WHITE PRIVILEGE AND WHITE GUILT 1

An Analysis of “White Privilege and White Guilt”

Simone Kirwan
Faculty of Education
University of Manitoba
WHITE PRIVILEGE AND WHITE GUILT 2

Introduction

In the recent sociological literature, there is increasing interest in ‘white privilege’

and ‘white guilt’. Both these concepts have affected me personally and professionally.

Thus, when I began reading about white privilege, I became very interested in this idea.

However, I was not completed satisfied with the work I was reading because it pertains to

how whites or mainstream peoples gain privilege within a North American context.

Clearly, as a reasonably well-educated, middle class person who happens to be female

and who is also considered to be ‘of colour’ or of ‘visible minority status’, this has not

been my experience. I then pondered the reactions of many middle class, mainstream

(read: white) people that I have met who strive to be sensitive to the plight of others,

politically correct and culturally sensitive, and who profess to being colour-blind, racially

tolerant, and/or aware of issues of marginalization and privilege. In countless encounters

that I have had with these people over many years, I think I have found well-meaning

people to be clumsy, awkward, and sometimes expressing guilt or shame for the

‘supposed’ privilege and status that their skin colour affords them and the historical

oppression against the ‘coloured people’ perpetuated by their putative ancestors. Thus,

with this experience, I want to focus on the idea of white guilt but I wish to balance it

with that of white privilege.

White Privilege and White Guilt

In order to truly understand the meaning of a sociological concept, one must first

provide an operational definition of it. This helps to eliminate confusion and helps keep

people on the same page, so to speak. In order to determine the meaning of white
WHITE PRIVILEGE AND WHITE GUILT 3

privilege, I sought out the work of Peggy McIntosh, author of “White Privilege:

Unpacking the Invisible Knapsack” (1988). In this piece, McIntosh (1988) describes

white privilege as “those conditions which [she] think[s ] …attach somewhat more to

skin-color privilege than to class, religion, ethnic status, or geographical location” (p.

178). In other words, white privilege is an innate collection of favoured benefits or

circumstances which are not earned, that have been granted to white people, who are

often considered to be ‘the mainstream’ in Canada and the U.S. Thus, one is born into

white privilege based on the colour of one’s skin and for no other apparent reason. This is

sometimes termed ascribed status, that is, a standing that is innately assigned or

attributed to an individual, and it can be contrasted with achieved status, which is a

position that has been earned or deserved based on actions of the individual.

White privilege may be contrasted with the notion of white guilt. According to

Shelby Steele (2006), who wrote White Guilt: How Blacks and Whites Together

Destroyed the Promise of the Civil Rights Era, white guilt is:

the vacuum of moral authority that comes from simply knowing that one’s race is

associated with racism. Whites (and American institutions [and Canadian

institutions, too]) must acknowledge historical racism to show themselves

redeemed of it (p. 24).

Thus, some white people who are apprised of their experiences of white privilege may

feel badly about the intrinsic benefits they perceive that they obtain simply because they

are ‘white’, and, to compensate for this, they are overly sensitive, extremely aware, or

excessively tolerant toward non-whites. I, therefore, understand white guilt to be a

phenomenon that although real, may not be the most effective way to counterbalance the
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historical effects of racism perpetuated by the mainstream against those deemed to be

‘coloured’.

Historical Perspectives on White Privilege and White Guilt

In searching for the historical roots of white privilege, I found that the notion of

white privilege can be traced back to the work of W.E.B. DuBois. Dubois was an

African American writer and scholar, who wrote in his book Black Reconstruction: An

Essay Toward a History of the Part Which Black Folk Played in the Attempt to

Reconstruct Democracy in America, 1860-1880:

[i]t must be remembered that the white group of laborers, while they received a

low wage, were compensated in part by a sort of public and psychological wage.

They were given public deference and titles of courtesy because they were white.

They were admitted freely with all classes of white people to public functions,

public parks, and the best schools. The police were drawn from their ranks, and

the courts, dependent on their votes, treated them with such leniency as to

encourage lawlessness. Their vote selected public officials, and while this had

small effect upon the economic situation, it had great effect upon their personal

treatment and the deference shown them. White schoolhouses were the best in the

community, and conspicuously placed, and they cost anywhere from twice to ten

times as much per capita as the colored schools. The newspapers specialized on

news that flattered the poor whites and almost utterly ignored the Negro except in

crime and ridicule.

