Introduction to Research Writing

Asst. Prof. Dr. Analiza Liezl Perez-Amurao

Chair, Humanities and Language Division
Mahidol University International College
Email: [email protected]
Website: www.analizaperez-amurao.com
Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/analizaperezamurao
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COURSE MATERIALS, WEEK 8

SESSION TOPICS
I. Techniques in Citing and Integrating Sources

PAST LESSON RECALL

How the Data Is Incorporated into Own Writing
These three ways of incorporating other writers' work into your own
writing differ according to the closeness of your writing to the source
writing.

Direct quotations must be identical to the original, using a narrow

segment of the source. They must match the source document word for
word and must be attributed to the original author.

Paraphrasing involves putting a passage from source material into your

own words. A paraphrase must also be attributed to the original source.
Paraphrased material is usually shorter than the original passage, taking
a somewhat broader segment of the source and condensing it slightly.

Summarizing involves putting the main idea(s) into your own words,
including only the main point(s). Once again, it is necessary to attribute
summarized ideas to the original source. Summaries are significantly
shorter than the original and take a broad overview of the source
material.

INTRODUCING A CITED MATERIAL EFFECTIVELY: A

LANGUAGE REVIEW

Including an introductory phrase in your text, such as “Jackson wrote”

or “Copeland found,” often helps you integrate source material
smoothly. This citation technique also helps convey that you are actively
engaged with your source material. Unfortunately, during the process of
writing your research paper, it is easy to fall into a rut and use the same
few dull verbs repeatedly, such as “Jones said,” “Smith stated,” and so
on.

Punch up your writing by using strong verbs that help your reader
understand how the source material presents ideas. There is a world of
difference between an author who “suggests” and one who “claims,” one
who “questions” and one who “criticizes.” You do not need to consult
your thesaurus every time you cite a source, but do think about which
verbs will accurately represent the ideas and make your writing more
engaging. The following chart shows some possibilities.

Strong Verbs for Introducing Cited

Material
ask / suggest / question
explain / assert / claim
recommend / compare / contrast

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propose / hypothesize / believe
insist / argue / find
determine / measure / assess
evaluate / conclude / study
warn / point out / sum up

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 A. CITATIONS

A citation is a formal reference to a published or unpublished source that

you consulted and obtained information from while writing your
research paper. The way in which you document your sources depends
on the writing style manual your professor wants you to use for the class
[e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago, Turabian, etc.]. Note that some disciplines
have their own citation method [e.g., law].

B. IMPORTANCE OF CITING YOUR SOURCES

1. Citations document for your readers where you obtained your
material, provide a means of critiquing your study based on the
sources you used, and create an opportunity to obtain information
about prior studies of the research problem under investigation.
The act of citing sources is also your best defense against
allegations of plagiarism.
2. Citing the works of others is important because:
● Proper citation allows readers to locate the materials you used.
Citations to sources help readers expand their knowledge on a
topic. One of the most effective strategies for locating
authoritative, relevant sources about a topic is to review footnotes
or references from known sources ["citation tracking"].
● Citing other people's words and ideas demonstrates that you have
conducted a thorough review of the literature on your topic and,
therefore, you are reporting your research from an informed and
critically engaged perspective. The list of sources used increases
your credibility as the author of the work.

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● Other researcher's ideas can be used to reinforce your arguments.
In many cases, another researcher's arguments can act as the
primary context from which you can emphasize the significance of
your study and to provide supporting evidence about how you
addressed the "So What?" question.
● The ideas of other researchers can be used to explain reasons for
alternative approaches. If you disagree with a researcher's ideas or
you believe there is a gap in understanding the research problem,
your citations can serve as sources from which to argue an
alternative viewpoint or the need to pursue a different course of
action.
● Just as the ideas of other researchers can bolster your arguments,
they can also detract from your credibility if their research is
challenged. Properly citing sources prevents your reputation from
being tarnished if the facts or ideas of those cited are proven to be
inaccurate or off-base. It prevents readers from concluding that you
ignored or dismissed the findings of others, even if they are
disputed.
● Ideas are considered intellectual property and there can be serious
repercussions if you fail to cite where you got an idea from. In
academe and the professional world, failure to cite other people's
intellectual property ruins careers and reputations and can result in
legal action. Citing sources as a student in college will help you get
in the habit of acknowledging and properly citing the work of
others.

C. PARAPHRASES

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A paraphrase restates another’s idea (or your own previously published
idea) in your own words. Paraphrasing allows you to summarize and
synthesize information from one or more sources, focus on significant
information, and compare and contrast relevant details.

Published authors paraphrase their sources most of the time, rather than
directly quoting the sources; student authors should emulate this
practice by paraphrasing more than directly quoting.

