Lokanīti: Method of Adaption and New Vocabulary

UJJWAL KUMAR

DEPARTMENT OF BUDDHIST STUDIES

UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA, KOLKATA, INDIA

[email protected]

ABSTRACT
In this paper I have made an attempt to discuss the adaptation method and new vocabulary
employed and introduced by the Lokanīti (Ln). This text was composed in Burma most
probably by Catruṅgabala around the fourteenth century CE. In premodern Burma Ln was
used in monasteries to inculcate guidance on worldly affairs and everyday morality to the
Burmese householders in general and to the Buddhist monks in particular.

Keywords
Lokanīti, nīti literature, subhāṣitās, Pāli literature from Sanskrit, Burma

Pāli literature has numerous instances of moral precepts delivered by the Buddha and his
disciples. Despite this fact, however, the main source of Pāli nīti literature1 has been the
Sanskrit nīti literature. There are many reasons behind this. One of them is that most of the
sermons of the Buddha are in prose, and the gāthā or poetical sections form a very small
fraction of the Pāli Canon. On a careful scrutiny of the canonical gāthā literature, it becomes
apparent that it does not contain as much variety of practical morality as the Sanskrit
subhāṣitās2 (‘good sayings’) do. With the exception of the Dhammapada, almost all the
verses (gāthās) from the Pāli gāthā literature that are worthy to be called subhāṣitas are
basically a part of some important moral precepts. Hence, their existence as independent
subhāṣitas could not be established. There was no collection of gāthās except the
Dhammapada and the Suttanipāta that could be referred to as subhāṣitas brought together
until the fourteenth century. It would not be improper to say that the collection of gāthās
similar to that of the subhāṣitas from the Pāli literature and their compilation according to
their subject matter began with the composition of the Pāli nīti texts.
Historically speaking a new era in Pāli literature commenced in the twelfth century

1 The word nīti, common to both Sanskrit and Pāli, is derived from the root nī and has various meanings:
1. Guidance, direction, management; 2. Conduct, behaviour, course of action; 3. Propriety, decorum; 4.
Policy, prudence, wisdom, right course; 5. Plan, contrivance, scheme; 6. Politics, political science,
statesmanship, political wisdom; 7. Righteousness, moral conduct, morality, etc. Nīti also indicates a
branch of study (see Milindapañha 3). In the Saddanīti, a famous Pāli grammar text, the word nīti signifies
‘policy or method’. Thus, one may articulate that the Sanskrit-Pāli word ‘nīti’ is equivalent to ‘conduct’. As
applied to literature, it is a general term for a treatise which includes maxims, pithy sayings, and didactic
stories. Treatises of this kind, intended as a guide in respect of matters of everyday life, help an individual
to build his or her character and form good relations with others.
2 Subhāṣitas contain sententious precepts, a descriptive verse or a poetical verse standing by itself,
depicting a single emotion (Sternbach 1974, 2, 3).
1
during the reign of Parākramabāhu I (1164–1186) (see Malalasekera 1958, 175) as a result
of the improvements or modifications made in the Order in Sri Lanka. Parākramabāhu I
completed his education by travelling to foreign countries. During his time, efforts were
made to produce a grammatical tradition in Pāli similar to that in Sanskrit, keeping in mind
the abundant and long grammatical tradition in Sanskrit. The efforts resulted in the rise of
the Moggallāna grammatical tradition that was influenced by the Cāndra grammatical
tradition initiated by Candragomin, who is thought to have lived around the fourth to fifth
century CE. Likewise, texts like the Vuttodaya and the Subodhālaṅkāra were composed by
Saṅgharakkhita, following the Kāvyadarṣa of Daṇḍin, prosody of Piṅgala and Vṛttaratnākara
of Kedārabhaṭṭa. In the field of lexicography, the Abhidhānappadīpikā and its commentarial
literature were composed following the structure of the Amarakośa. In the same way the
authors of Pāli nīti literature had the well established long tradition of Sanskrit nīti literature
all the while to follow. The Sanskrit subhāṣitas had insightful expositions on subjects
connected with daily life. They contain the variety of subjects as well as a simplicity of
expression. It seems obvious that the Pāli nītikāras would base their compositions on this
treasure that was well established. The similarity between Sanskrit and Pāli was helpful in
this imitation, not only from the point of view of content but also for expression.
The process of transformation of Sanskrit nīti literature into Pāli is significant from
the point of view of the transition of both content and expression. When a literature
composed in a particular cultural and linguistic context gets transformed into a new context,
it is inevitable that changes are incorporated in the content as well as expression according
to the new context. Therefore, it is essential to study the source literature comparatively for
a better understanding of the process of transition.

1. General introduction to the Lokanīti

The Ln is one of the well-regarded works in Burma. The authorship of the Ln has not been
determined so far by the earlier scholars who dealt with this text. The text itself gives no
clue as to its authorship. Therefore, opinions about author and date of Ln are widely at
variance, and the arguments so far proposed for dating the text are not quite convincing.
In Burma there are two popular beliefs about the authorship of Ln. The first and
foremost, without any substantial evidence, is that of the main stream of Burmese tradition.
This seems to attribute the Ln to Caturaṅgabala, a well-known Burmese scholar who lived in
the middle part of the fourteenth century at the court of the Burmese kings Ngashishin
(1343–1350) and Kyawswange or Thihathu (1350–1359) at Pinya (Bechert and Braun 1981,
xlix). The Abhidhānappadipkā-vaṇṇanā or ṭika is composed by Caturaṅgabala, which is
confirmed by Piṭakat samuiṅ (Piṭ-sm 452). The Sāsanavaṃsa of Paññāsāmi also narrated the
life story of Caturaṅgabala and his authorship of the Abhidhānappadipkā-vaṇṇanā.
However, we have no firm evidence for his presumed authorship of Ln. As Bechert and Braun
(1981, xlix–l) pointed out, the

earliest reference to this tradition seemsto be found in the concluding verses of the Lokanīti
pyui by Ū Rhaṅ Kale, a rendering of the Lokanīti in Burmese verses which was composed in
1880 (published in Nan Ññvan Chve 1961, p. 321–346; for this passage, cf. p. 345). The
statement in the Mranmā cvay cuṃ kyam that Caturaṅgabala was the author of Lokanīti
seems to be based on this epilogue.

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 R. C. Temple who studied and translated the Lokanīti into English for the first time,
most probably from a Burmese translation, could not find out much about the history of this
book, although he personally made enquiries to get information from the Burmese sayās
(learned men). Temple (1878, 239) reported that,

according to one account, it was written originally at an unknown date in Sanskrit (? Pāli) by
the Pōngnā (Brāhmaṇ) Sānnêkgyaw (Burmese name) and paraphrased into Burmese in 1826
by the Hpōngyi U Pōk of the Mahā Oung Mye Bōng San Ok Kyoung (the Great Brick Built
Monastery in the Sacred Place) at Ava. This U Pōk’s name as priest was Sek-kān-da-bī, to
which the king of Ava added the titles of Thīri Thāddamma-daza, Mahā Dama-yāza Guru (Sri
Saddharmadhaja, Mahā Dharmarāja Guru).

Further Temple (1878, 239) says,

the author was a priest without very extraordinary knowledge of Pāli who either collected
the maxims from old books or collected some of them and added others of his own
composition. This opinion is corroborated by the unequal merit of the original Pāli verses
and by the many grammatical and other errors observable in them even upon a superficial
examination.

Sternbach (1969b, 37), in response to Temple’s argument, argues that

Temple probably refers to one of the translations of the Pāli Lokanīti into Burmese, while the
Pāli text was known in Burma much earlier. Therefore, it is quite possible that the Lokanīti
was composed in the beginning of the fifteenth century and that the two other nīti
collections [Dhammanīti and Rājanīti] were compiled not much later.

Regrettably, Sternbach does not give any evidence to support his hypothesis. Later on,
Sternbach (1973, 52.8) dated the text as composed quite possibly ‘in the beginning of the
fourteenth century’, but, again, without providing any evidence for this date.
James Gray (1886, ix–x), another English translator of Ln reports,

Sanskrit editions of the three nītis [Lokanīti, Rājanīti and Dhmmanīti] are to be found among
the Manipurian Punnas, who, driven from their native abode by the vicissitudes of war, made
a home for themselves in Burma. They were written in Bengali characters, but editions in
Sanskritised Burmese were also procurable. ...The Sanskrit Lokanīti originally contained 109
verses, which, in the Burmese version, have been expanded to 167 gāthās.