On the other hand, in the same way, the Negro was subject to public insult; was

afraid of mobs; was liable to the jibes of children and the unreasoning fears of

white women; and was compelled almost continuously to submit to various

badges of inferiority. The result of this was that the wages of both classes could

be kept low, the whites fearing to be supplanted by Negro labor, the Negroes

always being threatened by the substitution of white labor (pp. 700-701).

Clearly, DuBois shows that white privilege existed even between the poor whites

and poor blacks. John Garvey and Noel Ignatiev (1996) two outspoken advocates of

white privilege state that:

[r]ace is inscribed in every issue of the day; indeed politics in the U.S. consists of

a dispute over how to deal with the ‘violent’ black male and the ‘immoral’ black

female. From the other side, every challenge to the prerogatives of whiteness is a

call for the abolition of the ‘white race’… [in order] to focus on whiteness and the

struggle to abolish the white race from within (p. 2).

Thus, the desire to rid the world of white privilege is evident, both in the distant

and recent past. For my purposes, I argue that although Canada is obviously different

from the USA, it too has had historical cases of white privilege and racism. Examples of

this include the Chinese Canadians who worked to build the CPR and were not

recognized at the time for their contributions, the Japanese-Canadian internment camps

which during the Second World War confined people of Japanese descent, driving them

out of their homes and forcibly removing their right to property, and the numerous

traumas that were imposed on First Nations, Métis, and Inuit Peoples.
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Of course, not everyone who was non-white has suffered terrible trauma, loss of

status, or threat as a result of racism and prejudice. However, non-white people were

often undervalued and not deemed to be equal to whites until recently. In fact, recently

there has been a movement of Caucasian peoples to assuage their feelings of guilt due to

the innate privileges believed to be associated with being white. This is the idea of white

guilt.

In searching for historical perspectives on white guilt, I discovered the work of

Roberts (2008), who argues that:

[t]he topics of racism, slavery, and colonialism are the subjects in which most

white students are made to feel a sense of guilt and most black students a sense of

victimhood. … [Moreover, t]he subject of the transatlantic slave trade is

constantly used to reinforce white guilt and promote a sense of historical injustice

and victim status among blacks (p. 26).

Thus, Roberts says that Caucasian students, and probably Caucasians, in general, are

made to feel guilty about the history perpetrated by whites against blacks and people of

African descent. Consequently, whites are victimized by people who use this historical

perspective. Even students who have had no ancestors who perpetuated any harm to

blacks (for example, students from very low socioeconomic status) are made to feel guild

about what whites, in general, have done. In this respect, Grooms (2009), notes that:

[i]n an 1856 letter to his wife Mary Custis Lee, Robert E. Lee called slavery “a

moral and political evil.” Yet he concluded that black slaves were immeasurably

better off here than in Africa, morally, socially and physically.

The fact is large numbers of free Negroes owned black slaves; in fact, in numbers

disproportionate to their representation in society at large. In 1860 only a small

minority of whites owned slaves. According to the U.S. census report for that last

year before the Civil War, there were nearly 27 million whites in the country.

Some eight million of them lived in the slaveholding states.

Clearly, Grooms informs his readers about two important facts: 1) Some Americans of

European descent felt badly about the slave trade of African peoples to the new world,

and even publically said so, and 2) In the 1860s, there were some free blacks who owned

black slaves.

By looking at these two perspectives which point to history where Africans were

forcibly taken from their homes and transported to North and South America as slaves,

one is tempted to believe that white guilt has resulted from educated people feeling badly

about what happened in the past and from the legacies of slavery, racism, and prejudice

have left on black people, especially in the United States. However, upon further

reflection, it appears that white supremacy is implicit here, since Groom’s article appears

on the website of David Duke (who is, incidentally, a notorious white supremacist).

Therefore, one must look critically at this viewpoint. As well, in digging deeper to the

driving force of Roberts’ article, one is immediately struck that it was published in

Identity: Magazine of the British National Party, a magazine that was published by a

right-wing political organization dedicated to eliminating immigration to Britain.