When you paraphrase, cite the original work using either the narrative
or parenthetical citation format.

Although it is not required to provide a page or paragraph number in

the citation, you may include one (in addition to the author and year)
when it would help interested readers locate the relevant passage
within a long or complex work (e.g., a book).

Webster-Stratton (2016) described a case example of a 4-year-old girl

who showed an insecure attachment to her mother; in working with the
family dyad, the therapist focused on increasing the mother’s empathy
for her child (pp. 152–153).

These guidelines pertain to when you read a primary source and

paraphrase it yourself. If you read a paraphrase of a primary source in a
published work and want to cite that source, it is best to read and cite
the primary source directly if possible; if not, use a secondary source
citation.

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Long Paraphrase

A paraphrase may continue for several sentences. In such cases, cite

the work being paraphrased on first mention. Once the work has been
cited, it is not necessary to repeat the citation as long as the context of
the writing makes it clear that the same work continues to be
paraphrased.

Velez et al. (2018) found that for women of color, sexism and racism in
the workplace were associated with poor work and mental health
outcomes, including job-related burnout, turnover intentions, and
psychological distress. However, self-esteem, person–organization fit,
and perceived organizational support mediated these effects.
Additionally, stronger womanist attitudes—which acknowledge the
unique challenges faced by women of color in a sexist and racist
society—weakened the association of workplace discrimination with
psychological distress. These findings underscore the importance of
considering multiple forms of workplace discrimination in clinical
practice and research with women of color, along with efforts to
challenge and reduce such discrimination.

If the paraphrase continues into a new paragraph, reintroduce the

citation. If the paraphrase incorporates multiple sources or switches
among sources, repeat the citation so the source is clear. Read your
sentences carefully to ensure you have cited sources appropriately.

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 Play therapists can experience many symptoms of impaired wellness,
including emotional exhaustion or reduced ability to empathize with
others (Elwood et al., 2011; Figley, 2002), disruption in personal
relationships (Elwood et al., 2011; Robinson-Keilig, 2014), decreased
satisfaction with work (Elwood et al., 2011), avoidance of particular
situations (Figley, 2002; O’Halloran & Linton, 2000), and feelings or
thoughts of helplessness (Elwood et al., 2011; Figley, 2002;
O’Halloran & Linton, 2000).

D. QUOTATIONS

A direct quotation reproduces words verbatim from another work or

from your own previously published work. It is best to paraphrase
sources rather than directly quoting them because paraphrasing allows
you to fit material to the context of your paper and writing style.

Use direct quotations rather than paraphrasing:

● when reproducing an exact definition

● when an author has said something memorably or succinctly, or
● when you want to respond to exact wording (e.g., something
someone said).

Instructors, programs, editors, and publishers may establish limits on the

use of direct quotations.

Short quotations (fewer than 40 words)

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For quotations of fewer than 40 words, add quotation marks around the
words and incorporate the quote into your own text—there is no
additional formatting needed. Do not insert an ellipsis at the beginning
and/or end of a quotation unless the original source includes an ellipsis.

Example 1:
Effective teams can be difficult to describe because “high performance
along one domain does not translate to high performance along another”
(Ervin et al., 2018, p. 470).

Example2:
Chang (2008) emphasized that “engaging in weight-bearing exercise
consistently is one of the single best things women can do to maintain
good health” (p. 49).

Example 3:
Weight Training for Women (Chang, 2008) claimed that “engaging in
weight-bearing exercise consistently is one of the single best things
women can do to maintain good health” (p. 49).

Example 4:
Weight Training for Women claimed that “engaging in weight-bearing
exercise consistently is one of the single best things women can do to
maintain good health” (Chang, 2008, p. 49).

Example 5:
In Chang’s 2008 text Weight Training for Women, she asserts,
“Engaging in weight-bearing exercise is one of the single best things
women can do to maintain good health” (p. 49).

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Example 6:
“Engaging in weight-bearing exercise,” Chang asserts, “is one of the
single best things women can do to maintain good health” (2008, p. 49).

For a direct quotation, always include a full citation (parenthetical or

narrative) in the same sentence as the quotation, including the page
number (or other location information, e.g., paragraph number).
● Place a parenthetical citation either immediately after the quotation
or at the end of the sentence.
● For a narrative citation , include the author and year in the sentence
and then place the page number or other location information in
parentheses after the quotation.
● If the quotation precedes the narrative citation, put the page
number or location information after the year and a comma.
● If the citation appears at the end of a sentence, put the end
punctuation after the closing parenthesis for the citation.
● Place periods and commas within closing single or double
quotation marks.
● Place other punctuation marks inside quotation marks only when
they are part of the quoted material.

