INTRODUCTION
The most useful, non-mathematical method is an examination of The flow parameters (egg speed, direction, pressure etc) may
the flow pattern and pressure distribution on the surface of a vary from point to point in the flow but, at any point, are constant
wing in flight. This approach will reveal the most important with respect to time. This flow can be represented by
factors affecting the amount of lift produced, based on streamlines and is the type of flow which it is hoped will be
experimental (wind-tunnel) data. found over the various components of an aircraft. Steady
streamline flow may be divided into two types:
The pattern of the airflow round an aircraft at low speeds
depends mainly on the shape of the aircraft and its attitude Classic Linear Flow
relative to the free stream flow. Other factors are the size of the
aircraft, the density and viscosity of the air and the speed of the The flow found over a conventional aerofoil at low incidence in
airflow. These factors are usually combined to form a which the streamlines all more or less follow the contour of the
parameter known as Reynolds Number (R) and the airflow body and there is no separation of the flow from the surface.
pattern is then dependent only on shape, attitude and Reynolds
Number. The Reynolds Number (i.e. size, density, viscosity and
speed) and condition of the surface determine the
characteristics of the boundary layer. This, in turn, modifies the
pattern of the airflow and distribution of pressure around the
aircraft. When considering the velocity of the airflow it does not
make any difference to the pattern whether the aircraft is
moving through the air or the air is flowing past the aircraft: it is
the ‘relative velocity’’ which is the important factor.
Figure1: Linear Flow
Unsteady Flow
In this type of flow the flow parameters vary with time and the
flow cannot be represented by streamlines.
Two-Dimensional Flow
As the air flow round the aircraft its speed changes. In subsonic
flow a reduction in the velocity of the streamline flow is indicated
by an increased spacing of the streamlines whilst increasing
velocity is indicated by decreased spacing of the streamlines.
Associated with the velocity changes there will be
corresponding pressure changes.
The wing on an aircraft has a finite length (i.e. a wing tip) and, If the properties at all points of air flow are the same, the airflow
therefore, whenever it is producing lift the pressure differential is then known as a uniform flow. If the properties at all points of
tries to equalize around the wing tip. This induces a span-wise airflow are not the same then the airflow is known as a non-
drift of the air flowing over the wing, inwards on the upper uniform flow.
surface and outwards on the lower surface, producing a three-
dimensional flow. In viscid / Viscous Flow
Because the effect of the spilling at the wing tip is progressively If air is assumed to have no viscosity then airflow is referred
less pronounced from tip to root, then the amount of transverse to as an in viscid flow.
flow reduces towards the fuselage. As the upper and lower
airflows meet at the trailing edge they form vortices, small at the Incompressible/ Compressible Flow
wing root and larger towards the tip. These form one large
vortex in the vicinity of the wing tip, rotating clockwise on the If it is assumed that the air is incompressible then we call
port wing and anti-clockwise on the starboard wing; viewed from airflow as an incompressible flow.
the rear. Tip spillage means that an aircraft wing can never
produce the same amount of lift as an infinite span wing. If the Steady/Unsteady
wing has a constant section and angle of incidence from root to
tip then the lift per unit span of the wing may be considered to If the properties, at different points in airflow, do not change
be virtually constant until about 1.2 chord distance of the wing with time then airflow is said to be a steady flow. If the
tip. properties at different points in airflow do change with time the
airflow is said to be unsteady flow.
The overall size of the vortex at the trailing edge will depend on
the amount of the transverse flow. Therefore, the greater the Streamline
force (pressure difference) the larger it will be. The familiar
pictures of wing-tip vortices showing them as thin white streaks Streamline is an imaginary line in the flow on which the velocity
only show the low pressure central core and it should be vectors are always tangential.
appreciated that the influence on the airflow behind the trailing
edge is considerable.
BASIC AERODYNAMIC THEORY From which it may be seen that a reduction in cross-sectional
area will result in an increase in velocity and vice versa (venture
The shape of the aircraft (and boundary layer) will determine the tube). This equation enables the velocity changes round a
velocity changes and consequently the airflow pattern and given shape to be predicted mathematically.
pressure distribution. For a simplified explanation of why these
changes occur it is necessary to consider:
AV Constant
A V Constant
A
Bernoulli’s Theorem 2
P 12 V constant
Consider a gas in steady motion. It possesses the following
Where,
types of energy.
p = static pressure,
Potential energy due to height.