Accordingly, The British National Party argues that multiculturalism is contrary to the

indigenous population (again, read: white).

In summarizing these two positions, it is evident that guilt is a phenomenon that

existed in the more recent past, and continues to exist today. As the world becomes

smaller due to globalization, increasingly more people in our world are realizing that

inequity exists due to a multitude of factors. However, white guilt is just one type of

guilt and perhaps not even the most pronounced kind of guilt. Perhaps, as a corollary, the

ancestors of those black American slave owners should feel black guilt.

Sociological Background on White Privilege and White Guilt

In seeking out some of the sociological background of the concepts of white guilt

and privilege, and being a novice to the discipline of Sociology, these ideas to fall into

the category of intergroup relationships which in turn, stem from Social Identity Theory.

According to Taylor and Moghaddam (1994), social identity theory:

assumes that individuals are motivated to achieve a positive ‘social identity’,

defined as ‘that part of an individual’s self-concept which derives from his [or

her] knowledge of his [or her] membership in a social group (or groups) together

with the value and emotional significance attached to that membership’ (Tajfel,

1978a, p. 63). This desire will prompt individuals to make social comparisons

between the in-group and out-groups, with the ultimate aim to achieve both a

positive and distinct position for the in-group. Thus, the explanation provided by

social identity theory rests on psychological processes, such as identification,

social comparison, and psychological distinctiveness (p. 61).

Thus, issues of discord often arise when groups do not share similar viewpoints, and

conflict may arise when some groups collectively feel as though they are treated
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differently (better or worse) than other groups. This may be especially the case when one

group has power or control over other groups. Therefore, the more powerful or dominant

group may participate in overt expressions of their dominion such a touting racist

ideologies and in more subtle manners such as allowing expressions of privilege to

continue. In turn, the advantaged group may consequently feel badly for their

participation in subjugating the less powerful group or groups which may result in

collective feelings of shame or guilt. In this way, it can be seen that privilege and guilt

are connected. Thus, the concepts of white privilege and white guilt are related, and I

will now examine these two concepts as they relate to my own life experiences,

observations, and work as a teacher.

Personal Experiences and Observations of White Privilege and White Guilt

In my experiences as a child of mixed racial background (‘black’ and ‘white’),

growing up in Yellowknife, Barbados, and Winnipeg, I cannot recollect any time when I

felt that I was not being treated similarly to my classmates and friends, white, black, and

others. Growing up in Yellowknife, I had friends and classmates of Caucasian, Dene,

Inuit, African, South East Asian, and Asian backgrounds. Granted, those considered

white were the largest ethnic group in my circles, although the First Nations children

were a close second. Although I was very much a part of an ethnic minority because

there were very few black people in Yellowknife, I can honestly say that I do not recall

situations where I was excluded because of my skin colour. If anything, it was Dene

children who were considered to be of the lowest status. Issues of stereotyping abounded

in the community; it was a common perception that the natives were alcoholics, as they
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were the group of people who sat outside the post office drinking Lysol, vanilla extract,

and mouthwash. In fact, I recall discussing this issue with my father and asking him why

the Natives were always drunk and ‘misbehaving’. His response was that if I were able

to go inside any of the town’s many bars, I would see just as many white people getting

drunk and ‘misbehaving’, too. Essentially, my father did not allow me to judge the Native

people differently from other people and they were not the only people to participate in

this type of behaviour.

This conversation made me wonder about what else was going on behind the

scene or beyond my experiences, and has made me ask many questions. My sister,

Sheryl, who befriended many ‘tough’ looking black teenaged boys, reports she had been

in shopping malls where security guards followed her and her friends around. This was

never my experience, however. But, during my years of living in Japan and South Korea,

I expected to experience more racism than I had experienced in Barbados, Antigua, or

Canada but I honestly cannot recall people treating me any differently than they treated

other foreigners. If anything, when people found out that I was Canadian, and not

American, their attitudes toward me seemed to change and I was often welcomed more

than I expected. I also attribute some of this to my attempting to learn the languages,

cultures, and traditions of these people so that I would cause as little offense as possible.

So, in terms of white guilt, I have personally never experienced someone telling

me that they feel guilty because of slavery or how black people have been treated.