Block quotations (40 words or more)

● Do not use quotation marks to enclose a block quotation.

● Start a block quotation on a new line and indent the whole block
0.5 inch from the left margin.
● Double-space the entire block quotation.
● Do not add extra space before or after it.

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 ● Either (a) cite the source in parentheses after the quotation’s final
punctuation or (b) cite the author and year in the narrative before
the quotation and place only the page number in parentheses after
the quotation’s final punctuation. Do not add a period after the
closing parenthesis in either case.

Block quotation with parenthetical citation:

Researchers have studied how people talk to themselves:

Inner speech is a paradoxical phenomenon. It is an experience that is
central to many people’s everyday lives, and yet it presents considerable
challenges to any effort to study it scientifically. Nevertheless, a wide
range of methodologies and approaches have combined to shed light on
the subjective experience of inner speech and its cognitive and neural
underpinnings. (Alderson-Day & Fernyhough, 2015, p. 957)

Block quotation with narrative citation:

Flores et al. (2018) described how they addressed potential researcher

bias when working with an intersectional community of transgender
people of color:

Everyone on the research team belonged to a stigmatized group but also

held privileged identities. Throughout the research process, we attended
to the ways in which our privileged and oppressed identities may have
influenced the research process, findings, and presentation of results. (p.
311)

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 E. QUOTATIONS FROM RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS

Quotations from Research Participants:

● Because quotations from research participants are part of your

original research, do not include a reference list entry for them in
the reference list and do not treat them as personal
communications.
● For the formatting, follow the same guidelines as for other
quotations:
a. Present a quotation of fewer than 40 words in quotation
marks within the text. Present a quotation of 40 words or
more in a block quotation indented below the text.
b. State in the text that the quotations are from participants, as
in this example:

In focus group discussions, participants described their postretirement

experiences, including the emotions associated with leaving work and its
affective and practical implications. “Rafael” (64 years old, retired pilot)
mentioned several difficulties associated with retirement, including
feeling like he was “in a void without purpose . . . it took several months
to develop new interests that motivated [him] each day.” Several other
participants agreed, describing the entrance into retirement as
“confusing,” “lonely,” “purposeless,” and “boring.” In contrast, others
described the sense of “balance” and “relaxation” retirement brought to
their lives.

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Ethical Considerations When Quoting Participants:

When quoting research participants, abide by any ethical agreements

regarding confidentiality and/or anonymity agreed to between you and
your participants during the consent or assent process. Take care to
obtain and respect participants’ consent to have their information
included in your report. To disguise participant information, you may
need to

● assign pseudonyms to participants

● obscure identifying information, and/or
● present aggregate information.

Agreements regarding confidentiality and/or anonymity may also extend

to other sources related to your methodology (e.g., quoting a school
policy document when conducting a case study at a school). In that case,
you might need to employ similar strategies (e.g., rather than referring to
a school by name, refer to “an elementary school in Atlanta, Georgia”).

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 F. INTEGRATING QUANTITATIVE DATA (TABLES,
CHARTS, ETC.)

When quoting research participants, abide by any ethical agreements

regarding confidentiality and/or anonymity agreed to.

Figures and Tables

Figures and tables (display items) are often the quickest way to
communicate large amounts of complex information that would be
complicated to explain in text.

Many readers will only look at your display items without reading the
main text of your manuscript. Therefore, ensure your display items can
stand alone from the text and communicate clearly your most significant
results.

Display items are also important for attracting readers to your work.
Well designed and attractive display items will hold the interest of
readers, compel them to take time to understand a figure and can even
entice them to read your full manuscript.

Finally, high-quality display items give your work a professional

appearance. Readers will assume that a professional-looking manuscript
contains good quality science. Thus readers may be more likely to trust
your results and your interpretation of those results.

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When deciding which of your results to present as display items consider
the following questions:

● Are there any data that readers might rather see as a display item
rather than text?
● Do your figures supplement the text and not just repeat what you
have already stated?
● Have you put data into a table that could easily be explained in the
text such as simple statistics or p values?

Tables (See sample table above)

Tables are a concise and effective way to present large amounts of data.
You should design them carefully so that you clearly communicate your
results to busy researchers.

The following is an example of a well-designed table:

● Clear and concise legend/caption

● Data divided into categories for clarity
● Sufficient spacing between columns and rows
● Units are provided
● Font type and size are legible

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Source: Kaowiwattanakul, S. (2020). Role of Transformative Learning in Developing Global
Mindedness in an EFL Literature Studies Context, The Journal of Asia TEFL, 17(2), 508-522.

