MyBook 11

2020-2021
Dr. Fuad Ahmad Musleh

University of Bahrain
2020-2021
CENG 321 Hydraulics – Course Notes by Dr. Fuad Musleh
Dear Students
I am Dr. Fuad Musleh, I will be teaching you Hydraulics,
CENG321. It is one of the most interesting subjects in Engineering.
You will notice that the very important theories and concepts,
governing fluid motion in pipes, and open channels will be taught
in a practical manner. Which gives you at the end of the course
tools that you need in order to solve the water flow problems.
These scientific notes were collected from different sources:
Several Hydraulics references; notes by Professor Shamsul
Haque Alvi, one of the founders of the civil Engineering
department of University of Bahrain; and finally my own notes
which is supported by continuous additions and updated work. I
believe it will be enough for you to understand the course.
The office hours will be announced soon. However, you are
free to contact me through Microsoft teams and Blackboard at
any time. I will do my best to give clear answers to all your
questions.
Do your best to solve the home works on time, your efforts
will be always appreciated. Using other students work is
completely prohibited, you both might lose the whole mark.
Dr. Fuad Musleh
18/9/2020
1
First Day Quiz  !!!!!!

I. Choose T or F
True False Fluids can be Liquids or gases.

True False Real fluids are fluids with viscosity while ideal fluid are fluids with zero viscosity
True False The density of compressed fluid is hardly changed with pressure change.
True False Air is a compressible fluid with variable density.
In general, densities of liquids are almost constant under constant temperature even with
True False
huge changes in pressure.
True False Water expands when freezes.
True False Water is less dense when heated over 4 oC.
True False Pressure will act within the static fluid equally in all directions.
True False Only fluids with velocity gradient (Moving) produce shearing forces.
True False In the outer space at the void of gasses, the pressure is essentially zero
True False Pressure is removed from the fluid as the depth increases because of its weight.
II. Fill in the spaces:
a. Water density () at 4OC is ……………………….kg/m3, ……………………….g/cm3, and…………………kg/Liter
b. Maximum density of water is ………………….…. at …………………….. oC .
c. At sea level, under normal conditions, the atmospheric pressure is approximately …….. k Pascal ≅ 1
bar.
d. The gage pressure at the surface of the fluid is……………………………
e. The variation of hydrostatic pressure between any two points in a fluid
with a constant specific weight γ can be given as …………………………………,
and the pressure at 1 related to that at (2) is……………………….…………
III. Define in simple word:

a. Incompressible fluid: ……………………………………………………………..…………………………..…………………………
b. Specific gravity: ……………………………………………..………………………………………………………………………………
c. Atmospheric pressure: …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
d. Gage pressure: …………………………………………………………………………………………….…………..…………………
e. Vapour pressure: ………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……..
f. Pascal's Law: …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
g. Relation between Viscosity and flow resistance…………………………………………………………………………………………
IV. Solve:
(1) A gage pressure is measured to be vacuum of 23 kPa at a location where the elevation is 3000m.
Given that the Patmospheric at this elevation is 70.6 kPa. What is the absolute pressure?
……………..………………………….………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………..…………………
2
(2): using the Moody diagram, given a horizontal pipe of 0.1 m diameter, a pressure drop of 0.2 m/m,
a kinematic viscosity of 1×10-6 m2/s, find the flow discharge in the pipe.
……………..………………………….………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………..……………….
(3): Find the location of the surface in
the manometer.
(4): Find the pressure in pipe A
(5): For the system of pipes in series shown, given that: The flow of water in the system is 1500 L/s,
D1=1.0m, D2 =0.4m, and D3=0.7m.
a. The velocities (m/s) in pipes 1, 2 and 3 are: V1=..............m/s, V2=............. m/s, and V3=............. m/s
b. Doubling the head into the tank will (increase, decrease, not change) the discharge within the pipes.
c. Doubling the head into the tank will (increase, decrease, not change) the velocities within the pipes.
(6): For the system of pipes in series shown, given that: The flow of water in the system is 1000 L/s,
kexit =1, Kentrance =0.5, the Losses due expansion is (V1-V2)2/2g, the kinematic viscosity is  =3×10-6 m2/s.
3
a. The velocities (m/s) in pipes 1 and 2 are: V1=..............m/s, and V2=............. m/s
b. The Reynolds no. values in pipes 1 and 2 are.............and.............
c. The friction factors in pipes 1 and 2 are.............and.............
d. The difference in head between the two tanks is H =.............m
(7): Select the best answer:

1. In flow through a straight, smooth pipe, the Reynolds number for transition to turbulence is
generally taken to be
(a) 1500 (b) 2000 (c) 4000 (d) 250,000 (e) 500,000
2. For flow of water at 20C through a straight, smooth pipe at 0.06 m3/h, the pipe diameter for
which transition to turbulence occurs is approximately
(a) 1.0 cm (b) 1.5 cm (c) 2.0 cm (d) 2.5 cm (e) 3.0 cm
3. For flow of water at a Reynolds number of 1.03×106 through a 5-cm-diameter pipe of
roughness height 0.5 mm, the approximate Moody friction factor is
(a) 0.012 (b) 0.018 (c) 0.038 (d) 0.049 (e) 0.102
4. Minor losses through valves, fittings, bends, contractions etc. are commonly proportional to
(a) total head (b) static head (c) velocity head (d) pressure drop (e) velocity
5. A smooth 8-cm-diameter pipe, 200 m long, connects two reservoirs, containing water at 20C,
one of which has a surface elevation of 700 m and the other with its surface elevation at 560 m.
If minor losses are neglected, the expected flow rate through the pipe is
(a) 0.048 m3/h (b) 2.87 m3/h (c) 134 m3/h (d) 172 m3/h (e) 385 m3/h
6. If, in Prob. 5 the pipe is rough and the actual flow rate is 90 m3/hr, then the expected average
roughness height of the pipe is approximately
(a) 1.0 mm (b) 1.25 mm (c) 1.5 mm (d) 1.75 mm (e) 2.0 mm
7. Water flows through a straight 10-cm-diameter pipe at a Reynolds number of 250,000. If the
pipe roughness is 0.06 mm, what is the approximate Moody friction factor?
(a) 0.015 (b) 0.017 (c) 0.019 (d) 0.026 (e) 0.032
8. Water at 20C flows through a pipe at 300 gal/min with a friction head loss of 45 ft. What is
the power required to drive this flow?
(a) 0.16 kW (b) 1.88 kW (c) 2.54 kW (d) 3.41 kW (e) 4.24 kW
9. Water at 20C flows at 200 gal/min through a pipe 150 m long and 8 cm in diameter. If the
friction head loss is 12 m, what is the Moody friction factor?
(a) 0.010 (b) 0.015 (c) 0.020 (d) 0.025 (e) 0.030
4
Definitions:
What is a Water Engineer?
It is also known as: Water Resource Engineer, Wastewater Engineer, Water Resources
Engineer, Water and Sewer Engineer, Water and Waste Engineer.
 It is a specialized type of Engineer. A water engineer is someone who deals with the
provision of clean water, disposal of waste water and sewage, and the prevention of
flood damage. He demonstrates a genuine knowledge and interest of the water
industry and environmental issues.
 Generally, water resource engineer works on designing pump systems, pipelines and
treatment plants for handling water, wastewater, or black water as it is known in the
industry. Water resource engineers also work on flood control projects and help map
out drainage systems for dealing with water flow. They may also work on fresh water
supply systems, such as those used for drinking water.
 In more details, his job involves:
 Design water management systems, sewer improvement plans or flood
defence programs, and associated structures, such as pumping stations,
pipework and earthworks and oversee the construction and maintenance of
these systems later.
 Repairing, maintaining and building structures that control water resources like
sea defence walls, pumping stations and reservoirs.
 He ensure that citizens are provided with a continuous supply of clean,
uncontaminated water for drinking, living, and recreational purposes.
 preparing tender documents for construction
 reviewing technical submissions
 keeping up to date with environmental matters; being aware of policy and
developments
 Supervising the operation and maintenance of water and sewage
infrastructure.
 Using computer simulations to analyze, for example, potential dam failure.
 devising flood defense strategies
 monitoring flood levels at times of high risk
 managing staff, including other engineers, technicians and site workers.
Fluids (Liquids and gases): a substance which deforms continuously, or flows, when
subjected to shear stress [The fluid particles easily move and change their relative position
and continuously deform (flow) under the action of shear stress even with small forces].
5
Water resources engineering: is the quantitative study of the hydrologic cycle (the
distribution and circulation of water linking the earth's atmosphere, land and oceans).
 Surface runoff is an important factor of water resources, it is measured as the
difference between precipitation and abstractions, such as infiltration (which
replenishes groundwater flow), surface storage and evaporation.
 Water resources applications: include the management of the urban water supply,
the design of urban storm-sewer systems, and flood forecasting.
Hydraulic engineering: It is as a sub-discipline of civil engineering concerned with the flow
and conveyance of fluids, principally water and sewage. It consists of the application of fluid
mechanics to water flowing in an isolated environment (pipe, pump) or in an open channel
(river, stream).
 Civil engineers are concerned with open channel flow, which is governed by the
interdependent interaction between the water and the channel.
 One feature of hydraulic systems in civil engineering is the extensive use of gravity
as the motive force to cause the movement of the fluids. This area of civil
engineering is intimately related to the design of bridges, dams, channels, canals,
and levees, and to both sanitary and environmental engineering.
 Hydraulic engineering includes the application of the principles of fluid mechanics
to problems dealing with the collection, storage, control, transport, regulation,
measurement, and use of water.
 The hydraulic engineer is concerned with the transport of sediment by the river, the
interaction of the water with its alluvial boundary, and the occurrence of scour and
deposition.
 The hydraulic engineer develops conceptual designs for the various features which
interact with water such as spillways and outlet works for dams, culverts for
highways, canals and related structures for irrigation projects, and cooling-water
facilities for thermal power plants.
Shear force: is the force component tangent to the surface. Average shear stress is the shear
force per unit area.
Fluid mechanics: the study of liquids and gases at rest (static) and in motion (dynamics) [the
science that deals with the action of forces on fluids].
Engineering applications: dams and reservoirs; water supply pipelines; groundwater
movement; runoff in parking lots; and pumps, filters, rivers, etc.
Fluids can be classified as ideal fluids and real fluids.
Ideal fluids: are those which are incompressible with zero viscosity and, shear stress is always
zero. Ideal fluid is hypothetical. The main difference between an ideal fluid and a real fluid is
that for ideal flow pressure is constant and for real flow pressure is decreasing along the
flowing fluid.
6
Real fluids: Fluids with viscosity. Example: Water, Milk, and Honey etc., real fluids are
classified as:
Newtonian and non-Newtonian: Examples of non-Newtonian fluids are Thixotrophic
substance (thixotrophic jelly paints), ideal plastic, Bingham plastic (sewage sludge),
pseudo plastic (clay, milk, cement), dilatant substance (quick sand) etc.
Hydraulic structure: is a structure submerged or partially submerged in any body of water,
which disrupts the natural flow of water.
 They can be used to divert, disrupt or completely stop the flow. An example of a
hydraulic structure would be a dam, which slows the normal flow rate of the river in
order to power turbines. A hydraulic structure can be built in rivers, a sea, or any
body of water where there is a need for a change in the natural flow of water.
 Hydraulic structures may also be used to measure the flow of water. When used to
measure the flow of water, hydraulic structures are defined as a class of specially
shaped, static devices over or through which water is directed in such a way that
under free-flow conditions at a specified location (point of measurement) a known
level to flow relationship exists. Hydraulic structures of this type can generally be
divided into two categories: flumes and weirs.
7
Chapter 1: Revision
1.1 Fundamental properties of water:
Mass density: mass of the substance per unit volume (kg/m3).
The density of some fluids is easily changed with a pressure change. Air can easily be
compressed with consequent density change, whereas a very large pressure is required to
effect relatively small density change in water.
 Water can be considered incompressible and can be assumed to have constant
density with constant pressure.
 Air is a compressible fluid with a variable density as a function of pressure.
 Examples: (@4 oC, 1 atm):
Water water = 1000 kg/m3 = 1 Ton/m3 = 1kg/Lit =1 g/cm3.

Mercury Hg = 13,500 kg/m3
Air air = 1.22 kg/m3
 In general, densities of liquids are almost constant under constant temperature even
with huge changes in pressure.
 Sea water contains dissolved salts (more specific weight)  sea water is 4%  freshwater.
 Water expands when freezes  its density decreases and rises up in water.
 more volume is needed for water in pipes  frozen.
 Maximum density of water occurs at 4 oC  less dense when heated.
Temperature (oC) Density (water , kg/m3) Specific Weight (, N/m3)
0o (ice) 917 8,996
0o (WATER) 999 9,800
4o 1000 maximum 9,810
20o 998 9,790
30o 996 9,771
60o 983 9,643
Specific weight  : the force exerted by the earth’s gravity up on a unit volume of
substance (the weight of the fluid per unit volume). It has the units N/m3, and can be given
as:
  weight / volume (mass × g)/Volume  ×g
water (@ 4 oC, 1 atm) =9810 N/m3.
water (@ 20 oC, 1 atm) =9790 N/m3.
8
Specific gravity: The ratio of the specific weight of any liquid at a given temperature to that
of water at 4 oC.
Example1.1: An aquarium holds 0.5 m3 of water. The weight of the aquarium is 5,090 N
when full and 200 N when empty. Determine the temperature of the water.
Solution:
The weight of the water in the aquarium is: Wwater=5,090 N-200 N = 4,890 N
The specific weight of the water is:  = 4,890 N/(0.5 m3) = 9,780 N/m3
The temperature of the water can be obtained from the tables to be  25 oC.
1.2 Water Pressure and Pressure Forces

 In general, fluids exert both normal and shearing forces on surfaces in contact with
them.
 Only fluids with velocity gradient (Moving) produce shearing forces.
 For fluids at rest, only normal forces exist, these normal forces in fluid are called
pressure forces.
 At every point in a static fluid a certain pressure intensity exist, it can be defined as:
𝑃  𝑑𝐹/ 𝑑𝐴, (1.1)
Where F is the normal force acting over the area A.
 Pressure will act within the static fluid equally in all directions.
Atmospheric pressure: The pressure developed at surface of earth due to the force of
attraction between the atmosphere and the earth [weight of the column of air from the
surface of earth to the void].
 Earth’s atmosphere: a thick layer (approximately 1500 km) of mixed gasses
surrounding the earth.
 Each gas has a weight  the total weight of the atmospheric column exerts pressure
on every surface in contact.
 At sea level, under normal conditions, the atmospheric pressure is approximately
1.014105 N/m2 =101.4 k Pascal = 10.33 m-high  1 bar.
 Water surfaces in contact with the atmosphere are subjected to atmospheric pressure.
 In the outer space at the void of gasses, the pressure is essentially zero; this pressure
is called absolute zero.
 As we go deep in the atmosphere, the pressure will increase due to the weight of air.
The pressure measured relative to the void or any perfect vacuum is called absolute
pressure.
 Gage pressure can be defined as the pressure measured relative to the
atmospheric pressure: Pgage  Pabs - Patm.
9
 Vapour pressure can be defined as the pressure exerted by the water vapour in the
atmosphere independently of other gases.
 In still water (static), the pressure will increase as we go deep in the water.
1.2.1 The variation of hydrostatic pressure between any two points in a

fluid with a constant specific weight γ:
 The Free surface of water: The horizontal surface of water on which the pressure
is constant everywhere, not in contact with an overlying vessel cover. It might be
subjected to atmospheric pressure (open vessel) or any other pressure (closed vessel).
 Pressure is added to the fluid as the depth increases because of its weight. The increase
of pressure per meter depth will be different than it was in the atmosphere due to the
big difference in the values of specific weights of water and air.
 Consider a 1 m2 cross sectional area over a static fluid.
Note that the weight of the liquid for the 1-m2
surface area at a depth of 1 m is 9810 N. The
pressure due to this weight of the fluid at this
depth can be found to be: P=F/A= 9810 N/m2.
With the same analysis, the pressure at 2-m depth
is P=F/A= 2×9810 N/m2. In general:
the change in pressure due to the weight of the
fluid for any change in depth y is:
∆𝑃 =  × 𝑦 (1.2)
 It can be easily concluded that If one travels upward in the fluid (positive z direction),
the pressure decreases; and if one travels downward (negative z direction), the
pressure increases.
 A very important equation for the variation of pressure for the case of static fluid with
uniform density can represented as:
(𝑝/ + 𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡) (1.3)
The left term of the previous equation is called piezometric
head. Z is shown on the following figure.
 This equation implies that the piezometric head is constant
throughout an incompressible static fluid.
∆𝑃 = 𝛾𝑦 → 𝑝2 − 𝑝1 = 𝛾(𝑍1 − 𝑍2 ) →
𝒑𝟐 𝒑 𝒑
⁄𝜸 + 𝒁𝟐 = 𝟏⁄𝜸 + 𝒁𝟏 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕. = ⁄𝜸 + 𝒁 (1.4)
10
Pascal's Law:
Pressure added to a confined fluid acts equally in all directions for the fluid itself.
Example1.2: The diameters of

cylindrical pistons A and B are 3 cm and 20
cm, respectively. The faces of the pistons
are at the same elevation, and the
intervening passages are filled with
incompressible hydraulic oil. A force P of
100 N is applied at the end of the lever, as
shown in the figure. What weight W can the
hydraulic jack support?
Solution:
Balancing the moments produced by P and F Hydraulic Jack
around the pin connection:
(100N)(100cm)=F(20cm)
Thus, F = 500 N
From Pascal’s law, the pressure PA applied at A is the same as that of PB applied at B. therefor,
𝐹 𝑊
𝑃𝐴 = 2 2
, 𝑃𝐴 =
[(𝜋. 3 )/4]𝑐𝑚 [(𝜋. 20 )/4]𝑐𝑚2
2
500 𝑁 𝑊
2
=
7.07 𝑐𝑚 314 𝑐𝑚2
314 𝑐𝑚2
 𝑊 = 500𝑁 (7,07 𝑐𝑚2 ) = 2.22 × 104 𝑁
Quiz: 
Derive a formula for the variation of hydrostatic pressure between any two points in
water with a specific weight 
Solution:
- Consider two arbitrary points A and B along an arbitrary
X-axis with an angle.
- Consider a control volume as shown having a cross
sectional area dA and a length L where the points A and
B lie at the ends of the control volume.
- Let the pressures at A and B be PA and PB.
- Because the prism is at rest, all forces acting on it must
be in equilibrium.
 { ∑𝐹𝑋 = 𝑃𝐴 𝑑𝐴 – 𝑃𝐵 𝑑𝐴 +  𝐿 𝑑𝐴 𝑆𝑖𝑛( ) = 0 }
Note that L sin () = h (the vertical elevation difference
between the two points).
 The above equation reduces to:
𝑃𝐵 – 𝑃𝐴 =  ℎ Hydrostatic pressure on a prism
11
“The difference in pressure between any two points in still
water is always the product of the specific weight of water
and the normal difference in elevation between the two
points.”
 If A & B are on the same elevation (h=0) PA = PB.
(for static fluid, the pressure is constant at the same level
Example1.3: The closed tank shown is at 20 oC. If the

pressure at point A is 98 kPa abs, what is the absolute
pressure at point B? what percent error results from
neglecting the specific weight of the air?
Solution:
PA + air hAC - water hDC - air hDB = PB 

98+(0.0118)(5)-(9.790)(5-3)-(0.0118)(3)= PB =78.444 kPa.
Neglecting air: PB=98-(9.790)(5-3)=78.420 kPa
(78.444−78.420)
Error = = 0.00031 = 0.031%
78.444
12
 The negative pressure at B can be referred to as vacuum (less than atmospheric

pressure).
 The pressure is always assumed to be gage pressure unless stated.
Example1.4: a gage pressure is measured to be vacuum of 23 kPa at a location where

the elevation is 3000m. Given that the Patmospheric at this elevation is 70.6 kPa. What is the
absolute pressure?
Solution:
𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝑃 = 70.6 + (−23) = 47.6 𝑘𝑃𝑎
1.2.2 Surfaces of equal pressure:

The hydrostatic pressure in a body of water varies with the vertical distance from the
free water surface. The points on a horizontal surface in a static body of liquid are subjected
to the same hydrostatic pressure (surface of equal pressure) given the following conditions:
1. The points should be at the same elevation (located on a horizontal surface).

2. The points on the surface should be in the same liquid (same ).
3. The liquid containing the points must be connected.
13
Example1.4:
 Points 1,2,3, and 4 have equal pressures and their horizontal surface is a surface
of equal pressure.
 Points 5 and 6 are on the same horizontal plane but the pressures at them is
different (not connected liquid, different distance from surface).
 The horizontal surface through points 7 and 8 that passes through the interface of
the two immiscible liquids is an equal pressure surface (connected liquid between
7 and 8 from downward at the same level).
 Points 9 and 10 are not on an equal pressure surface (different liquids, the distance
from them to points7 and 8 are the same with different values of , given that
pressures at 7 and 8 are the same).
 Note that: immiscible liquids do not mix under normal conditions).
Quiz: 
Two meters of water is equivalent to how many millimetres of mercury?
(A) 422 mm (B) 375 mm (C) 231 mm (D) 147 mm
1.2.3 Manometers
A manometer is a pressure–measurement device consists usually from a
bent tube in the form of U that contains a fluid of known specific gravity.
 The difference in pressure at the two ends of the manometer is found by
measuring the difference in elevations of the liquid surfaces.
 There are mainly two types of manometers:
1. An open manometer: has one end open to the atmospheric pressure and is
capable of measuring the gauge pressure in a vessel (Figure 1.1).
2. A differential manometer: has each end connected to a different pressure
tap. It is used to measure the pressure difference between two taps
(Figure1.1).
14
 The liquid used in a manometer
is usually heavier than the fluids
to be measured. It must not mix
with the liquids.
 The most frequently used
manometer liquids are mercury
(sp.gr. =13.6), water, alcohol
(sp. gr. =0.9).
 The higher the pressure in Figure 1.1 Types of manometers: (a) open manometer
vessel A (Fig. 1.1(b)), the larger (b) differential manometer
the difference, h.
 The equations of the two manometers above can be found using the following:
1. Open manometer:
𝑃𝐴 + 𝑦   𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 − ℎ  𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 = 0
 𝑃𝐴 = ℎ 𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 − 𝑦 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 (1.5)
2. Differential manometer:
𝑃𝐴 + 𝑦   𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 − ℎ  𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 – (𝑦 − ℎ)  𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑃𝐵
 ∆𝑃 = 𝑃𝐴 − 𝑃𝐵 = ℎ (𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 −  𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ) (1.6)
Example1.5: Find the location of

the surface in the manometer.
Solution:
PA+ 10 cm water - ∆ h  Liquid = 0
0+10 cmwater - ∆ h  (3 water )= 0


∆ h = 1/3 10 cm = 3.33 cm
15
Example1.6:
A mercury manometer (sp.gr. =13.6
is used to measure the pressure
difference in vessels A and B. As
shown in figure 1.2. Determine the
pressure difference in Pascal’s
(N/m2).
Solution:
Points 3 and 4 (P3 and P4) are on a
surface of equal pressure, the
same for points 1 and 2 
P3 = P4 and PA = P1 = P2 .
Figure 1.2 Differential manometer
PA+w (27cm)-Hg. (15cm)-water
(135cm)=PB
∆P=PA-PB=w (135cm-27cm)+
Hg(15cm)
∆P=w [108+(13.6)(15)]cm=9790
N/m3 3.12m =30,500 pascal.
Example1.7:
Find the pressure in pipe A
Solution:
PA – 1.3m(0.9w)+1.5m w -1.0m (13.6w)=0