Heat energy. = density and
Pressure energy. V = flow velocity.
Kinetic energy due to motion.
The significance of this law will be recognized if it is translated
In addition work and heat may pass in or out of the system. into words:
Daniel Bernoulli demonstrated that in the STEADY
STREAMLINE FLOW of an IDEAL FLUID, the sum of the Static pressure + dynamic pressure = constant.
energies present remained constant. It is emphasized that the
words in italic represent the limitations of Bernoulli’s This constant is referred to as Total Head Pressure, stagnation
experiments. In low subsonic flow (<0.4M), it is convenient to pressure or piton pressure. It has already been stated that the
regard air as being incompressible and in viscid (i.e. ideal) and flow velocity is governed by the shape of the aircraft. From
predictions of the pressure changes round a given aerofoil Bernoulli’s Theorem (simplified) it is evident that an increase in
section agree closely with measured values. Above 0.4M, velocity causes a decrease in static pressure and vice versa.
however, these simplifications would cause large errors in
2
predicted values and are no longer permissible. In low subsonic DYNAMIC PRESSURE - 12 v , is commonly abbreviated to the
flow, Bernoulli’s Theorem may be simplified still further by simple expression q, particularly when calculations are not
assuming changes in potential energy and heat energy to be required, or the factors do not change.
insignificant and that there is no transfer of heat or work. For
practical purposes therefore, in the streamline flow of air round
a wing at low speed:
Skin Friction And Air Viscosity free stream may be no more than a few millimeters over a’ wing.
Laminar Flow
Turbulent Flow
Boundary Layer
Relative Airflow
In examining the flow of air around the aerofoil, assume that this
is a no-wind day. Any airflow, or wind, will be a relative wind,
that is, a wind created by the movement of an object through
still air. A relative wind flows opposite the direction of the object
in motion. The velocity of its flow around or over the object in
motion is the object's airspeed.
The structure, which makes flight possible, is the aerofoil. An It is the angle, which the chord line of the aerofoil section
aerofoil is technically defined as any surface, designed to makes with the relative wind direction. It is variable and will
obtain a useful reaction from the air through which it moves. depend on aircraft attitude and/or the wind direction.
Angle Of Incidence
The forward most part of the aerofoils, which strikes the airflow
first and where the speed of airflow is imagined to be zero for a
very short period of time is called the stagnation point.
Vortices
At the tip, the flow will rotate as shown. The greater the
pressure differences, the greater will be the rotation. Now flow
rotations are sometimes weak (eddies) or sometimes form
extremely strong vortices (as in hurricanes) and a feature is the
high kinetic energy (or rotation), but a low (static) core pressure.
The ratio between the chord and the maximum thickness of the c= chord length,
aerofoil (measured perpendicular to the chord line) is known as t = maximum thickness
the fineness ratio. In equation form it can be expressed as
follows:
Where,
c= chord length,
t = maximum thickness
GENERATION OF LIFT
Suppose a stream of air is flowing through the venturi tube streamlines come closer together, indicating that the velocity of
shown in Figure. The airflow at station 1 in the tube has a the flow is greater at that point.
certain velocity and static pressure. As the air stream
approaches the constriction at station 2, certain changes must
take place. According to the law of conservation of matter, the
mass flow at any point along the tube must be the same and the
velocity therefore the pressure must change to accommodate
this continuity of flow. As the flow approaches the convergent
section, the velocity must increase to maintain the same mass
flow. As the velocity increases, the static pressure will decrease.