Figures (See sample figure above)

Figures are ideal for presenting:

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 ● Images
● Data plots
● Maps
● Schematics

Just like tables all figures need to have a clear and concise legend
caption to accompany them.

Images

Images help readers visualize the information you are trying to convey.
Often, it is difficult to be sufficiently descriptive using words. Images
can help in achieving the accuracy needed for a scientific manuscript.
For example, it may not be enough to say, “The surface had nanometer
scale features.” In this case, it would be ideal to provide a microscope
image.

For images, be sure to:

● Include scale bars

● Consider labeling important items
● Indicate the meaning of different colours and symbols used

Data Plots

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Data plots convey large quantities of data quickly. The goal is often to
show a functional or statistical relationship between two or more items.
However, details about the individual data points are often omitted to
place emphasis on the relationship that is shown by the collection of
points. Here, we have examples of figures combining images and plots
in multiple panels.

For data plots, be sure to:

● Label all axes

● Specify units for quantities
● Label all curves and data sets
● Use a legible font size

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Maps

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Maps are important for putting field work in the context of the location
where it was performed. A good map will help your reader understand
how the site affects your study. Moreover, it will help other researchers
reproduce your work or find other locations with similar properties.
Here, we have a map used in a study about salmon.

For maps, be sure to:

● Include latitude and longitude

● Include scale bars
● Label important items
● Consider adding a map legend

Schematics

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Schematics help identify the key parts to a system or process. They
should highlight only the key elements because adding unimportant
items may clutter the image. A schematic only includes the drawings the
author chooses, offering a degree of flexibility not offered by images.
They can also be used in situations where it is difficult or impossible to
capture an image. Below is a schematic explaining how nanotubes could
be used to harvest energy from a fluid.

For schematics, be sure to:

● Label key items

● Provide complementary explanations in the caption and main text

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TIP: It’s important to consider how your figures will look in print as
well as online. A resolution of 72 ppi is sufficient for online publication
whilst in print 100 ppi is recommended. You can adjust the resolution of
your figure within the original program you used to create it at the time
you save the file.

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TIP: There are two main colour models; RGB which stands for red,
green, blue and CMYK or cyan, magenta, yellow and black. Most
microscopes will take images using the RGB, however, CMYK is the
standard used for printing so it is important to check that your figures
will display well in this format.

Avoid Image Manipulation

● You should never knowingly manipulate your images to change or

improve your results. To avoid inadvertent manipulation you
should only minimally process your figures before submitting them
to the journal, your submitted images should faithfully represent
the original image files.
● Adjusting the brightness or contrast of an image, in fluorescent
microscopy for example, is only acceptable if applied equally
across all images including the controls.
● The cropping of images in the creation of figures should be
avoided unless it significantly improves the clarity of conciseness
of presentation. Be sure that the cropping does not exclude any
necessary information for the understanding of the figure, such as
molecular markers in electrophoresis gels.
● Any adjustments or processing software used should be stated.

TIP: keep copies of the original images, files and metadata used to create
your figures as these can be requested by the journal during the review
process.

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 G. EDITING

Review the places in your paper where you cited, quoted, and
paraphrased material from a source with a single author. Edit your
citations to ensure that

● each citation includes the author’s name, the date of publication,

and, where appropriate, a page reference;
● parenthetical citations are correctly formatted;
● longer quotations use the block-quotation format.

NOTE: Texts included in this material are lifted directly from the
references below using the Creative Commons Non-Commercial
Attribution License as stated in this link:
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/

REFERENCES:
Academic Skills Centre. (n.d). Referencing More Effectively.
University of Canberra.
American Psychological Association. (September 2019).
Paraphrasing. https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-
guidelines/citations/paraphrasing
American Psychological Association. (September 2019).
Quotations. https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-
guidelines/citations/quotations
American Psychological Association. (September 2019).
Quotations from research participants.

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https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-
guidelines/citations/quoting-participants
Ballenger, B. P. (2012). The Curious Researcher: A Guide to
Writing Research Papers (7th ed.). Pearson.
Harvard Guide to Using Sources. (n. d.). Harvard College Writing
Program. Harvard University.
Newton, P. (2016). "Academic Integrity: A Quantitative Study of
Confidence and Understanding in Students at the Start of Their
Higher Education, Assessment and Evaluation in Higher
Education, 41, 482-497.
Springer. (2021). Figures and tables.
https://www.springer.com/gp/authors-
editors/authorandreviewertutorials/writing-a-journal-
manuscript/figures-and-tables/10285530
University of Southern California. (2021). Organizing your Social
Sciences Research Paper.
https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/citingsources
Yale College Writing Center. (n.d.). Using Sources. Yale
University.

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