PA= 13.27w = 13.279.81 kN/m3 =130.18
kPa
Example 1.8:
If the atmospheric pressure is 0.9 bar abs and a gage
attached to a tank reads 390 mmHg vacuum. What is
the absolute pressure within the tank?
Solution:
Patm = 0.9 bar 100 kPa/bar = 90 kPa, Pgage = [(13.6
m water/m Hg)][390 mm Hg  (1m/1000mm)] =
51.9 kPa vacuum=-51.0 kPa
Pabs = 90 +(-51.9) = 38.1 kPa
16
Example1.9:
17
1.3 Viscosity:
“It is simply a measure of a fluid resistance to flow.”
A more specific definition, it is a measure of the fluid resistance to gradual deformation
by shear stress or tensile stress. Viscosity is a property of the fluid which opposes the relative
motion between the two surfaces of the fluid in a fluid that are moving at different velocities.
When the fluid is forced through a tube, the particles which compose the fluid generally
move more quickly near the tube's axis and more slowly near its walls (no slip condition) ;
therefore some stress (such as a pressure difference between the two ends of the tube) is
needed to overcome the friction between particle layers to keep the fluid moving. This stress
required to keep the fluid motion is proportional to its viscosity.
 A fluid with a low viscosity → flows easily.
 A fluid with a high viscosity → flows with difficulty.
→ requires larger force to move it.
→ more resistance to flow.
→ more power consumption due to frictional losses.
 The ease with which a fluid [honey, water, oil,...] pours is an Indication of its
Viscosity.
 Viscosity is important when we calculate the energy lost from a fluid as it flows in
a pipe.
 A fluid that has no resistance to shear stress is known as an ideal or inviscid fluid.
 Zero viscosity is observed only at very low temperatures in super fluids. Otherwise,
all fluids have positive viscosity, and are technically said to be viscous or viscid.
 One of the most common instruments for measuring kinematic viscosity is the glass
capillary viscometer.
 The viscosity of water and liquids increases as the temperature decreases:
→ cold oil pours more slowly than hot oil.
→ a greater force is required to stir cold oil.
In general, the effect of shear stress on a liquid is a continuous yield in angular
deformation in the direction of the shear. Fluid particles easily move and change their relative
position under the action of shear stress even with small values.
→ small values of shear stress  fluid motion.
→ the magnitude of shear stress required to cause a specific flow depends
on the viscosity of the fluid.
→ shear stress, τ, is the force per unit area (N/m2).
→ for fluids (water, oil, ..): τ α change of velocity along the depth.
18
1.3.1 Viscosity concept:
 Assume a thin layer of fluid between two surfaces, one is stationary and the other
is moving.
 Note that the fluid has the same velocity as the boundary.
Figure 1.3 Velocity distribution of the flow between a stationary and a moving plate
 The fluid in contact with the lower surface has zero velocity (as is the velocity of
the boundary) while that in contact with the upper surface has the velocity V.
 As the distance between the two surfaces is small, then the rate of change of
velocity with Y is linear.
𝛥𝑉
Velocity gradient = (1.7)
𝛥𝑌
 Mathematically: shear stress in the fluid is directly proportional to velocity

gradients:
𝛥𝑉
 = 𝜇 𝛥𝑌 (1.8)
µ is called dynamic (absolute) viscosity of the fluid (N.S/m2).
 Many calculations in fluid mechanics involves the ratio of dynamic viscosity to

the density of the fluid (Kinematic viscosity):
ν = µ/ρ (m2/s) (1.9)
19
1.3.2 Variation of fluid viscosity with temperature:
 As the temperature of liquids is increased, its viscosity will decrease noticeably.
 Gases behave differently from fluids in that the viscosity increases as the
temperature increases. Also the amount of change is generally smaller than that
for liquids.
 An example of the variation of fluid viscosity with temperature: Engine oil is
generally difficult to pour when it is cold because its viscosity has increased.
 A measure of how significant the viscosity of fluid changes with the temperature is
given by the viscosity index (VI). This is more important to lubricating oils and
hydraulic fluid in equipment that operate at wide extremes of temperatures.
{A fluid with a high viscosity index exhibits a small change in viscosity
with temperature}.
 Adhesion and cohesion are water properties that affect every water molecule on
earth and also the interaction of water molecules with molecules of other
substances. Essentially, cohesion and adhesion are the "stickiness" that water
molecules have for each other and for other substances. The water drop is
composed of water molecules that like to stick together, an example of the
property of cohesion: The water drop is stuck to the end of the pine needles, which
is an example of the property of adhesion.
{Since cohesion is the predominant cause of viscosity in a liquid, this is
why viscosity decreases with temperature as cohesion does }.
 For ordinary pressures viscosity is independent of pressure and depends upon
temperature only. For very great pressures, gases and most liquids shown erratic
variations of viscosity with pressure.
20
Tutorial. 1 (Revision)
Q1. Define the following terms:

Water density:
Specific weight:
Specific gravity:
Viscosity:
Atmospheric pressure:
Absolute pressure:
Gage pressure:
Static pressure:
Equation for static pressure versus water depth:
Free surface of water:
Laminar flow:
Turbulent flow:
Reynolds number:
Pascal’s law:
Moody diagram:
Water conveyance:
Q2. A liquid when poured into a graduated cylinder is found to weigh 6.5 N when
occupying a volume of 310 ml (milliliters), determine its specific gravity, density, and
specific weight.
Q3. Mercury has a specific weight of 133 kN/m3 when the temperature is 20°C. Determine
its density and specific gravity at this temperature.
21
Q4. If air within the tank is at an absolute pressure of 680 kPa and a temperature of 70°C,
determine the weight of the air inside the tank. The tank has an interior volume of
1.35 m3.
Q5. The tanker carries 1.5(106) barrels of crude oil in its hold. Determine the weight of
the oil if its specific gravity is 0.940. Each barrel contains 42 gallons, and there are
7.48 gal/ft3.
22
Q6. Water in the Swimming pool has a measured depth of 3.03 m, when the Temperature
is 5°C. Determine its approximate depth when the temperature becomes 35°C.
Neglect losses due to evaporation. (Hint: the mass of water does not change)
Q.7 What is the water pressure at a depth of 35 m in the tank shown?
23
Q8. Oil with a specific gravity of 0.85 forms a layer 0.9 m deep in an open tank that is
filled with water. The total depth of water and oil is 3 m. what is the gage pressure at the
bottom of the tank?
Q9. A manometer connects

an oil pipeline and a
water pipe line as
shown. Determine the
difference in pressure
between the two
pipelines using the
readings on the
manometer. (Use
S.G.oil= 0.86 and S.G.Hg
=13.6)
24
Q10.Water, Oil, and Salt water fill a tube as shown, determine the pressure at point 1
(Inside the closed tube).
Q11. Pressure gage B is to measure the pressure at point A in a water flow. If the pressure
at B is 87 kPa, estimate the pressure at A, in kPa. Assume all fluids are at 20oC.
25
Q12. Draw the pressure distribution over the inclined and normal plates
shown.
Q13. The tank contains water and immiscible oil at 20oC. What is h is cm if the density of
the oil is 898 kg/m3?
26
Q14. Determine the elevation difference, Δh, between the water levels of the two open
tanks shown.
Q15. Find the difference in pressure between pipes A and B in the figure shown.
27
Q16. A closed cylindrical tank

filled with water has a
hemispherical dome and is
connected to an inverted
piping system as shown,
the liquid in the top part of
the piping system has a
specific gravity of 0.8, and
the remaining parts of the
system are filled with
water. If the pressure gage
reading at A is 60 kPa,
determine:
a) The pressure in pipe B.
b) The pressure at pint C.
Q17. Consider the steady flow in a water

pipe joint shown in the diagram. The
areas are: A1=0.2 m2, A2=0.2m2, and
A3=0.15m2. In addition, fluid is lost out
of a hole at (4) estimated at a rate of
0.1 m3/s. The average speeds at section
(1) and (3) are V1=5m/s and V3=12m/s.
Respectively, find the velocity at
section (2).
∑ 𝑸𝒊𝒏 = ∑ 𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝟓𝒎 𝟐
𝟏𝟐𝒎 𝟐
𝒎𝟑
× 𝟎. 𝟐𝒎 − × 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝒎 − 𝟎. 𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 × 𝟎. 𝟐𝒎𝟐 = 𝟎
𝒔 𝒔 𝒔
28
Q18. A 0.3-m-diameter, 0.6-m-long cylinder floats in an open tank containing a liquid

having a specific weight γ. A U-tube manometer is connected to the tank as
shown in the figure. When the pressure is pipe A is 690 Pascal below
atmospheric pressure, the various fluid levels are as shown. Determine the
weight of the cylinder. Note that the top of the cylinder is flush with the fluid
surface.
29
Q19.
The oil derrick has drilled 5 km into
the ground before it strikes a crude oil
reservoir. When this happens, the
pressure at the well head A becomes
25 MPa. Drilling “mud” is to be placed
into the entire length of pipe to
displace the oil and balance this
pressure. What should be its density
so that the pressure at A becomes
zero?
30
Q20. The underground storage tank used in a service station contain gasoline filled to
the level A. Determine the pressure at each of the five identified points. Note that
point B is located in the stem, and point C is just below it in the tank. Take
ρgas=730 kg/m3
.•
31
Q21. The pipes connected to the closed tank are completely filled with water. If the
absolute pressure at A is 300 kPa. Determine the force acting on the inside of the
end caps at B and C if the pipe has an inner diameter of 60 mm.
32
Chapter 2: Dynamics of Fluid Flow

The study of fluid dynamics requires dealing with:
o The forces responsible for fluid motion (over ground flow, open channels,
pipes...), and
o The resulting acceleration. And,
o The energy changes involved (energy losses).
Figure 2.1 Energies within a moving fluid (a) Pipe flow (b) Channel flow
 A fluid in motion experiences, in addition to gravity force, pressure forces, viscous and
turbulent shear resistances, boundary resistance and forces due to surface tension
and compressibility effects of the fluid. The presence of all these forces makes the
analysis very complicated.
 A simplifying approach to the problem for some cases is made by assuming the fluid to
be ideal, i.e. non-viscous or frictionless and incompressible. Water has a relatively low
viscosity and is incompressible and is found to behave like an ideal fluid.
 The governing equation is: The newton second law of motion.
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜌. 𝑉𝑎𝑥 , (2.1)
Where ax is the total acceleration in the direction of motion, V is the volume of fluid,
Fx is the sum of all the forces in the direction of motion, and  is the mass density of
the fluid.
𝐹𝑥 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
∑ = 𝜌𝑎𝑥 = 𝜌 ( + 𝑣 ), (2.2)
∀ 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑣
{Algebraic sum of all forces per unit volume}, where, , is the local acceleration and
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
𝑣 , is the convective acceleration.
𝑑𝑥
33
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = (𝐹𝑃𝑥 + 𝐹𝑔𝑥 + 𝐹𝜈𝑥 + 𝐹𝑡𝑥 + 𝐹𝐶𝑥 + 𝐹𝜎𝑥 ) (2.3)
Where, 𝑭𝑷𝒙 is the pressure force, 𝑭𝒈𝒙 is the gravity force, 𝑭𝝂𝒙 is the viscosity forces,
𝑭𝒕𝒙 is the turbulence force, 𝑭𝑪𝒙 is the compressibility force, and 𝑭𝝈𝒙 is the surface
tension force.
 If pressure force and gravity force are present (other forces are insignificant):
𝐹𝑃𝑥 + 𝐹𝑔𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥  Euler’s Equation (2.4)
 If pressure force, gravity and viscous forces are there (other forces are
insignificant):
𝐹𝑃𝑥 + 𝐹𝑔𝑥 + 𝐹𝜈𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥  Navier-stoke’s Equation (2.5)
 If pressure force, gravity, viscous, and turbulent forces are there (other forces
are insignificant):
𝐹𝑃𝑥 + 𝐹𝑔𝑥 + 𝐹𝜈𝑥 + 𝐹𝑡𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥  Reynold’s Equation. (2.6)
2.1 Euler’s Equation:

 The Euler's equation for steady flow of an ideal fluid along a streamline is a relation
between the velocity, pressure and density of a moving fluid.
 It is based on the Newton's Second Law of Motion.
 The integration of the equation gives Bernoulli's equation in the form of energy per
unit weight of the flowing fluid.
 It is based on the following assumptions:
1. The fluid is non-viscous (i.e., the frictional losses are zero).
2. The fluid is homogeneous and incompressible (i.e., mass density of the fluid ρ is
constant).
3. The flow is continuous, steady and along the streamline. The velocity of the flow
is uniform over the section.
4. No energy or force (except gravity and pressure forces) is involved in the flow.
34
Assume that we have:
1. A moving fluid (pressurized, open channel,..).
2. Equate the sum of all the forces acting on a fluid element to its (mass 
acceleration).
3. Consider a cylindrical element in an arbitrary direction S, with a cross sectional
area dA in a flowing fluid (isolated).
4. The element is oriented at an angle 𝜶 with the horizontal plane (x, y).
5. The surrounding fluid is replaced by pressure forces.
6. Viscous forces are assumed to be zero.
7. The element is accelerated in the S direction.
Applying Newton’s second law in the S direction:
∑ 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 + 𝐹𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝐿 (2.7)
Let,
 dA = Cross-sectional area of the fluid
element.
∆s = Length of the fluid element.
𝒅𝑾 = Weight of the fluid element.
P = Pressure on the element at A.
𝑷 + ∆𝑷 = Pressure on the element
at B
v = velocity of the fluid element.

Figure 2.2 Forces in a cylindrical element of a moving fluid
- The mass of the fluid element is : 𝑚 =   𝑑𝐴  ∆𝑆

- The net force due to pressure in S direction is:
𝜕𝑃
𝐹𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑃𝑑𝐴 − (𝑃 + ∆𝑆) 𝑑𝐴 = −∆𝑃𝑑𝐴 (2.7)
𝜕𝑆
- Any pressure forces acting on the side of the cylindrical element will not contribute
to a force in S direction.
- The force due to gravity is the component of weight in the S direction:
𝐹𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = −𝑑𝑊𝑆 = −𝜌𝑔 × 𝑑𝐴 × ∆𝑆 sin 𝛼 , (2.8)

∆𝑍
Note that(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = ).
∆𝑆
35
- From the previous
∆𝑍
−∆𝑃 × 𝑑𝐴 − 𝜌𝑔∆𝑆 × 𝑑𝐴 × = 𝜌∆𝑆 × 𝑑𝐴 × 𝑎𝑆 (2.9)
∆𝑆
Divide by: 𝑑𝐴 × ∆𝑆 
∆𝑃 ∆𝑍
− − 𝜌𝑔 = 𝜌𝑎𝑆 , (2.10)
∆𝑆 ∆𝑆
(Differential equation for acceleration in S direction).

- Let ∆𝑆 → 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 , Then:
−𝝏
(𝑷 + 𝝆𝒈𝒁) = 𝝆𝒂𝑺 (2.11)
𝝏𝑺
Euler equation for motion, for incompressible flow with a constant specific gravity

 The acceleration is related to the change in peizometric pressure with distance.

 For static body of water, Euler’s equation reduces to hydrostatic equation (no
viscous stress, no motion  a = 0).
2.2 Bernoulli’s Equation:

−𝜕
Integrating Euler’s equation [ (𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔𝑍) = 𝜌𝑎𝑆 ]along a path line for steady flow
𝜕𝑆
of incompressible fluid will give the Bernoulli’s equation.
 Let at replaces aS (direction along the path line).
−𝜕
(𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔𝑍) = 𝜌𝑎𝑡 (2.12)
𝜕𝑆
𝑑𝑉
For steady flow, local acceleration is zero ( = 0, pathline  streamline)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑑𝑉 𝑑 𝑉2
− (𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔𝑍) = 𝜌𝑉 =𝜌 ( ) (2.13)
𝑑𝑆 𝑑𝑆 𝑑𝑆 2

𝑽𝟐
𝑷 + 𝜸𝒁 + 𝝆 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 (2.14)
𝟐
This proves the Bernoulli’s equation.
36
Assumptions for Bernoulli equation:
1) Incompressible fluid (constant density).
2) Ideal fluid (inviscid), viscosity and the energy losses are neglected.
3) No pumps or turbines within the system.
4) Steady flow.
5) No heat transfer.
 Bernoulli Equation: “The total energy per unit of weight of fluid at station1 equals
the total energy per unit weight at station 2”
𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟐𝟏 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐𝟐
+ 𝒁𝟏 + = + 𝒁𝟐 + (2.15)
𝜸 𝟐𝒈 𝜸 𝟐𝒈
𝑃 𝑉2
 Energy Grade Line, EGL= ( + 𝑍 + ): the line connecting the total energy at each
𝛾 2𝑔
point within the hydraulic system is horizontal (constant total energy).
𝑃 𝑉2
 The values of the terms of energy ( + 𝑍 + ) can change such that the total
𝛾 2𝑔
value will be constant.
𝑃
 Hydraulic Grade Line, HGL= ( + 𝑍): sum of elevation and pressure energies,
𝛾
water level or the elevation which water can rise to.
𝑉2
 Velocity head ( ) increases as the diameter decreases to keep continuity
2𝑔
equation valid (v1 A1=v2A2).
 For constant diameter, as the elevation Z increases (flow up), the pressure
decreases.
Bernoulli’s equation is based on the conservation of energy. It represent the total

energy of a hydraulic system given as the sum of the three different forms of energy
(potential, kinematic, and flow energies), assuming no energy is added to the hydraulic
system as work or heat then the total energy of the fluid is conserved. It can be
summarized as:
“The total energy carried by a given mass of incompressible fluid as it flows

steadily through a hydraulic system remains constant unless energy is added or
removed from the fluid. The values of the three different forms of energy can change
keeping the total value of energy constant”.
37
Pressure head + Elevation head +Velocity head = constant

Figure 2.3 Different component of energy equation
Applying Bernoulli equation, it can be assumed that a unit of weight of fluid is flowing
in a hydraulic system carrying three forms of energy:
𝒎𝒈𝒁
i. Potential energy(
𝒎𝒈
): due to the elevation Z of the unit weight relative to some
reference line. (Work is needed to lift the fluid unit weight a distance Z, it can go down
this distance using this energy).
𝒎𝑽𝟐 𝟏
ii. Kinetic energy(
𝟐 𝒎𝒈
): due to the velocity of the fluid unit V.
𝑷 𝒎𝒈 𝟏 𝑷
iii. Flow energy( 𝜸 𝒎𝒈
): due to its pressure, (𝜸 ) is the elevation that the fluid can raise to.
In real flow systems there is friction in the pipe and elsewhere. This produces heat that
is absorbed by the liquid causing a rise in the internal energy and hence the temperature. In
fact the temperature rise will be very small except in extreme cases because it takes a lot of
energy to raise the temperature. If the pipe is long, the energy might be lost as heat transfer
to the surrounding. Since the equation did not include internal energy, the balance is lost and
we need to add an extra term to the right side of the equation to maintain the balance. This
term is the head lost to friction hL.
38
Quiz 
Figure 2.4 Quiz
 Find QA, QB, and QC assuming inviscid flow (neglect the resistance and apply the energy
equation between points 1, 2, 3 and the outlet). (Pipes are 4 cm-diameter, and containers
are 80 cm). (Hint: Use V=Q/A).
 What is the effect of doubling the area of the exit pipe on the velocity and discharge for the
three cases?
39
Example2.1:
Water flows through a pipe reducer as shown in
the figure. The static pressure at (1) and (2) are
measured by the inverted U-tube manometer
containing oil of specific gravity, SG, less than
one. Determine the manometer reading, h.
Solution:
 Assuming steady, inviscid, incompressible
flow  Bernoulli equation can be used:
1 1
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑉12 + 𝛾𝑍1 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑉22 + 𝛾𝑍2
2 2
 Also, continuity equation can be applied

between (1) and (2) for incompressible fluid:
𝑄 = 𝑉1 𝐴1 = 𝑉2 𝐴2 .
 The previous equations can be combined:
Figure 2.5 Figure for example 2.1
𝟏 𝑨 𝟐
𝑷𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐 = 𝜸(𝒁𝟐 − 𝒁𝟏 ) + 𝝆𝑽𝟐𝟐 [𝟏 − ( 𝟐) ] (2.16)
𝟐 𝑨 𝟏
The value of (𝑷𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐 ) can be measured by the manometer and can be determined by
using the hydrostatic pressure difference equation:
𝑷𝟏 − 𝜸(𝒁𝟐 − 𝒁𝟏 ) − 𝜸𝒍 − 𝜸𝒉 + 𝑺𝑮(𝜸𝒉) + 𝜸𝒍 = 𝑷𝟐 (2.17)
Or
𝑷𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐 = 𝜸(𝒁𝟐 − 𝒁𝟏 ) + (𝟏 − 𝑺𝑮)𝜸𝒉 (2.18)


𝟏 𝑨 𝟐
(𝟏 − 𝑺𝑮)𝜸𝒉 = 𝝆𝑽𝟐𝟐 [𝟏 − ( 𝟐 ) ] (2.19)
𝟐 𝑨 𝟏
Or
𝟐
𝟐 𝑨
𝑸 𝟐 𝟏−(𝑨𝟏 )
𝒉= (𝑨 ) 𝟐𝒈(𝟏−𝑺𝑮) , 𝐨𝐧𝐥𝐲 𝐐 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐡 𝐚𝐫𝐞 𝐯𝐚𝐫𝐢𝐚𝐛𝐥𝐞𝐬 (2.20)
𝟐
40
Example 2.2:
Water at 60 oF is siphoned from a large tank
through a constant hose as shown.
Determine the maximum height of the hill, H,
over which the water can be siphoned
without the occurring of cavitation. The end
of the siphon is 5 ft. below the bottom of the
tank. Atmospheric pressure is 14.7 Pisa.
Solution:
 Assuming steady, inviscid, incompressible
flow  Bernoulli equation can be used: Figure 2.5 Figure for example 2.2
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
[𝑷𝟏 + 𝝆𝑽𝟐𝟏 + 𝜸𝒁𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐 + 𝝆𝑽𝟐𝟐 + 𝜸𝒁𝟐 ] Or [𝑷𝟏 /𝜸 + 𝑽𝟐𝟏 + 𝒁𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐 /𝜸 + 𝑽𝟐𝟐 + 𝒁𝟐 ] (2.21)
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐𝒈 𝟐𝒈
 Let the tank bottom to be the reference, then Z1 = 15ft, Z2 = H, and Z3 = -5ft.
 Also, V1=0 (Large tank), P1=0 (open tank), P3=0 (free jet), and from the continuity
equation A2V2 = A1V1. Also it can be said that V2 = V3 (the hose is constant diameter).
 Applying Bernoulli between (1) and (3):
1 2
0 + 0 + 15 = 0 + 𝑉 −5
2𝑔 3
𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡
𝑉3 = √2𝑔(𝑍1 − 𝑍2 ) = √(2 × 32 2 [15 − (−5)]) = 35.9 ⁄𝑠 (2.22)
𝑠
 Applying Bernoulli between (1) and (2) will give the pressure P2 at the top of the hill:
1 1 1 1
𝑃2 = 𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑉12 + 𝛾𝑍1 − 𝜌𝑉22 − 𝛾𝑍2 = 0 + 0 + 𝛾 (𝑍1 − 𝑍2 ) − 𝜌𝑉22 = 𝛾 (𝑍1 − 𝑍2 ) − 𝜌𝑉22 (2.23)
2 2 2 2
(which is negative because 𝒁𝟏 < 𝒁𝟐 )
 The vapor pressure (pressure due to vapor only) of water at 60 oF is 0.256 Pisa. Hence,
for incipient cavitation the lowest pressure in the system will be P = 0.256 Pisa. This lowest
pressure will occur at the top of the hill. Thus: 𝑃2 = 0.256 − 14.7 = −14.4 𝑝𝑠𝑖 (gage).
So H can be found from the last equation:
1
𝑃2 = 𝛾(𝑍1 − 𝑍2 ) − 𝜌𝑉22
2
2 1
(−14.4 𝐼𝑏/𝑖𝑛2 ) (144 𝑖𝑛 ⁄ 2 ) = (62.4 𝐼𝑏⁄ 3 ) (15 − 𝐻)𝑓𝑡 − (1.94 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔/𝑓𝑡 3 )(35.9𝑓𝑡/𝑠)2
𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡 2

𝐻 = 28.2 𝑓𝑡.
2.2 The Energy Equation:

Developed by modifying Bernoulli equation to include the effects of energy transfer
devices (pumps, turbines), and the loss of energy due to friction in pipes.
41
o HP = energy added to a unit of weight of fluid as it flows through a pump (pump
head in meter). (added head to the ability of water to rise up)
o HT = energy removed from a unit of weight of fluid as it flows through turbine or
hydraulic motor (turbine head).
o HL =energy loss due to frictional effects from a unit weight of fluid as it flows
through Pipes, fittings, and valves (head loss).
Figure 2.6 Components of energy equation of motion
The total energy carried by a unit weight of fluid at station (1) plus the energy added
to the fluid by a pump minus the energy removed due to friction minus the energy removed
by a turbine equal the total energy carried by this unit weight at station (2).
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ 𝑍1 + + 𝐻𝑃 − 𝐻𝑇 − 𝐻𝐿 = + 𝑍2 + (2.24)
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
Solution of pipe flow problems requires the application of two principles, the law of
conservation of mass (continuity equation) and the law of conservation of energy
(Bernoulli’s or energy equation).
2.2.1 Minor and major losses:

It is often necessary to determine the head loss, HL, which occurs in a pipe flow so that
the energy equation can be used in the analysis of pipe flow problems. The overall head loss
for the pipe system consists of:
2.2.1.1 The head loss due to viscous effects in the straight pipes
termed the major loss and denoted HL-major.
 Friction loss in a pipe is a complex function of: (i) The system geometry, (ii)
The fluid properties and (iii) The flow rate in the system.
42
 Practical observations showed that the head loss is roughly proportional to
the square of the flow rate in most engineering flows (fully developed,
turbulent pipe flow). This observation leads to the Darcy-Weisbach equation
for head loss due to friction (the derivation is shown next chapter):
𝐿 𝑉2
𝐻𝑓 = 𝑓 (2.25)
𝐷 2𝑔
This formula defines the friction factor, f.
𝜌𝑉𝐷 𝜀
𝑓 = 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝑅𝑒 = , , 𝑃𝑖𝑝𝑒: 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝐺𝑒𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑦) (2.26)
𝜇 𝐷
Reynolds Number is the well-known fundamental dimensionless

number in viscous flow. Velocity times Length Scale divided by
Kinematic Viscosity.
Relative Roughness relates the height of a typical roughness element
to the scale of the flow, represented by the pipe diameter, D.
Pipe Cross-section is important, as deviations from circular cross-
section will cause secondary flows that increase the pressure drop.
Non-circular pipes and ducts are generally treated by using the
hydraulic diameter, in place of the diameter and treating the pipe as
if it were round.
4×𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠−𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐴)

𝐷ℎ = = 4𝑅ℎ (2.27)
𝑊𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑−𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝑃)
 The friction factor is insensitive to moderate changes in the flow and might
be considered constant for fully turbulent flow.
 For laminar flow, the head loss is proportional to velocity rather than
velocity squared, thus the friction factor is inversely proportional to velocity.
𝑓 = 64/𝑅𝑒 (circular pipes) (2.28)

𝑘
𝑓= , 48 ≤ 𝑘 ≤ 96 (non-circular pipes) (2.29)
𝑅𝑒
 For turbulent flow, Colebrook (1939) found an implicit correlation for the
friction factor in round pipes (Chapter 3).
 The familiar Moody Diagram is a log-log plot of the Colebrook correlation on
axes of friction factor and Reynolds number, combined with the f=64/Re
result from laminar flow.
43
 Calculating Head Loss for a Known Flow:
From Q and piping determine Reynolds Number, relative roughness and

thus the friction factor. Substitute into the Darcy-Weisbach equation to
obtain head loss for the given flow. Substitute into the Energy equation to
find the necessary elevation or pump head.
 Calculating Flow for a Known Head:
Obtain the allowable head loss from the energy equation, then start by
guessing a friction factor. (0.02 is a good guess if you have nothing better.)
Calculate the velocity from the Darcy-Weisbach equation. From this velocity
and the piping characteristics, calculate Reynolds Number, relative
roughness and thus friction factor. Repeat the calculation with the new
friction factor until sufficient convergence is obtained. 𝑄 = 𝑉𝐴. (more
details will be introduced later in chapters 3 and 5)
2.2.1.2 The head loss in various pipe components termed the minor
loss and denoted HL-minor.
The head loss designations of “major” and “minor” do not necessarily reflect
the relative importance of each type of loss. For a pipe system that contains many
components and a relatively short length of pipe, the minor loss may actually be
larger than the major loss.
For any type of system there are additional so-called minor losses due to (Fig. 2.7):
1. Exit from a pipe into a tank: 𝐻𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 = 𝑉 2 /2𝑔
2. Entry to a pipe from a tank: 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 0.5 𝑉 2 /2𝑔
3. Sudden expansion: 𝐻𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )2 /2𝑔
2
4. Sudden contraction: 𝐻𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = (0.4~0.5) 𝑉𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 /2𝑔
5. Bends, elbows, tees, and other fittings.