In the figure c, the upper wall has been removed. The flow lines Angle of Attack and Lift
immediately adjacent to the bottom wall still follow the contour
and are spaced closely together. It is therefore indicated that A cambered aerofoil can produce lift at 0 degree AOA because
the velocity immediately adjacent to a curved surface will there is more cross-sectional area above the chord line than
increase. According to Bernoulli's principle, this increase will below it, resulting in a greater velocity and lower static pressure
bring about a similar decrease in pressure. of the airflow above the aerofoil. At 0° AOA, the airflow will divide
at the leading edge. With a positive angle of attack, such as is
The effect produced by a wing moving through the air is illustrated in Figure, the air flow no longer divides right at the tip
illustrated in figure. When the air strikes the leading edge of the of the leading edge but at a point farther down on the nose. The
wing, the air separates to flow over and below the wing. Some of point where the air flow divides is called the stagnation poin.t
the particles of airflow over the upper surface and some flow
under the lower surface, but all separating particles of air must
reach the trailing edge of the wing at the same time. Those
particles that pass over the upper surface have farther to go and
therefore must move faster than those passing under the lower
surface. In accordance with Bernoulli's principle, the increased
velocity above the wing results in a lower static pressure than
that existing below the wing.
According to Bernoulli's principle, this greater distance on the pressure gradient impedes the flow of the boundary layer. In the
top surface will result in the creation of lift. As the angle of area of adverse pressure gradient the boundary layer flow is
attack increases, the stagnation point moves farther down on impeded and tends to show a reduction in velocity next to the
the aerofoil. Therefore the pressure difference across the surface. If the boundary layer does not have sufficient kinetic
aerofoil is more. As the angle of attack is increased more lift will energy in the presence of the adverse pressure gradient, the
be generated. lower levels of the boundary layer may stagnate prematurely.
Airflow Separation
Extreme surface roughness on full-scale aircraft (due to surface Stall (Stall Angle)
damage, heavy frost, etc.) causes higher skin friction and
greater energy loss in the boundary layer. The lower energy Beginning with small angles of attack, the lift increases as the
boundary layer may cause a noticeable change in CLmax and angle of attack increases, until an angle of attack is reached
stall speed. In the same sense, vortex generators applied to the where the lift has a maximum value. This angle is the angle of
surfaces of a high-speed air plane may allay compressibility attack at which the streamline flow of air begins to breakdown
buffet to some degree. The function of the vortex generators is over the upper surface of the aerofoil and burbling begins at the
to create a strong vortex, which introduces high velocity, high- trailing edge of the aerofoil.
energy air next to the surface to reduce or delay the shock
induced separation. This breakdown and separation of the air flow is attributed to
the fact that as the stagnation point moves further down on the
These examples serve as a reminder that separation is the leading edge, the air flow over the top has an increasingly
result of premature stagnation of the boundary layer-insufficient longer path to travel. As air flows over a surface, a certain
kinetic energy in the presence of an adverse pressure gradient. amount of friction is developed. As the path gets longer, the
frictional force continues to build until the energy available in
the air stream is no longer sufficient to over come it .At this
point, the air flow will detach it self from the aerofoil.
With the loss of a smooth air flow over the top surface, The stalling speed of an air plane is the minimum speed
pressure is no longer being reduced to create lift. This angle of at which the wing will maintain lift.
attack is called the stalling angle. At angles greater than the
angle of maximum lift, the lift decreases rapidly. OTHER FACTORS AFFECTING LIFT
INDUCED DRAG
- The greater the lift produced the greater the induced drag
Generation Of Drag
1
D= ρV2SCD
2
AERODYNAMIC RESULTANT
One of the reasons for studying CP travel is that the CP is the Another aerodynamic reference point is the “aerodynamic
point at which the aerodynamic forces can be considered to be center”. The aero dynamic Center is defined as the point along
concentrated; therefore the air plane designer must make the chord where all changes in lift effectively take place.
provisions for the CP travel by preparing a wing structure that
will meet any stress imposed up on it. Technicians and The existence of such a point is evident by the change in
inspectors can not change the design, but they can perform pressure distribution with angle of attack for the symmetrical
their duties better if they know the characteristics and aero foil and lower surface lifts are equal and located at the
limitations of an airplane. same point. With an increase in angle of attack, the upper
surface lift increases. The change of lift has taken place with no
change in the center of pressure. In contrast for cambered aero
foil to produce zero lift, the upper and lower surface lifts must be
equal.
One difference noted from the symmetrical aero foil is that the
upper and lower surface lifts are not opposite one another.
While no net lift exists on the aero foil ,the couple produced by
the upper and lower surface lifts creates a nose down moment.