However, I remember hearing a friend express her feelings of guilt in learning about

residential schools and how terribly Aboriginal peoples have been treated by the

Canadian government, even though none of her ancestors were responsible for that
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terrible behaviour.. I also recall an instance when I was a teenager and our family went

to Grand Forks and Fargo. In the parking lot near a liquor store, an unknown gentleman

approached my father and began to tell him how sorry he was for all of the terrible things

that whites had done to blacks. In fact, this man actually hugged my father at the end of

this brief conversation. Clearly, these are two examples of what I think is white guilt,

and perhaps some of it is misplaced.

Educational Experiences and Observations of White Privilege and White Guilt

As a student, I spent my first eight years in public schools in Yellowknife and the

last five years in a private school in Winnipeg. As an adolescent, I had classmates and

friends from many different ethnicities and cultural backgrounds and I think I was valued

by my peer group and other acquaintances. In various courses, I remember studying war,

terrorism, racism, slavery, and civil rights, and I often wondered how people could treat

others so poorly and why equality was not a given in our world. I was always touched

when I heard about human suffering and I viewed people such as Dr. Martin Luther King

Jr., Gandhi, Nelson Mandela and Mother Teresa as extraordinary humans who were role

models for all people no matter their ethnic or cultural background. In fact, I continue to

hold these values, and I try to bring them to bear on my world as a teacher.

For the last five years, I have been a public elementary school teacher in

Winnipeg. Interestingly, the school division where I worked was quite unique because

the students were mostly white and middle-class, and there were few teachers that were

not white and middle-class themselves. Of course, there were a few students whose

families were recent immigrants to Canada, but these children made up a very small
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minority. As a teacher, I noticed an interesting trend: all of the students of African

descent were somehow placed in my classroom. Several well-meaning colleagues said

on more than a few occasions that this was good for these students because I could then

be a good role model for them. Obviously, my objective was to be a good role model for

all of the children, irrespective of their colour or gender! Issues of race and ethnicity

came up quite frequently during these five years – mainly from my students who heard

stories and saw pictures of my family and learned about my experiences teaching in Asia.

In fact, I encouraged my students to ask questions and I always tried to answer then as

honestly as possible. Once, an eight-year-old boy corrected me for saying that I was

black: by informing me that I was ‘African-American.’ I explained that that the term did

not really apply to me since I am Canadian, and do not come from Africa. He then said

that he had discussed this with his parents, and I could tell that they were trying to teach

him more respectful language to use when talking about people of African descent, since

they may have thought that the term ‘black’ was no longer politically correct. It was an

interesting conversation as we danced around these various politically loaded words and

phrases.

When I was in my second year of teaching, children from three families of

refugees from the Sudan came to our school. This was very exciting for us, and I

remember several students commenting that these new students were “much blacker than

me” and accordingly, we discussed the appropriate ways of talking about people’s skin

colour. Even by Grade Three, I heard students say repeatedly that they should be nice to

people whose skin colour was different. At the same time, I heard many questionable

comments from teachers in the staff room about our new students including the fact that
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their families did not understand what was ‘appropriate’ food for lunchtime and these

faculty members thought the Sudanese food ‘smelled funny’ and ‘looked strange.’ In

retrospect, these were the same adults who stuck their noses into my pepperpot soup (a

Caribbean stew made of spinach leaves, okra, and pieces of salted pork or beef) and

wondered ‘what in the world was this green soup?’ I also had to explain that giving the

families free passes to the local swimming pool might not be such a good idea since the

girls had beautiful braids (hair extensions) which were likely to be ruined by the

chlorinated water in the swimming pools. I then gave an impromptu mini lesson on black

hair and the numerous chemicals, hair products and hours that girls would spend on

‘having their hair done.’ At this point, a coworker exclaimed “Oh, that must be what all

of those strange hair creams and sprays are in the shampoo section of Superstore.”

Clearly, these examples highlight the norms of reference both for the children and adults

had about people who were different from them. In both instances, the individuals

regarded their own shampoos, foods, and skin colours as being normal. For me, this

again suggests white privilege, the failure to recognize that what another does is normal

to them and not necessarily bizarre or aberrant. But, the black students may be

responding in a similar way. I wonder if any of the girls went home and told funny

stories about what the white people did or ate.