6. Valves, open or partially closed.
7. Gradual expansion and contraction.
44
These components interrupt the smooth flow of the fluid and cause
additional losses because of the flow separation and mixing they induce. In a
typical system with long pipes, these losses are minor compared to the total head
loss in the pipes (the major losses) and are called minor losses. The losses may not
be so minor; for example, a partially closed valve can cause a greater pressure drop
than a very long pipe. The losses are commonly measured experimentally and
correlated with the pipe flow parameter. The data especially for valve are
somewhat dependent on the particular manufacturer’s design.
Figure 2.7 Components of minor losses within a hydraulic system
Figure 2.8 Fittings that causes minor losses within a pipe networks.
45
46
Practice
Study the following figures for hydraulic piping systems and relate each loss in energy to
the its expected reason as minor or major:
47
Tutorial 2
Q1. Assuming inviscid flow,
 Find the velocity of water at points (2) and (3).
 If there is no flow at (3), explain why? And find the elevation where the
water will stop.
Q2.Water flows from a garden hose nozzle

with a velocity of 15 m/s. What is the
maximum height that it can reach
above the nozzle?
48
Q3. For the siphon shown,

a) Calculate the volume flow rate of oil
from the tank and the pressures at
points A, B, C, and D. (inviscid flow)
b) Repeat part (a) assuming the friction
factor within the pipe is f=0.025.
The lengths of pipes are:
A-B 4.0 m
B-C 3.5 m
C-D 11.0 m
D-Outlet 1.0 m
49
Q4. Water flows steadily through the pipe shown such that the pressures at
sections (1) and (2) are 300 kPa and 100 k Pa, respectively. Determine the
diameter of the pipe at section (2), D2, if the velocity at section (1) is 20 m/s
and viscous effects are negligible.
Q5. Water flows from a large tank through a large pipe that splits into two smaller pipes
as shown. If viscous effects are not considered, determine:
a) The total flow rate (Q) from the tank, and
b) The pressure at point (1).
Q6. Water is pumped between the two tanks shown. The energy line is as indicated.
a) Is the fluid being pumped from A to B or from B to A? Explain!!!
b) Which pipe has larger diameter given that both are made of the same material: A
to pump or B to Pump? Explain!
50
Q7. Water is discharged through the drainpipe at B from the large basin at 0.03 m3/s. lf
the diameter of the drainpipe is d = 60 mm, determine the pressure at B just inside
the drain when the depth of the water is h = 2 m.
51
Q8. Water flows from a tank and through the pipe shown. The flow rate is 1.5 m3/s when
the valve is adjusted to produce the water level in the piezometer tube as indicated.
Find the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor value f in the pipe without using the Moody
diagram (consider the minor losses). What do you expect the pipe material to be?
Q9. What is the pressure in tank A, given that the flow rate between the two tanks
through the two pipes shown is 0.2 m3/s, (the diameters and lengths of the pipes
are as shown). Neglect the minor losses and assume the major losses with the pipe
to be:
HL=0.05 (L/D) × V2/(2g)
52
Chapter 3: Description and classification of fluid motion:

The classification of flow can be due to {viscous effects, compressibility effects,
laminar or turbulent flow, internal and external flow,...}.
Viscous and inviscid flows:
It depends on Reynolds number. If Re is large, the viscous effects will be negligible while if it
is small, viscous effects will be dominant.
Laminar and turbulent flows:

A laminar flow is one in which the fluid particles move in smooth layers.
A turbulent flow is one in which the fluid particles rapidly mix as they move a long due to
random three dimensional fluctuations.
Figure 3.1 Laminar and turbulent flow within pipe
Compressible and incompressible flows:

Incompressible flow: it is the flow in which variations in density are negligible (liquids).
Compressible flow: density variations within a flow are significant not negligible (gases).
53
Ideal and real fluids flow:

Ideal flow (does not exist): has no viscosity, incompressible, with no friction between the
molecules. Particles move in parallel lines with equal velocities.
Real fluid flow: the effects of viscosity are introduced (a shear or tangential stresses between
neighbouring fluid particles when they move at different velocities creating friction is
introduced). Velocity is zero at the wall.
Figure 3.2 Flow profiles for real and ideal fluid flows
Steady and unsteady flows:

Steady flow: the flow properties does not change with time, thus all the properties of the
flow at every point remains constant with respect time.
Unsteady flow: the flow properties at a point change with respect to time.
Internal and external flows:
Internal flows: flows are completely bounded by solid surfaces.
External flows: flows over bodies immersed in an unbounded fluid.
Pressure flow and gravity flow:
Pressure flow occurs under pressure.
Gravity flow is the flow with free surface (gravity is the primary moving force).
Uniform and varied flows:
Uniform flow: The cross section (shape and area) through which the flow occurs remains
constant at every point within the flow (the same depth, velocity at every section).
Varied flow: the velocity or depth is not constant at every section, for open channel it can be
said that the depth of flow changes along the length of the channel. Varied flow
technically may be either steady or unsteady. It can be further classified as either
rapidly or gradually varied.
54
Gradually varied flow and rapidly varied flow:
Varied flow or non-uniform flow occurs when depth or velocity change over a distance, like
in a constriction or over a riffle. Gradually varied flow occurs when the change is
small, and rapidly varied flow occurs when the change is large, for example a wave,
waterfall, or the rapid transition from a stream channel into the inlet of a culvert.
Figure 3.3 Flow profiles for uniform and varied fluid flows
3.1 Laminar and turbulent flow:

3.1.1 Reynolds experiment: (1880’s):
Reynolds injected a dye into the centre of a glass tube and observed the flow, he found
that:
 At low velocity: the dye flow as a straight line.
 As the velocity keep increasing: the dye starts to expand until it was completely
mixed with water (random flow, eddies).
Figure 3.4 Reynolds experiment apparatus and results
55
- Reynolds found that the transition from laminar to turbulent flow in a pipe depends on
the velocity (V), diameter (D), and the viscosity (μ).
- Reynolds suggested an index number ,(Reynolds number), dimensionless:
𝝆𝑽𝑫 𝑽𝑫
𝑹𝒆 = = (3.1)
𝝁 𝝂
 : fluid density, μ : dynamic viscosity, ν : kinematic viscosity.
- By experiments:
 For a flow in a circular pipe, the critical number of Re is 2000, where the flow
starts to change into turbulent flow.
 The transition from laminar to turbulent does not happen at Re =2000 exactly but
varies from 2000 to 4000.
 Different values were suggested for Reynolds index where the flow can be
considered to be turbulent. For example, Clayton T. Crow guidelines for Re :
 Re  2000 Laminar flow

 2000  Re  3000 Unpredictable
 Re  3000 Turbulent flow
3.1.2 Laminar flow:

Is a well-ordered state of flow in which adjacent fluid layers move smoothly with
respect to each other.
- For pipe flow, laminar flow would have a smooth, parabolic velocity distribution.
- The fluid appears to move by sliding of laminations of infinitesimal thickness over
adjacent layers.
- Viscosity plays a significant role.
- In one dimensional laminar flow, the shear stress is related to the velocity gradient
𝑑𝑢
by the relation: 𝜏 = 𝜇 .
𝑑𝑦
3.1.3 Turbulent flow:

Is unsteady flow characterized by intense cross-stream mixing, like the flow in the
wake of a ship.
- The eddies observed in the wake cause intense mixing.
- Irregular motion of a large number of particles during a very brief time interval.
- Fluctuations in velocity at all points of the flow field. These fluctuations arises
because the fluid moves as many, small, discrete particles “eddies” lost line each
other.
56
- Almost, a uniform velocity distribution occurs a cross the pipe for turbulent flow
because of the high-velocity fluid at the pipe centre is transported by turbulent
eddies a cross the pipe to the low velocity region near the wall.
In General:
- Laminar pipe flows are associated with low velocities and turbulent flow with high
velocities.
- Laminar flows can occur in small tubes.
- Turbulent flows are the most common.
- Laminar flow occur in circular pipes when fluid flows in orderly laminae (large
number of thin walled concentric tubes, the outer tube adheres to the pipe wall
while the tube next to it moves with a very slight velocity, where the velocity of
each successive tube increases gradually to reach the maximum velocity near the
centre of the pipe.
- The velocity distribution of laminar flow takes the form of a paraboloid of
revolution with mean velocity equal to one-half of the maximum centre velocity.
- In turbulent flow: the turbulent motion causes the slower water particles adjacent
to the pipe wall to mix continuously with high speed particles in the mid-stream.
 The low speed particles near the pipe wall will be accelerated because of
momentum transfer.
 The velocity distribution in turbulent flow takes the general form of
logarithmic curve in revolution.
 Turbulent mixing activities increase with Reynolds number, {velocity
become flatter as Re increases}.
Water loses energy as it flows through a pipe:
- The major portion of energy loss is caused by:

i. Friction against the pipe walls.
ii. Viscous dissipation. In a viscous fluid flow the viscosity of the fluid will
take energy from the motion of the fluid (kinetic energy) and transform
it into internal energy of the fluid. That means heating up the fluid. This
process is partially irreversible and is referred to as dissipation, or
viscous dissipation. For a turbulent flow, dissipation includes both
dissipation of turbulent motions (energy) and mean flow motion.
However, the turbulent dissipation is usually completely dominating.
- Wall friction on moving water depends on the roughness of the wall material and
the velocity gradient at the wall.
- Turbulent flow has a higher wall velocity gradient (higher frictionless).
57
Figure 3.5 Velocity profiles of laminar and turbulent flows in circular pipes
Example 3.1:
Rainwater runoff from a parking lot flows through a 90-cm-diameter pipe, completely filling
it. Would you expect the flow to be laminar or turbulent? Support your answer with
appropriate calculations.
Solution:
𝑉𝐷
𝑅𝑒 = , If Re  4000 the flow is turbulent.
𝜈
𝑅𝑒 𝜈 4000(1×10−6 ) 𝑚 𝑚𝑚
The corresponding velocity is: 𝑉 = = = 0.0044 = 4.44
𝐷 0.9 𝑠 𝑠
Most likely the velocity will be more than that and the flow will be turbulent flow
Quiz: 
The pitot and piezometric probes read the total

and static pressures as shown. Calculate the
velocity V.
58
3.2 Developing flow and fully developed flow for pipes:
When a fluid is entering a pipe at a uniform velocity, or after passing through
components as bends, valves, pumps, turbines or similar, the fluid particles in the layer in
contact with the surface of the pipe come to a complete stop due to the no-slip condition.
Due to viscosity of the fluid, this layer in contact with the pipe surface, resists the motion
of adjacent layers and slows them down gradually. For the conservation of mass to hold
true the velocity of middle layers of the fluid in the pipe increases (since the layers of fluid
near the pipe surface have reduced velocities). This develops a velocity gradient across the
cross section of the pipe. A fluid needs some length to develop the constant velocity profile.
Boundary layers keep on growing till they meet after some distance downstream from the
entrance region. After this distance velocity profile doesn't change, flow is said to be fully
developed.
As can be seen in the figure:
assuming a fluid with a

uniform velocity entering a
pipe from a reservoir, the
downstream profile will
reach parabolic distribution
after a distance. The flow
profile is then unchanged
In developing flow, the wall

shear stress is changing.
In fully developed flow, the
wall shear stress is constant.
Figure 3.5 Developing flow and fully developed flow in pipes
 The region of changing velocity profile is the developing flow.

 Downstream, after the profile is unchanged, the flow is called fully developed flow.
 The distance required for the flow to develop to become fully developed is called
entrance length (Le), it depends on the shear on the pipe wall. The entry length refers
to that portion of pipe until the velocity profile is fully developed.
 The value of the entrance length can be found by the following relations:
𝐿𝑒
= 0.05 𝑅𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑒 < 2000 (𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤), 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐷 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 (3.2)
𝐷
𝐿𝑒
= 50 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑒 > 3000 (𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤) (3.3)
𝐷
59
Example 3.2:
Consider fluid flowing in a round tube of length 1 m and diameter of 5mm. Classify the flow
as laminar or turbulent and calculate the entrance length for:
(a) air (50 oC) with a speed of 12 m/s, and
(b) water (15 oC) with a mass flow rate of 𝑚̇ = 8 g/s.
The pipe is connected to a reservoir with a smooth and tapered entrance.
Solution:
Air @ (50 oC), will have ν =1.7910-5 m2/s.
Water @(15 oC), will have μ = 1.1410-3 N.s/m2.
a) Air
𝑚
𝑉𝐷 (12 𝑠 ) (0.005𝑚)
𝑅𝑒 = = = 3350 (𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡)
𝜈 −5 𝑚2
1.79 × 10
𝑠
Since Re  3000, the flow is turbulent.


Le = 50 D = 50 (0.005 m) = 0.25 m.
b) Water
4 𝑚̇ 4(0.008 𝑘𝑔/𝑠)
𝑅𝑒 = = = 1787 (𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟)
𝜋𝐷𝜇 𝜋(0.005𝑚)(1.14 × 1.14 × 10−3 𝑁. 𝑠/𝑚2 )
Since Re 2000, the flow is laminar.


Le=0.05 Re D =0.05 (1787) (0.005m) =0.477m.
𝑉𝐷 (𝜌𝑄/𝐴)𝐷 𝑚̇𝐷 4 𝑚̇
[𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒: 𝑅𝑒 = = =𝜋 = ]
𝜈 𝜇 𝐷2 𝜇 𝜋𝐷𝜇
4
60
3.3 Stress distribution in pipe flow: (laminar and turbulent flow)
Required: to derive the equation for the shear-stress distribution on a plane oriented normal
to streamlines for laminar and turbulent flows in circular pipes.
- Consider the flow of a Newtonian fluid in a round tube that is inclined at an angle 
with horizontal.
- Assume that the flow is fully developed, steady and laminar.
- A control volume is assumed (cylindrical) of length ∆s and radius r.
Figure 3.6: The forces in a cylindrical control volume within the flow of a round tube.
- The momentum equation in the s-direction is applied.

- The momentum efflux is zero (fully developed)  same velocity profile at inlet and
outlet.
- The momentum accumulation is zero (steady state).
 ∑ Fs = Fpressure + Fweight + Fshear = 0.
𝑑𝑃
𝑃𝐴 − [𝑃 + ∆𝑠] 𝐴 − 𝑊 sin 𝛼 − 𝜏 (2𝜋𝑟) ∆𝑠 = 0
𝑑𝑠
Let: W =  A ∆s, sin () = ∆Z/∆s , and divide by A ∆s, we will get:
𝒓 𝒅(𝑷+ 𝜸 𝒁)
𝝉 = [− ] (3.4)
𝟐 𝒅𝒔
Which is the relation of the shear stress distribution on a plane inserted normal to the
direction of flow of pipe.
 Shear stress is varying linearly with the radius of the pipe r.
 Shear stress is zero at the centre line and maximum at the wall of the pipe.
61
Figure 3.7 Shear stress distributions over normal area to the flow in a round pipe
“For a fully developed flow in a pipe (laminar or turbulent), the shear stress distribution
on an area that is normal to the stream line of the flow is linear starting from zero at the
centre and increase in the direction of the pipe wall”.
∆(𝑃+𝛾𝑍) ∆(ℎ) 𝑝
𝜏 = 2𝑟 [− ] = 2𝑟 [−𝛾 ] , (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ℎ = + 𝑧) (3.5)
∆𝐿 ∆𝐿 𝛾
(Laminar and turbulent).
Quiz:
Hint:
62
3.4 Velocity profile for laminar flow in a round tube:
Recall:
 Laminar flow is a flow regime in which fluid motion is smooth and occurs in layers,
and the mixing occurs in layers by molecular diffusion (much slower than turbulent
mixing), Re  2000.
 Laminar flow is important for flow in small conduits called micro channels, for
lubrication flow, and other flows in which viscous forces are dominant.
 Laminar flow in round tubes is called Poiseuille flow or Hagen-Poiseulle flow.
3.4.1 Finding a formula for the velocity profile in a laminar flow:

o Start by relating stress to rate of strain for laminar flow. For laminar flow:
𝑑𝑉
𝜏=𝜇 , Y is the distance from pipe wall. (3.6)
𝑑𝑌
𝑑𝑦
o Let Y = ro –r (ro: pipe radius, r : radial coordinate). Note that = −1
𝑑𝑟
o Use the chain rule:
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑉
𝜏=𝜇 =𝜇 = −𝜇 (3.7)
𝑑𝑌 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑌 𝑑𝑟
𝑟 𝑑(𝑃+ 𝛾 𝑍)
o Using 𝜏 = [− ]
2 𝑑𝑠
2𝜇 𝑑𝑉 𝑑(𝑃+ 𝛾 𝑍)
− ( ) ( ) = [− ] (3.9)
𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑠
To have the left side a function of r and the right side function of s, then both sides
are equal to a constant.
𝑑(𝑃+ 𝛾 𝑍) ∆(𝑃+ 𝛾 𝑍) 𝛾 ∆(𝑃+ 𝛾 𝑍) ∆ℎ
[ = = = 𝛾 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡] , where ∆h is the change
𝑑𝑠 ∆𝐿 𝛾 ∆𝐿 ∆𝐿
𝑃 𝑉2
in fluid energy head ( + 𝑍 + ) over a length ∆L.
𝛾 2𝑔
𝑑𝑉 𝑟 ∆ℎ
 = ( ) [ 𝛾 ] , integrate:
𝑑𝑟 2𝜇 ∆𝐿
𝑟2 ∆ℎ
 𝑉 = ( )[ 𝛾 ] + 𝐶 (3.10)
4𝜇 ∆𝐿
 Apply the no slip condition {V=0 at the wall of the pipe, or V(ro)=0}.
𝑟2 ∆ℎ
 0 = ( 𝑜)[ 𝛾 ] + 𝐶
4𝜇 ∆𝐿
63
 The equation for velocity profile in a pipe for laminar flow:
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝑽(𝒓) = − (𝒓𝒐𝟒𝝁
−𝒓
) (𝜸∆𝒉
∆𝑳
) = − (𝒓𝒐𝟒𝝁
−𝒓
) (∆(𝑷+𝜸𝒁)
∆𝑳
) (3.11)
 The maximum velocity occurs at r = 0 :

𝒓𝟐 ∆𝒉
𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑽𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓 = − ( 𝒐 ) [ 𝜸 ] (3.12)
𝟒𝝁 ∆𝑳
 Using equations (3.11) and (3.12), It can be concluded that :
𝒓 𝟐
𝑽(𝒓) = 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 (𝟏 − ( ) ) (3.13)
𝒓𝒐
This indicates that the velocity profile for laminar flow in a pipe is parabolic.
3.4.2 Finding the discharge and the mean velocity for laminar flow in a
round tube:
𝑟 2 2
𝑄 = ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝐴 = ∫0 𝑜 − (𝑟𝑜4𝜇
−𝑟
) (𝛾∆ℎ
∆𝐿
)(2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟) (3.14)
2 𝑟𝑜
𝜋 𝛾∆ℎ 𝑟 2 −𝑟𝑜2 𝜋𝑟𝑜4 𝛾∆ℎ
𝑄 = (− ) ( ∆𝐿 ) ( ) | = −( ) ( ∆𝐿 ) (3.15)
4𝜇 2 8𝜇
0
 The mean velocity for laminar flow in a round tube:
𝑸 𝒓𝟐 𝜸∆𝒉 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑽= = − ( 𝒐) ( )= (3.16)
𝑨 𝟖𝝁 ∆𝑳 𝟐
64
3.5 Head loss and friction factor (f) for laminar flow:
o Assume fully developed flow in the pipe.
o Apply energy equation between section (1) and (2).
Figure 3.8 Flow in round pipe of constant diameter
 𝑃1 / + 𝑍1 = 𝑃2 / + 𝑍2 + ℎ𝑓 (constant velocity) (3.17)
o Using the equation for mean velocity:

𝑃 𝑃
𝑟𝑜2 𝛾∆ℎ 𝐷2 𝛾∆ℎ 𝛾𝐷2 ( 2 +𝑍2 )−( 1 +𝑍1 )
 𝑉 = −( )( ) = −( )( ) = − (32𝜇 ) [
𝛾 𝛾
] (3.18)
8𝜇 ∆𝐿 32𝜇 𝐿 𝐿
65
Compare with [𝑃1 / + 𝑍1 = 𝑃2 / + 𝑍2 + ℎ𝑓 ] 
̅
32 𝜇 𝐿 𝑉
ℎ𝑓 = (3.19)
𝛾𝐷2
{Laminar, fully developed, steady, Newtonian flow}.
 The head loss for laminar flow varies linearly with velocity, it is influenced by
viscosity, pipe length, specific weight of the fluid, and pipe diameter squared.
Extra Reading
The velocity distribution for laminar flow in a pipe is given by the equation:
V = Vmax[1 – (r / r0)2]
Here r0 is the radius of the pipe and r is the radial distance from the center. Determine V in
terms of Vmax and evaluate the kinetic energy correction factor α.
Solution:
A sketch for the velocity distribution is shown in the figure. The discharge is given by
Q = ∫V dA, or
Q = VA = (r)0∫0 Vmax {1 – (r2 / r02)} 2πr dr
or
V = (– π / A) r02 Vmax [{1 – (r2 / r02)} / 2] |(r)00 = (1/2) Vmax
The mean velocity is one-half the maximum velocity. To evaluate α we apply the equation
α = (1/A) ∫A (V / V)3 dA
α = (1 / r02) (r)0∫0 [{Vmax[1 – (r2 / r02)]3} / {(1/2)3 Vmax3}] 2πr dr
= 2.
66
3.6 Pipe head loss (Darcy-Weisbach equation):