As the angle of attack is increased, the upper surface lift
increases while the lower surface lift decreases. While a change
in lift has taken place, no change in moment takes place about
the point where the lift change occurs. Since the moment
about the aerodynamic center is the product of a force (lift at the
c.p.) to and a lever arm (distance from c.p.to a.c.) an increase
in lift moves the center of pressure toward the aerodynamic
center.
It should be noted that the symmetrical aero foil at zero lift has
no pitching moment about the aero dynamic center because
the upper and lower surface lifts act along the same vertical line.
Figure 22: Center of Pressure variance An increase in lift on the symmetrical aero foil produces no
Skin Friction Drag Experiments have shown that not only the pressure at front of
the plate greater than that of the atmospheric pressure but also
The air flowing along the surface of the aero foil creates a the pressure aft of the plate is less than the atmospheric
frictional force on the body. This force is called skin friction pressure creating a sucking effect on the plate.
drag. Skin friction drag is caused by air passing over the
airplane’s surfaces, and it increases considerably if the airplane Streamlining of shapes reduces form drag by decreasing the
surfaces are rough and dirty. curvature of surfaces, delaying boundary layer separation and
thereby reducing eddying. By differing the fineness ratio better
streamlining can be achieved.(Thickness/chord)
Figure 11: Skin Friction and Form Drag Pressure drag and friction drag are both components of parasite
Form Drag drag. However, in calculating the total parasitic drag force of an
aircraft, another type of drag must also be considered. This type
This is caused by the resistance due to the fact that when a of drag is called interference drag.
viscous fluid flows past a body, the pressure on the forward
facing part is greater than that on the rearward-facing portion. Interference Drag
The pressure difference is due to airflow separation from the The interference in airflow at junction of two bodies creates an
surface and resultant formation of eddies which disturbs the additional drag, which is called the interference drag. Air flow
streamline flow. from the various surfaces of the aircraft meet and form a wake
behind the aircraft. The additional turbulence that occurs in the
An example of this resistance is a flat plate placed at right wake causes a greater pressure difference between the front
angles to the wind. The resistance is very large and almost and rear surfaces of the aircraft and therefore increases the
entirely due to the pressure difference between the front and drag.
rear faces, the skin friction being negligible in comparison.
Consider the aircraft as a whole ,the total drag is greater than
just the sum of the drag on individual components of the
- The more streamlined an object is, the less the parasite At a very high speed the total drag maybe entirely due to
drag; parasite drag. The predominance of parasite drag at high flight
speeds shows the need for aerodynamic clean lines to obtain
- The more dense the air moving past the airplane, the good performance.
greater the parasite drag;
About half the parasites drag on an aircraft may be due to the
- The larger the size of the object in the airstream, the greater wings. Any reduction in skin friction, form drag and interference
the parasite drag; drag from the wings can have a great effect in reducing the
overall parasite drag.
• As speed increases, the amount of parasite drag
increases. Total Drag
The drag incurred by an aero foil is the net-force Total drag is the sum of all the drag forces. On some occasions
produced parallel to the relative wind. we may talk of the total drag on the aircraft while on other
occasions we only refer to the total drag on the aero foil. As we
Parasite drag increases as airspeed is increased. At zero have seen the total drag has two components: -Parasite drag -
Induced drag If the graphs of each of these drags are combined
as they vary with air speed the resultant graph will illustrates the
variation of total drag with air speed for a given weight and
altitude. The parasite drag increases with speed. The induced
drag decreases with speed increase. The graph shows induced
drag is pre dominant at low speeds and Parasite drag Is
predominates at high speeds. The total drag is least at the point
where parasite and induced drag are equal. This is sometimes
known as minimum drag speed. In straight and level flight
lift=weight, Therefore at the point of minimum drag the wing will
be producing lift required to balance the weight, but with
minimum drag possible. Thrust is used to balance drag to
achieve steady straight and level flight. It can be seen from the
graph that high thrust will be required at both very high and low
airspeeds, and less thrust at intermediate speeds.