Sternbach (1969b, 38) refutes Gray’s account of the origin of Ln among Manipurian Puṇṇās
and says: ‘It is not clear from Gray’s account whether he really saw the Sanskritised Lokanīti
or only heard about its existence. Despite careful search, not only in Burma but also in India,
I could not find a single text of the Sanskitised Lokanīti…’.
On the basis of an imitation of verse 61 of the Ln on a Pagan inscription which was
inscribed in 1408 CE, Gerolamo Emilio Gerini (1904, 139f.) puts forth the date of compilation
of Ln between the time of Buddhaghosa and the date of establishment of the inscription. He
thus holds that the Ln was composed some time between 425 and 1400 CE. He saw the date
a quo as that of the commentary to the Dhammapada – the Dhammapada Aṭṭhakathā –
ascribed to Buddhaghosa, in which he could notice ‘strict analogies’ between certain
passages of the Ln and the Dhammapada Aṭṭhakathā. Though this argument is very strong
3
and valid, Bechert and Braun (1981, l), are not ready to accept it. They think that the author
of the inscription could have modeled his text after the Sanskrit source of the verse in
question and did not necessarily make use of the Ln collection.
According to an evaluation of the sources and parallels of the verses, Bechert and
Braun (1981, l) assume that the author of Ln has taken material from the Dhammanīti
(composed around the thirteenth to fourteenth century). This observation provides us with
a terminus post quem. Apart from the reference in the Arakanese chronicle quoted by Gray,
there is, however, no reliable terminus ante quem earlier than the turn of the eighteenth
and nineteenth centuries, but it is hardly possible that a book which has obtained such
popularity and fame at that time should not have been compiled at a considerably earlier
time. An additional difficulty arises from the fact that the name Lokanīti could not only refer
to our text but was also used as a rather general term for a class of literary works, viz. for
nīti texts in verses. Under these circumstances, we cannot give a more accurate answer to
the question about the date of Ln than to say that it was compiled in its present form
probably between the second half of the fifteenth and the middle of the eighteenth century.
As far as subject matter is concerned, Ln consists of 167 verses and is divided into
seven chapters (Pāli kaṇḍa): (1) the section on the wise man (Paṇḍitakaṇḍa 1–40); (2) the
section on the good man (Sujanakaṇḍa 41–67); (3) the section on the evil-doer
(Dujjanakaṇḍa 68–78); (4) the section on the friendship (Mittakaṇḍa 79–93); (5) the section
on women (Itthikaṇḍa 94–111); (6) the section on kings (Rājakaṇḍa 112–137); and the
miscellanea section (Missakakaṇḍa 138–167). The author or compiler clearly states in the
opening stanzas his object in undertaking this work, and mentions the name of the text as
Lokanīti. In the very first stanza of Ln the author also says something on its sources and does
not claim that this treatise is his own composition:

lokanītiṃpavakkhāmi, nānāsatthasamuddhaṭaṃ।
māgadheneva saṅkhepaṃ, vanditvā ratanattayaṃ।। Ln 1
Having paid salutation to the Three Gems, I shall recite the Lokanīti, extracted from various
treatises concisely in Magadhi.

2. Methods of adaptation in the Lokanīti:

Transition of the content

If the Sanskrit subhāṣitas that are the sources of Ln are analyzed on the basis of their
content, they can be divided into three types. The first type (2.1) includes subhāṣitas on a
subject matter that is absolutely non-sectarian and secular. In the second type (2.2) there
are subhāṣitas which appear to be insufficiently Buddhist. The third type (2.3) consists of
subhāṣitas that express Brahmanic ideas that are contrary to Buddhist thought.

2.1 Ln gāthās from non-sectarian and secular subhāṣitas

There are two kinds of opinions among the Pāli nītikāras regarding the first type. Here, the
Sanskrit subhāṣitas have been incorporated in Pāli without making changes in their content.
For example we can see the following gāthās with their parallel Sanskrit sources:

Pāli: mātā verī pitā satru,

yena bālā na sikkhitā।

4
 sabhāmajjhena sobhanti,
haṃsamajjhe bakā yathā।। Ln 18
A mother is foe, a father is an enemy. Wherefore? Because their offspring are
uneducated in their youth. (The children) are not shining in the midst of the
assembly, such as herons among swans.

Sanskrit: mātā śatruḥ pitā vairī,

yena bālo na pāṭhitaḥ।
na śobhate sabhāmadhye,
haṃsamadhye bako yathā।।CN 7 and Cv 2.15, HK Intr. 38, HP Intr. 25, Shn 42.
(The Sanskrit maxim matches with Pāli therefore a separate translation is not given.)

Pāli: rūpa-yobbana-sampannā,
visālakulasambhavā।
vijjā-hīnā na sobhanti,
nigandhā iva kiṃsukā।।Ln 36
They who are full of youth and beauty and have a noble lineage, being of little
knowledge do not shine; like the Kiṃsuka flower (Butea frondosa) without
fragrance.

Sanskrit: rūpayauvanasampannā,
viśālakulasambhavāḥ।
vidyāhīnā na śobhante,
nirgandhā iva kiṃśukāḥ।।CV 3.8 and Cv 3.2, CN 5, Vyās 57, Vyās (C) 51, HK Intr. 39,
Subh 8 and 282, Shn 19.
(The Sanskrit maxim matches with Pāli therefore a separate translation is not given.)

Pāli: caja dujjana saṃsaggaṃ,

bhaja sādhu samāgamaṃ।
kara puññamahorattiṃ,
sara niccamaniccataṃ।।Ln 42
Abandon the company of bad folk; cultivate the company of the good; do
whatever is virtuous day and night; always remember impermanence.

Sanskrit: tyaja durjanasaṃsargaṃ,

bhaja sādhusamāgamam।
kuru puṇyam ahorātraṃ,
smara nityaṃ anityatām।। CV 14.20 and Cv 6.17, CR 2.11, CS 1.100, Vyās 69
(The Sanskrit maxim matches with Pāli therefore a separate translation is not given.)

Looking at the word for word phonetic adaptations or transformations, it will not be
exaggerating to say that such translations or transformations could be helpful in the
compilation of their parallel Sanskrit compositions. As an example we can see gāthā number
61of the Lnwhich is an exact reflection of the Sanskrit subhāṣitaVyās 43:

Pāli: na visaṃ visamiccāhu,

dhanaṃ saṃghassa uccate।
visaṃ ekaṃ va hanati,
sabbaṃ saṃghassa santakaṃ।। Ln 61

5
 A poison, they say, is not a poison; the wealth of the Saṅgha is said to be a
poison; poison kills but once; the wealth of the Saṅgha kills entirely.

Sanskrit: na viṣaṃ viṣaṃ ity āhur,

brahmasvaṃ viṣaṃ ucyate।
viṣaṃ ekākinaṃ hanti,
brahmasvaṃ putrapautrakam।।Vyās 43, Vyās (C) 39, Subh 144
(The Sanskrit maxim matches with Pāli therefore a separate translation is not given.)

In case of some other subhāṣitas, the content of Pāli and Sanskrit corresponds almost
completely but a word or two are different in the expression. For example if we see the
following gāthā:

Pāli: tila mattaṃ paresaṃva,

appadosañca passati।
nāḷikeraṃpi sadosaṃ,
khalajāto na passati।। Ln 75
A wicked person notices the minor fault of others though as small as a grain of
sesame, but his own fault, as large as a coconut, he does not see.

Sanskrit: khalaḥ sarṣapamātrāṇi,

paracchidrāṇi paśyati।
ātmano bilvamātrāṇi,
paśyann api na paśyati।। HK 1.3 and H.P 1.2, SRH 266.7, Cr 1994
A wicked man sees the faults of others, even if they are as small as a grain of
mustard, (but) knowingly does not want to see his own (faults) even though they are
as big as a Bilva-fruit. (Translation taken from MSS: VII 3476)

Here, we see that the Sanskrit sarṣapa (mustard) and bilva are replaced by the words tila
(sesame) and nāḷikera (coconut) respectively. It is difficult to say whether this change is due
to different Sanskrit sources or it is a choice made deliberately by the Pāli nītikāra or
Burmese writers of words like tila and nāḷikera that were well known in Burmese society.
One good example of change we can see in the Ln gāthā no.122 which is the
imitation of SRH 196.108:

Pāli: bahavo yattha netāro,

sabbe paṇḍitamānino।
sabbe mahattaṃ icchanti,
tesaṃ kammaṃ vinassati।। Ln 122
Where leaders are many, all consider themselves intelligent, and everybody
desires importance: their work comes to nothing.

Sanskrit: bahavo yatra netāraḥ,

sarve paṇḍitamāninaḥ।
sarve mahattvam icchanti,
tad vṛndam avasīdati।। SRH 196.108 and SV 2724, Subh 90, Nśv 11.
Where there are many leaders, where everybody believes himself to be
intelligent, where everybody desires importance, that group perishes.

6
The first three lines of the verse are found in the Sanskrit verse. The Pāli composer has made
a remarkable change in the fourth line. As a result of the reasons mentioned in the first three
lines, such a group or community of people are said to be destroyed whereas in the Pāli
version, it is said that the actions of such a group are wasted as a result of the same reasons.
Though this change could not be called the result of the impact of Buddhist thought, it does
underline the different view-point of the writer to replace the group of people with their
actions.
Similarly, conspicuous grammatical changes can be seen when there is no difference
between the content and the expression. The best example we can see in the following Pāli
nīti gāthā:

Pāli: dviguṇo thīnamāhāro,

buddhi cāpi catugguṇā।
chagguṇo hoti vāyāmo,
kāmo tvaṭṭhaguṇo bhave।।Ln 161
The appetite of a woman is twice bigger (than that of a man); their astuteness four
times, their determination six times, and their sexual desire eight times.

Sanskrit: āhāro dviguṇaḥ strīṇāṃ,

buddhis tāsāṃ caturguṇā।
ṣaḍguṇo vyavasāyaśca,
kāmaś cāṣṭguṇaḥ smṛtaḥ।।CN 76, CV 1.17, Cv 1.18, CR 2.41, HJ 2.118 and 4.8, HK
2.117.
(The Sanskrit maxim matches with Pāli therefore a separate translation is not
given.)