Darcy-Weisbach equation is used to find the head loss in a straight run of a pipe.
The total head loss = pipe head loss + components head loss
Fully developed flow in Losses through devices

conduits, caused by shear (valves, bends, tees,...)
stress that act on flowing
fluid (major head loss) (Minor head loss)
3.6.1 Derivation of Darcy-Weisbach equation:

 Assume fully developed and steady flow in a round tube of constant diameter.
 Select a cylindrical control volume with a diameter D and length ∆L.
 Apply the momentum equation to the control volume:
(Steady, fully developed, V1=V2)
Figure 3.9 Force diagram of a fluid in a round tube
∑𝐹 = 𝐹𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 + 𝐹𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 + 𝐹𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 0 (3.19)
𝐷2 𝐷2
(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 ) ( ) − 𝑜 ( 𝐷 ∆𝐿) −  [( ) ∆𝐿] 𝑠𝑖𝑛() = 0 (3.20)
4 4
𝑆𝑖𝑛() = ∆𝑍/∆𝐿 (3.21)
(𝑃1 +  𝑍1 ) – (𝑃2 +  𝑍2 ) = (4 ∆𝐿 𝑜 )/𝐷 (3.22)
(𝑃1 / + 𝑍1 ) – (𝑃2 / + 𝑍2 ) = (4 ∆𝐿 𝑜 )/(𝐷) (3.23)
Consider the Energy equation with constant velocity:
67
(𝑃1 / + 𝑍1 ) = (𝑃2 / + 𝑍2 ) + ℎ𝐿 (3.24)
Combine (3.23) and (3.24), replace ∆𝐿 by 𝐿 
𝜌𝑉2
𝐿 4𝜏𝑜 4𝜏 𝐿 𝑉2
ℎ𝑓 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 = ( 𝜌𝑉2 ) (
𝐷 𝛾
2
) = ( 𝜌𝑉𝑜2 ) (𝐷) 2𝑔 (3.25)
2 2
𝜌𝑉 2
Given that o is related to
2
Let
4𝜏𝑜 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙
𝑓= = (3.26)
𝜌𝑉 2 /2 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑳 𝑽𝟐
𝒉𝒇 = 𝒇 (3.27)
𝑫 𝟐𝒈
The well know “Darcy-Weisbach equation”
For fully developed incompressible, and steady flow, laminar or turbulent, the
head loss, or pressure loss due to friction along a given length of pipe depends on
the friction factor, pipe length, diameter, mean velocity squared.
3.6.2 Special case: (laminar flow):

̅
32 𝜇 𝐿 𝑉
Recall: ℎ𝑓 = (laminar flow)
𝛾𝐷2
Compare the previous equation with Darcy-Weisbach equation:
32 𝜇 𝐿 𝑉̅ 𝐿 𝑉2
ℎ𝑓 = =𝑓
𝛾𝐷2 𝐷 2𝑔

32𝜇𝐿𝑉 𝐷 2𝑔 64𝜇
𝑓= = = 64/𝑅𝑒 (3.28)
𝛾𝐷2 𝐿 𝑉2 𝜌𝑉𝐷
This is the equation of the friction factor for laminar flow.
68
3.7 Power required to maintain a flow:
The power Ρ is the rate of doing work.
For horizontal pipe (Z is constant):
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒.𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Ρ=
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
=
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
= 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (3.29)
−𝑑𝑝
P=( ) (𝐴 × 𝐿 × 𝑉 ) = (𝑃 1 − 𝑃 2 )𝑄 (3.30)
𝑑𝑥
For inclined pipe (general equation) , peizometric pressures are used instead of pressure:
𝛲 = 𝛾 (ℎ1 − ℎ2 )𝑄 (3.31)
3.8 Moody Chart

The Moody chart (Moody diagram) is a non-dimensional graph relates the Darcy-
Weisbach friction factor f, Reynolds number Re, and relative roughness (e/D) for fully
developed flow in a circular pipe. This basic chart plots Darcy–Weisbach friction factor f
against Reynolds number for a variety of relative roughness and flow regimes.
 The relative roughness being the ratio of the mean height of roughness of the pipe to
the pipe diameter (e/D).
 Moody chart is the most famous and useful figure in fluid mechanics.
 It is accurate to ±15 percent for design calculations.
 It can be used for circular and noncircular pipe flows and open-channel flows.
Roughness was simulated by gluing uniform sand grains onto the inner walls of the
pipes. The pressure drops and the flow rates were measured and the friction factor f was
correlated versus Reynolds number.
 Moody chart is used to solve for pressure drop, ∆P (Pa), head loss, hf (m), and flow rate
through pipes.
𝐿 𝑉2
 Head loss can be calculated using the Darcy–Weisbach equation: ℎ𝑓 = 𝑓
𝐷 2𝑔
 The Moody chart can be divided into two regimes of flow: laminar and turbulent.
 For the laminar flow regime, the Darcy–Weisbach friction factor was determined
analytically by Poiseuille. In this regime roughness has no discernible effect.
 For the turbulent flow regime, the relationship between the friction factor and the
Reynolds number is more complex and is governed by the Colebrook equation which
is implicit:
1 𝑒 2.51
= −2𝑙𝑜𝑔( + ) (3.32)
√𝑓 3.7𝐷 𝑅𝑒√𝑓
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
Figure 3.10 Moody diagram
76
77
The following characteristics are observed from analysing the Moody diagram:
1. For laminar flow, Re < 2000, f = 64/Re, which is independent of relative roughness (e/D
or /D).
2. Turbulent flow is strongly affected by
roughness. For very large Reynolds
numbers (to the right of the dashed line), f
is a function of relative roughness (e/D or
/D) only, which is independent of the
Reynolds number. For such flows,
commonly termed completely turbulent
(fully rough flow), along the wall pipe, the
laminar sub layer is so thin that the surface
roughness completely dominates the
character of the flow near the wall (sub
layer totally broken up and friction
independent of Reynolds number). The
roughness curves are nearly horizontal in
this fully rough regime. Figure 3.11 Viscous sublayer compared to roughness
3. The gap in the figure for which no values of f are given, 2000 < Re < 4000, is a result of
the fact that the flow in this transition range may be laminar or turbulent (or an
unsteady mix of both) depending on the specific circumstances involved. There are no
reliable friction factors in this range.
4. Even for smooth pipes the friction factor is not zero. That is, there is a head loss in any
pipe, no matter how smooth the surface is made. This is a result of the no-slip boundary
condition that requires any fluid to stick to any solid surface it flows over. There is
always some microscopic surface roughness that produces the no-slip behaviour (and
thus f ≠ 0) on the molecular level, even when the roughness is considerably less than
the viscous sub layer thickness. Such pipes are called hydraulically smooth (f = function
of (Re,)).
5. Colebrook (in 1939) combined all data for transition and turbulent flow in smooth as
well as rough pipes into the following relation known as Colebrook equation:
1 𝑒 2.51
= −2𝑙𝑜𝑔( + )
√𝑓 3.7𝐷 𝑅𝑒√𝑓
In 1944, Lewis Ferry Moody plotted the Darcy–Weisbach friction factor into what is now
known as the Moody chart.
6. For smooth pipes (turbulent flow: 4000Re105 ),Blassius experimentally developed the
0.316
following formula: 𝑓 = 0.25
𝑅𝑒
78
𝑃1 −𝑃2 𝑉12 𝑉22
Considering the energy equation: + 𝑍1 − 𝑍2 + − = ℎ𝐿
𝛾 2𝑔 2𝑔
For horizontal, constant diameter pipe:
𝑃1 −𝑃2
∆Z=0, and V1=V2  = ℎ𝐿 → ∆𝑃 = 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 = −𝛾ℎ𝐿
𝛾
Also the Darcy-Weisbach equation for laminar flow:
̅
32 𝜇 𝐿 𝑉
ℎ𝑓 =  𝑄 = 𝑉̅ 𝐴 = 𝜋𝛾𝐷4 ∆𝑃/(8𝜇𝐿)
𝛾𝐷2
These results confirm that for a laminar horizontal pipe flow rate, the flow rate is:
i. Directly proportional to the pressure drop.
ii. Inversely proportional to the viscosity.
iii. Inversely proportional to the pipe length.
iv. Proportional to the pipe diameter to the fourth power, (strong relation).
For inclined constant diameter pipe, the value of ∆P will be:
∆𝑃 = 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 = −𝛾ℎ𝐿 + 𝛾(𝑍1 − 𝑍2 )
More concern is needed to the change in elevation. Cases can be seen were the pressure
could be zero, positive or negative for the the same flow losses depending on the change in
elevation.
Example 3.3:
If the diameter of a pipe is doubled, what effect does this have on the flow rate for a given
head loss? Consider (a) Laminar flow; (b) turbulent flow.
Solution:
̅
32 𝜇 𝐿 𝑉 𝑉
(a) Laminar flow: ℎ𝑓 = = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 × ,
𝛾𝐷2 𝐷2
V=K1D2 ; Q=AV=D2/4 (KD2)=K2D4
Thus doubling the diameter will increase the flow by a factor of 24=16.
𝐿 𝑉2
(b) Turbulent flow, ℎ𝑓 = 𝑓 ,
𝐷 2𝑔
𝑉2
i) assume fully turbulent (constant f), ℎ𝑓 = 𝐾2 ; 𝑉 = 𝐾3 𝐷1/2 and Q=AV=K3D5/2
𝐷
Thus doubling the diameter will increase the flow rate by a factor of 22/5 = 5.66
for turbulent flow with complete turbulence.
0.316
ii) For smooth pipe with Re100,000, Blasius equation can be used (𝑓 = 0.25
𝑅𝑒
𝐾5
=(𝐷𝑉)0.25);
𝐿 𝑉2 𝑉 7/4
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑓 = 𝐾6 ; thus Q=AV=K8D19/7
𝐷 2𝑔 𝐷5/4
Which means that doubling the diameter will increase the flow rate by a factor
of 219/7=6.56 for turbulent flow in smooth pipes.
79
Example 3.4:
Oil (Sp. Gr. =0.94) with a viscosity of 0.0096 N.S/m2 flows in a 90-mm-diameter welded-
steel pipe (e=0.046mm) at a discharge of 7.2 L/s. What is the friction head loss per meter
of pipe?
Solution:
V=Q/A=Q/(D2/4)= 4(0.0072)/( 0.0902)=1.132 m/s
Re=0.09(1.132) (10000.94)/0.0096=9974; e/D=0.046/90=0.000511.
ℎ𝑓 0.032 1.1322
From Moody Diagram, f = 0.032  = = 0.0232 𝑚/𝑚
𝐿 0.09 2(9.81)
Example 3.5:
Crude oil (Sp. Gr. =0.855) at 50oC (ν= 3.810-6 m2/s), flows at 300 L/s through a 450-mm-
diameter pipe (e=0.054 mm) 1500 m long. Find the power loss within the flow.
Solution:
V=0.3/( 0.2252)= 1.886 m/s ; Re=VD/ν =0.45 (1.886)/(3.810-6)= 2.23105 ; e/D=0.054/450
𝐿 𝑉2 1500 1.8862
= 0.00012; from Moody Diagram , f=0.016 ; ℎ𝑓 = 𝑓 = 0.016 = 9.832 𝑚
𝐷 2𝑔 0.45 2(9.81)
 Power loss =  Q hf = (0.8859807)0.30(9.832) =25.6 kW.
Example 3.6
A fluid flows through a smooth horizontal 2–m long tube of 2 mm diameter with an
average velocity of 2.1 m/s. Determine the head loss and the pressure drop if the fluid is
(a) air, (b) water, (c) mercury. Use the information in the following table.
Solution:
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ 𝑍1 + = + 𝑍2 + + 𝐻𝐿
𝐿 𝑉2
where, 𝐻𝐿 = 𝑓 , Z1=Z2, and V1=V2
𝐷 2𝑔
𝑚 2
2𝑚 (2.1 )
𝑠
Thus, ℎ𝐿 = 𝑓 ( ) = 225 𝑓
0.002𝑚 2𝑔
And ∆P=P1 – P2 =  hL
80
𝑚
𝑉𝐷 (2.1 )(0.002𝑚) 4.2×10−3
𝑠
Also, 𝑅𝑒 = = =
𝜈 𝜈 𝜈
Fluid 𝜈 (m2/s) Re Flow type f hL (m)  (N/m3) ∆P (N/m2)
(a)Air 1.4610-5 287 Laminar 64/Re=0.223 50.2 12.0 602
(b)Water 1.1210-6 3750 turbulent 0.0404 9.09 9800 8.91104
(c) Hg 1.1510-7 36500 turbulent 0.0220 4.95 133000 6.58105
Example 3.7:
A viscous fluid flows in a 0.10-m diameter pipe such that its velocity measured 0.012 m away
from the pipe wall is 0.8 m/s. If the flow is laminar, determine the centreline velocity and the
flow rate.
Solution:
𝑟 2
𝑉 (𝑟) = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 (1 − ( ) ), where D=0.1m.
𝑟𝑜
The value of r is: 𝑟 = (0.1𝑚/2) − 0.012𝑚 = 0.038𝑚.
(0.038𝑚 2
Thus, 0.8 𝑚/𝑠 = 𝑉𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 (1 − ( ) )  Vc=1.89 m/s.
0.1𝑚/2
𝜋 2 𝜋 2
1 −3
𝑚3
𝑄 = 𝐷 𝑉 = 0.1 ( × 1.89) = 7.42 × 10
4 4 2 𝑠
Example 3.8:
Oil (Sp. Gr.=0.9 , μ=510-1 N.s/m2) flows steadily in a 3-cm pipe. The pipe is vertical, and the
pressure at an elevation of 100 m is 200 kPa. If the pressure at an elevation of 85 m is 250 kPa,
is the flow direction up or down? What is the velocity at the centre of the pipe and at 6 mm
from the centre, assuming that the flow is laminar?
Hints:
 The flow will be always from the highest
energy (P/+Z+V2/2g) to the lowest energy.
 In case of horizontal constant-diameter pipe,
the flow will be from the highest pressure to
the lowest pressure.
 The direction of Z will be always upward Z.
 The direction of the flow (s or X), where we
measure L, is at the same line of the pipe and
at the direction from the highest energy to the
lowest energy (flow direction)
 For normal pipe, the equation for velocity and
pressure profile for laminar flow can be given Figure
as the following:
81
𝑟𝑜2 −𝑟 2 ∆(𝑃+𝛾𝑍) 𝑟𝑜2 −𝑟 2 ∆𝑃 𝛾∆𝑍

𝑉(𝑟) = − ( ) ( ∆𝐿 ) = −( ) ( + )
4𝜇 4𝜇 ∆𝐿 ∆𝐿
∆𝑍
For the case of flow upward (s): both Z and s have the same direction ( = 1)
∆𝐿
2 2 ∆𝑃 𝛾∆𝑍 2 2 ∆𝑃
 𝑉(𝑟) = − (𝑟𝑜4𝜇
−𝑟
) ( ∆𝐿 + ) = − (𝑟𝑜4𝜇
−𝑟
) ( ∆𝐿 + 𝛾)
∆𝐿
∆𝑍
For the case of flow downward (s): Z and s have the opposite direction ( = −1)
∆𝐿
2 2 ∆𝑃 𝛾∆𝑍 2 2 ∆𝑃
 𝑉(𝑟) = − (𝑟𝑜4𝜇
−𝑟
) ( ∆𝐿 + ) = − (𝑟𝑜4𝜇
−𝑟
) ( ∆𝐿 − 𝛾)
∆𝐿
Solution:
The direction of the flow:
𝑃100 200×103
+ 100 = + 100 = 122.65𝑚 → energy at 100 m elevation
𝛾 8830
𝑃85 250×103
+ 85 = + 85 = 113.31𝑚 → energy at 85 m elevation
𝛾 8830
 The flow is downward

0.03 2
𝑟𝑜2 𝑃2 −𝑃1 −( ) 250×103 −200×103
2
𝑉𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = − ( − 𝛾) = ( − 8830) = 0.618 𝑚/𝑠
4𝜇 15 4(5×10−1 ) 15
Example 3.9:
Oil (Sp. Gr. =0.85) with kinematic viscosity of 610-4 m2/s flows in a 15 cm pipe at a rate of
0.02 m3/s.
1. What is the head loss per 100 m length of pipe?
2. Find the centre and the average velocity of the flow.
3. Find the wall shear stress.
4. Plot the velocity and the shear profiles.
Solution:
(1).V=Q/A=(0.02 m3/s)/( (0.15m)2/4)= 1.13 m/s
Re=VD/ν =(1.13 m/s)(0.15m)/(610-4 m2/s)=283  2000  flow is laminar
32𝜇𝐿𝑉 32𝜌𝜈𝐿𝑉 32(6×10−4 )×100×1.13
ℎ𝑓 = = = = 9.83 𝑚
𝛾𝐷2 𝜌𝑔𝐷2 9.81×0.152
𝐿 𝑉2 64 𝐿 𝑉 2 64 100 1.132
Or, ℎ𝑓 = 𝑓 = = = 9.83
𝐷 2𝑔 𝑅𝑒 𝐷 2𝑔 283 0.15 2𝑔
(2).The average velocity: V=Q/A=(0.02 m3/s)/( (0.15m)2/4)= 1.13 m/s

The center velocity : Vcenter= 2 V =2  1.13 = 2.26 m/s.
0.15
𝑟 ∆(𝑃+𝛾𝑍) 𝑟 ∆(ℎ) 2 −9.83
(3). 𝜏 = [− 2
] = [−𝛾
2
]=− [(0.85 × 9810) ] = 30.74 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙
∆𝐿 ∆𝐿 2 100
𝑟 2
(4) 𝑉(𝑟) = 𝑉𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 (1 − ( ) )
𝑟𝑜
82
Example 3.10:
A fluid flows through a horizontal 0.25-cm diameter pipe. when the Reynolds number is
1500, the headloss over a 6-m length of the pipe is 192 cm. Determine the fluid velocity.
Solution:
𝐿 𝑉2 64 𝐿 𝑉 2 64 6 𝑉2
ℎ𝐿 = 𝑓 = = = 1.92 𝑚 , (Laminar flow)  V=0.606 m/s
𝐷 2𝑔 𝑅𝑒 𝐷 2𝑔 1500 0.0025 2𝑔
Example 3.11:
For laminar flow in a circular pipe, find the velocities at 0.1r, 0.3r, 0.5r, 0.7r, and 0.9r relative
to the center velocity. Plot the velocity profile.
Solution:
Given that the velocity at any diameter of the pipe for laminar flow can be given as:
𝑟 2 𝑉(𝑟) 𝑟 2
𝑉(𝑟) = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥(1 − ( ) ) , or = (1 − ( ) )
𝑟𝑜 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑟𝑜
which can be used to find the relative velocity at any radius of the pipe section:
83
Example 3.12:
An oil with a viscosity of μ=0.4 N.s/m2 and density =900 kg/m3 flows in a pipe of diameter
D=0.020 m.
(a) What pressure drop, P1 – P2, is needed to produce a flowrate of Q = 2.010-5 m3/s
for horizontal pipe with x1=0 and x2=10m.
(b) How steep a hill, , must the pipe be on if the oil is to flow through the pipe at the
same rate in part (a), but with P1=P2
(c) If P1=200kPa, what is the pressure at section x3=5m, where x is measured along the
pipe.
Solution:
(a) If the Reynolds number is less than 2000 the flow is laminar.
V=Q/A=(210-5 m3/s)/((0.022 m2)/4)=0.0637 m/s
Re=VD/μ=2.87  2000 the flow is laminar. And the following equation for
̅
32 𝜇 𝐿 𝑉 128 𝜇 𝐿𝑄
laminar flow can be used: ℎ𝐿 = =
𝛾𝐷2 𝛾𝜋𝐷4
The pipe is horizontal, then Z1=Z2. Also, V1=V2 (constant diameter),then the energy
equation can be given as:
𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑉22 𝑉12 𝑃 𝑃2
+ 𝑍1 − 𝑍2 = + ℎ𝐿 + − , or ( 1 − = ℎ𝐿 ) 
𝛾 𝛾 2𝑔 2𝑔 𝛾 𝛾
128 𝜇 𝐿𝑄
(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 ) = 𝛾ℎ𝐿 =
𝜋𝐷4
128×0.4×10×2×10−5 𝑁
So, ∆𝑃 = 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = = 20,400 = 20.4 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝜋(0.02)4 𝑚2
84
(b) We have the pipe on a hill of angle  such that the pressure drop, ∆P=0, given that
he flow does not change. The approach requires that the value of hL does not
change. the only way to achieve that is to have the change in elevation replace the
pressure drop:
𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑉22 𝑉12 128 𝜇 𝐿𝑄

− + 𝑍1 − 𝑍2 = ℎ𝐿 + − , or (𝑍1 − 𝑍2 = ℎ𝐿 )  (𝑍1 − 𝑍2 ) = ℎ𝐿 =
𝛾 𝛾 2𝑔 2𝑔 𝛾𝜋𝐷4
(𝑍1 −𝑍2 ) 𝛾ℎ𝐿 128 𝜇 𝑄 128(0.4)(2×10−5 )
or = = sin 𝜃 = = (900)(9.81)𝜋(0.02)4 = 0.230
𝐿 𝐿 𝛾𝜋𝐷4
𝜃 = 13.34𝑜
(c) The approach of part (b) requires that the pressure is constant
P1=P2 = 200 kPa.
85
Extra Problems
86
87
88
89
90
Tutorial 3
Q1. Oil having specific gravity 0.89 and µ=0.085 poise flows through a horizontal pipe
of 1.5 cm diameter and 230 cm length. Compute the pressure drop, pressure and
energy gradients in order to maintain a flow of 150 cm3/s.
Q2. It is required to transport 55 L/s of an oil, sp. gr.0.82 and µ=2.1 N.s/m2, to a
distance of 1 km. Permissible energy gradient= 0.04. Determine the size of the
pipe and power required to maintain the flow.
Q3. In a flow through an 8 cm-diameter horizontal pipe with glycerine, ρ=1400 kg/m3
and µ=7.9 Poise, the shear stress at the wall was found to be 300 N/m2.
Determine pressure and energy gradients, mean velocity of flow and Reynolds
number. Also plot the shear stress and velocity distribution diagrams.
Q4. Oil (µ=0.191 N. S / m2, ρ=927.7 kg/m3) flows through an inclined 7.5 cm-diameter
pipe. Find the slope of the pipe that will cause the pressure to be constant along
the pipe's entire length.
Q5. An Oil (µ=8×10-3N.s/m2, sp. gr. =0.88) is flowing through a round tube as shown.
Assuming laminar flow, determine:
a) Direction of flow.
b) Loss of head between 1 and 2.
c) Average velocity of flow
d) Reynolds number.
e) Maximum velocity.
f) Maximum shear stress.
g) Power required to maintain the flow
h) Check that the flow is laminar flow
91
Q6. A fluid of specific gravity 0.96 flows steadily in a long