Drag Polar particularly those involved in the structural repair of aero foils,
and to others who may be interested in building their own
The overall or total drag coefficient CD = CDO + CDI, airplanes. Since the early days of aircraft research when the
Wright brothers tested aero foil shapes in a small wind tunnel,
Total drag coefficient CD = CDO + literally thousands of different aero foil shapes have been
developed and tested. These range from the types that operate
at low subsonic speeds to those designed for supersonic and
hypersonic speeds. In this chapter the basic element of aero foil
design and the characteristics that determine aero foils election
for different aircraft applications will be discussed.
Aerofoil Selection
INTRODUCTION
Aerofoil Characteristics
High lift sections employ a high thickness/chord ratio, a
The performance of an aerofoil is governed by its contour. pronounced camber, and a well-rounded leading edge: their
Generally, aerofoils can be divided into three classes: maximum thickness is about 25% - 30% of the chord behind the
leading edge.
High lift
General purpose The greater the camber, I e. the amount of curvature of the
High speed mean camber line, the greater the shift of Centre of pressure for
Typical examples of each are illustrated a given change in the angle of attack. The range of movement
of the CP is therefore large on a high lift section. This
movement can be greatly decreased by
reflexing upwards the trailing edge of the wing, but some lift is
lost as a result.
The lift coefficient (CL or CZ) is a dimension less coefficient The drag coefficient of any object comprises the effects of the
that relates the lift generated by an airfoil, the dynamic pressure two basic contributors to fluid dynamic drag: skin friction and
of the fluid flow around the airfoil, and the platform area of the form drag. The drag coefficient of a lifting airfoil or hydrofoil also
airfoil. It may also be described as the ratio of lift pressure to includes the effects of lift induced drag. The drag coefficient of a
dynamic pressure complete structure such as an aircraft also includes the effects
of interference drag.
The coefficient of lift is a measure of how efficiently the wing is
changing velocity in to lift. High coefficient-of-lift numbers The drag coefficient, like the coefficient of lift, is a measure of
indicate a more efficient aero foil design. The coefficient of lift is how efficient the wing is. However, while a higher number is
a function of desirable for lift coefficients, a low drag coefficient number
indicates a more efficient aerofoil. Similarly to the coefficient of
- The aerofoil shape and lift, the coefficient of drag varies with the angle of attack. For
- The angle of attack. example, a certain aerofoil has a CD of 0.11 at a 4° angle of
attack, but at a 16° angle of attack it has a CD of 0.24.
For a given shape, the coefficient of lift varies with the angle of
attack; therefore, when the fundamental equation for lift is used
the angle of attack must be specified to make the computation WING SHAPES
meaningful. A certain aerofoil may have a CL of 0.4 at a 4°
angle of attack and a CL of 1.2 at a 16° angle of attack. The An aero foil profile has no span, air flow has been examined in
angle of attack must be known before the answer to the lift two dimensions only. The wingspan (length)and the plan form of
equation has a usable value. the wing also affect the aero dynamic characteristics. Plan form
is the shape of the wing as viewed from the top or bottom. When
Drag Coefficient the effects of wing plan form are introduced, at tent ion must be
directed to the existence of airflow in the span wise direction. In
In fluid dynamics, the drag coefficient (commonly denoted as other words, aero foil section properties deal with flow in two
Cd, Cx or Cw) is a dimensionless quantity that is used to quantify dimensions, while actual wings have flow in three dimensions.
the drag or resistance of an object in a fluid environment such The wing area, aspect ratio, taper ratio, and sweepback of a
as air or water. It is used in the drag equation, where a lower plan form are the principal factors, which determine the aero
drag coefficient indicates the object will have less aerodynamic dynamic characteristics of a wing. These same quantities also
or hydrodynamic drag. The drag coefficient is always associated
have a definite influence on the structural weight and stiffness of Mean Aerodynamic Chord
a wing.
Physically, MAC is the chord of a rectangular wing, which has
the same area, aerodynamic force and position of the center of
pressure at a given angle of attack as the given wing has.
Simply stated, MAC is the width of an equivalent rectangular
wing in given conditions. Therefore, not only the measure but
also the position of MAC is often important. In particular, the
position of center of mass (CoM) of an aircraft is usually
measured relative to the MAC, as the percentage of the
distance from the leading edge of MAC to CoM with respect to
MAC itself.