2.2 Ln gāthās from subhāṣitas which appear to be insufficiently

Buddhist

In the second type, the Pāli writers, by making changes according to their Buddhist thought,
have tried to shade the secular gāthās with the colour ofBuddhism. For example we can see
the following gāthā:

Pāli: alasassa kuto sippaṃ,

asippassa kuto dhanaṃ।
adhanassa kuto mittaṃ,
amittassa kuto sukhaṃ।
asukhassakuto puññaṃ,
apuññassa kuto nibbānaṃ।।Ln 3
How can there be skill for one who is indolent, wealth for one without skill,
friendship for one without prosperity, happiness for the friendless, merit for the
despondent, and Nibbāna for the unmeritorious person?

Undoubtedly this gāthā has been taken from the following Sanskrit subhāṣita:

Sanskrit: alasasya kutaḥ śilpam,

aśilpasya kuto dhanam।
adhanasya kuto mitram,

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 amitrasya kutaḥ sukham।।Prś 74
(The Sanskrit maxim matches with Pāli therefore a separate translation is not given.)

By adding two extra lines at the end of this popular Sanskrit subhāṣita, the series of causes
from the subhāṣita lead on to Buddhist principles; and to give this verse an unequivocally
Buddhist character Pāli nītikāra adds two more pādas, thereby making a peculiar metre
consisting of six pādas.
We can see another example of change in the following Pāli nīti gāthā which is also
based on a Sanskrit subhāṣita:

Pāli: sukkhopi candanatarū na jahāti gandhaṃ,

nāgo gato raṇamukhe na jahāti līḷaṃ।
yantāgato madhurasaṃ na jahāti ucchu,
dukkhopi paṇḍitajano na jahāti dhammaṃ।।Ln 45
The sandal-tree does not lose its fragrance even when it has become dry; an
elephant does not lose its ‘playfulness’ even in a battle field; sugar-cane, being
brought under a pressing-machine, does not lose its sweet juice; a wise man even
under affliction does not abandon dhamma.

Sanskrit: chinno ’pi candanatarur na jahāti gandham,

vṛddho ’pi vāraṇapatir na jahāti līlām।
yantrārpito madhuratāṃ na jahāti cekṣuḥ,
kṣīno’pi na tyajati śīlaguṇān kulīnaḥ।।CV 15.18 (Vasantatilakā metre)
The sandal-tree, even when struck down, does not give up its smell. The lordly
elephant, even when old, does not leave ‘playfulness’. Sugarcane, even when
crushed (lit. put in the machine), does not lose its sweetness. A man of noble
descent, even when reduced to poverty, does not forsake his high conduct and
virtues. (Translation taken from MSS: VIII. 14643)

The Pāli gātha cannot be called an exact transformation of the Sanskrit verse even though
there is similarity of the metre. Different words are used in each of the first three lines and
the expression in the fourth line of the Sanskrit verse is changed to suit Buddhist thought.
Similarly, in the following Pāli gāthā:

Pāli: sakiṃ vadanti rājāno,

sakiṃ samaṇabrāhmaṇā।
sakiṃ sappurisā loke,
esa dhammo sanantano।। Ln 120
Kings say (something only) once, so also Samaṇas and Brāhmaṇas. Good men, in
the world, speak but once: this is eternal Dhamma (i.e. the rule has been practiced
since ancient times).

Sanskrit: sakṛj jalpanti rājānaḥ,

sakṛj jalpanti paṇḍitāḥ। CV 4.11ab
Kings speak [only] once, the wise speak [only] once.

The Pāli is a combination of Sanskrit (CV 4.11 ab) and Pāli sources (pāda d= Dhammapada
5d). The word ‘panḍita’ in the second line of the Sanskrit verse is changed to the more
familiar word in Pāli tradition ‘samaṇabrāhmaṇā’. In the same way, the worldly/material

8
expression is changed into a philosophical expression and the last line is also changed into a
popular expression from the Dhammapada.
Likewise, in the following gāthā:

Pāli: niddāluko pamattoca,

sukhatto rogavālaso।
mahiccho kammārāmo ca,
satte te satthavajjitā।।Ln 143
One who sleeps more, as well as one who is negligent, one who lives comfortably
as well as one who is sick, one who is lazy, or greedy, and one who delights in action
– these seven have nothing to do with knowledge.

Sanskrit: alaso mandabuddhiśca,

sukhito vyādhipīḍitaḥ।
nidrāluḥ kāmukaś caiva,
ṣaḍete śāstravarjitāḥ।।
Vyās 75, Subh 112, MSS 3165
One who is indolent, foolish, one who lives comfortably, afflicted with
diseases, excessively sleeping, and sensual – these six types of people are
deprived of knowledge.

Whereas in the present Sanskrit verse there are six kinds of people who are unable to obtain
knowledge, in the Pāli version the number is changed to seven. Apart from the similarity of
content, some changes require careful attention. In the Sanskrit verse, a foolish and a lustful
person are included, whereas in the Pāli version, one who is slothful and greedy are
included, keeping the Buddhist view in mind.
In gāthā 73 of the Lokanīti we find a very good example of imitation of Sanskrit
sources in Pāli:

Pāli: ghare duṭṭho ca mūsiko,

vane duṭṭho ca vānaro।
sakuṇe ca duṭṭho kāko,
nare duṭṭhoca brāhmaṇo।।Ln 73
A mouse is a bad one in a house; in the forest, the monkey; among birds, the crow;
among men, a Brāhmaṇa.

The following two gāthās are identified as possible sources of the Pāli gāthā:

narānāṃ nāpito dhūrttaḥ,

pakṣiṇāṃ caiva vāyasaḥ।
catuṣpadāṃ śrigālastu,
dhūrtāstrīṇāṃ ca mālinī।।CV 5.21
Among humans, the barber is cunning; among birds, the crow; among the four-
footed, the wolf; and among women, the gardener’s wife (mālina) is cunning.

pakṣiṇāṃ kākaścāṇḍālaḥ
paśūnāṃ caiva kukkuraḥ।
munīnāṃ kopī cāṇḍālaḥ
sarvacāṇḍālaninditaḥ।।CV 6.2

9
 Among birds the crow and among animals the dog are stupid (cāṇḍāla). Among
sages the grumpy are cāṇḍāla which is condemned by all who are cāṇḍāla.

The change in the words does not indicate the influence of the Buddhist thought but it does
clearly indicate who Buddhists had an unfavourable view of. There is similarity of content
and expression between the three verses. Even so, the first one of the two subhāṣitas is
closer to the Pāli gāthā. In the Sanskrit verse the most cunning among animals and humans
are mentioned. But in the Pāli version the first line mentions the most problematic in a
particular place and then mentions the most problematic in particular groups in the latter
half. The last line of the Pāli version picks Brahmins as the bad ones whereas the Sanskrit
verse says that a barber is the most cunning among men. The barbers are looked down upon
even in modern Indian society, which is still divided by the caste system. The writer of the
Ln, who is not directly connected with the Indian framework, has replaced the word ‘Barber’
with ‘Brahmin’ following the age-old Śramaṇa-Brāhmaṇa conflict. Sean Tu (1962, 73), a
Burmese scholar who translated the Ln into the English, opines that,‘One of the traditional
castes of the Hindu social system here refers to the Brahmin astrologers and court
functionaries by whose advice the Myanmar kings were often guided.’

2.3 Subhāṣitas that express Brahmanic ideas

that are contrary to Buddhist thought

The subhāṣitas that appear to be inconsistent with Buddhist thought as far as content is
concerned can be put in this category. The Pāli nītikāras have tried to remove the
inconsistencies and model them according to Buddhist doctrines. The parts that did not
correspond to the Buddhist thought were changed to suit the Buddhist principles. The
following are some examples.

Pāli: jīvantāpi matāpañca,

byāsena parikittitā।
dukkhito byādhito mūḷho,
iṇavā nityasevako।। Ln 141
Although living, five persons are declared to be dead by the (nīti teacher) Vyāsa –
one in poverty, one in sickness, a fool, one in debt, and one who serves a king.

Sanskrit: jīvanto ’pi mṛtāḥ pañca,

vyāsena parikīrtitaḥ।
daridro vyādhito mūrkhaḥ,
pravasī nityasevakḥ।।PP 1.264 and Pts 1.266
Although living, five persons are declared to be dead by the (nīti teacher)
Vyāsa – one in poverty, one in sickness, a fool, people who went on long
journeys, and one who serves a king.

Here the Pāli nītikāra has changed the words indicating five persons who are as if dead. If
we look into the Indian framework, on many occasions, people who went on long journeys
would never return. Therefore, the writer must have included the ‘traveler’ in the list of five.
In the Buddhist context it is not proper to say such a thing with reference to a monk who is
always on the move. Probably this is why the Pāli writer changed the word pravasī (who
went on long journeys) to iṇavā (one in debt).
10
 Similarly in the following gāthā:

Pāli: aggi āpo itthi mūḷho,

sappo rājakulāni ca।
yatanenāpagantabbā,
sajju pāṇaharāṇi ti।। Ln 125
Fire, water, a woman, a fool, a snake, and royal families – they take away life
suddenly, so one should stay away diligently.