vertical pipe with an average velocity of 15 cm/s. if the pressure
is constant throughout the fluid, then find:
a) The maximum velocity within the flow profile.
b) The viscosity of the fluid.
c) The Reynolds no. of the flow.
d) The shear stress on the pipe wall.
Solution of Tutorial 3:
(1) Fluid { Oil, S.Gr.=0.89 , µ=0.085 poise= (0.085/10) N.S/m2 }
𝑐𝑚3
150
𝑉=𝜋 𝑠 = 84.9 𝑐𝑚 = 0.85 𝑚/𝑠
2 𝑠
4 (1.5𝑐𝑚)
𝜌𝑉𝐷 (0.89 × 1000) × 0.85 × 0.015
𝑅𝑒 = = = 1335 (𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤)
𝜇 0.0085
𝐿 𝑉 2 64 𝐿 𝑉 2 64 2.3 (0.85)2
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑓 = = = 0.27 𝑚
𝐷 2𝑔 𝑅𝑒 𝐷 2𝑔 1335 0.015 2𝑔
𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟐𝟏 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐𝟐
+ + 𝒁𝟏 = + + 𝒁𝟐 + 𝒉𝒇
𝑷𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐 (𝑽𝟐𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐𝟐 )
+ (𝒁𝟏 − 𝒁𝟐 ) + = 𝒉𝒇
𝜸 𝟐𝒈
𝑃1 − 𝑃2
= ℎ𝑓 , (𝑉1 = 𝑉2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑍1 = 𝑍2 )
𝛾
𝑁 𝑁
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝛾 × ℎ𝑓 = 0.27𝑚 (0.89 × 9810 3 ) = 2357.343 2
𝑚 𝑚
𝟐
∆𝑷 = −𝟐. 𝟑𝟔 𝒌𝑵/𝒎
∆𝑃 −2.36 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = =
∆𝐿 2.3 𝑚
ℎ2 − ℎ1 −0.27 𝑚
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = =
∆𝐿 2.3 𝑚
92
(2) Fluid { Oil, S.Gr.=0.82 , µ=2.1 N.S/m2 }
Required: D , Power
𝑄 55 × 10−3 0.07
𝑉= = 𝜋 = 2
𝐴 𝐷2 𝐷
4
ℎ𝐿 32 𝜇𝑉
𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝑳𝒂𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒓 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 → =
𝐿 𝛾𝐷2
Use the maximum allowable energy gradient (0.04) to find the minimum
allowable diameter of the pipe.
0.07 1 1
0.04 = 32 × 2.1 × 2 2
𝐷 𝐷 0.82 × 9810
𝑫 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟒 𝒎 (minimum allowable diameter)
0.07
𝜌𝑉𝐷 0.82×1000×[ ]×0.34
(0.34)2
Check , 𝑅𝑒 = = = 9.5 (𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟)
𝜇 2.1
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝜸 (𝒉𝟏 − 𝒉𝟐 )𝑸 = (𝟎. 𝟖𝟐 × 𝟗𝟖𝟏𝟎)(𝟎. 𝟎𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎)(𝟓𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 )
= 𝟏𝟕. 𝟔𝟗 𝒌𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕
93
(3) Fluid { Glycerine , ρ =1400 kg/m3, µ=7.9 poise } , D = 8 cm, 𝜏𝑤 =300 N/m2
Required: pressure and energy gradient, average velocity, Re, 𝜏 and velocity
diagrams.
−𝑟𝑜 ∆(𝑃 + 𝛾𝑍)
𝜏𝑤 =
2 ∆𝐿
300𝑁 0.04 ∆(𝑃 + 𝛾𝑍)
=−
𝑚2 2 ∆𝐿
Given that the pipe is horizontal , then ΔZ=0.0 →
∆𝑃 𝑁
= −15000 2
∆𝐿 𝑚 .𝑚
∆ℎ ∆𝑃 1 −15000 𝑁/𝑚3
= = = −1.092 𝑚/𝑚
∆𝐿 ∆𝐿 𝛾 9.81 × 1400 𝑁/𝑚3
𝐷2 ℎ ℎ ∆ℎ
𝑉̅ = 𝛾 , 𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 = −
32𝜇 𝐿 𝐿 ∆𝐿
(0.08) 2
𝑉̅ = (1400 × 9.81)(1.092) = 3.796 𝑚/𝑠
7.9
32
10
𝜌𝑉𝐷 1400 × 3.796 × 0.08
𝑅𝑒 = = = 538.3 (𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟)
𝜇 0.79
−𝑟 ∆(𝑃 + 𝛾𝑍) −𝑟
𝜏= = [−15000] = 𝑟[7500]
2 ∆𝐿 2
𝑟 2 𝑟 2
𝑉(𝑟) = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 (1 − [ ] ) = (2 × 3.796) (1 − [ ] )
𝑟𝑜 0.04
94
95
(4)
𝑄 0.0085 𝑚3 /𝑠
𝑉= = 𝜋 = 1.92 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴 (0.075) 2
4
𝜌𝑉𝐷 927.7 × 1.92 × 0.075
𝑅𝑒 = = = 699.4 (𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟)
𝜇 0.191
Applying energy equation between (1) and (2):
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22 32 𝜇 𝑉 𝐿
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2 +
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 𝐷2
𝑃1 𝑃2
= , V1=V2
𝛾 𝛾
𝑍1 − 𝑍2 32 𝜇 𝑉
𝑆𝑜,
=
𝐿 𝛾 𝐷2
𝑄 0.0085 𝑚3 /𝑠
𝑉= = 𝜋 = 1.92 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴 (0.075)2
4
𝑍1 − 𝑍2 32 𝜇 𝑉 32 × 0.191 × 1.92
sin(𝜃) = = = = 0.229
𝐿 𝜌𝑔 𝐷2 927.7 × 9.81 × (0.075)2
→ 𝜃 = 13.2𝑜
3.2×10−5 𝑁/𝑚2 5.3×10−5 𝑁/𝑚2

(5) a) ℎ1 = 3
+ 5 = 42.06 𝑚 , ℎ2 = + 0 = 61.39 𝑚
0.88×9810 𝑁/𝑚 0.88×9810 𝑁/𝑚3
Flow is taking place from (2) to (1) in the direction of decreasing head.
b)
𝑃𝑈 𝑉 2 𝑃𝑑 𝑉 2
+ + 𝑍𝑈 = + + 𝑍𝑑 + ℎ𝑓
Where, U: upstream, d: downstream.
𝑃𝑈 𝑃𝑑
( + 𝑍𝑈 ) − ( + 𝑍𝑑 ) = ℎ𝑓
𝛾 𝛾
ℎ𝑓 = (61.39) − (42.06) = 19.33 𝑚
96
32 𝜇 𝑉 𝐿 𝛾 ℎ𝑓 𝐷 2 (0.88×9810)(19.33)(0.0016)2
c) ℎ𝑓 = → 𝑉= = = 0.236 𝑚/𝑠
𝛾 𝐷2 32 𝜇𝐿 32 (8×10−3 )(5/ sin(45𝑜 ))
𝜌𝑉𝐷 (0.88×1000)(0.236)(0.0016)
d) 𝑅𝑒 = = = 41.536 (𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤)
𝜇 8×10−3
0.0016 2
−𝑟𝑜2 ∆ℎ ( ) 42.06−61.3
2
e) 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 = 𝛾 =− −3
(0.88 × 9810) =0.47 m/s
4𝜇 ∆𝐿 4(8×10 ) 5/ sin(45𝑜 )
or 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 = 2𝑉̅ = 2 × 0.236 = 0.47 𝑚/𝑠
0.0016
−𝑟 ∆(𝑃+𝛾𝑍) ( )
2
f) 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜏𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 = 𝜏𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 = =− (0.88 ×
2 ∆𝐿 2
42.06−61.3
9810) = 11.3 N/m2
5/ sin(45𝑜 )
𝑁 𝜋
g) 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = (0.88 × 9810 𝑚3) (61.39 − 42.06)𝑚 [0.236 × (0.0016)2 ] = 0.316 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡.
4
−(𝑟𝑜2 −𝑟 2 ) ∆ℎ −(𝑟𝑜2 −𝑟 2 ) ∆(𝑃+𝛾𝑍)

(6) 𝑉(𝑟) = 𝛾 =
4𝜇 ∆𝐿 4𝜇 ∆𝐿
−𝑟𝑜2 ∆(𝑃+𝛾𝑍)
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 = 𝑉(𝑟 = 0) =
4𝜇 ∆𝐿
𝑉(𝑟=0) −𝑟𝑜2 ∆𝑃 ∆𝑍
𝑉̅ = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 /2 = = [ +𝛾 ]
2 8𝜇 ∆𝐿 ∆𝐿
For constant pressure, and down word flow:
−𝑟 2
𝑉̅ = 𝑜 [0 + 𝛾(−1)]
8𝜇
𝑟𝑜2
𝑉̅ = 𝛾
8𝜇
a) 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2𝑉̅ = 30 𝑐𝑚/𝑠
0.025 2
𝑟𝑜2 ( )
b) 𝑉̅ = 𝛾 → 0.15 𝑚/𝑠 = 2
(0.96 × 9810) → 𝜇 =1.226 N.s/m2
8𝜇 8𝜇
𝜌𝑉𝐷 0.96×1000×0.15×0.025
c) 𝑅𝑒 = = = 2.94
𝜇 1.226
𝑟𝑜 0.0125
d) 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (𝛾) = (0.96 × 9810) = 58.86 𝑁/𝑚2
2 2
97
Quiz
Answer Sheet 
 The flow in pipes will always take place in the direction of decreasing
𝑷 𝑽𝟐
energy ( + 𝒁 + ) (decreasing pressure for the case of horizontal pipe).
𝜸 𝟐𝒈
 To convert the dynamic viscosity from poise into N.s/m2, divide by 10.
{ µ= 1 Pascal. Second = kg/(m.s)= N.s/m2 = 10 poise }.
Power required to maintain a flow:
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = (𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )𝑄 (Horizontal pipe)
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝛾 (ℎ1 − ℎ2 )𝑄 (Inclined pipe)
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
Energy equation: + 𝑍1 + = + 𝑍2 + + ℎ𝐿
𝑷𝟏 −𝑷𝟐
+ (𝑍1 − 𝑍2 ) = ℎ𝐿 → ∆ℎ = −ℎ𝐿 (constant diameter)
𝜸
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝛾[(𝑍2 − 𝑍1 ) + 𝛾ℎ𝐿 ] {To find the pressure drop}.
 The following equations were derived for the case of circular pipes for the case
of laminar flow.
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 ∆𝐏 ∆𝐙
𝑽(𝒓) = − (𝒓𝒐𝟒𝝁
−𝒓
) (𝜸∆𝒉
∆𝑳
) = − (𝒓𝒐𝟒𝝁
−𝒓
) (∆(𝑷+𝜸𝒁)
∆𝑳
) = − (𝒓𝒐𝟒𝝁
−𝒓
) (∆𝐋 + 𝜸 ∆𝐋)
𝑟 2
𝑉(𝑟) = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 (1 − ( ) )
𝑟 𝑜
𝒓𝟐 ∆𝒉 𝟐 𝟐 ∆𝐏 ∆𝐙
𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙,𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝐕(𝐫 = 𝟎) = − ( 𝒐 ) [ 𝜸 ] = − (𝟒𝝁
𝒓𝒐
) (∆(𝑷+𝜸𝒁)
∆𝑳
𝒓𝒐
) = − (𝟒𝝁 ) (∆𝐋 + 𝜸 ∆𝐋)
𝟒𝝁 ∆𝑳
𝜋𝑟𝑜4 𝛾∆ℎ
𝑄 = −( ) ( ∆𝐿 )
8𝜇
𝑄 𝑟2 𝛾∆ℎ 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
The mean velocity: 𝑉 = = −( 𝑜)( ) =
𝐴 8𝜇 ∆𝐿 2
̅
𝟑𝟐 𝝁 𝑳 𝑽 𝟔𝟒 𝑳 𝑽𝟐
𝒉𝒇 = = ; {Laminar, fully developed, steady, Newtonian flow}.
𝜸𝑫𝟐 𝑹𝒆 𝑫 𝟐𝒈
∆(𝑃+𝛾𝑍) ∆(ℎ) ∆P ∆Z
𝜏 = 2𝑟 [− ] = 2𝑟 [−𝛾 ] = −2𝑟 ( + 𝛾 ) , {laminar and turbulent}.
∆𝐿 ∆𝐿 ∆L ∆L
98
Quiz
Answer Sheet 
99
Quiz 
Q. The 6-cm diameter pipe shown contains glycerin, ρ = 1420 kg/m3 and µ=7.8 Poise, flowing at
a flow rate of 6 m3/h.
- Verify that the flow is laminar.
- For the pressure measurements shown, is the flow up or down?
- What is the total head gradient for these pressures?
- Draw the shear and velocity profiles.
r (cm) 0 1 2 3
V (m/s)
100
3.9 Types of Fluid Flow Problems:
In the design and analysis of piping systems that involve the use of the Moody chart,
we usually encounter three types of problems (figure 3.12):
1. Determining the energy head loss (pressure drop) when the the pipe length and diameter
are given for a specified flow rate ( or velocity).
 Use the energy equation.
 Find the velocity, Reynolds number, friction factor and solve directly the energy
equation to find the energy loss or pressure difference.
2. Determining the flow rate when the pipe length and diameter are given for a specified
head loss or pressure drop.
 The energy equation is used.
 Substituting the known values in the energy equation will result in two unknowns (f,
and Q).
 Solving the equation requires assuming value for f, substituting this value in the energy
equation to find Q or V.
 Reynolds number is found using the last value of V, then using Moody diagram a new
value of f is found.
 The new value of f is compared with the previous assumed value. If the difference
between both values is insignificant then we stop and consider the value of Q to be
correct, otherwise we use the new value of f in the energy equation to find Q or V.
 the same process is repeated until successive values of f are not significantly different.
3. Determining the pipe diameter when the pipe length and flow rate are given for a specified
pressure drop.
 The previous procedure is applied but the unknowns will be the friction factor f and
the diameter.
101
Case A: Horizontal pipe, constant elevation (Z1=Z2), the pressure must decrease in the
downstream direction.
Case B: Inclined upward, elevation is increasing, the pressure is decreasing.
Case C: Inclined downward, eleveation is decreasing (giving extra value to the pressure).
Figure 3.12 Energy equations for different types of fluid flow
102
Example 3.13:
Oil with  =900 kg/m3 and ν =0.00001 m2/s flows at Q=0.2 m3/s through 500 m of 20-cm
diameter cast iron pipe. Determine the head and the pressure drop if the pipe slopes down
at 10o in the flow direction.
Solution: (Type 1 problem to find hf or ∆P)
The head drop or loss can be given as:
𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟐𝟏 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐𝟐
( + + 𝒁𝟏 ) − ( + + 𝒁𝟐 ) = 𝒉𝒇
𝑷𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐 (𝑽𝟐𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐𝟐 )
+ (𝒁𝟏 − 𝒁𝟐 ) + = 𝒉𝒇
𝜸 𝟐𝒈
𝑉 = 𝑄/𝐴 = 0.2/ ( 0.22 /4) = 6.4 𝑚/𝑠

𝑅𝑒 = 𝑉𝐷/𝜈 = 6.4 0.2/0.00001 = 128000 (Turbulent flow)
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 0.26 𝑚𝑚/200𝑚𝑚 = 0.0013
500 6.42
 𝑓 = 0.0225  ℎ𝑓 = 0.0225 = 117𝑚 , (head drop or head loss)
0.2 2𝑔
To find pressure drop
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = [𝛾(𝑍2 − 𝑍1 ) + 𝛾ℎ𝑓 ]
∆𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔(−500 sin(10𝑜 ) + ℎ𝑓 ) = 900 × 9.81 (−87 + 117) = 265 × 103 Pascal
((Pressure decrease because the decrease in elevation (87m) is less than the head losses (117m) ))
Example 3.14:
When gasoline with a kinematic viscosity of 510-7 m2/s flows in a 200-mm-diameter
smooth pipe the friction head loss is 0.43 m per 100 m. Find the flow rate.
Solution: (Type 2 problem to find Q)
For smooth pipe ( 𝑒 = 0)
The total energy loss can be found as:
ℎ𝑓 = 0.43 = 𝑓 (100/0.2) 𝑉 2 /[2(9.81)]
𝑉 = 0.1299 / 𝑓 1/2
𝑅𝑒 = 𝑉𝐷/𝜈 = 0.2 𝑉 / (510−7 ) = 400000 𝑉
103
let the initial assumption: 𝑓 = 0.02 ;𝑉 = 0.918𝑚/𝑠 ; 𝑅𝑒 = 3.67105  𝑓 = 0.014
(Moody diagram)
The following table represents subsequent trials:
Try f V m/s Re New f
0.02 0.918 3.67105 0.014 Try again
0.014 1.101 4.4105 0.0134 Try again
0.0134 1.12 4.48105 0.0134 accepted
 𝑄 = (/4)(0.2)2 (1.12) = 0.0352 𝑚3 /𝑠 = 35.2 𝐿/𝑠
Example 3.15:
A steel pipe (e=0.065 mm) 4200 m long is to
convey oil (ν=5.210-5 m2/s) at 300 L/s from
a reservoir with surface elevation 247 m to
one with surface elevation 156 m. What pipe
size is required?
Solution: (Type 3 problem to find D)
2
0.3
( 2)
𝜋𝐷
4200
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑍1 − 𝑍2 = 247 𝑚 − 156 𝑚 = 91 𝑚 = 𝑓 4
 𝐷 5 = 0.343 𝑓
𝐷 2𝑔
Try f Dm V m/s e/D Re New f

0.030 0.400 2.382 0.00016 1.83104 0.027 Try again
0.027 0.392 2.484 0.00017 1.87104 0.027 accepted
 D = 0.392 m
Example 3.16:
Determine the pressure drop per 300-m length of new 0.20-m diameter horizontal cast iron pipe
when the average velocity is 1.7 m/s.
Solution: (Type 1 problem to find hL or ∆P),

Use ν =1.1210-6 m2/s, 𝜌 = 999 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22 𝐿 𝑉2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2 + 𝑓
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝐷 2𝑔
Given :𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉 = 1.7 𝑚/𝑠; 𝐿 = 300 𝑚 ; 𝐷 = 0.2 𝑚
𝐿𝜌 𝐿𝜌
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝛾 (𝑍1 − 𝑍2 ) + 𝑓 𝑉2 = 𝑓 𝑉 2 (Horizontal pipe, Z1=Z2)
𝐷2 𝐷2
𝑉𝐷
𝑒/𝐷 = 0.2610−3 /0.2 = 1.310−3 ,𝑅𝑒 = = 1.70.2/(1.1210−6 ) = 3.04105 𝑓 = 0.022
𝜈
Thus ∆𝑃 = 0.022 (300/0.2) (999/2)(1.7)2 = 4.76104 𝑁/𝑚2
104
Tutorial 4.
Q1. Water at 20o C, having  =1×10-6 m2/s, flows through a smooth plastic pipe of
16 cm diameter maintaining an average velocity of 2.8 m/s. What is the head
loss per meter of length of pipe?
Q2. Water flows through a 17 cm diameter steel riveted pipe, k = 0.3 mm.
Determine the discharge if there is a loss of 2.8 m in a km length. What is the
power required to maintain the flow? ( = 1×10-6 m2/s).
Q3. What size of steel pipe, k = 0.3 mm, should be used to carry 550 L/s of kerosene,
 = 2×10-6 m2/s, with an energy loss of 2.1 m per km.
Solution of tutorial 4:
Q1.
Given:
 =1×10-6 m2/s (water) Note: The slope of the pipe is not
important since the requirement is the
Pipe: {smooth plastic pipe ,
total head loss
D = 16 cm}
Flow:{V = 2.8 m/s}
Required:
ℎ𝐿
= ⋯?
𝐿
Solution:
𝑉𝐷 2.8 ×0.16
𝑅𝑒 = = = 448000
𝜈 10−6
→ Turbulent flow
Moody chart {smooth plastic pipe} →
f = 0.0133}
𝒉𝑳 𝟏 𝑽𝟐
=𝒇
𝑳 𝑫 𝟐𝒈
𝟏 𝟐.𝟖𝟐
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟑𝟑
𝟎.𝟏𝟔 𝟐𝒈
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟑𝟐 𝒎⁄𝒎
105
Q2.
Given:
 =1×10-6 m2/s (water)
Pipe: {k = 0.3 mm , D = 17 cm}
ℎ 2.8𝑚
Flow: {Q =…? m/s, 𝐿 = }, Power =… ?
𝐿 1000𝑚
Required:
Q, Power
Solution:
𝑘 0.3 𝑚𝑚
= = 0.00176
𝐷 170𝑚𝑚
ℎ𝐿 1 𝑉2 2.8 1 𝑉2
=𝑓 = =𝑓 → 9.34 × 10−3 = 𝑓𝑉 2
𝐿 𝐷 2𝑔 1000 0.17 2𝑔
1st iteration:
Let f = 0.026
𝑉𝐷 0.599 ×0.17
→ V = 0.599 m/s → 𝑅𝑒 = = = 101890.96 → f = 0.0244
𝜈 10−6
2nd iteration:
Let f = 0.0244
→ V = 0.62 m/s → 𝑅𝑒 = 105394 → f = 0.0243 → V = 0.62 m/s , then
106
𝝅
𝑸 = 𝑽𝑨 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟐 × (𝟎. 𝟏𝟕)𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟒 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔
𝟒
𝟐. 𝟖𝒎 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝜸𝑸𝒉 = 𝟗𝟖𝟏𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟒 × = 𝟑𝟖𝟔. 𝟓𝟓
𝟏𝒌𝒎 𝒌𝒎
Q3. Given:
 =2×10-6 m2/s (water)
Pipe: {k = 0.3mm , D = …? cm}
ℎ 2.1𝑚
Flow:{Q = 550 l/s , 𝐿 = }
𝐿 1𝑘𝑚
Required:
pipe diameter
Solution:
𝑄 0.55 𝑚3 /𝑠 0.7
𝑉= = 𝜋⁄ 𝐷2 = (1)
𝐴 4 𝐷2
𝑘 0.3
= (2)
𝐷 𝐷
𝑉𝐷 (0.7⁄ 2 )𝐷 3.5×105
𝐷
𝑅𝑒 = = = (3)
𝜈 2×10−6 𝐷
ℎ𝑓 𝑓 𝑉2
=
𝐿 𝐷 2𝑔
2.1 𝑓 0.7 2 1
= ( 2)
1000 𝐷 𝐷 2𝑔
𝑓
= 0.084 (4)
𝐷5
1st iteration:
Let f = 0.020
→ D = 0.75 m (from equation (4))
3.5×105 𝑘 0.03𝑐𝑚
→ 𝑅𝑒 = = 466666.7 , with = = 0.0004
𝐷0.75 𝐷 0.75𝑐𝑚
→ f = 0.017 (need another iteration).
107
Class work
The tanks in the figure contains water at 20OC. If the pipe is smooth with L =4500
m and d = 4 cm:
(1) What will the flow rate in m3/h be for ∆𝒛=100 m?
(2) Assuming 5o slope of the pipe down ward, and the pipe entrance of tank (1)
is 85 m below the water surface in the tank. Find the pressure at the middle
distance of pipe (2250 m from tank 1).
𝒌𝒈
(Consider the minor losses, 𝝆 = 𝟗𝟗𝟖 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑 , 𝝁 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏 )
𝒎.𝒔
108
Chapter 4: Elements of Boundary Layer Theory

4.1 Introduction:
 Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid to flow under stress, “internal friction
or resistance”. It is related to the fluid friction.
 Water is thin means “having lower viscosity”.
 Honey is thick means “having a high viscosity’.
 All real fluids have resistance to stress and therefor are viscous. Theoretically, a fluid
with no resistance to shear is known as “ideal fluid” or “in viscid fluid”.
 In any flow, layers move at different velocities and the fluid’s viscosity arises from the
shear stress between the layers that oppose any applied force.
 Laminar shear of fluid between two plates:
 
 Friction between the
fluid and the moving
boundary causes the
fluid to shear
𝐹 𝑢
=𝜇
𝐴 𝑦
A = area of the plate.