Note that the figure to the right implies that the MAC occurs at a
point where leading or trailing edge sweep changes. In general,
Figure 27: Wing Planforms this is not the case. Any shape other than a simple trapezoid
requires evaluation of the above integral.
WING AREA The ratio of the length (or span) of a wing to its chord is known
as the aspect ratio, an important indicator of the lift-induced
drag the wing will create. In general, planes with higher aspect
As has been previously explained, the lift of an aero foil varies
ratios — long, skinny wings — will have less induced drag,
directly with the area. The wing area, S, is simply a measure of
which dominates at low airspeeds.
the total surface of the wing. Although a portion of this are a may
be covered by the fuselage or the nacelles, pressure is still
Certain aero dynamic and weight-and-balance characteristics
acting on it; therefore, it is included in the calculation of the total
are referenced as a percent of the wing chord. However, when
wing area. The wing span, b, is measured tip to tip. The average
a wing is tapered, the chord is not uniform across the entire
wing chord, c, is simply a geometric average of the wing chords.
wing span. For this reason these characteristics are referenced
As an example, a pointed-tip delta wing would have an average
as a percent of the mean aero dynamic chord(MAC).
chord equal to one-half of the root chord. As shown in Figure b,
The mean aerodynamic chord is the chord drawn through the
the product of the span and the average chord is the wing area
center of the area of the aero foil; that is, equal amounts of
(b x c= S).
wing area will lie on both sides of the MAC. Often, the MAC is
confused with the average chord. As an example, the pointed- induced drag by changing the dimensions of a wing.
tip delta wing shown in Figure c would have an average chord
equal to one-half the root chord but a MAC equal to two-thirds The aspect ratio (AR) of an aerofoil of rectangular shape is the
of the root chord. ratio of the span to the chord. Thus, aerofoil A in Figure has a
span of 24 ft; therefore, the aspect ratio is 9. The formula for
Aspect Ratio aspect ratio can be written as follows:
For a given wing area, the aspect ratio is proportional to the AR = span/Chord
square of the wingspan, and the wingspan is of particular
significance in determining the performance. An airplane in flight However, for aerodynamic reasons, aero foils are hardly ever
can be imagined to affect a circular cylinder of air. The diameter designed with a rectangular plan form. The aspect ratio for non
of that cylinder is equal to the wingspan. A large wingspan is rectangular aero foils is defined as the span squared divided by
working on a large cylinder of air, and a small wingspan is area. If the area is represented by the letter S and the span by
the letter b, the formula for nonrectangular aero foils can be
Working on a small cylinder of air. For two aircraft of the same
weight but different wingspans the small cylinder of air must be Expressed thus:
pushed downward by a greater amount than the large cylinder
in order to produce an equal upward force. The aft-leaning AR = b2/S
component of this change in velocity is proportional to the
induced drag. Therefore the larger downward velocity produces Effects Of Aspect Ratio
a larger aft-leaning component and this leads to larger induced
drag on the aircraft with the smaller wingspan and lower aspect The effect of increasing aspect ratio is principally to reduce
ratio. induced drag for any given coefficient of lift. This improves the
L/D ratio. Since wingtip vortices exert their influence for a
The interaction between undisturbed air outside the circular distance in board from the tips in any given aerofoil, the
cylinder of air, and the downward-moving cylinder of air occurs percentage of area so affected is less for a long, narrow aerofoil
at the wingtips, and can be seen as wingtip vortices. than it is for a short, wide aerofoil. This is shown in Figure b,
which illustrates the area affected by wingtip vortices. The
If wingtip vortices could be eliminated or reduced, the shape in the upper-left-hand corner of Figure b is short and
associated induced drag would be proportionately reduced. To wide, the center shape is long and relatively narrow, and the
totally eliminate the wingtip vortices, a wing of infinite span lower-right shape is still longer and narrower. Although the width
would have to be used. However, it is possible to reduce the of the area affected by wing tip vortices remains the same for all
Taper
The taper ratio affects the lift distribution and the structural - The L/D ratio is greater throughout the flight range, especially
weight of the wing. When a wing is tapered in thickness in such At the higher angles of attack.