As a teacher who has worked in Japan, South Korea, and Winnipeg, my career

has always been in settings where I am a racial minority. However, I do not think that

this has been to my disadvantage. In many ways, perhaps it has been advantageous.

Should I feel guilty if it has been an advantage? Over the past twenty years, Canadian

policy has been directed at improving the situation of minority people by affirmative
WHITE PRIVILEGE AND WHITE GUILT 14

action programs to ensure that they are employed and promoted fairly, with the hopes of

correcting historic wrongs where such people were undervalued and underemployed. In

other words, our country is trying to quell the feelings of white guilt where job preference

to able-bodied, males or European-descent was granted before coloured minorities. As

such, being a woman of ‘visible minority’ status has perhaps worked to my advantage,

since it may have helped my employers to find someone who is qualified for the job, does

good work, and improves their image as an ‘equal opportunity employer.’ However, I

am confident in my abilities, recognizing that I am a good teacher, and that I work hard

for the benefit of my students. Do I believe that affirmative action programs are

beneficial and will help to rectify past injustices? I have mixed feeling about this. On

one hand, I think that historically underprivileged groups such as females, aboriginals,

people with disabilities, and visible minorities should be given opportunities, but only if

they are qualified and only if they are competent. However, I think that lower SES

people should also be included in these programs because they, too, are not on equal

footing with those in ‘the majority’ (white, middle-class or upper-class males). On the

other hand, I do not think that someone deserves something (a job, a scholarship, etc),

just because their group, but not necessarily them, has been denied access to these

rewards in the past. Clearly, people should be judged on their merit, behaviour, and

abilities, and not because of their group membership. For me, this is epitomized by the

words of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. who dreams of a world where people “will not be

judged by the colo[u]r of their skin but by the content of their character.” This is a

principle of equality that I adhere to. However, since our world is not always fair,
WHITE PRIVILEGE AND WHITE GUILT 15

equality and opportunities for all do not always exist, although Canada is perhaps one of

the fairest countries in the world.

It seems very tempting to say that white privilege is a bad thing and should be

eliminated, which in turn would render white guilt unnecessary. However, life is not that

simple. The issues of white privilege and white guilt are very popular yes, and certainly

politically correct now. In my opinion, if attitudes are to change, exposure to new ideas

and information are the vehicle for this change. And, who in Canada is more open to

new ideas and information than schoolchildren? Thus, we, as teachers, have the

responsibility to promote this new way of thinking for them. We need to break with these

established ideas.

In making this suggestion, I am not proposing that new curricula be developed to

bring white or higher SES (white, black, or other) privilege to light in order to eliminate

guilt. No, I think that teachers must first examine themselves and their own worldviews.

And, then I suggest that we incorporate issues of multiple viewpoints into our lessons and

classroom activities. This is not to say that we necessarily take a liberal, politically

correct, stance on these things, which is likely to ‘whitewash’ the truth and hide behind

convoluted jargon and the fear of offending others. Instead, we have to learn, listen, and

ask questions, instead of just accepting the status quo. And, we must be prepared to

move outside of our own comfort zones and explore our beliefs, acknowledge our own

prejudices, and recognize our narrow views of people from different races. This is easy

to say, but obviously difficult to do. In doing this difficult self-inquiry, we will be able to

be more honest, better teachers and better human beings too.

Not only should teachers look at themselves, they need to explain challenging

subjects and topics to their students in ways that they can understand. This may be easier

in the senior grades where students’ thinking is more highly developed. But, with

younger children, teaching them at their levels must also be done with more awareness

and understanding. For example, when teaching students, even those in the early years,

one is able to point out inequality and truth. For example, in the Grade Five Social

Studies Curriculum, when teaching about First Peoples and the impact of European

contact, a teacher could talk about how Aboriginal peoples had their own systems of

government, education, and religious beliefs and practices. In essence, the Europeans

were not doing them a favour by imposing all of their culture on the people of the ‘new

world’. However, I encourage teachers to also note that the Aboriginal cultures were not

beacons of perfection either, for there were issues of territoriality, dominance of one

group over another, as there was evidence of war and of inhumane treatment, prior to the

arrival of the ‘White Man’.