Figure 4.1 Velocity profile of the flow between moving and stationary plate
Pipe flow case, Laminar Shear:

Real Fluid,
Non-constant gradient:(result of
geometry)
𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦
((variable shear over vertical

direction))
Figure 4.2 Velocity profile-Pipe case
109
 In case of real fluids, the fluid particles will adhere to the boundary (uboundary =0) even
for small viscosity fluids  “No-Slip Condition”.
𝑑𝑢
 Farther away from the boundary / wall there is a velocity gradient ( ) which causes
𝑑𝑦
the fluid to exert tangential stress
 As we go farther away from the
boundary, the retardation due to the
presence of viscosity is negligible.
Figure 4.3 Boundary layer thickness

 For high velocity flows, the retardation of velocity due to viscosity is limited to a thin
layer near the boundary which is known as the “boundary Layer”.
4.2 Boundary Layer:
Boundary layer is an important concept and refers to the layer of fluid closest to the
surface of a solid past which the fluid flows where the effects of viscosity are significant. It
has a lower rate of flow than the bulk of the fluid because of its adhesion to the solid.
Consider a thin flat plate held horizontal (zero slope), that is parallel to a flow in a uniform
stream of velocity U known as a “free stream velocity” or potential velocity”, Figure 4.4.
Boundary Layer can be defined as:
 The region adjacent to a surface over which the velocity changes from the free stream
velocity to zero at the surface.
 The development and growth of the boundary layer occurs because of the no-slip
condition at the surface where the fluid velocity must be zero (no-slip condition: the fluid
velocity at all fluid–solid boundaries is equal to that of the solid boundary. Particles close to a surface
do not move along with a flow when adhesion is stronger than cohesion. At the fluid-solid interface,
the force of attraction between the fluid particles and solid particles (Adhesive forces) is greater
than that between the fluid particles (Cohesive forces). This force imbalance brings down the fluid
velocity to zero).
 The most powerful consequence of the no-slip condition is the appearance of strong
velocity gradients near the wall. This region is often very thin, and it is then called a
boundary layer
 Within the boundary layer, adjacent layers of fluid are in relative motion (velocity
gradient), and because all fluids have viscosity, there will be friction between the
layers as they slide over each other. In other words, viscous shear stresses are
produced, with a magnitude given by the viscosity times the velocity gradient.
110
The thickness of the boundary layer was defined by Prandtl as δ: The distance from
the plate (boundary) to where 99% of the free stream velocity, U, is achieved again.
{at y =  (thickness of B.L.)  u = 0.99 U
The fluid particles next to the plate are affected by shear as they pass close to the
leading edge of the plate which slows them. These particles continue to be subject to shear
stress from the plate as they progress downstream  continue to decelerate.
In addition, these particles because of their lower velocity retard other particles
adjacent to them farther from the plate. It is noticed downstream that:
 The boundary layer becomes thicker.
 The velocity gradient at the wall becomes smaller and the local shear stress is reduced
as a result.
Figure 4.4 Development of boundary layer and shear stress along thin flat plate
111
It is clear from the figure that the

thickness of the B.L. is increasing while
𝒅𝒖
the value of 𝒅𝒚 at the boundary is
decreasing at the downstream direction.
Figure 4.5 Velocity profile along the plate
4.2.1 Laminar, transition, and turbulent boundary layer:

Laminar boundary layer:
 The initial section of the boundary layer.
 The flow is smooth and steady
 Near the leading edge up to a certain length, the flow in the B.L. exhibits all the
characteristics of the laminar flow irrespective of whether the original stream
flow is laminar or turbulent.
 Any disturbance created in the laminar flow in B.L. is ultimately dampened.
 Thickening of the B.L. continues smoothly downstream direction until a point is
reached where the B.L. becomes unstable  beyond this point (the critical
point); small disturbances grow and spread leading to turbulence.
Transition region:
 The region after the critical point where the flow becomes unstable showing
characteristics between laminar and turbulent and the B.L. is unstable is known
as transition region. It is usually small region.
Figure 4.6 Laminar, transition, and turbulent boundary layers over thin flat plate
 Downstream. If the flow does not separate from the boundary, the boundary
layer continues to increase to form what is known as:
112
Turbulent Boundary Layer:
 If the plate is smooth, then even though the boundary layer is turbulent, there
is a very thin layer near the boundary in which the flow is still laminar.
 This layer is known as “Laminar Sub-Layer”.
Laminar Sub-Layer:
 The flow is smooth and steady
 The presence of the wall dampens the cross-stream mixing and turbulent
fluctuations.
𝑌
o: wall shear stress is constant. 𝑢 = o
𝑈
 Experiments by Prandtl – Karman have provided that the thickness of laminar–sub
layer 𝛿̅ is :
11.6  11.6 
𝛿̅ = = (4.1)
√o ⁄𝜌 𝑈∗
Where,
𝑈∗ = √o ⁄𝜌 (4.2)
is the shear velocity, and o is the average shear stress at the boundary.
Figure 4.7 Laminar-Sublayer region for the flow over a thin flat plate
4.3 Hydrodynamically Smooth and Rough Boundaries:

 Any surface of flow when examined will be found to consist of innumerable
irregularities of various sizes.
 Assume the average size of these irregularities or their average height (roughness)
to be k,  or e [different from one reference to another].
 Boundary with a large value of roughness ’k’ will be called a rough boundary.
While, the boundary with smaller values of ‘k’ is called a smooth boundary.
((Still need to consider the flow & fluid characteristics))
4.3.1 Hydrodynamically Smooth Boundary:
 Consider a boundary with a roughness height k.
 Let the thickness of the laminar sub-layer 𝛿̅ to be much greater than k.
 The flow outside the laminar sub-layer is turbulent.
113
 Because of the thickness of the laminar sub-layer 𝛿̅, the eddies can not reach the
roughness elements of the surface irregularities :
 These elements are not exposed to the turbulent flow
 The boundary acts as a smooth boundary and is known as hydrodynamically
smooth boundary.
Figure 4.8 Hydrodynamically smooth boundary

As the Reynolds number increases:
 The thickness of the laminar sub-layer 𝛿̅ decreses and might be much smaller
than k
 The l.S.L can completely destroyed (the roughness element protrude through
the L.S.L).
 Considerable energy loss.
Once the L.S.L is destroyed:
 The energy loss is no longer depends on Re but on the relative roughness (k/d)
Figure 4.9 Hydrodynamically rough boundary

Conclusion:
Experiments showed:
 When (k/𝛿̅) is less than 0.25, then the boundary acts as hydrodynamically smooth
boundary.
 If (k/𝛿̅) is greater than 6.0  boundary acts as hydrodynamically rough boundary.
 For 0.25 < 𝑘/𝛿̅ < 6.0, boundary is in transition.
 Resistance depends on Reynolds number and relative roughness
114
4.4 Resistance of Smooth and Artificially Roughened Pipes
Recall:
𝐷 𝜕ℎ (𝑃1+𝛾𝑍1)−(𝑃2+𝛾𝑍2)
𝑜 = − 𝛾 =𝐷 (4.3)
4 𝜕𝑠 4𝐿
or
𝜕ℎ (ℎ1−ℎ2)
4𝑜 = −𝐷𝛾 = 𝐷𝛾 ,
𝜕𝑠 𝐿
𝑉2 𝐷 𝜕ℎ 1 (ℎ1−ℎ2) 1
)  4𝑜
1
Divide by ( 𝜌 𝑉2
=𝑓=− 𝛾 𝑉2
= 𝐷𝛾 𝑉2
2 𝜌 4 𝜕𝑠 𝜌 𝐿 𝜌
2 2 2
f is a dimensionless coefficient {Weisbach resistance coefficient}

𝐿 𝑉2
𝛾(ℎ1 − ℎ2 ) = 𝑓 𝜌 (4.4)
𝐷 2
𝛾 𝐿 𝑉2
(ℎ1 − ℎ2 ) = ℎ𝑓 = 𝑓 (4.5)
𝛾 𝐷 2𝑔
The famous Darcy – Weisbach equation.
4.4.1 Blassius Formula:

For:
 smooth pipes
 Turbulent flow , 4000  Re  105
 Blassius experimentally developed the following formula:
0.316
𝑓= (4.6)
𝑅𝑒0.25
4.4.2 Commercial Pipes:

To obtain f for commercial pipes, Colebrook and white developed an empirical
equation for a conduit flowing completely full of fluid at Reynolds numbers greater than
4000, it is expressed as:
1 𝜀 2.51
= −2𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( + ) (4.7)
√𝑓 3.7𝐷ℎ 𝑅𝑒 √𝑓
or
1 𝜀 2.51
= −2𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( + ) (4.8)
√𝑓 14.8𝑅ℎ 𝑅𝑒 √𝑓
where:
- 𝐷ℎ ,is the Hydraulic diameter, (m, ft) – For fluid-filled, circular conduits, Dh = D =
inside diameter.
- 𝑅ℎ = 𝐷/4 is the Hydraulic radius, (m, ft) – For fluid-filled, circular conduits.
115
Additional, mathematically equivalent forms of the Colebrook equation are:
1 𝑅 𝑅⁄
𝑘
− 2𝑙𝑜𝑔 = 1.74 − 2𝑙𝑜𝑔(1 + 18.57 ) (4.9)
√𝑓 𝑘 𝑅𝑒√𝑓
Where, R: radius of pipe, k: average size of pipe roughness, Re; Reynolds number, f:
friction factor.
 This equation was later plotted by Moody.
 Moody diagram is frequently used for finding the value of f for commercial pipes.
4.4.3 Haaland equation (direct solution of f):

The Haaland equation was proposed in 1983 by Professor S.E. Haaland of
the Norwegian Institute of Technology. It is used to solve directly for the Darcy–
Weisbach friction factor f for a full-flowing circular pipe. It is an approximation of the implicit
Colebrook–White equation:
1 𝜀/𝐷 5.74
= −2𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( + ) (4.10)
√𝑓 3.7 𝑅𝑒0.9
or
0.25
𝑓= 2 (4.11)
𝜀/𝐷 5.74
[𝑙𝑜𝑔( + 0.9)]
3.7 𝑅𝑒
116
Table 4.1 Roughness coefficient values for some pipes from different sources
ABSOLUTE ROUGHNESS
TYPE OF PIPE
€ (in) € (mm)
GLASS OR PLASTIC SMOOTH SMOOTH
DRAWN TUBING 0.00006 0.0015
COMMERCIAL STEEL OR WROUGHT IRON 0.0018 0.046
ASPHALTED CAST IRON 0.0048 0.12
GALVANIZED IRON 0.006 0.15
CAST IRON 0.0102 0.26
RIVETED STEEL 0.072 1.8
117
Tutorial 5
Q1. Below are tabulated the actual velocity measurements at various points in the
vertical at a particular station in the wind tunnel:
Y cm 0.20 0.50 0.70 0.90 1.35 1.58 1.75 2.25 2.50 3.00
u m/s 4.93 6.30 6.90 8.01 9.36 10.05 10.35 10.48 10.48 10.48
Plot the velocity profile with exaggerated Y scale and determine the thickness of
(Y/δ) in the relation:
u/U=(Y/δ)m
Q2.In the following cases determine whether the pipe surface will act as smooth,
rough or in transition.
(I) Ƭo=12 N/m2, ρ = 1020 kg/m3,  = 9.3×10-3 cm2/s and k = 0.1mm.

(II) U* =3.0 cm/s,  =1.57×10-5 m2/s, and k = 0.3mm.
Q3.Find the value of the friction factor f for the following cases:
(I) By calculation, using laminar flow formula/ Blassius formula/ Colebrook-

White formula
Type of pipe K (mm) D (cm) k/D Re

Smooth - - - 1700, 4800
Rough - - 0.002 1200
- 0.3 50 - (a) 106
(b) using Colebrook formula
(II) By Moody diagram:
Type of pipe K (mm) D (cm) k/D Re

- 0.26 10 - 7000 and f ultimate
(a) 2.5×104
- - - 0.006
(b) 108
118
Solution of tutorial 5:
Q1. Below are tabulated the actual velocity measurements at various points in the
vertical at a particular station in the wind tunnel:
Y cm 0.20 0.50 0.70 0.90 1.35 1.58 1.75 2.25 2.50 3.00
u m/s 4.93 6.30 6.90 8.01 9.36 10.05 10.35 10.48 10.48 10.48
Plot the velocity profile with exaggerated Y scale and determine the thickness of
(Y/δ) in the relation:
u/U=(Y/δ)m
Modified Table:
Y cm 0.20 0.50 0.70 0.90 1.35 1.58 1.75 2.25 2.50 3.00
u m/s
𝒖 𝒎
= [𝒀⁄𝜹]
𝑼
𝒖
𝒍𝒐𝒈 ( ) = 𝒎 𝒍𝒐𝒈[𝒀⁄𝜹]
𝑼
𝒚=𝒎𝒙
𝒖
𝒍𝒐𝒈(𝑼)
𝒎=
𝒍𝒐𝒈(𝒀⁄𝜹)
119
Q2. In the following cases determine whether the pipe surface will act as smooth, rough
or in transition.
(I) Ƭo=12 N/m2, ρ = 1020 kg/m3,  = 9.3×10-3 cm2/s and k = 0.1mm.

cm2 1 m2
11.6ν 11.6×9.3×10−3 ( × 4 2)
δ́ = = s 10 cm
= 9.94 × 10−5 m = 9.94 × 10−3 cm
√τo/ρ √12/1020
k 0.1 × 10−3 m
= = 1.005
δ́ 9.94 × 10−5 m
Boundary is Transition
(II) U* =3.0 cm/s,  =1.57×10-5 m2/s, and k = 0.3mm.

𝟏𝟏. 𝟔𝝂 𝟏𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏. 𝟓𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝒎𝟐 /𝒔
𝜹́ = = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟎𝟕𝒎
𝑼∗ 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝒎/𝒔
𝒌 𝟎. 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
= = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟗
𝜹́ 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟔
Boundary is Smooth
120
Q3. Find the value of the friction factor f for the following cases:
(I) By calculation, using laminar flow formula/ Blassius formula/ Colebrook-
White formula
K D
Type of k/D Re f
(mm) (cm)
pipe
Case (1): 1700
Smooth - - -
Case (2): 4800
Rough - - 0.002 Case (3): 1200
Case (4): 106
- 0.3 50 -
Using Colebrook formula
Case (1): Re ˂ 2000, Laminar flow formula, f=64/Re = 64/1700 = 0.0376

𝟎.𝟑𝟏𝟔 𝟎.𝟑𝟏𝟔
Case (2): Turbulent, smooth, Re ˂ 105 , 𝒇 = = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟔𝟕
(𝑹𝒆 )𝟎.𝟐𝟓 (𝟒𝟖𝟎𝟎)𝟎.𝟐𝟓
Case (3): Re ˂ 2000, Laminar flow formula, f=64/Re = 64/1200 =0.053

𝒌 𝟎.𝟑 𝒄𝒎
Case(4): Re = 106 , = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟔
𝑫 𝟓𝟎 𝒄𝒎
𝟐𝟓𝟎𝒎𝒎
𝟏 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝒎𝒎 𝟎.𝟑𝒎𝒎
− 𝟐𝒍𝒐𝒈 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟒 − 𝟐𝒍𝒐𝒈(𝟏 + 𝟏𝟖. 𝟕 )
√𝒇 𝟎.𝟑𝒎𝒎 𝟏𝟎𝟔 √𝒇
𝟏 𝑹 𝑹⁄
− 𝟐𝒍𝒐𝒈 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟒 − 𝟐𝒍𝒐𝒈(𝟏 + 𝟏𝟖. 𝟕 𝒌 )
√𝒇 𝒌 𝑹𝒆√𝒇
Complete by assuming values for f until equalizing both sides of the equation
(II) By Moody diagram:

Type
K D
of k/D Re f (Moody diagram)
(mm) (cm)
pipe
(a) 7000 0.037
- 0.26 10 0.0026
(b) f ultimate 0.0251
(a) 2.5 × 104 0.035
- - - 0.006
(b) 108 0.032
121
Chapter 5: Pipe flow problems
122
5.1 Pipes in series

Pipes in series: When two or more pipes of different diameters or roughness are
connected in series such that the total volume of a flowing fluid passes through all the pipes
and fittings together without being distributed into different paths. Such problems in which
the difference in head causing a known value of flow discharge is required, or the discharge
is required for a given known value of energy or head loss is called pipes in series.
Such problems can be solved by applying the energy equation for the hydraulic
system between two points considering the difference in head (total energy) and the
energy loss within all the pipes and fittings between these two points.
Figure 5.1 Pipes in series connecting two tanks
The energy loss within the system will be due to: the friction loss within the pipes
𝐿 𝑉2
which can be summed cumulatively (∑ 𝑓 ); the minor loss due to the pipe exit,
𝐷 2𝑔
entrance, valves, contraction and expansion. The energy equation can be applied between
A and B at the up and down streams tanks as:
𝑉12 𝐿1 𝑉12 𝐿2 𝑉22 (𝑉1 −𝑉2 )2 𝑉22

𝐻 + 0 + 0 = 0 + 0 + 0 + 𝐾𝐸𝑛𝑡 + 𝑓1 + 𝑓2 + + 𝐾𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 (5.1)
2𝑔 𝐷1 2𝑔 𝐷2 2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔
𝑉12 𝐿1 𝑉12 𝐿2 𝑉22 (𝑉1 −𝑉2 )2 𝑉22

𝐻 = 0.5 + 𝑓1 + 𝑓2 + +1× (5.2)
2𝑔 𝐷1 2𝑔 𝐷2 2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔
Given:
𝑉1 𝐴1 = 𝑉2 𝐴2 (continuity equation) (5.3)

𝐷1 2
𝑉2 = ( ) 𝑉1 (5.4)
𝐷 2
 used to eliminate 𝑉2 .
Given the values of pipe lengths and diameters known, the previous equation can be
reduced to:
𝑽𝟐𝟏
𝑯= (𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 𝒇𝟏 + 𝑪𝟑 𝒇𝟐 ) (5.5)
𝟐𝒈
123
Where C1, C2, and C3 are known constants.
Or, by using the discharge Q:
2
𝑄2 𝐿1 𝑄2 𝐿2 𝑄2 𝑄2 1 1 𝑄2
𝐻 = 0.5 + 𝑓1 + 𝑓2 + ( − ) +
2𝑔𝐴12 𝐷1 2𝑔𝐴12 𝐷2 2𝑔𝐴22 2𝑔 𝐴12 𝐴22 2𝑔𝐴22
2
𝑄2 1 1 1 1 𝐿1 1 𝐿2 1
𝐻= {[0.5 2 + ( 2 − 2 ) + 2 ] + [ 2 ] 𝑓1 + [ ] 𝑓}
2𝑔 𝐴1 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴2 𝐷1 𝐴1 𝐷2 𝐴22 2
𝑸𝟐
𝑯= {𝑲 + 𝑲𝟐 𝒇𝟏 + 𝑲𝟑 𝒇𝟐 }
𝟐𝒈 𝟏
5.1.1 Flow problems scenarios:

 Case 1: (Discharge Q is given, H is required):
Since the discharge is given, it is possible to compute the Reynolds number in each
pipe, which can be used to find the friction factor values f1 and f2 using the Moody
diagram. Then the value of H can be found directly from the energy equation.
 Case 2: (H is given, Discharge Q is required)

The velocities are not given so the values of f1 and f2 can not be found directly.
There is no way to find the Reynolds number. A solution approach can be made
by: (1) assuming reasonable values for f1 and f2 . (2) Substituting f1 and f2 in the
energy equation to find V1 directly from the energy equation. (3) Then, V1 can be
used to find V2, Re1, and Re2. (4) The Reynolds number values can be used to find
f1 and f2 from Moody diagram, which can be substituted in the energy equation to
find V1. (5) The processes can be repeated until the values of f are not changed.
124
Example 5.1: For the system of pipes in series shown, given that: The flow of water in
the system is 1000 L/s, kexit =1, Kentrance =0.5, the Losses due expansion is (V1-V2)2/2g, the
kinematic viscosity is  =3×10-6 m2/s.
The velocities in pipes 1 and 2 are: V1 =..............m/s, and V2 =............. m/s

The Reynolds no. values in pipes 1 and 2 are.............and.............
The friction factors in pipes 1 and 2 are.............and.............
The difference in head between the two tanks is H =.............m
Solution:
3 3
1 𝑚 ⁄𝑠 𝑚 1 𝑚 ⁄𝑠 𝑚
𝑉1 = 𝜋 = 7.958 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉2 = 𝜋 = 2.6
0.4 2 𝑠 0.72 𝑠
4 4
𝑉𝐷
𝑅𝑒 =  𝑅𝑒1 = 1061066.7, 𝑅𝑒2 = 606304.5
𝜐
1/D1=1.8mm/400mm
2/D2=0.26mm/700mm
Using Moody Diagram: f1=0.029, f2=0.0167
𝑉12 𝐿1 𝑉12 𝐿2 𝑉22 (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )2 𝑉22

𝐻 + 0 + 0 = 0 + 0 + 0 + 0.5 + 𝑓1 + 𝑓2 + +1×
2𝑔 𝐷1 2𝑔 𝐷2 2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔
7.9582 350 7.9582 200 2.62 (7.958 − 2.6)2 2.62

𝐻 = 0.5 + 0.029 + 0.0167 + +1×
2𝑔 0.4 2𝑔 0.7 2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔
 𝐻 = 86.97 𝑚
125
Example 5.2: Three pipes, as shown, are fitted between two reservoirs. Determine
the discharge if the difference in the water surface elevations is 8 m. Plot the energy
and hydraulic grade lines.
Solution:
Energy equation can be taken between the surfaces of two tanks:
𝑉12 𝐿1 𝑉12 𝐿2 𝑉22 𝐿3 𝑉32 (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )2 𝑉32 𝑉32
8 + 0 + 0 = 0 + 0 + 0 + 0.5 + 𝑓1 + 𝑓2 + 𝑓3 + + 0.5 +
2𝑔 𝐷1 2𝑔 𝐷2 2𝑔 𝐷3 2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔
To simplify the energy equation, The velocities can be introduced related to the discharge:
𝑄 𝑄
𝑉1 = 𝑉3 = 𝜋(0.5)2 = 5.093𝑄 , 𝑉2 = 𝜋(0.6)2 = 3.537𝑄
4 4
𝑉12 𝐿1 𝑉12 𝐿2 𝑉22 𝐿3 𝑉32 (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )2 𝑉32 𝑉32

8 + 0 + 0 = 0 + 0 + 0 + 0.5 + 𝑓1 + 𝑓2 + 𝑓3 + + 0.5 +
2𝑔 𝐷1 2𝑔 𝐷2 2𝑔 𝐷3 2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔
(5.093𝑄)2 1000 (5.093𝑄)2 1200 (3.537𝑄)2 1300 (5.093𝑄)2

8 = 0.5 + 0.019 + 0.02 + 0.02
2𝑔 0.5 2𝑔 0.6 2𝑔 0.5 2𝑔
(5.093 − 3.537)2 𝑄2 (5.093𝑄)2 (5.093𝑄)2
+ + 0.5 +
2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔
8 = 𝑄2 (50.238 + 25.505 + 68.747 + 0.661 + 0.123 + 0.661 + 1.322)
8 3
𝑄=√ = 0.233 𝑚 ⁄𝑠
147.206
Notes:
 It can be seen how easy it is to solve such problem when the friction factor values
are considered to be fully turbulent.
 The final numbers between brackets for the particular losses shows how significant
is the major losses with respect to the minor losses.
 The plot of the EGL and HGL is shown in the following figure. It is important to
remember that both lines are parallel since no gradual change in diameter is there.
126
Also , remember that the difference between these two lines is given by the velocity
head: V2/2g
127
Example 5.3: Given the following data for the pipes in series (see the table), find the
discharge through the system for H= 6m.
Given:
ν = 310-6 m2/s
minor losses should be

considered
Start the iterations with

ultimate values of f.
 1 = 2 mm, 2 = 0.3 mm
D L V
Pipe /D fultimate Re f V f
(m) (m) (m/s)
1 0.6 300 0.00333 0.026 2.848 5.70105 0.0265 2.819 0.0265
2 1 240 0.0003 0.015 1.025 3.42105 0.0168 1.01484 0.0168
Solution: (The previous table will be used to show the results)
 V2 can be given relative to V1 using the continuity equation: V2 = (0.6/1)2 V1 =0.36 V1 .
 The first assumption for the friction factor values for both pipes are the ultimate
values.
 The energy equation between A and B:
𝑉12 𝐿1 𝑉12 𝐿2 𝑉22 (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )2 𝑉22

𝐻 + 0 + 0 = 0 + 0 + 0 + 𝐾𝐸𝑛𝑡 + 𝑓1 + 𝑓2 + + 𝐾𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡
2𝑔 𝐷1 2𝑔 𝐷2 2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔
Using f1=0.026 , and f2= 0.015 as the first guess for the friction factors:
𝑉12 300 𝑉12 240 (0.36𝑉1 )2 (0.64𝑉1 )2 (0.36𝑉1 )2
6 = 0.5 + 0.026 + 0.015 + +
2𝑔 0.6 2𝑔 1 2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔
 V1=2.848 m/s, V2=1.025 m/s
 Re1=0.62.848/(310-6)=5.70105 , Re2=3.42105
 from Moody diagram: f1=0.0265 , f2=0.0168
 substituting the new friction factor values again in the energy equation:
V1=2.819 m/s, V2=1.01484 m/s.
An additional iteration was made using the last values of velocity, the results showed no
significant change in the values of friction factors and velocity.
𝝅
 𝑸 = 𝑨𝑽 = (𝟎. 𝟔)𝟐 × 𝟐. 𝟖𝟏𝟗 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟗𝟕 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔
𝟒
128
129
Tutorial 6.
Q1. For the system of pipes in series shown, given that:
 The coefficient of sudden expansion from pipe to reservoir is k = 1.