a manner that the thickness near the tip is 60% of the thickness
at the root and it is compared with an aerofoil of constant When a wing or any aerofoil is tapered in both thickness and
section(not tapered) equal to the mean (average) section of the plan form, it is possible to take advantage of the best
tape redwing, the following characteristics are observed on aerodynamic features of an aerofoil tapered in thickness only
certain aero foils: and an aerofoil tapered in plan form only. When the distribution
of the area of a tapered wing places the resultant force near the
- The CP moves less for changes in angle of attack centerline, it may be possible to build awing of relatively
lightweight, having the thicker, heavier, and stronger portions
- The maximum CL is greater and the peak of the characteristic near the root, where the greatest stresses normally occur. On
curve is flatter because all of the wing does not attain the the other hand, in a tapered aerofoil, the spars must be tapered
maximum CL at a different angle of attack from any other and different jigs must be used for building the ribs. For this
section reason the construction of the wing tapered in both plan form
and thickness becomes considerably more costly than the
- The CD values are lower, the most noticeable decrease being construction of other types of wings.
at the low angle of attack from any other section; and
- C l max is greater
Sweep Angle Shift the center-of-lift point on the wing aft and move it closer to
the center of gravity in order to improve the stability and loading
A swept wing is a wing plan form with a wing root to wingtip properties of the aircraft.
direction angled beyond (usually aft ward) the span wise axis,
generally used to delay the drag rise caused by fluid
compressibility. Swept wings provide lateral stability and it was
for this reason that the concept was first employed
The term wash in refers to an increase in the angle of incidence Figure 30: Anhedral and Dihedral Wings
of the wing from the root to the tip. If a wing has an angle of
incidence of 2° at the root and an angle of 3°at the outer end, it
has a wash in of 1°.
The angle that the wing makes with a plane parallel to the
ground is the dihedral angle. In other words the acute
angle a line parallel to the wing from root to tip makes
with a line parallel to the lateral axes of the aircraft t is the
dihedral angle. It is positive if the wing slopes upward
from root to tip. It is negative if the wing slopes downward
from root to tip. A negative dihedral is sometimes referred
to as an anhedral or cathedral.
AEROFOIL CONTAMINATION roughness. While the basic shape and aero dynamic contour
is unchanged, the increase in surface roughness increases
Effect of ice and frost on airplane performance without skin friction and reduces the kinetic energy of the boundary
exception, the formation of ice or frost on the surfaces of an layer. As a result, there will be an increase in drag but, of
airplane will cause a detrimental effect on aerodynamic course, the magnitude of drag increase will not compare with
performance. the considerable increase due to a severe ice formation. The
reduction of boundary layer kinetic energy will cause
The ice or frost formation on the airplane surfaces will alter incipient stalling of the wing, i.e., separation will occur at
the aerodynamic contours and affect the nature of the angles of attack and lift coefficients lower than for the clean,
boundary layer. Of course, the most important surface of the smooth wing. While the reduction in clmax. Due to frost
airplane is the wing and the formation of ice or frost can formation ordinarily is not as great as that due to ice
create significant changes in the aerodynamic formation, it is usually unexpected because it may be
characteristics. A large formation of ice on the leading edge thought that large changes in the aerodynamic shape(such
of the wing can produce large changes in the local contours as due to ice) are necessary to reduce CLmax.
and severe local pressure gradients. The extreme surface
roughness common to some forms office will cause high However, the kinetic energy of the boundary layer is an
surface friction and a considerable reduction of boundary important factor influencing separation of the air flow and this
layer energy. As a result of these effects, the ice formation energy is reduced by an increase in surface roughness. The
can produce considerable increase in drag and a large general effects of ice and frost formation on the lift
reduction in maximum lift coefficient. Thus, the ice formation characteristics are typified by the illustration of figure.
will cause an increase in power required and stall speed. In
addition, the added weight of the ice formation on the The effect of ice or frost on take off and landing performance is
airplane will provide an undesirable effect. Because of the of great importance. The effects are so detrimental to the landing
detrimental effects of ice formation, recommended anti-icing and take off that no effort should be spared to keep the airplane
procedures must be followed to preserve the airplane as free as possible for many accumulation of ice or frost. If any
performance. ice remains on the airplane as the landing phase approaches it
must be appreciated that the ice formation will have reduced CL
The effect of frost is perhaps more subtle than the effect of and incurred an increase install speed. Thus,
ice formation on the aerodynamic characteristics of the wing.