Moreover, whenever issues to war, ethnic cleansing, genocide, slavery, and other

atrocities come up in the curriculum or the news, especially for students in middle and

high school, I think that teachers must take a balanced approach in discussing them with

their students. In this way, teachers should take care to demonstrate that heinous crimes

have been perpetrated by groups against others throughout history. I would continue to

teach that people treat each other badly, but that if the world is to improve, we need to

strive for equality, fairness, and sharing with others. Perhaps, this is evidence of my

naïveté and my work with younger children, but I think that if students are taught that

nefarious acts of aggression is something that we as human beings have in common,

perhaps they will see the necessity for this to change as we strive to make the world a

better place for all members of the human race.

I also believe that we need to look for increasing similarities between groups of

people and we need to stop focusing on their differences. This is not to say that

difference, ethnic background, skin colour, race, language, SES, etc, should not be

recognized. In truth, these attributes are part of the identity of people. But, I think that

we must continually accept that people are both individuals and members of ethnic and

racial groups. We need to steer clear of gross generalizations and we need to

acknowledge that prejudice, racism, and stereotyping exist within us all. Consequently,

white privilege, exists in Canada and needs to be acknowledged, but so does black

privilege. With that said, teachers and, in fact, citizens need to move forward and try to

provide opportunities for all students to have access to high quality education.

Additionally, teachers need to champion the cause of those who have actually themselves

suffered, because of poor parenting, poverty, and/or other life circumstances. And, those

who feel guilty about their positions of privilege, white, black, or other, should do

something positive for those with less than they have and they should challenge the old

norms and old ways of doing things.

Conclusion

The acknowledgement of white privilege and the subsequent admission of white

guilt are phenomena that abound in our increasingly politically correct Canadian society.

In writing this essay, I reflected on my own experiences both as a person who is deemed

to be a minority and as a person deeply involved in the educational world. Although I can
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say unabashedly that both white privilege and white guilt probably exist, it is still

challenging to provide ways of moving beyond these rough and awkward concepts to

understand subtle and complex social relations. As human beings, we are territorial and

power-seeking, and we probably wish to control ourselves and our environments. I

believe that often we fear change and we fear the loss of power and the accompanying

status that it brings. Also, I think that most people, no matter their colour, gender, or

SES, feel badly for those who experience racism, discrimination, and poverty. However,

I think that we may want circumstances to change only if this does not compromise our

own well-being, wealth, and position. Finally, these issues may seem too complex to

resolve, but if we, as teachers, are determined to make the lives of our students better, we

must acknowledge our relative positions of power and wealth. We must be mindful and

we must strive to make the small changes that start the wheels moving in an effort to

eradicate privilege and guilt for both whites and other people.
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References

Du Bois, W.E.B. (1935). Black Reconstruction: An Essay Toward a

History of the Part Which Black Folk Played in the Attempt to Reconstruct

Democracy in America, 1860-1880. New York, NY: Russell & Russell, pp. 700-

701.

Garvey, J. & Ignatiev, N., editors. (1996). Race Traitors New York: Routledge.

Grooms, R.M. (2/17/2009). “Dixie’s Censored Subject: Black Slave Owners.”

Retrieved from http://www.davidduke.com/general/a-closer-look-at-the-

institution-of-slavery-in-the-old-south_7873.html

King, M.L., Jr. (August 28, 1963). “I have a Dream” Speech. Retrieved from

http://www.mlkonline.net/video-i-have-a-dream-speech.html

McIntosh, P. (1988). “White Privilege: Unpacking the Invisible Knapsack”.

pp177-182. In Paula S. Rothenberg, Ed. (2007) Race, Class and Gender in the

United States: An Integrated Study (7thed.). New York: Worth Publishers.

Roberts, M. (2008). Slavery and the Sense of White Guilt in Identity: Magazine of the

British National Party. (November 2008, Issue 96).

Steele, S. (2006). White Guilt: How Blacks and Whites Together Destroyed the

Promise of the Civil Rights Era. New York: HarperCollins.

Taylor, D.M. & Moghaddam, F.M. (1994). Theories of Intergroup Relations:

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