Sanskrit: agnir āpaḥ striyo mūrkhāḥ,

sarpā riājakulāni ca।
nityaṃ yatnena sevyāni,
sadyaḥ prāṇharāṇi ṣaṭ।।
CV 14.12 and Cv 5.19, CS 3.94, Shn 69
Fire, water, a woman, a fool, a snake, and royal families – these six take away life
suddenly, so one should handle them carefully.

Here the third Pāli line would have been more consistent with its Sanskrit counter part if it
was ‘yatanenupagantabbā’. There are two possibilities here. One is that the reading was
originally ‘yatanenupagantabbā’ but got corrupted later on. The other possibility is that the
writer had changed the expression ‘yatanenāpagantabbā’ deliberately. The Sanskrit verse
states that there are six things which need to be handled carefully otherwise they can be life
threatening. Among the six, one is women. It is quite inappropriate from the Buddhist point
of view for a monk and lay man to ‘handle’ women carefully. Therefore, the writer might
have changed the third lineas ‘yatanenāpagantabbā’, meaning that these six things are to
be avoided as they can be life threatening which is consistent with the Buddhist thought.
The following gāthā of Pāli nīti:

Pāli: natthi vijjāsamaṃ mittaṃ,

na ca byādhisamo ripu।
na ca attasamaṃ pemaṃ,
na ca kammasamaṃ balaṃ।। Ln 23
There is no friend like knowledge; no enemy like disease; no one as dear as
oneself; no power like that of kamma.

is openly taken from Vyās 21 –

nāsti vidyāsamaṃ mitraṃ,

nāsti vyādhisamo ripuḥ।
na cāpatyasamaḥ sneho,
na ca daivāt paraṃ balam।। Vyās 21
There is no friend like knowledge; no enemy like disease; no love like love of
child; no power like that of destiny.

The above can be quoted as an example of verses belonging to the third type that are
influenced by the Brahmanic tradition. The Pāli nītikāra has changed the word ‘daiva’ which
means ‘destiny’ in the Brahmanic tradition to ‘kamma’, thus making it consistent with
Buddhist thought. Similarly, the writer has changed the word ‘apatya’, meaning a child, to
‘atta’ meaning ‘oneself’. But this tendency is not apparent everywhere. This is seen in the
11
following Pāli nīti gāthā:

Pāli: dhanavā sottiyo rājā,

nadī vejjo c’ imepañca।
pañcayattha na vijjanti,
na tattha divasaṃ vase।।Ln 113
A man of wealth, a man of learning, a king, a river, and likewise a doctor – in
whatever place these five are not to be found, a man should not live there even for
a day.

– which is taken from the Cv 1.9:

Sanskrit: dhanakaḥ śrotriyo rājā,

nadī vaidyas tu pañcamaḥ।
pañca yatra na vidyante,
na tatra divasaṃ vaset।। Cv 1.9
(The Sanskrit maxim matches with Pāli therefore a separate translation is not
given.)

Here, the Pāli nītikāra has not changed the word ‘śrotriyo’, meaning one who has learnt the
Vedas. It is notable here that the Sabhiya Sutta (533, 534) from the Suttanipāta explains the
word ‘sottiyo’ in a moral way.3 Probably this is the reason that the writer did not feel it
necessary to change the word.

3. Methods of adaptation in the Lokanīti:

Transition of the expression

The process of transition of expression seems to be more complicated than that of the
content. Thus we see issues concerning: (3.1) choice of metre, (3.2) impact of abridgement
of metre on style and expression, (3.3) application of particular word or collection of words,
(3.4) sensitivity towards language, (3.5) particular length of expression, (3.6) gāthās with
corrupt forms, and (3.7) cases where there is uncertainty on Sanskrit sources.

3.1 Choice of metre

The Pāli nītikār as have selected either the Anuṣṭhubh (Pāli Anuṭṭhubha) metre containing
eight syllables or the Śloka (Pāli Siloka) metre most of the time. The tendency of the writer

3 sutvā sabbadhammaṃ abhiññāya loke, (sabhiyāti bhagavā)

sāvajjānavajjaṃ yadatthi kiñci;
abhibhuṃ akathaṃkathiṃ vimuttaṃ,
anighaṃ sabbadhimāhu sottiyoti. (Suttanipāta 534)
‘Having heard (and) understood every doctrine in the world, Sahiya’, said the Blessed One, ‘(and)
whatever is blamable and blameless, one who overcomes, (is) without doubt, completely released, without
affliction in every respect, him they call “versed in sacred knowledge”’. (Translation taken from Norman
1992, 59)

12
to use short metres is noticeable even in the translations in Pāli. For example we can see the
following Pāli gāthā:

Pāli: bhojanaṃ methunaṃ niddā,

gave pose ca vijjati।
vijjā viseso posassa,
taṃ hīno gosamo bhave।।Ln 22.
Food, copulation and sleep, are found in both bull and man; knowledge is
peculiar to man: one who is defective (in this) is similar to the bull.

– which is a translation of the Sanskrit verse set in the Upajāti metre consisting of 11
syllables of the CV 17.17.

Sanskrit: āhāranidrābhayamaithunāni,
samāni caītāni nṛṇāṃ paśūnām।
jñānaṃ narāṇām adhiko viśeṣo
jñānena hīnāḥ paśubhiḥ samānāḥ।।CV 17.17
Hunger, sleep, fear and copulation are common to men and cattle. Men
have more knowledge; men devoid of knowledge are equal to cattle.
(Translation taken from MSS 5700 with some modifications)

Similarly we can see the following Pāli nīti gāthā:

Pāli: haṃso majjhe na kākānaṃ,

sīho gunnaṃ na sobhate।
gadrabhamajjhe turaṅgo,
bālamajjhe na paṇḍito।। Ln 24
A swan does not shine (look right) among crows, a lion among bulls, a horse in
the midst of asses, and a wise man among fools.

– which is the translation of a Sanskrit nīti verse composed in Vasantatilakā consisting of 14

syllables:

Sanskrit: haṃso na bhāti balibhojanavṛndamadhye,

gomāyumaṇḍalagato na vibhāti siṃhaḥ।
jātyo na bhāti turagaḥ kharayūthamadhye,
vidvānna bhāti puruṣeṣu nirakṣareṣu।। CV 8.7
The goose does not shine among crows, the lion does not shine among jackals,
the horse does not shine among asses by its noble birth, the wise man does not
shine among illiterate people.(Translation taken from Hahn 2010)

Likewise, in the following Pāli nīti gāthā, Anuṣtubha metre is applied –

Pāli: na titti rājā dhanamhi,

paṇḍitopi su-bhāsite।
cakkhuṃpi piya-dassane,
jale sāgaro na titti।। Ln 35
A king is not satisfied with his wealth, a wise man with well uttered discourse; the
eye in seeing a lover, and the sea with its water.

13
– whereas in Sanskrit the verse is composed in Upendravajrā metre:

Sanskrit: na tṛpti rājā dhanasañcayena,

na sāgaraḥ tṛptir nadījalena।
na paṇḍitāḥ tṛptiḥ subhāṣitena,
na cakṣutṛptiḥ priyadarśanena।। Prś 49
A king is not satisfied with collection of wealth, and the sea is not satisfied with
the water of river, a wise man with well uttered discourse and the eye in seeing a
lover.

Here the metre is defective. There might be a better version elsewhere. An attempt
is made here to make a metrically correct version which is given below:

tṛptir na rājño dhanasañcayena

na sāgarasyāpi nadījalena।
na paṇḍitasyāpi subhāṣitena
na cakṣuṣaḥ syāt priyadarśanena।।

In the same way the following gāthā is set in Anuṣṭubha:

Pāli: pabbe pabbe kamenucchu,

visesarasavāggato।
tathā sumettiko sādhu,
viparītova dujjano।। Ln 162
The sugar-cane is better tasting knot after knot from the tip: a good friend is like
that; a bad man just the reverse.

– while the Sanskrit verse is set in Āryā metre:

Sanskrit: ikṣor agrāt kramaśaḥ,

parvaṇi parvaṇi yathā rasaviśeṣaḥ।
tadvaddhi sujanamaitrī,
viparītānāṃ tu viparītā।। PP 2.31 and PS 1.149, SRH 36.26
Each segment of a sugar-cane beyond the tip is sweeter; the friendship of
the good is so – the other kind grows bitter. (Translation taken from MSS
5742)

The following gāthā is also an example of the same.

Pāli: najjo pivanti no āpaṃ,

rukkhā khādanti no phalaṃ।
vassanti kvaci no meghā,
paratthāya sataṃ dhanaṃ।। Ln 64
Rivers do not drink up their water, nor trees eat up their fruit; rain does not fall in
some places only: the wealth of the virtuous is for others.

Sanskrit: pibanti nadyaḥ svayaṃ eva nāmbhaḥ

khādanti na svāduphalāni vṛkṣāḥ।

14
 payodharo na kvacid atti sasyaṃ,
paropakārāya satāṃ vibhūtiḥ।। SRH 36.32 and PS 3
Rivers do not drink their water, the trees do not eat (their own) fruits, the cloud
never eats crops, (indeed) the lives of the virtuous are for the welfare of others.