 The coefficient of pipe entrance is Ke = 0.5
 The Losses due expansion is (V1-V2)2/2g.
 The kinematic viscosity is  =3×10-6 m2/s.
Calculate the value of H for 1250 L/s water flow. Include minor losses in your
calculation.
Solution:
𝑉12 𝐿1 𝑉12 (𝑉1 −𝑉2 )2 𝐿2 𝑉22 𝑉22
𝑍1 + 0 + 0 = 𝑍2 + 0 + 0 + 0.5 + 𝑓1 + +𝑓2 +
2𝑔 𝐷1 2𝑔 2𝑔 𝐷2 2𝑔 2𝑔
𝑉12 350 𝑉12 (𝑉1 −𝑉2 )2 200 𝑉22 𝑉22

𝑍1 − 𝑍2 = 𝐻 = 0.5 + 𝑓1 + +𝑓2 +
2𝑔 0.4 2𝑔 2𝑔 0.7 2𝑔 2𝑔
1.25
𝑉1 = 𝜋 = 9.947𝑚/𝑠
0.42
4
1.25
𝑉2 = 𝜋 = 3.248 𝑚/𝑠
0.72
4
9.947 ×0.4 𝜖1 1.8 𝑚𝑚

𝑅𝑒1 = = 1326267, with, = = 0.0045 , from Moody Chart 𝑓1 = 0.03
3×10−6 𝐷1 400 𝑚𝑚
3.248 ×0.7 𝜖2 0.26 𝑚𝑚

𝑅𝑒2 = = 757880 , with, = = 0.00037, from Moody Chart 𝑓2 = .0164
3×10−6 𝐷2 700 𝑚𝑚
(9.947)2 350 (9.947)2 (9.947−3.248)2 200 (3.248)2 (3.248)2

𝐻 = 0.5 + 0.03 + + .0164 + = 140.24𝑚
2𝑔 0.4 2𝑔 2𝑔 0.7 2𝑔 2𝑔
130
Q2. For the system of pipes in series shown, given that:
 The coefficient of sudden expansion from pipe to reservoir is k=1.

 The coefficient of pipe entrance is Ke=0.5
 The Losses due expansion is (V1-V2)2/2g.
 The kinematic viscosity is  =3×10-6 m2/s.
a) Compute the flow discharge through the system given that the difference
between the levels of the two reservoirs is H= 6 m.
b) Draw the energy grade line between the two reservoirs.
Solution:
Solving this question requires applying the energy equation EE between the surfaces
of the two tanks (points A and B) as shown in the following figure:
EE between A and B:
𝑉12 𝐿1 𝑉12 (𝑉1 −𝑉2 )2 𝐿2 𝑉22 𝑉22
𝑍1 + 0 + 0 = 𝑍2 + 0 + 0 + 0.5 + 𝑓1 + +𝑓2 +
2𝑔 𝐷1 2𝑔 2𝑔 𝐷2 2𝑔 2𝑔
𝑉12 300 𝑉12 (𝑉1 −𝑉2 )2 240 𝑉22 𝑉22
𝑍1 − 𝑍2 = 6𝑚 = 0.5 + 𝑓1 + +𝑓2 +
2𝑔 0.6 2𝑔 2𝑔 1 2𝑔 2𝑔
(𝑉1 −𝑉2 )2
6𝑚 = 25.484𝑓1 𝑉12 + 12.232𝑓2 𝑉22 + 25.484 × 10−3 𝑉12 + 0.051𝑉22 +
2𝑔
131
Considering the continuity equation:

𝜋 𝜋
𝑉1 (0.6)2 = 𝑉2 (1)2 → 𝑉1 (0.36) = 𝑉2 …….(1)
4 4
Using the continuity equation, V2 can be eliminated from the energy equation.
6𝑚 = 25.484𝑓1 𝑉12 + 12.232 (0.36)2 𝑓2 𝑉12 + 25.484 × 10−3 𝑉12 + 0.051(0.36)2 𝑉12 +
(0.64)2
𝑉12
2𝑔
6𝑚 = 𝑉12 (𝑓1 (25.484) + 𝑓2 (1.5852) + 25.484 × 10−3 + 6.61 × 10−3 + 0.0288)
6𝑚 = 𝑉12 (𝑓1 (25.484) + 𝑓2 (1.5852) + 0.053) ….. (2)
Iteration 1: Let 𝒇𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 and 𝒇𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐

Substitute 𝑓1 and 𝑓2 in equation (2)
6
Then, 𝑉1 = √ = 3.177 𝑚/𝑠 , 𝑉2 = 1.144 𝑚/𝑠 (equation (1))
0.5944
→
3.177 ×0.6 1.8 𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑒1 = = 635400, with, 𝜖1 = = 0.003 , from Moody Chart 𝒇𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟔𝟐
3×10−6 600 𝑚𝑚
1.144 ×1 0.26 𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑒2 = = 381333 , with, 𝜖2 = = 0.00026, from Moody Chart 𝒇𝟐 =
3×10−6 1000 𝑚𝑚
𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟔𝟕
Iteration 2: Substitute 𝒇𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟔𝟐 and 𝒇𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟔𝟕 in equation (2):

Then, 𝑉1 = 2.833 𝑚/𝑠 , 𝑉2 = 1.02 𝑚/𝑠 (equation (1))
→
2.833 ×0.6
𝑅𝑒1 = −6
= 566600 , from Moody Chart 𝒇𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟔𝟒
3×10
1.02 ×1
𝑅𝑒2 = = 340000 , from Moody Chart 𝒇𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟔𝟔
3×10−6
Which can be accepted and the value of the discharge can be found as:
𝝅
𝑸 = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟑𝟑 (𝟎. 𝟔)𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟖 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔
𝟒
132
Q3. Determine the flow rate in the horizontal pipeline shown which discharges water
into the air. Draw the EGL and HGL, given that: The kinematic viscosity is  = 1×10-6
m2/s.
Solution:
 The flow system includes two horizontal pipes connected in series with the same
diameter and different types.
 Pipes are conveying water into open area.
 Tank (1) is feeding the system from an elevation of 25 m above the existing point
 It is required to find the discharge and to draw the EGL and HGL.
 The coefficients of pipe entrance and exit are Ke=0.5 and Kexit=1.
 Kinematic viscosity is  =1×10-6 m2/s.
 Values of relative roughness for the pipes can be found as:

𝜀1 0.26𝑚𝑚 𝜀2 1.8𝑚𝑚
= = 0.00173 , = = 0.012
𝐷 150𝑚𝑚 𝐷 150 𝑚𝑚
133
 This case represent type (2) problem.

 Energy equation can be applied between points (A) and (B):
𝑉2
30 + 0 + 0 = 5 + 0 + + ℎ𝐿
2𝑔
𝑉2 𝑉2 𝐿1 𝐿2
30 = 5 + + (0.5 + 𝑓1 + 𝑓2 + 1.0)
2𝑔 2𝑔 𝐷 𝐷
𝑉2 𝐿1 𝐿2
25 𝑚 = (0.5 + 𝑓1 + 𝑓2 + 1.0 + 1.0)
2𝑔 𝐷 𝐷
𝑉2 200 180
25𝑚 = (2.5 + 𝑓1 + 𝑓2 )
2𝑔 0.15 0.15
𝑽𝟐
𝟐𝟓 𝒎 = (𝟐. 𝟓 + 𝟏𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟑𝟑 𝒇𝟏 + 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝒇𝟐 )
𝟐𝒈
Iteration 1: Assume f1 = 0.02, f2 = 0.02

2.326 (0.15)
Then, V = 2.326 m/s → 𝑅𝑒 = = 348900 → f1 = 0.0231, f2 = 0.04
10−6
Iteration 2: f1 = 0.0231, f2 = 0.04
2.455 (0.15)
Then, V = 2.456 m/s → 𝑅𝑒 = = 368439 → f1 = 0.0231, f2 = 0.04
10−6
(OK)
𝝅
𝑸 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟓𝟔 (𝟎. 𝟏𝟓)𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟑𝟑 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔
𝟒
Q4. For the flow system shown:

Tank (1) is feeding tank (2) from a constant level (H=10m). Plot the relation
between the discharge and the difference in level between the two tanks (H-Z).
(The coefficients of pipe entrance and exit are Ke=0.5 and Kexit=1, the kinematic
viscosity is =1×10-6 m2/s).
Solution:
 The flow system represents two horizontal pipes connected in series with the
same diameter and different types.
 Pipes are connecting two tanks.
 Tank (1) is feeding tank (2) from a constant level (H=10m).
134
 It is required to plot the relation between the system discharge and the level
difference between the two tanks (H-Z).
 The data of the pipe is given in the figure.
 The coefficients of pipe entrance and exit are Ke=0.5 and Kexit=1.
 Kinematic viscosity is =1×10-6 m2/s).
Values of relative roughness for the pipes can be found as:

𝜀1 0.26𝑚𝑚 𝜀 1.8𝑚𝑚
= = 0.0013 , 2 = = 0.009
𝐷 200𝑚𝑚 𝐷 200𝑚𝑚
Case (1): Z ≤ 0.00
 This case represent type (2) problem.

 The flow discharge is maximum as the difference between tanks levels (energy
difference) is maximum.
 Energy equation can be applied between points (A) and (B):
𝑉2
𝐻+0+0=0+0+ + ℎ𝐿
2𝑔
𝑉2 𝑉2 𝐿1 𝐿2
𝐻+0+0=0+0+ + (0.5 + 𝑓1 + 𝑓2 + 1.0)
2𝑔 2𝑔 𝐷 𝐷
𝑉2 𝐿1 𝐿2
𝐻 − 𝑧 = 10𝑚 = (0.5 + 𝑓1 + 𝑓2 + 1.0 + 1.0)
2𝑔 𝐷 𝐷
2
𝑉 200 180
10𝑚 = (2.5 + 𝑓1 + 𝑓2 )
2𝑔 0.2 0.2
𝑉2
10𝑚 = (2.5 + 1000 𝑓1 + 900 𝑓2 )
2𝑔
Iteration 1: Assume f1 = 0.0167, f2 = 0.029

2.08 (0.2)
Then, V = 2.08 m/s → 𝑅𝑒 = −6
= 416227 → f1 = 0.0215, f2 = 0.0367
10
135
Iteration 2: f1 = 0.0215, f2 = 0.0367

1.85 (0.2)
Then, V = 1.85 m/s → 𝑅𝑒 = = 370960 → f1 = 0.0216, f2 = 0.0368
10−6
(OK)
𝜋
Then, V = 1.85 m/s , 𝑄 = (0.2)2 (1.85) = 0.0582 𝑚3 /𝑠 (Maximum
4
discharge).
Case (2): Z =10.00 m, (tank reached the maximum possible capacity).
Q = 0.000 𝑚3 /𝑠
Case (3): Z =? m, Q = 0.75×Qmax= 0.75×0.0582 =0.044 m3/s.
Applying E.E between (A) and (B):
𝑉2 𝐿1 𝐿2
𝐻+0+0=𝑍+0+0+ (0.5 + 𝑓1 + 𝑓2 + 1.0)
2𝑔 𝐷 𝐷
2
𝑉 𝐿1 𝐿2
𝐻 − 𝑍 = 10𝑚 − 𝑍 = (1.5 + 𝑓1 + 𝑓2 )
2𝑔 𝐷 𝐷
2
𝑉
10𝑚 − 𝑍 = (1.5 + 1000 𝑓1 + 900 𝑓2 )
2𝑔
𝑄 0.044 1.4 (0.20)

𝑉= =𝜋 = 1.4 𝑚/𝑠 → 𝑅𝑒 = = 280000
𝐴 (0.20)2 10−6
4
→ f1 = 0.0218, f2 = 0.0368.
Then, Z = 4.364 m
Case (4): Z =? m, Q = 0.30×Qmax= 0.30×0.0582 =0.0175 m3/s.
Applying E.E between (A) and (B):
𝑉2 𝐿1 𝐿2
𝐻+0+0=𝑍+0+0+ (0.5 + 𝑓1 + 𝑓2 + 1.0)
2𝑔 𝐷 𝐷
136
𝑉2 𝐿1 𝐿2
𝐻 − 𝑍 = 10𝑚 − 𝑍 = (1.5 + 𝑓1 + 𝑓2 )
2𝑔 𝐷 𝐷
2
𝑉
10𝑚 − 𝑍 = (1.5 + 1000 𝑓1 + 900 𝑓2 )
2𝑔
𝑄 0.0175 0.557 (0.20)

𝑉= =𝜋 = 0.557 𝑚/𝑠 → 𝑅𝑒 = = 111400 →
𝐴 (0.20)2 10−6
4
f1 =0.0229,
f2 =0.0372.
Then, Z = 9.08 m
Q (m3/s) Z (m) H-Z (m)

0.0582 0 10
0.044 4.364 5.564
0.0175 9.08 0.92
0 10 0
Q m3/s
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
(H-Z) (m)
Q5.
Three pipes, as shown,
are fitted between two
reservoirs. Determine
the discharge in the
system if the difference
in the water surface
elevations is 9 m. Plot
the energy grade lines
137
Solution:
𝑉12 𝐿1 𝑉12 𝐿2 𝑉22 𝐿3 𝑉32 (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )2 𝑉32 𝑉32
9 + 0 + 0 = 0 + 0 + 0 + 0.5 + 𝑓1 + 𝑓2 + 𝑓3 + + 0.5 × +
2𝑔 𝐷1 2𝑔 𝐷2 2𝑔 𝐷3 2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔
To simplify the energy equation, the velocities can be introduced related to the discharge:
𝑄 𝑄
𝑉1 = 𝑉3 = 𝜋(0.45)2 = 6.287𝑄 , 𝑉2 = 𝜋(0.55)2 = 4.209𝑄
4 4
𝑉12 𝐿1 𝑉12 𝐿2 𝑉22 𝐿3 𝑉32 (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )2 𝑉12 𝑉32

9 + 0 + 0 = 0 + 0 + 0 + 0.5 + 𝑓1 + 𝑓2 + 𝑓3 + + 0.5 +
2𝑔 𝐷1 2𝑔 𝐷2 2𝑔 𝐷3 2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔
(5.093𝑄)2 1100 (6.287𝑄)2 1150 (4.209𝑄)2 1100 (6.287𝑄)2
9 = 0.5 + 0.0185 + 0.02 + 0.02 +
2𝑔 0.45 2𝑔 0.55 2𝑔 0.45 2𝑔
(6.287−4.209)2 𝑄2 (6.287𝑄)2 (6.287𝑄)2
+ 0.5 +
2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔
9 = Q2 (91.104+35.871+111.922+2.767) = 241.15 Q2
𝟗 𝟑
𝑸=√ = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟗𝟑 𝒎 ⁄𝒔
𝟐𝟒𝟏. 𝟏𝟓
138
5.2 Branching pipes:

Branching Pipes: Pipes connecting three energy levels (reservoirs, tanks) and meet at
one junction.
 At least the level of one of the tanks is different than the others otherwise there
will be no flow.
 Type of the problems will be to decide the magnitude and direction of flow in each
pipe.
 It can be concluded from the beginning that one of the reservoirs at least is
feeding the other (others), and at least one of the tanks at least is fed.
 The flow in the pipe from the highest tank to the junction will be “in”, which
means from the tank toward the junction.
 The flow between the lowest tank and the junction is “out”, from the junction
toward the tank.
 The intermediate tank direction (Feeding or fed) needs analysis and solution of
the flow problem.
Figure 5.2 Energy losses between branching pipes connecting three tanks through one junction
𝑷𝒋
A very important issue here is the value of the energy at the junction, “𝑯𝒋 = + 𝒁𝒋 ”.
𝜸
Which is the sum of the pressure head and elevation head at the junction. This junction and
its energy elevation head is common between the three tanks!! This means that the flow in
the three pipes is taking place between two different values of energy; one of these values is
common for the three pipes, which is the “head at the junction, “𝑯𝒋 ". The value of “𝑯𝒋 " in
the problem will be the same for the three pipes. So, the Darcy-Weisbach-equation is applied
for three pipes, such that the head loss in the equation is the difference between each tank
level ( 𝑍1 or 𝑍2 or 𝑍3 ) and the junction head “𝐻𝑗 ", with a direction of flow in the pipe “in”
for the highest energy tank, “out” for the lowest tank and “in” or “out” for the intermediate
tank as shown in figure 5.3.
139
Figure 5.3 Branching pipes with two different possibilities for system feeding scenario.
The conservation of mass principle will have an important role in this problem. Since
we have flow toward and out of the junction, then it should be easily concluded that the total
flow into the junction should equal to the total flow out of the junction.
Problem definition:
The flow through each pipe is required when the reservoir (tank) elevations are given.
The sizes and types of the pipes; and the fluid properties are known.
Problem solving approach:

 The Darcy-Weisbach equation must be satisfied for each pipe.
 The continuity equation must be satisfied also at the junction.
- The flow into the junction J must be equal to the flow out of the junction.
- Flow will be out of the reservoir (reservoirs) with peizometric head (𝑍) more
than “𝐻𝑗 " toward the junction “in”; on the other hand the flow will be out of
the junction ,”out”, toward the reservoir (reservoirs) with (𝑍) lower than “𝐻𝑗 "
∑𝑄𝑖𝑛 = ∑𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 (5.6)
 Finding the discharge distribution:
- A value of the head at the junction “𝐻𝑗 " is assumed. It should be more than the
minimum tank elevation and less than the maximum tank elevation.
140
- The values of {𝑄1 , 𝑄2 , and 𝑄3 } are calculated by applying the Darcy-Weisbach
equation between the tank levels {𝑍1 , 𝑍2 , and 𝑍3 } and the junction energy
head “𝐻𝑗 ":
𝐿1 𝑉12 𝐿1 𝑄12
𝐻1 − 𝐻𝐽 = 𝑓1 = 𝑓1 (5.7)
𝐷1 2𝑔 𝐷1 2𝑔𝐴21
𝐿2 𝑉22 𝐿2 𝑄22
𝐻𝐽 − 𝐻2 𝑜𝑟 𝐻2 − 𝐻𝐽 = 𝑓2 = 𝑓2 (5.8)
𝐷2 2𝑔 𝐷2 2𝑔𝐴22
𝐿3 𝑉32 𝐿3 𝑄32
𝐻𝑗 − 𝐻3 = 𝑓3 = 𝑓3 (5.9)
𝐷3 2𝑔 𝐷3 2𝑔𝐴23
- Then ∆𝑄 is found from the following equation:
∆𝑄 = ∑𝑄𝑖𝑛 − ∑𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 (5.10)
If the flow into the junction is greater than the flow out of the junction(∆𝑄 > 0),
a higher water elevation head HJ is assumed which will reduce the inflow and
increase the outflow.
Quiz 
 Can we have flow from the junction toward Tank 3 upward?
 How can we express the energies at Tank1, 2, and 3?
 What type of energy do we have at the junction J?
141
Example 5.4: Find the discharges for water at 60 oF given the following pipe data and
reservoir elevations:
L1=10,000 ft, D1=3ft, 1/D1=0.0002 , Z1=100ft
L2=2000 ft, D2=1.5 ft, 2/D2=0.002 , Z2=60ft
L3=4000 ft, D2=2ft, 3/D3= 0.001 , Z3=30ft
Assume [𝐻𝑗 = 𝑍𝑗 + 𝑃𝑗 / = 65 𝑓𝑡], Then,
10,000 𝑉12
100 − 65 = 35 = 𝑓1 , 𝑏𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑓1 = 0.014 → 𝑉1 = 6.95 𝑓𝑡/ sec → 𝑄1 = 49.1 𝑐𝑓𝑠 “in”
3 2𝑔
2,000 𝑉22
65 − 60 = 5 = 𝑓2 , 𝑏𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑓2 = 0.024 → 𝑉2 = 3.17 𝑓𝑡/ sec → 𝑄2 = 5.6 𝑐𝑓𝑠 “out”
1.5 2𝑔
4,000 𝑉32
2 2𝑔
So the inflow is greater than the outflow by: ∆𝑄 = 49.1 − 5.60 − 23.6 = 19.9 𝑐𝑓𝑠
It is required to increase the out flow and decrease the inflow, this can be done by increasing
the value of Hj which will decrease the headloss between the feeding reservoirs and the
junction (Hj). This will decrease the inflow, and will increase the energy difference between HJ
and the the reservoir being fed which will increase the outflow.
So, let’s assume [𝐻𝑗 = 𝑍𝑗 + 𝑃𝑗 / = 80 𝑓𝑡], Then,
10,000 𝑉12
100 − 80 = 20 = 𝑓1 , 𝑏𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑓1 = 0.015 → 𝑉1 = 5.07 𝑓𝑡/ sec → 𝑄1 = 35.8 𝑐𝑓𝑠 “in”
3 2𝑔
2,000 𝑉22
1.5 2𝑔
4,000 𝑉32
2 2𝑔
⇒So the inflow is less than the outflow by: 3.73 cfs. (∆𝑄 = 35.8 − 11.33 − 28.2 = −3.73𝑐𝑓𝑠)
Taking a straight line interpolation :
⇒Then HJ= 77.6 ft. This value can be used to find the flows in the pipes:
142
10,000 𝑉12
100 − 77.6 = 22.4 = 𝑓1 , 𝑏𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑓1 = 0.015 → 𝑉1 = 5.36 𝑓𝑡/ sec → 𝑄1 = 37.83 𝑐𝑓𝑠 “in”
3 2𝑔
2,000 𝑉22
77.6 − 60 = 17.6 = 𝑓2 , 𝑏𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑓2 = 0.024 → 𝑉2 = 5.96 𝑓𝑡/ sec → 𝑄2 = 10.65 𝑐𝑓𝑠 “out”
1.5 2𝑔
4,000 𝑉32
80 − 77.6 = 47.6 = 𝑓3 , 𝑏𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑓3 = 0.020 → 𝑉3 = 8.75 𝑓𝑡/ sec → 𝑄3 = 27.50 𝑐𝑓𝑠 “out”
2 2𝑔
The out flow is 0.32 cfs greater. By extrapolating from the last two HJ values, HJ=77.4ft and
Q1=38.05 cfs, Q2=10.60 cfs, and Q3=27.45 cfs.
143
Example 5.5: the three reservoirs shown are connected by pipe to a common junction,
Lengths and diameters of the pipes are as shown on the figure. All pipes are made of
concrete with e=0.6 mm. Determine the discharge in each pipe if the water temperature is
20 oC, (assume minor losses are negligible).
Solution:
Assuming HJ =110 m, and applying Darcy-Weisbach equation between each reservoir and
the junction:
Pipe 1:
1000 𝑉12 𝑒 0.6
120 − 110 = 𝑓1 , 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝐷 = 300 = 0.002, 𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑓1 = 0.024(𝑢𝑙𝑡) → 𝑉1 = 1.57 𝑚/ s → 𝑅𝑒 =
0.3 2𝑔
4.71 × 105 → 𝑅𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑀𝑜𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 → 𝑓1 = 0.024 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 → 𝑄1 = 0.111𝑚3 /𝑠
“IN”
Pipe 2 :
4000 𝑉22 𝑒 0.6
0.5 2𝑔
5.45 × 105 → 𝑅𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑀𝑜𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 → 𝑓2 = 0.021 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 → 𝑄2 = 0.212𝑚3 /𝑠
“OUT”
Pipe 3:
2000 𝑉12 𝑒 0.6
0.4 2𝑔
9.24 × 105 → 𝑅𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑀𝑜𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 → 𝑓3 = 0.022 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 → 𝑄3 = 0.29 𝑚3 /𝑠
“OUT”
 ∑ 𝑄𝑖𝑛 − ∑𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 0.111 – (0.212 + 0.29 ) = −0.391
Hj (m) Q1 (m/s) Q2(m/s) Q3(m/s) Qin - Qout

110 0.111 0.212 0.29 -0.391 Decreae HJ
100 0.157 0.0 0.237 -0.08 Decreae HJ
90 0.193 0.212 0.167 0.238 Increase HJ
144
A graph may be constructed of HJ plotted against the corresponding values of ∆Q. The curve
intersects the vertical axes HJ (∆Q=0) at HJ = 97.3 m, which is used to compute the
discharges in pipes as: Q1 = 0.161 m3/s, Q2 = 0.065 m3/s, Q3 = 0.231 m3/s.
Example 5.6: The three tanks

shown contains water with the
elevations shown. Given the data
below, find the flow at each pipe
and the total energy at the
junction.
(use ultimate friction factor).
pipe Diam. (m) L (m) f Final Q (m3/s) Total head