The accumulation of a hard coat of frost on the wing upper The landing speed will be greater. When this effect is coupled
surface will provide a surface texture of considerable with the possibility of poor braking action during the landing roll,
a critical situation can exist. It is obvious that great effort must be takeoff.
made to prevent the Accumulation of ice during flight.
Thetakeoffspeedofanairplaneisgenerallysomespeed5to25
percent greater than the stall speed; hence the take off lift
coefficientwillbevaluefrom90to65percentatCL m a x %. Thus, it is
possible that the airplane with frost cannot become air borne at
the specified take off speed because of premature stalling. Even
if the airplane with frost were to become air borne at the
specified takeoff speed, the airplane could have in sufficient
margin of airspeed above stall and turbulence, gusts, turning
flight could produce incipient or complete stalling of the airplane.
The increase in drag during take off roll due to frost or ice is not
considerable and there will not be any significant effect on the
initial acceleration during take off. Thus, the effect of frost or ice
will be most apparent during the later portions of take off if the
airplane is unable to become air borne or if insufficient margin
above stall speed prevents successful initial climb.
THRUST The same system is usually used while still on the ground
although it must be admitted that it is not always a very efficient
Earlier we made a study of drag-the force that tries to hold the system forth is purpose.
airplane back. In this chapter we shall deal with thrust-the force
that opposes drag and keeps the airplane going forward. In The thrust-provider, of whatever kind it may be, must be
level flight the thrust must be equal to the drag, in order to supplied with energy. This will usually be in the form of a fuel,
accelerate the airplane it must be greater than the drag, and in which is fed into some kind of, "engine" where, in burning, its
climbing with a positive pitch attitude it must also be greater chemical energy is changed into heat energy, which in turn is
than the drag because it will have to support some proportion of converted into the mechanical work done in propelling the
the weight. airplane against the drag. Methods of providing thrust differ only
in the way in which these various conversions are effected, and
The actual conditions of balance of the forces will be dealt in the efficiency of the conversion, that Is to say in the
within the next chapter; it is sufficient at this stage to realize that proportion of useful work got out, or of thrust provided to the
we must provide the airplane with considerable thrust, and that energy supplied.
the performance that we can achieve from the airplane will be
largely dependent upon the amount of thrust that we can GRAVITY, WEIGHT AND MASS
provide.
Gravity, or gravitation, is the universal force that all bodies exert
The motorcar and the railway engine obtain their thrust by the upon one another. It is defined by the universal law of
force on the circumference of the wheels pushing backwards on gravitation, which states: The attraction between particles of
the road or rails; there is, or should be, no appreciable slip. The matter is directly proportional to the product of their masses and
earth reacts by pushing forward, the vehicle. The ship, on the inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
other hand, obtains thrust by taking some of the water through them. This can be expressed by the equation
which it travels, accelerating it and pushing it backwards at a
higher velocity than that of the ship forwards. The method of the 2
F=Gm1m2r
aero plane corresponds more closely to that of the ship than
that of the motor car or railway engine; once the airplane is
clear of the ground, the only reason able way of obtaining thrust Where,
is to push air or something else, backwards and to rely on the
reaction to push the airplane forwards. This is, in fact what is - F= attractive force
done, and to save complication
- r= distance between n two bodies(particles)
- miandm2= masses of bodies limitations placed upon it, e.g. MTOW. Weight limitations
depend upon the structural strength of the components that
- G= the universal gravitation constant make up the aircraft and the operational requirements that the
aircraft is designed to meet.
G= 6.67×10-11Newton.M2Kg2
The CG is the point of balance and its position depends upon
the weight of the aircraft and position of all the individual parts
The terms weight and mass are, many times, used inter of the aircraft and the load that it is carrying.
changeably; however, weight and mass have different
definitions. The weight of a body Is the pull exerted upon the
body by the gravitation of the earth. The weight of a body may
change depending upon its distance from the center of the
earth. The farther away an object is from the center of the earth,
the less it will weigh.
For our purposes in the study of principles off light weight is the
total weight of the loaded aircraft.