3.2. Impact of abridgement of metre on style and expression

Due to the selection of short metres for Pāli works transformed from Sanskrit, probably,
there has been a change in the style and expression of Pāli works. In the gāthā –

Pāli: bhojanaṃ methunaṃ niddā,

gave pose ca vijjati।
vijjā viseso posassa,
taṃ hīno gosamo bhave।। Ln 22.
(For translation and Sanskrit source see above section 2.1)

– a compounded word in the Sanskrit verse ‘āhāra-nidrā-bhaya-maithunāni’ is replaced by

three independent words in Pāli ‘bhojanaṃ methunaṃ niddā’. Owing to the abridgement of
the metre in Pāli, the word ‘bhaya’ from the Sanskrit verse cannot be included in the gāthā.
There seem to be some other restrictive effects on the Pāli gāthās due to the conciseness
of metres. For example in the following gāthā:

Pāli: dhanahīne caje mitto,

puttadārā sahodarā।
dhanavantaṃva sevanti,
dhanaṃ loke mahā sakhā।। Ln 81
In poverty a friend, son, wife, brother or sister may forsake (one); when one is
rich they associate (with one): wealth in this world is a great friend.

– which is a Pāli form of the following Sanskrit verse composed in Upajāti:

Sanskrit: tyajanti mitrāṇi dhanena hīnaṃ,

putrāśca dārāśca sahodarāśca।
tamarthavantaṃ punareva yānti,
hyartho ’tra loko puruṣasya bandhuḥ।। PP 2.106 and PRE 2.33
Friends abandon a person who does not have money; son, relatives and
wife also in this context. All should run after the person having money; wealth
in this world is only to be treated as friend exclusively and nothing else.

Here, the writer had to use the potential third-person singular form ‘caje’ in place of the
present tense third-person plural ‘tyajanti’ form from the Sanskrit verse. On the one hand
this adjustment does not match the plural subjects in the gāthā and, on the other; it
transforms the universal statement into a potential construction. It is obvious that the
translator does not have any other two-syllable form to choose than ‘caje’. It has become
essential to use a compounded word in the first and the second line of the gāthā when there
is a non-compound construction in the Sanskrit verse. For example, the word ‘dhanahīne’ is
used in place of the words ‘dhanena hīnaṃ’, and the words ‘puttadārā sahodarā’ in place of
the words ‘putrāśca dārāśca sahodarāśca’. Due to the abridgement of metre, the translator

15
was compelled to change the content in the third line of the gāthā. The abridgement of
metre has not only affected the content but also the style of poetry. The expression was
condensed so much that the poetic style in the Sanskrit verse is not perceptible at all in the
above gāthā.
Another example in this context we can see in the following Pāli nīti gāthā:

Pāli: udeti bhānu pacchime,

merurājā pi namati।
sītalo narakaggi pi,
pabbatagge ca uppalaṃ।
vikase na viparītaṃ,
sādhuvācā kudācanaṃ।। Ln 49
Should the sun rise in the west, and Meru, King of mountains bend – should the
fire of hell grow cold and the lily grow on the mountain-top, the speech of righteous
people never changes.

This gāthā is an imitation of the following Sanskrit verse:

Sanskrit: udayati yadi bhānuḥ paścime digvibhāge,

pracalati yadi meruḥ śītatāṃ yāti vahniḥ।
vikasati yadi padmaṃ parvatāgre śilāyāṃ,
na bhavati punaruktaṃ bhāṣaṇaṃ sajjanānām।। Bhś 426
Though the sun may rise in the western quarter, though Mount Meru be
moved and fire become cold, though a water-lily blooms forth on a rock upon
a mountain-top, the speech of virtuous people is free from the fault of
repetition.

Here the Sanskrit verse composed in the Mālinī metre is transformed into a verse containing
6 lines of 8 syllables each in Pāli. In other words the purport expressed in 60 words in Sanskrit
is conveyed in 48 words in Pāli. Though the content has not been affected here, the poetical
essence has definitely been altered and disturbed. As far as the meaning is concerned, the
Sanskrit verse states that ‘the speech of virtuous people is free from the fault of repetition’
whereas the Pāli version says that ‘the speech of the righteous people is never contradicted’.
The above mentioned gāthā ‘na titti rājā dhanamhi, paṇḍitopi subhāsite,
cakkhuṃpi piya-dassane, jale sāgaro na titti’ (Ln 35, see 2.1.) is an example of curtailment
of expression without affecting the sense or meaning. In that instance, the translator has
condensed the Upendravajrā metre of the Sanskrit verse by abandoning only such words
which do not alter the meaning in any way. The use of locative forms like ‘dhanamhi’ etc. in
Pāli for instrumental forms like ‘dhanasañcayena’, ‘nadījalena’, ‘subhāṣitena’, ‘priyadarśan-
ena’ indicating instrument or cause in Sanskrit is praiseworthy as far as style is concerned.
It is clear from the above instances that due to the choice of short-lettered metres the Pāli
translator has, while translating, adopted many linguistic as well as stylistic techniques in
which the selection of compound and non-compound constructions as well as the use of
particular nominal or verbal forms is noteworthy. But even after adopting these techniques,
the translator could not avoid the loss of poetical essence, abridgement of content or even
a change in content as inevitable consequences of the changes.

3.3. Selection of particular words or collection of words

16
The language of the nīti texts can be called the Pāli of the new age. The creation of this new
form of Pāli, influenced so deeply by Sanskrit, can be regarded as the specialty of this new
age. In this new age Pāli, many originally non-existent/absent Sanskrit words were adopted
in their Pāli forms and Pāli words were used with different meanings according to Sanskrit
usages. In a way this new age can be regarded as the age of making Sanskritic-Pāli. Some
examples of this process found in the Pāli nīti literature in general and the Lokanīti in
particular are discussed below.

3.3.1. Nominal forms

The Pāli word ñāṇī (Ln 2d) meaning ‘erudite’ is not found in the most ancient Pāli texts. This
word is found in relatively later texts like the Mahāniddesa (I.55), the Cullaniddesa (36) and
in the Kathāvatthu (451). In the same way, words like ‘akka’ and ‘hutāsana’ are used in the
following gāthā:

Pāli: piṭṭhito ’kkaṃ niseveyya,

kucchiyā va hutāsanaṃ।
sāminaṃ sabbabhāvena,
paralokaṃ amāyāya।।Ln 124
(The heat of) the sun should be taken with the back turned towards the sun, (the
heat of) the fire by the stomach; a husband should be served with all devotion, the
next world with non-illusion.

– which is imitated from the following Sanskrit verse

pṛṣthato ’rkaṃ niṣeveta,

jaṭhareṇa hutāśanam।
svāminaṃ sarvabhāvena,
paralokam amāyayā।। CR 8.52, HJ 2.32, HK 2.34, HP 2.30, Nśv 7.
(The heat of) the sun should be taken with the back turned towards the sun, (the
heat of) the digesting fire by the stomach; a husband should be served with all
means, the next world with non-illusion.

The Pāli parallels of the Sanskrit words ‘arka’ and‘hutāśanam’ are ‘akka’ and ‘hutāsana’. If
the use of these words in the Pāli literature is analyzed, it becomes clear that the word ‘akka’
is used in the sense of the sun for the first time in the Saddanīti (283) and Abhidhāna-
ppadipikā (Abh, 11). Of course this word is not used in the sense of the sun in the typical
language of the Tipiṭaka. Similarly, the word ‘hutāsana’ does not occur in the old Pāli texts.
It is found in the Apadāna (I.20) and later commentarial (Th-a: I.183, Ap-a: 225) literature. It
would not be proper to call this tendency to imitate the Sanskrit words as blind following.
There are instances where the translator has deliberately selected more prevalent Pāli
alternatives in place of unfamiliar Sanskrit words. For example in the following gāthā of the
Ln 153:

Pāli: guru siddho sippārambho,

ravisokro ca majjhimo।
na sippo buddhacandaro,
17
 sorī aṅgā ca maraṇaṃ।।
Beginning a study on Thursday is the consummation of that study; beginning on
Sunday or Friday is doing but half; beginning on Wednesday or Monday is learning
nothing; beginning on Saturday or Tuesday occasions death.

– whose parallel is found in the following śloka of JSS 121:

Sanskrit: vidyārambhe guruḥ śreṣtho

madhyamau bhṛgubhāskarau।
budhe saume ca vidyāyāṃ,
śanibhaumau parityajet।।
Thursday is considered to be the best day for the commencement of study;
Friday and Sunday are considered to be moderately good, whereas the rest,
namely, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, and Saturday should be avoided.

Here the Pāli nītikāra has used ‘sokro’ in place of ‘bhṛgu’, ‘ravi’ in place of ‘bhāskarau’, and
‘candaro’ in place of ‘saume’. Similarly in place of ‘śani’, ‘sorī’ (son of sun) and in place of
‘bhauma’, ‘aṅgā(ra)’, the chosen words being more popular in Pāli.

3.3.2. Verbal forms

We also find some verbal forms which are very peculiar in terms of usage and application.
For example the form ‘nidhāpaye’ (Ln 5.2) is not found in the Tipiṭaka or the commentaries.
The first use of this word is traced in the Mahāvaṃsa. It is used later by some Burmese
teachers like Ledi Sayadaw in their works. The root‘√bhaṇ’ is used in the active voice or
parasmaipada (literally means ‘word for another’) in the Tipiṭaka and commentaries. The
Lokanīti (12d) is the only text which uses the root in Atmanepada (literally means ‘word for
self’) which is the result of absolute imitation of Sanskrit. Another instance is the form
‘niseveyya’ (Ln 124a) which is the Pāli alternative of Sanskrit ‘niṣeveta’. In Sanskrit the root
‘√sev’ withthe prefix ‘ni’ means to serve. The root is not generally used in this sense in Pāli.
It is used in the sense of ‘using’, ‘behaving’, ‘following’, ‘being’, ‘connected’ or ‘getting
engaged’. This process of establishing Pāli forms of Sanskrit words with meanings not
prevalent in Pāli is apparent from the period of commentaries and seems to have grown
gradually by the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.

3.4. Sensitivity towards language

While translating Sanskrit verses into Pāli, the sensitivity of the translator towards language
is clearly apparent in some places. When selecting Pāli alternatives for Sanskrit words the
translator has selected non-technical words in place of the Buddhist technical words.
Sometimes the translator has also tried to remove perceptible defects in the Sanskrit
constructions and to improve the constructions. Some examples of these are given below.

3.4.1. Selection of non-technical words in place of technical words

In the following Pāli gāthā

18
 bhojanaṃ methunaṃ niddā,
goṇe posepi vijjati।
vijjā viseso posassa,
taṃ hīno gosamo bhave।। Ln 22(for English translation see above 2.1)

– which is based on this Sanskrit verse:

āhāranidrābhayamaithunāni,
samāni caītāni nṛṇāṃ paśūnām।
jñānaṃ narāṇām adhiko viśeṣo,
jñānena hīnāḥ paśubhiḥ samānāḥ।।CV 17.17 (for English translation see
above 2.1)

– while translating the Sanskrit word ‘āhāra’ the translator has purposefully used the word
‘bhojana’ which is more commonly used for food, in place of ‘āhāra’ even when ‘āhāra’ is
also available in Pāli in the same sense. It has to be understood here that though the word
‘āhāra’ means also food in Pāli, it is prominently used in sense of nourishment which is a
technical word. Keeping this in mind, the translator has selected the non-technical word
‘bhojana’ instead of the technical word ‘āhāra’. It may further be noted that the word āhāra,
if used in the said Pāli gāthā, would not disturb the metre. It is therefore clear that the
translator uses the word bhojana as this has a more general sense. Another example of the
same can be seen in the following gāthā:

Pāli: calatyekena pādena,

tiṭṭhatyekena paṇḍito।
anisamma paraṃ ṭhānaṃ,
A wise man moves one foot [only] when the other foot is set in place: one should
not abandon the old place of residence, before one finds another place of dwelling.

This gāthā is based on the following śloka:

Sanskrit: calatyekena pādena,

tiṣṭhatyekena paṇḍitaḥ।
nāsamīkṣya paraṃ sthānaṃ,
pūrvaṃ āyatanaṃ tyajet।।Cv 1.8 and PP 1.77, ŚP 1463.
With one foot a wise man moves; with one he stands still. Without having
seen another place (of abode), he ought not to leave a former habitation.
(Translation taken fromMSS 14133)

Here, Pāli words ‘anisamma’ and ‘ālayaṃ’ are used. It seems that the word ‘anisamma’ is
used due to stylistic reasons. But the use of the word ‘ālayaṃ’ in place of ‘āyatanaṃ’ seems
clearly to avoid using the technical word ‘āyatanaṃ’ in Pāli. The same kind of change is
found in the following gāthā:

Pāli: pakkhīnaṃ balamākāso,

macchānamudakaṃ balaṃ।
dubbalassabalaṃ rājā,
kumārānaṃ rudaṃ balaṃ।। Ln 118

19
 The strength of birds lies in air, that of fish in water; the strength of the helpless is
in a king, of children in tears.

– which is based on this Sanskrit verse:

Sanskrit: pakṣīnāṃ balam ākāśaṃ

matsyānām udakaṃ balam।
durbalasya balaṃ rājā,
bālānāṃ ruditaṃ balam।। Vyās 90 and SRH 238.33
(The Sanskrit maxim matches with Pāli therefore a separate translation is not
given.)

Here the Pāli nītikāra has thoughtfully selected the Pāli word ‘kumārānaṃ’ in place of the
Sanskrit word ‘bālānāṃ’. It is well known that the word ‘bāla’ means a ‘child’ and also a
‘foolish person’. It appears that the translator has used the word ‘kumāra’ to avoid
misunderstanding of meaning. It is also possible to say that it is used for the sake of the
metre where a three-syllabic word (kumāra), instead of a two-syllabic one (i.e. bāla) is
required.

3.4.2. Efforts to improve construction

Sometimes the translator, while translating, has tried to improve shortcomings in the
expression of the Sanskrit verses. For example we can see the following gāthā:

Pāli: candanaṃ sītalaṃ loke,

tato candaṃ va sītalam।
candancandasītamahā,
sādhu vākyaṃ subhāsitaṃ।।Ln 48.
Sandalwood is pleasant in the world, (but) the moon (light) is more pleasant,
(indeed) far pleasanter than sandalwood and the moon is the well uttered discourse
of the righteous.

This Pāli gāthā is based on the following Sanskrit verse:

Sanskrit: śītalaṃ candanaṃ loke,

candanād api candramāḥ।
candracandanayor madhye,
śītalaḥ sādhusaṃgamaḥ।।CR 8.72, Shn 43, CM 184
Sandalwood is pleasant in the world, (but) the moon (light) is more pleasant than
sandalwood. And the pleasure of association with good people is between (that of)
sandalwood and the moon.

The last half of the Sanskrit verse is aptly altered in Pāli. The comparative construction in the
first half of the Sanskrit verse is expected to be repeated in the last half as well from the
stylistic point of view. But instead there is an awkward construction in Sanskrit. The
translator has successfully removed this defect and has used a comparative construction in
Pāli. Similarly in the following Pāli gāthā:

20
Pāli: padumaṃva mukhaṃ yassa,
vācā candanasītalā।
tādisaṃ nopaseveyya,
hadayetu halāhalaṃ।। Ln 88
Whose face is like the lotus flower and speech as pleasant as sandalwood, one
should not associate with such a person, there being poison in his heart.

This gāthā is based on following Sanskrit verse:

Sanskrit: mukhaṃ padmadalākāraṃ,

vācā candanaśītalā।
madhu tiṣṭhati jivhāgre,
hṛdaye tu halāhalam।।Prś 57, Shn 94
A face like a lotus flower and speech as cool as sandalwood, as with honey
on the tip of the tongue; (yet) there is poison in the heart.

Here, in Sanskrit there is no mention of how such a person should be treated. Probably
thinking this as a defect, the translator has changed the third line of the Sanskrit verse to
‘tādisaṃ nopaseveyya’, a moral discourse, thereby completing the sense of the verse. The
present verse has another version in Sanskrit:

mukhaṃ padmadalākāraṃ,
vāṇī candanaśītalā।
hṛdayaṃ krodhasaṃraktaṃ
trividhaṃ dhūrtalakṣaṇam।।
A face like the lotus flower, speech is as pleasant as sandalwood and a heart
full of anger – this is a three-fold characteristic of a wicked one.

It is possible that the Pāli gāthā is based on this parallel Sanskrit verse.

3.5. Particular length of expression

A writer selects a particular length of expression to put forth his ideas. It is not just difficult
but almost impossible to maintain the same length of expression in translated/transformed
literature. The Ln gāthā 31 –

Pāli: anavhāyaṃ gamayanto,

apucchā bahu-bhāsako।
atta-guṇaṃ pakāsento,
ti-vidhaṃ hīna-lakkhaṇaṃ।।
Going to a place uninvited, speaking much when not questioned,
proclaiming one’s own merits: these three things are the characteristics of a
base person.

– is an appropriate example in this context. The following Sanskrit verse –

anāhūte praveśaś ca,

stutiś ca savātmavarṇasya।
21
 na pṛṣṭe bahubhāṣaṇam,
ity evaṃ mūrkhalakṣaṇam।। Vyās 46, SRH 28.1.
Entering a place uninvited, talking much without being asked, praising one’s own
caste – this is the sign of a fool.

– is suggested as a parallel to this gāthā by Bechert and Braun (1981, 44). If we compare
these two verses the following facts come to light: in Sanskrit, the condition or situation is
expressed in the locative case, whereas in Pāli the words gamayanto and pakāsento are
present participles. In the same way, abstract nouns are used to express qualities in Sanskrit,
whereas in the Pāli version personal nouns are used which do not correspond well with the
word ‘hīna-lakkhaṇaṃ’ in the last line of the gāthā. In this case, it is impossible to say why
the Pāli nītikāra selected a different length of expression even when it was possible for him
to compose a perfect imitation of the Sanskrit verse, though he may have had a different
Sanskrit verse with the same length of expression.
The following Pāli nīti gāthā –

Pāli: bhamarā pupphamicchanti,

guṇamicchanti sujanā।
makkhikā pūtimicchanti,
dosamicchanti dujjanā।। Ln 51
Bees wish for flowers; good men for what is virtuous; flies for what is putrid; bad
men for defects (in others).

– is based on following Sanskrit verse:

Sanskrit: makṣikā varaṇaṃ icchanti,

puṣpam icchanti ṣaṭpadāḥ।
sajjanā guṇam icchanti,
doṣam icchanti pāmarāḥ।।CNW 58
Flies like to fly around the face; butterflies like to fly around flowers; good
people like good qualities and the bad people like faults.

Here there is a unique example of a particular length of expression. The writer has put the
descriptions of virtuous and vicious men in the first and the second half of the gāthā and
placed the respective illustrations at the beginning of each half. But the Sanskrit writer has
arranged the illustrations in the first half and the difference between the virtuous and
vicious is stated in the last half. This change brought in by the Pāli nītikāra can be regarded
as an effort to give the composition a different order of expression.
A similar case is that of the following Pāli nīti gāthā –

Pāli: aputtakaṃ gharaṃ suññaṃ,

raṭṭhaṃ suññaṃ arājakaṃ।
asippassa mukhaṃ suññaṃ,
sabbasuññaṃ daliddakā।। Ln 115
Empty is the sonless home; empty a kingdom without a king; empty the utterance
of an illiterate man; empty is everything in respect of a poor vagrant.

– which is based on the Sanskrit verse

22
 aputrasya gṛhaṃ śūnyaṃ,
diśaḥ śūnyāstv abāndhavāḥ।
mūrakhasya hṛdayaṃ śūnyaṃ,
sarvaśūnyā daridratā।। CV 4.14 and Cv 7.9
Empty is the sonless home; one without relatives is empty of (any) direction (to go
in). Empty-headed is a fool; empty is everything in respect of a poor vagrant.

Here the similarity between the Sanskrit verse and the Pāli gāthā is only in the first and the
last line. The two middle lines do not match the Pāli gāthā. Either the source of the Pāli
gāthā might be different or the writer deliberately changed the two lines in the middle.
Another example is the gāthā

mātā puttakaraṃ pāpaṃ,

sissapāpaṃ gurukatā।
rājāraṭṭhakaraṃ pāpaṃ,
rājapāpaṃ purohito।।Ln 128
An evil act done by a son (is considered to be the deed of) the mother, a pupil’s
(evil act is treated as that of) his teacher; the evil of the coutry is the evil of the king,
and a king’s that of his private chaplain.

The verse could alternatively be translated as:

The mother (eliminates) the evil committed by the son; the (proper action) done by
the teacher (eliminates) the evil doing of the disciple; the king (eliminates) the evil
committed by the country; while the private chaplain (eradiates) the evil committed
by the king.

This Pāli gāthā is based on Sanskrit verse CV 6.9, though the order of the lines is different:
rājā rāṣṭrakṛtam pāpaṃ,
rājñaḥ pāpaṃ purohitaḥ।
bhartā ca strīkṛtaṃ pāpaṃ
śiṣyapāpaṃ gurus tathā।।
A king (eliminates) peoples’s evil doing, the royal chaplain the king’s evil doing, a
husband the evil doing of his wife (and) a teacher the pupils’ evil doing.

In the absence of the main verb being absent both in the Pāli gāthā and the Sanskrit verse,
it is difficult to understand exactly what the poet wants to say. The translation is presented
here assuming a probable and a suitable verbal form. As regards the transformation of the
Sanskrit verse into Pāli, we can observe that the second line of the Sanskrit verse is the last
line in the Pāli gāthā and the last line of the Sanskrit verse is the second line of the Pāli
gāthā. The first line of the Sanskrit verse is also altered in Pāli. It is difficult to say whether
this change in the content of the first line is due to different source or the change is made
as a result of careful thought.
Similarly in the following Pāli nīti gāthā,

Pāli: duṭṭhabhariyāsaṃvāso,
dāso c’ uttaradāyako।
sasappe ca ghare vāso,
23
 maccu eva na saṃsayo।।Ln 126
Living with a wicked wife, and a slave who answers back, dwelling in a house with
snakes – this is the death itself, no doubt.

– which is based on Sanskrit verse of CV 1.5:

Sanskrit: duṣṭā bhāryā śaṭhaṃ mitraṃ,

bhṛtyaś cottaradāyakaḥ।
sasarpe ca gṛhe vāso,
mṛtyur eva na saṃśayaḥ।।
(Living with) a wicked wife, a treacherous friend, a servant who answers
back (in retaliation), or in a house infested with snakes, is – it cannot be
doubted – death itself.

Here, two things are noteworthy: in the first line of the Pāli gāthā the writer had to select
the word ‘saṃvāso’ due to the constraint on the number of the syllables in the Sanskrit
words ‘śaṭhaṃ mitraṃ’. According to the rules of sound (dhvani niyama) in Pāli, the parallel
of the four-syllabled Sanskrit word ‘duṣṭā bhāryā’ is the five-syllabled word ‘duṭṭhabhariyā’.
After using a five-syllabled word there is no space for a four-syllabled word and hence, the
writer had to select a three-syllabled word‘saṃvāso’.
Another example we can see in this gāthā:

Pāli: mūḷhasissopadesena,
kunārī bharaṇena ca।
asatā sampayogena,
paṇḍitoppavasīdati।। Ln 127
By giving instruction to a stupid pupil, by supporting a wicked wife, and by
attachment to a person who is bad, even a wise man deteriorates.

– which is based on the following Sanskrit verse:

Sanskrit: mūrkhaśiṣyopadeśena,
duṣṭastrībharaṇena ca।
dviṣatā samprayogena,
paṇḍito ’pyavasīdati।। CV 1.4
(The Sanskrit maxim matches with Pāli therefore a separate translation is not
given.)

Here, the Pāli gāthā’s use of ‘kunārī’ and ‘asatā’ in place of the Sanskrit words ‘duṣṭastrī’
and‘dviṣatā’, respectively, is significant. It is significant grammatically that with the word
‘samprayoga’ in the Sanskrit verse the genitive case is used in ‘dviṣatā’, whereas according
to Pāli rules of cases, the instrumental case is used.

3.6. Gāthās with corrupt forms

It is clear from all the above discussion that if the limitations of metre and expression are
set aside, the Pāli translation of Sanskrit verses is done quite honestly. But in some cases it
seems that their translation is corrupt. We can see this in the following gāthā:

24
Pāli: sahāyo asamatthopi,
tejasā kiṃkarissati।
nivātejalito aggī,
sayamevūpasampati।। Ln 133
What effects can an incompetent one exercise by his power, even if he has
an ally? Fire, kindled at a place where there is no air, gets extinguished by
itself.

– which is based on PtsK 3.54:

Sanskrit: asahāyaḥ samartho pi,

tejasvī kiṃ kariṣyati।
nirvāte jvalito vahniḥ,
svayam eva praśāmyati।।
What can a person, however brilliant, do without help or good
competence? Fire lighted where there is no air will be put out of its own
accord.

Here, not only is there a contradiction in where the negative particle a- is placed in the first
line, but also the word in the instrumental case, ‘tejasā’ seems to be corrupt. The first line
of the Pāli gāthā does not correspond well in meaning with its last line. The correct form of
the first two lines of the Pāli gāthā may be given as: ‘asahāyo samattho pi, tejassi kiṃ
karissati’.
In the same way in the following Pāli nīti gāthā–

guṇe sabbaññutulyo pi,

na sobhati anissayo।
anagghamapi maṇinā,
hemaṃ nissāya sobhate।। Ln 137
One, replete with excellence like the Omniscient, does not appear to advantage without a
patron: a gem, though priceless, looks well being set in gold.

– also seems to be a corrupt form of the Sanskrit verse CV 16.10.

guṇaiḥ sarvajñatulyo pi
sīdatyeko nirāśrayaḥ।
anarghyamapi māṇikyaṃ
hemāśrayamapekṣate।।
Even if equal to an Omniscient in virtues, one who is alone suffers for want of support. The
ruby though priceless, needs the support of gold (to reveal its true worth). (Translation is
taken from MSS 13202)

The word in instrumental ‘maṇinā’ in the third line of the Pāli gāthā seems grammatically
defective. It neither corresponds with its adjective ‘anaggham’ nor with its active verb
‘sobhate’. The line ‘anagghampi māṇikyaṃ’ could have been the correct expression from all
angles. Apart from this, though, the use of locative form ‘guṇe’ in place of the instrumental
form in Sanskrit and the use of ‘anissayo’ in place of ‘nirāśrayaḥ’ are examples of translation
skills of the writer.
25
 3.7 Cases where there is uncertainty on Sanskrit sources

In all the discussion, we have been able to trace the Sanskrit sources of Pāli gāthās. But there
are some gāthās where, even though the parallel Sanskrit verses have been traced, it cannot
be said with a hundred percent certainty that they are the sources of Pāli gāthās. An
example in this Ln gāthā 68:

atippiyo na kātabbo, khalo kotūhalaṃ karo।

sirasā vahyamānopi, aḍḍhapūro ghaṭo yathā।।
A wicked man should not be loved much, being as unstable as a jar half-full of
water carried along on the head.

– which is based on Sanskrit verse Subh 276:

atiyatnagṛhīto pi khalaḥ khalakhalāyate।

śirsā dhāryamāno pi toyasyārdhaghaṭo yathā।।
Although held (firmly) with great effort, the wicked person grumbles like a pot
half filled with water although (honoured by) being carried on one’s head.
(Translation by Hahn (2011, 309), from Tibetan.)

Here, there is doubt about the first part even when there is a lot of similarity in the last part.
In the Sanskrit verse, the verbal form khalakhalāyate appears to have been used to denote
a play on words. First, there is alliteration accomplished by the uasage of the word khala-
and then a denomiative form khalakhalāyate, which is probably used in the sense of ‘he acts
again again liked a wicked one’ (?). This verbal form is also to be connected to the word
‘arshaghaṭaḥ’, ‘an earthen jar half-filled (with water)’ in the second line. In this case, the
verbal form khalakhalāyate should be taken to mean ‘(it) makes a sound’. The verbal form
is to be taken in a different sense, meaning ‘(the jar) makes sound such as khal, khal. Thus,
here the verbal form is onomatopoeic. One is reminded of a Marathi proverb, uthaḷ pāṇyālā
khaḷkhaāṭ phār, ‘the shallow water makes much sound’, where the word khaḷkhaāṭ is
onomatopoeic and is used in the sense of the sound khaḷ khaḷ that the shallow water makes.
It is observed many times that the writer makes changes in the original compositions out of
his literary skill. It is possible that the Pāli nītikāras had other sources before him than what
we are aware of, or he might have made minor changes from the Sanskrit verse owing to his
literary talent.
Similarly, in Ln 160:

dhanadhaññapayogesu,
tathā vidyāgamesu ca।
dūtesu apacāresu,
cattalajjo sadā bhave।।
Hesitancy is cast off on occasions such as paddy is being sold and knowledge is
being acquired, when a messenger is being sent and desire is being gratified.

This, except for the third line, is similar to the Sanskrit verse CN 33.

dhanadhānyaprayogeṣu,
26
 tathā vidyāgameṣu ca।
āhāre vyavahāre ca,
tyaktalajjaḥ sadā bhavet।।
One who does not hesitate completes the work – in financial and food-grains deals,
acquisition of knowledge, eating and mutual dealing.

The third line in Pāli is ‘dūtesu apacāresu’ ‘when a messenger is being sent and desire is
being gratified’ instead of the Sanskrit ‘āhāre vyavahāre’ ‘in diet and speech’. In all the other
gāthās of Pāli nīti texts, the effort is to modify the content in the Sanskrit verses to according
to morality and Buddhist thought. But this is the only gāthā where the opposite tendency
appears. Probably the Sanskrit source of this gāthā is different from the one known to us as
there seems no other reason for this change.

4. Conclusion

The process of translating literature from one language to another is not just a process of
linguistic change; it is also a cultural change. By a linguistic and stylistic study of this kind,
some light can be thrown on the process of linguistic and cultural change, and we can gain
knowledge about the principles and linguistic techniques adopted by the Pāli scholars. In
this case the Ln is the best example where the author or compiler of the text has chosen
many Sanskrit verses (representing Brahmanic notions) and translated it into Pāli for a
Buddhist audience. As we have seen through the above discussions, in some cases the
author has incorporated Sanskrit verses that are secular in nature without any change. But
this is not the usual practise of the author throughout the text. We have seen that the author
has also shaded secular gāthās with the colour of Buddhism. However, even with all due
attention and required changes, the author was unable to fully incorporate Sanskrit verses
which appear to be inconsistent with Buddhist thought. In the process of translation and
transition of the Sanskrit verses, the author has used many techniques which are reflected
in the choice of metre, style and expression, application of particular words or collection of
words, and sensitivity towards language etc. The need for further and deep study on this
rather neglected subject is implied by this study.

Acknowledgements

This paper is modified version of Chapter 6 of my Ph.D. theses A Historical Study of Pali Niti
Literature (http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/97760), and preface of my
book (see Kumar 2015, xxxv–lxxi). I am thankful to the anonymous reviewers of this paper
for their valuable suggestion and improvements of my draft. I would also like to thank Prof.
Peter Harvey for the improvment of my English, criticism and advice.

Abbreviations

(Pali Texts quoted here are from Pali Text Society (PTS) editions.)

Abh Abhidhānappadipikā. Pālikosasaṃgaho: Abhidhānappadīpikā va

ekakkharakosa. Ed. Bhāgachandra Jaina Bhāskar. 1974. Nagpur: Āloka
Prakāshana.
27
Ap-a Visuddhajanavilāsinī nāma Apadānaṭṭhakathā. ed. by C. E.
Godakumbura. 1954. London. PTS.
Bhś Śatakatrayādi-subhāṣitasaṃgraha: The epigrams attributed to
Bhartṛhari, ed. D.D. Kosambi, Bombay, 1948 (Siṃghī Jaina
Granthamālā 23).
CM Cāṇakya, Recension de cinq recueils de stances morales, ed. E.
Monseur, Paris 1887.
CN Cāṇakya-nīti-śāstra version, as contained in CNTT
CNTT Cāṇakya-Nīti Text Tradition, ed. L. Sternbach. (1962–1970). 2 vols.
with 5 pts., Hoshiarpur 1962–1970 (Vishveshvaranand
Indological Series 27–29 [vol. I, pt. 1 contains the texts: Vṛddha-Cāṇakya,
textus ornatior (CV); Vṛddha-Cāṇakya, textus simplicior (Cv); Cāṇakya nīti-
śāstra (CN); Cāṇakya-sāra-saṃgraha (CS); vol. I, pt. 2 contains the
texts: Laghu- Cāṇakya (CL); Cāṇakya-rāja-nīti-śāstra (CR); vol. II part
1: Introduction; vol. II, part 2 and 3: An attempt to reconstruct
the Urtext (Cr)]
CNW ‘Über 100 Sprüche des Cāṇakya’, A. Weber, Monatsberichte der Kgl.
Preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin aus dem Jahre 1864,
pp. 400-431, Berlin 1865
Cr ‘Urtext’, see CNTT, vol. II
CR Cāṇakya-rāja-nīti-śāstra version, as contained in CNTT
CS Cāṇakya-sāra-saṃgrajha version, as contained in CNTT
CV Vṛddha-Cāṇakya, textus ornatior version, as contained in CNTT
Cv Vṛddha-Cāṇakya, textus simplicior version, as contained in CNTT
Dhn Dhammanīti, as contained in PNTB
HJ Hitopadeśa, ed. F. Johnson, Hertford and London, 1864.
HK The Hitopadeśa of Nārāyaṇa, ed. M.R. Kale, Delhi 1967.
HP Hitopadeśa by Nārāyaṇa, ed. P. Peterson, Bombay, 1887 (Bombay
Sanskrit Series 33)
JSS Jyotiṣa Sarva Saṃgraha, ed. by Paṃḍita Rāmasvarūpa Śarmmā.
Mathurā: Hindi Pustakālya. (No date of publicaion)
Ln Lokanīti, as contained in PNTB
LnK Lokanīti: Devanāgarī Saṃsakraṇa evaṃ Hindi Anuvāda, ed. and Hindi
transl. Ujjwal Kumar, New Delhi, Aditya Prakashan, 2015
Mhn Mahārahanīti, as contained in PNTB
MSS Mahā-subhāṣita-saṃgrahaḥ. Vols. I–IV ed. by L. Sternbach.
(1974–1980), Vol. V ed. by K. V. Sharma (1981), VI and VII ed. by
S. Bhaskaran Nair (1987, 1999), and Vol. VIII ed. by Indra Dutt
Uniyal (2007). Hoshiarpur: Vishveshvaranand Vedic Research
Institute
Nśv ‘On the Nītiśastraviniścaya, a Subhāṣitasaṃgraha from Sri
Lanka’. By Heinz Bechert. In Indologica Taurinensia: Dr. Ludwik
Sternbach Felicitation Volume, 7: 83–92. 1979
PNTB Pāli Nīti Texts of Burma, ed. Heinz Bechert and Heinz Braun, London,
PTS, 1981

28
PP ThePanchatantra, A collection of ancient Hindu tales in the recension
called Panchakhyanaka of Purnabhadra, crit. ed. J. Hertel, 2 vols.,
Cambridge/ Mass. 1908, 1912 (Harvard Oriental Series 11, 12)
PRE The Panchatantra reconstructed, by F. Edgerton, 2 vols., New Haven
1924 (American Oriental Series 2, 3)
Prś ‘Pratyayaśatakaya’, Siṃphala Granthāṃavya hevat Sihaḷa
Gatsayura, Library of Sinhalese Classics, ed. A. M. G[uṇasekara],
Ceylon (no date), pp. 117–130
PS Das siidliche Pañcatantra, Sanskrittext der Recension ß mit den
Lesarten der besten HSs der Recension a, ed. J. Hertel, Leipzig 1906
(Abh. d. phil.-hist. Klasse d. kgl. sächs. Ges. d. Wiss. 24, 5)
Pts Pañcatantra (textus simplicior), ed. F. Kielhorn (voL 1) and G. Bühler
(vols. 2-5), 5 vols., Bombay 1891-96 (Bombay Sanskrit Series)
Shn Sīhalanīti. See Bechert 1980
SRH The Sūktiratnahāra, ed. Sāmbaśiva Śāstrī, Trivandrum 1938
(Trivandrum Sanskrit Series 141)
Subh Subhāṣitārṇava
SV The Subhāṣitāvalī of Vallabhadeva, ed: P. Peterson, Bombay 1886
(Bombay Sanskrit Series 31); second edition, Poona 1961
Th-a Paramattha-dīpanī Theragāthā-aṭṭhakathā, ed. F. L. Woodward, Vol.
1. London: PTS. 1971
Vṛddha Cāṇakya See CNTT
Vyās The Vyāsa-subhāṣita-saṃgraha. See Sternbach 1969a
Vyās (C) Vyasakāra, as edited in Bechert 1962, pp. 29–40

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