1 0.15 130 0.02 ? at the
Junction =
2 0.10 65 0.02 ?
......?...... m
3 0.20 200 0.02 ?
145
Given ultimate friction factor values (constant f for each pipe), a relation can be simply
found between the discharge and the head at the junction HJ for each pipe using Darcy-
Weisbach equation. These relations can be used easily to find the discharge in each pipe
without the need for Moody diagram.
130 𝑄12
Pipe (1): 26 − 𝐻𝐽 = 0.02 = 2829.034 𝑄12
0.15 2𝑔(𝜋×0.152 )2
4
65 𝑄22
Pipe (2): (20 − 𝐻𝐽 ) 𝑜𝑟 (𝐻𝐽 − 20) = 0.02 𝜋 2 = 10741.491 𝑄22
0.1 2𝑔( ×0.12 )
4
200 𝑄32
Pipe (3): 𝐻𝐽 − 0 = 0.02 = 1032.836 𝑄32
0.2 2𝑔(𝜋×0.22 )2
4
Let HJ = 20 m
 Q1 = 0.046 m3/s “INFLOW”, Q2 = 0.00 , Q3 = 0.139 m3/s “OUTFLOW”
 ∆Q = 0.046 – 0.139= - 0.093 m3/s. “Need to decrease HJ”.
Hj (m) Q1 Q2(m3/s) Q3(m3/s) Qin - Qout %ERROR
20 (m3/s)
0.0460529 0 0.1391552 -0.093102307 Decrease HJ
10 0.075204 0.0305118 0.0983976 0.007318229 Decrease HJ 23.98492
11 0.072816 0.028946 0.1032002 -0.001438247 Decrease HJ -4.96872
10.5 0.0740196 0.0297392 0.1008275 0.002931329 Decrease HJ 9.856781
10.6 0.0737804 0.0295823 0.1013065 0.002056241 Decrease HJ 6.95092
10.7 0.0735405 0.0294245 0.1017832 0.001181791 Accepted 4.01635
10.8 0.0732998 0.0292659 0.1022577 0.000307928 Accepted 1.052176
10.9 0.0730583 0.0291064 0.1027301 -0.0005654 Accepted -1.94253
10.85 0.0731791 0.0291862 0.1024942 -0.000128799 Accepted -0.4413
10.84 0.0732033 0.0292022 0.1024469 -4.14641E-05 Accepted -0.14199
10.83 0.0732274 0.0292181 0.1023997 4.58762E-05 Accepted 0.157013
10.835 0.0732153 0.0292102 0.1024233 2.20542E-06 Accepted 0.00755
10.8354 0.0732144 0.0292095 0.1024252 -1.28819E-06 Accepted -0.00441
10.8353 0.0732146 0.0292097 0.1024247 -4.14784E-07 Accepted -0.00142
10.8353 0.0732147 0.0292098 0.1024245 2.19169E-08 Accepted 7.5E-05
 Q1 = 0.0732147 m3/s , Q2= 0.0292098 m3/s , Q3=0.1024245m3/s

HJ = 10.8353 m
Note: % Error was calculated as: % Error = ΔQ/ minimum(Q)
146
Example5.7: The three tanks

shown contains water with a
kinematic viscosity of  =
1.1310-6 m2/s. Given the data
below, find: (1) the flow at each
pipe and (2) the energy head at
the junction. (3) how much
pressures (P2 and P3) are required
to be added into tanks 2 and 3 to
stop the flow in the system?
(use ultimate friction factor).
pip Z(m Diam. L /Diam. f Q (m3/s) Pressure head at the Junction is

e1 )
775 (m) (m)
0.3 20 0.0002 0.013 2.013124 Hj = 397.04 m
2 0
420 0.3 30 0 0.0001 7
0.013 P2=𝟑𝟒𝟖𝟐. 𝟓𝟓 kPasal
0.611425
5 0 5 P3=𝟔𝟑𝟐𝟕. 𝟒𝟓 kPascal
3 130 0.4 40 0.0001 0.012 2.624462
0 0
200 𝑄12
Pipe (1): 775 − 𝐻𝑗 = 0.0137 2 = [ 93.26] 𝑄12
0.3 2𝑔 (𝜋(0.3)2 )
4
300 𝑄12
Pipe (2): (420 − 𝐻𝑗 )𝑜𝑟(𝐻𝑗 − 420) = 0.013 2 = [ 61.42] 𝑄22
0.35 2𝑔 (𝜋(0.35)2 )
4
400 𝑄12
Pipe (3): 𝐻𝑗 − 130 = 0.012 2 = [ 38.77] 𝑄32
0.4 2𝑔 (𝜋(0.4)2 )
4
Start by assuming Hj = 420 m:
From the following table and figure, it can be seen that the values of discharges and Hj are :
HJ (m) Q1 (m3/s) Q2(m3/s) Q3(m3/s) [Qin-Qout ](m3/s)

397.04 2.013124 0.611425 2.624462 8.71× 10-05
The values of P1 and P2 are the values that will raise the total energy in the tanks (2 and 3) into
the same energy as tank (1) such that there will be no difference in energy between the two sides
of each pipe:
𝑃2 9.81𝑘𝑁
Tank (2) : 420 𝑚 + = 775 → 𝑃2 = (775 − 420)𝑚 × = 3482.55 𝑘𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝛾 𝑚3
𝑃3 9.81𝑘𝑁
Tank (3) : 130 𝑚 + = 775 → 𝑃3 = (775 − 130)𝑚 × = 6327.45 𝑘𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝛾 𝑚3
147
  
148
Tutorial 7
Q1. Determine the flow rates in the three RIVETED STEEL pipes in the figure shown.
(Assume complete turbulence, rough pipes).
pipe Diam. L (m) /Diam. f Q (m3/s)

1 (m) Pressure head at the
Junction = ................ m
2
3
Hj Q1 (m3/s) Q2(m3/s) Q3(m3/s) Qin - Qout

(m)
149
Q2. Find the flow rate distribution in the CAST IRON pipes in the figure shown. Given
the following data:
Pipe AJ:
1850 m long, 1.25 m diameter.
Pipe BJ:
Pipe CJ:
Hj (m) Q1 (m3/s) Q2(m3/s) Q3(m3/s) Qin - Qout %error

15.0000 4.62558389 0 7.59824813 -2.9726642
13.0000 4.92431009 1.396 7.07358405 -0.7531595 -53.946825
12.0000 5.06707328 1.71 6.79607973 -0.0191224 -1.118343
11.9500 5.074106 1.724 6.78190645 0.0162738 0.94391432
11.9600 5.07270024 1.721 6.78474347 0.0092023 0.53463164
Q3. Water is pumped from a river to two reservoirs A and B. The water surface in
reservoir A is at the same height as the river whilst that in reservoir B is 20 ft higher.
Pumping from the river takes place by means of a centrifugal pump, the equation
relating flow Q (in cubic ft/sec) and H ft at a constant speed being given by:
{𝐻 = 75 − 10 𝑄2 } . From the river to a junction J a common pipe is used of 8 in
diameter and 500 ft long. The branch J to the reservoir A is 5 in in diameter and 200 ft
long. The branch from J to reservoir B is 6 in in diameter and 200 ft long.
Neglecting all losses other than pipe friction, calculate the discharge to A and B.
Take f as 0.028 throughout.
150
Energy Equation between River and Tank B:

0 + ℎ𝑝 = 20 + ℎ𝑅𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟−𝐽𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 + ℎ𝐽𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛−𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑘𝐵
2
500 𝑄2 200 𝑄𝐵2
75 − 10𝑄 = 20 + 0.028 × + 0.028 ×
8 2 2 6 2
𝜋 8 𝜋 6 2
12 2 × 32.2 ( ( ) ) 12 2 × 32.2 ( ( ) )
4 12 4 12
55 = 12.6789𝑄 2 + 4.5155𝑄𝐵2 (1)
Energy Equation between River and Tank A:
0 + ℎ𝑝 = 0 + ℎ𝑅𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟−𝐽𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 + ℎ𝐽𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛−𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑘𝐴
2
500 𝑄2 200 𝑄𝐴2
75 − 10𝑄 = 0 + 0.028 × 2 + 0.028 × 5
8 2
𝜋 8 2 𝜋 5 2
12 2 × 32.2 ( ( ) ) 12 2 × 32.2 ( ( ) )
4 12 4 12
75 = 12.6789𝑄 2 + 11.2361𝑄𝐴2 (2)
From the continuity Equation at the junction:
𝑄 = 𝑄𝐴 + 𝑄𝐵 (3)
Energy Equation between River and the Junction:
0 + ℎ𝑝 = 𝐻𝐽 + ℎ𝑅𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟−𝐽𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
2
500 𝑄2
75 − 10𝑄 = 𝐻𝐽 + 0.028 ×
8 2
𝜋 8 2
12 2 × 32.2 ( ( ) )
4 12
𝐻𝐽 = 75 − 12.6789𝑄2 (4)
Assumed Hj Q-
(ft) Q QA QB (QA+QB)
21 2.054794521 1.382235 0.57006 0.1024994
21.1 2.052891051 1.3854228 0.589002 0.0784667
21.2 2.050985816 1.3886033 0.607352 0.05503
21.3 2.049078808 1.3917766 0.625165 0.0321372
21.4 2.047170025 1.3949426 0.642484 0.0097435
21.41 2.046979049 1.3952588 0.64419 0.00753
21.415 2.056979049 1.4052588 0.65419 0.01753
21.42 2.066979049 1.4152588 0.66419 0.02753
21.425 2.076979049 1.4252588 0.67419 0.03753
151
5.3 Siphons
Siphon: A fluid flow device commonly used to cause the fluid to flow from one
container in an upward direction over on obstacle (without the aid of a pump) and then flow
into a second lower container.
A siphon consists of a U-tube with one end submerged below the free surface of the
liquid in the container.
The center portion of the U-tube rises above the level of the liquid surface.
The free end of the U-tube lies outside the container at an elevation below the liquid surface
in the container.
Three important points within the
siphon system to perform the analysis
(figure 5.4):
Point 1:
Free liquid surface in the container.
Point 2:
lies in the U-tube at its highest
elevation
Point 3:
In the U-tube at its lowest elevation.
The output jet at point (3) is a free

jet exposed to the atmosphere. Or it could Figure 5.4 Siphon diagram
be submerged within another tank.
5.3.1 Required conditions for operation of a siphon:

For the fluid to rise up the left leg of the U-tube against gravity and flow out of the free
end, three conditions must be met:
1. The free end elevation must be lower than the free surface liquid elevation inside
the container [𝒁𝟏  𝒁𝟐].
2. The fluid need to be initially forced to flow up from the container into the center
portion of the U-tube (temporarily provide suction pressure at the free end of the
siphon).
3. The pressure at point 2 (upper most point in the U-tube must not be reduced to
the vapor pressure of the liquid (the pressure at which water starts to boil) 
𝑃 𝑃
( 𝛾2) does not fall 8 m below the atmospheric pressure ( 𝛾2 > −8 𝑚 𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒).
152
5.3.2 Analysis to determine the siphon flow rate output and the maximum
allowable head above the liquid:
 To determine the volume flow rate, apply Bernoulli’s equation between points (1)
and (3):
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃3 𝑉32 𝑉32 𝑉32

𝑍1 + + = 𝑍3 + + + ℎ𝑓1−3 + 0.5 +1× (5.11)
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔
(V1 and V3 are velocities at points (1) and (3); V=V3 =velocity in the pipe).
𝑉2 𝐿1−3 𝑉 2 𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑍1 + 0 + 0 = 𝑍3 + 0 + +𝑓 + 0.5 +1× (5.12)
2𝑔 𝐷 2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔
𝑉2 𝐿1−3
ℎ= (2.5 + 𝑓 ) (5.13)
2𝑔 𝐷
𝐿1−3
Let 𝐶 = 2.5 + 𝑓 
𝐷
1
𝑉 = √2𝑔ℎ × (5.14)
𝐶
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒  𝑉 (5.15)
 To find the maximum allowable pipe elevation above the liquid free surface:
Apply Bernoulli’s equation between points (1) and (2).
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22 𝑉22

𝑍1 + + = 𝑍2 + + + ℎ𝑓1−2 + 0.5 (5.16)
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 2𝑔
𝑃2 𝑉2 𝐿1−2 𝑉 2 𝑉22
0+0+0=𝐻+ + +𝑓 + 0.5 (5.17)
𝛾 2𝑔 𝐷 2𝑔 2𝑔
𝑃2 𝑉2 𝐿1−2
0=𝐻+ + (1.5 + 𝑓 ) (5.18)
𝛾 2𝑔 𝐷
𝑃2
Let ( = −8) 
𝛾
𝑉2 𝐿1−2
𝐻 =8− (1.5 + 𝑓 ) , considering the losses. (5.19)
2𝑔 𝐷
𝑉2
𝐻 =8− , neglecting the losses. (5.20)
2𝑔
153
Example 5.8: a pipe 30 cm in diameter and
1200 m long connects two reservoirs, one
being 80 m below the other. The pipe has to
cross a ridge, either fully or partially, whose
summit is 10 m above the upper reservoir, as
shown. How high can the pipe go above the
top of the upper reservoir in order that the
pressure at the apex of the siphon does not
fall below 8 m below the atmosphere? The
length of the pipe from the upper reservoir
to the summit of the pipe is 40 m. Take
f=0.018 and consider the minor losses. Find
the flow rate to the lower reservoir. Figure of example 5.8
𝑉2 𝐿1−3 𝑉 2 𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑍1 + 0 + 0 = 𝑍3 + 0 + +𝑓 + 0.5 +1×
2𝑔 𝐷 2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔
𝑉2 1200𝑚 1200
𝑍1 − 𝑍3 = 80𝑚 = (2.5 + 0.018 ) , (2.5 + 0.018 = 74.5) 
2𝑔 0.3 0.3
1 1
𝑉 = √2𝑔ℎ × = √2 × 9.81 × 80 × = 4.59 𝑚/𝑠
𝐶 74.5
𝑄 = 4.59 (/4)(0.32 ) = 0.324 𝑚2 /𝑠
Applying Energy Equation between (A) and (B):
𝑃2 4.592 40 4.592 4.592

0 + 0 + 0 = ℎ𝐴𝐵 + + + 0.018 + 0.5
𝛾 2𝑔 0.3 2𝑔 2𝑔
𝑃2
Let ( = −8) 
𝛾
ℎ𝐴𝐵 = 8 − 4.188 = 3.812 𝑚
154
Example 5.8: A siphon consisting of a 3 cm diameter tube is used to drain water from a
tank. The outlet end of the tube is 2 m below the water surface in the tank. Neglecting
friction, calculate the discharge. If the peak point of the siphon is 1.4 m above the water
surface in the tank, estimate the pressure of fluid at the point of siphon.
Data:
Diameter of tube = 3 cm = 0.03 m
Formula needed to solve the question:
Bernoulli's equation for frictionless flow:
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
𝐻 = 1.4 𝑚
ℎ =2𝑚
Solution:
Applying Bernoulli's equation for the points 1 and 3:
P1 = 0 N/m2(g) , P3 = 0 N/m2(g) , Z1 = 0 m , Z3 = -2 m
Since the rate of fall of liquid level in the tank is almost negligible, V1 = 0 m/sec.
Therefore,
0 + 0 + 0 = 0 + (𝑉32 / 2𝑔) – 2
𝑉3 = √(2 𝑥 2𝑔) = 6.265 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑄 = (𝜋/4)𝐷2 𝑉 = (𝜋/4) 𝑥 0.032 𝑥 6.265 = 0.00443 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 15.94 𝑚3 /ℎ𝑟

Applying Bernoulli's equation for the points 1 and 2, ( i.e. comparing the energy levels for
the fluid at the tank surface to the peak point of siphon)
P1 = 0 N/m2 , Z2 = 1.4 m , V2 = V3 = 6.265 m/sec
0 + 0 + 0 = 𝑃2 / 𝛾 + 6.2652 / (2𝑔) + 1.4
𝑃2 / 𝛾 = −3.4 m
𝑃2 = −3.4 x 1000 x 9.812 𝑁/𝑚2 = −33360.8 𝑁/𝑚2
𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 2 = 101325 − 33360.8 = 67964.2 𝑁/𝑚2

155
5.4 Pipes in parallel

Pipes in parallel: This problem represent a combination of pipes connected such that
water is distributed or divided into these pipes at one point of equal energy from the source
(pipe or tank). This flow of water is joind again through a pipe or into a tank at the same
value of energy [water enters the pipes at the same value of pressure PA ,and exit from all of
them with the same value PB]. This combination is called a parallel-pipe system.
Figure 5.5 Two examples of Parallel pipe system
 Let the energies of the water at points A and B in figure 5.5 be hA and hB .
 Water will be divided after A into the three differenet pipes in the parallel system.
 All the water will meet again at B.
 For any part of the water flowing through any of the pipes in the parallel system, the
energy equation can be given between A and B in its path (pipe 1, 2, or 3) as :
𝑃𝐴 𝑉𝐴2 𝑃𝐵 𝑉𝐵2
+ + 𝑍𝐴 = + + 𝑍𝐵 + ℎ𝐿𝐴−𝐵 (5.21)
156
 Note that the value of hL is the loss of energy in one the parallel pipes between A and
B .This means that water regardless which pipe it will flow in will have the same
amount of headloss: (ℎ𝐿𝑃𝑖𝑝𝑒 1 = ℎ𝐿𝑃𝑖𝑝𝑒 2 = ℎ𝐿𝑃𝑖𝑝𝑒 3 = ⋯ 𝑒𝑡𝑐)
𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3
 For pipes in series, the same fluid flows through all the pipes, and the headlosses are
comulative, while in parallel pipes water will have different routes with equal
headlosses , the discharges will be comulative.
ℎ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = ℎ𝐿𝑃𝑖𝑝𝑒 1 + ℎ𝐿𝑃𝑖𝑝𝑒 2 + ℎ𝐿𝑃𝑖𝑝𝑒 3 , 𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3 ,
From the previous discussion, the following conditions can be concluded for the flow
in parallel pipes:
 Energy losses in all the pipes will be equal. Since the flow through all the pipes starts
from the same point or tank and ends at the same point or tank which means that they
start from the same equal value of energy and end at another equal value of energy,
then the headlosses in all pipes are equal.
 For the case where the pipes at the beginning or at the end are connected into a tank,
note that the energy at all the points and elevations within the tank is the same. which
means that all these pipes connected to the tank have the same head at the points of
contact.
Energy @ 1 = Z1
Energy @ 2 = Z2 + (P2/)=Z2+ (Z1-Z2)/ = Z1
Energy @ 3 = Z3 +(P3/)=Z3+(Z1-Z3)/ = Z1
 Energy is the same at every point within

the tank.
 Pipes taken from the tank at different
elevations are taking from equal energies,
and those flowing into a tank at different
elevations are delivering water with the
same energy. Figure 5.6 Water at different point within a
static fluid have the same head.
5.4.1 Problem solving approach:

Consider a network of parallel pipes of different sizes, lengths, and diameters are
connected together as shown:
157
Assuming the pipes
are connected to the same
upstream and downstream
points, the principle of
continuity applies:
Qin =Qout = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
Figure 5.7 Parallel pipes system
Also, the energy equation can be applied between points A and B. This equation can
take three different scenarios:
+ 𝑍𝐴 + = + 𝑍𝐵 + + ℎ𝐿−𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒1 (5.22)
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 𝛾
+ 𝑍𝐴 + = + 𝑍𝐵 + + ℎ𝐿−𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒2 (5.23)
+ 𝑍𝐴 + = + 𝑍𝐵 + + ℎ𝐿−𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒3 (5.24)
Recall that the pipes might have different diameters, lengths, and types (roughness).
These parameters are forming the losses terms in equations 5.22, 5,23 and 5.24
𝐿 𝑉2
(ℎ𝐿−𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒1 = 𝑓1 𝐷1 2𝑔
1
) . But for equations 5.22, 5,23 and 5.24 to be valid, the losses within
1
the pipes must be equal. So, the flow in the three pipes will adjust it self ( distribute it self in
ratios) so that the values of Q1, Q2, and Q3 will achieve:
ℎ𝐿1 = ℎ𝐿2 = ℎ𝐿3

𝑳𝟏 𝑽𝟐𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑽𝟐𝟐 𝑳𝟑 𝑽𝟐𝟑
→(ℎ𝐿−𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒1 = 𝒇𝟏 )=(ℎ 𝐿−𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒2 = 𝒇 𝟐 𝑫 𝟐𝒈)=(ℎ𝐿−𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒3 = 𝒇𝟑 )
𝑫𝟏 𝟐𝒈 𝟐 𝑫𝟑 𝟐𝒈
All the fluid elements will pass at A and B, and will have the same heads at these points (A
and B). This can be real only if hL is the same in all flow routes.
5.4.2 Problems related to the flow in parallel pipes:

Assume we know:
- The upstream discharge Q.
- The lengths, diameters, and roughness of all the pipes.
Required: To find the flow distribution (Q1, Q2,..) and the headloss within the pipes.
Solution approach:
- Assume the flow in pipe1 to be 𝑄1′ .
′
- Find ℎ𝐿1 in pipe1 using 𝑄1′ (𝑄1′ → 𝑉1′ → 𝑅𝑒1
′
→ 𝑓1′ → ℎ𝐿1
′
).
2
′ ′ 𝐿 𝑄′
- Let ℎ𝐿2 = ℎ𝐿1 = 𝑓2′ 2 2 2 .
𝐷2 2𝑔(𝐴2)
- Find 𝑄2′ from the previous step.
- Repeat the last two steps for each pipe in the parallel pipes network.
- Find 𝑄𝑇′ = 𝑄1′ + 𝑄2′ + 𝑄3′ +. . . ..
158
- A correction is to be done for the values of 𝑄′ ′ 𝑠 using the following:
2 2
𝐿1 𝑄2′ 𝐿2 𝑄2′
 Since, ℎ𝐿1 = ℎ𝐿2 = ℎ𝐿3 = ⋯, then 𝑓1′ = 𝑓2′ =⋯
𝐷1 2𝑔(𝐴1) 2 𝐷2 2𝑔(𝐴2) 2
 Which means that the relative ratios between 𝑄1′ , 𝑄2′ , 𝑄3′ ..... is the same as
the real values.
 Based on that, the following correction can be made:
𝑄1′ 𝑄2′
𝑄1 = ×𝑄, 𝑄2 = × 𝑄, and so on.
𝑄𝑇′ 𝑄𝑇′
 At the end, find the values ℎ𝐿1 = ℎ𝐿2 = ℎ𝐿3 = ⋯ , based on the corrected
values of discharge. These values need to be the same.
Example 5.9: Find the magnitude of flow for each pipe in the two parallel pipes shown given
that the total flow is 4.2 m3/s.
Pipe L (m) D (m) f Q (m3/s)
1 115 0.45 0.029 1.125 m3/s
2 105 0.60 0.018 3.07 m3/s
Solution:
For the system of parallel pipes, we have: ℎ𝑓1 = ℎ𝑓2
115 𝑄12 105 𝑄22
0.029 2 = 0.018 2
0.45 𝜋 0.6 𝜋
2𝑔 [4 0. 452 ] 2𝑔 [4 0. 62 ]
So, 𝑄1 = 0.3667𝑄2
0.3667𝑄2 + 𝑄2 = 4.2 𝑚3 /𝑠 ,
which leads to: 𝑄1 = 1.125 𝑚3 /𝑠, and 𝑄2 = 3.07 𝑚3 /𝑠
Example 5.10: The vertical,

commercial steel pipe system shown in
the following figure (D = 300 mm
throughout) carries 0.82 m3/s of water.
Find the discharge in each pipe and the
pressure drop between A and B if B is
100 m higher than A.
 Neglect minor losses.
 Kin. viscosity is 1.5210-6 m2/s.
 Assume fully turbulent flow (use
ultimate f).
Diameter Q' Q
Pipe Length(m) fultimate h'f (m) hf (m)
(m) (m3/s) (m3/s)
Pipe1 250+550+250=1050 0.3 0.013
Pipe2 550 0.3 0.013
Pipe3 350+550+350=1250 0.3 0.013
The pressure drop between A and B =
159
Solution:
The relative roughness for all the pipes given that their type is commercial steel and their
diameter is 0.3 m will be:
𝑒/𝐷 = 0.046𝑚𝑚/300𝑚𝑚 = 0.00015  𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 0.013 (Moody)
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑠 = /4 (0.3)2 = 0.0707 𝑚2 .
It is required first to assume value of discharge in pipe 1

Assume 𝑄1′ = 0.25 𝑚3 /s
Then
2
′
𝐿
′ 1
𝑄2′ 1050 0.252
ℎ𝑓1 = 𝑓1 = 0.013 = 29 𝑚
𝐷1 2𝑔(𝐴1) 2 0.3 2𝑔(0.0707)2
Let
2 2
𝐿2 𝑄2′ 550 𝑄2′
′
ℎ𝑓2 ′
= ℎ𝑓1 = 29 𝑚 = 𝑓2′ = 0.013  𝑄2′ = 0.345 𝑚3 /𝑠
𝐷2 2𝑔(𝐴2) 2 0.3 2𝑔(0.07072)
Also,
2 2
𝐿 𝑄′ 1250 𝑄3′
′
ℎ𝑓3 = ′
ℎ𝑓1 = 29 𝑚 = 𝑓3′ 3 3 2 = 0.013  𝑄3′ = 0.229 𝑚3 /𝑠
𝐷3 2𝑔(𝐴3) 0.3 2𝑔(0.07072 )
Then,
𝑄𝑇′ = 𝑄1′ + 𝑄2′ + 𝑄3′ = 0.25 + 0.345 + 0.229 = 0.824 𝑚3 /s
(very close to the real number)
Correction can be made now to find the discharge in each pipe:
𝑄1′ 0.25 1050 0.2492

𝑄1 = ×𝑄 = × 0.82 = 0.249 𝑚3 /𝑠 ℎ𝑓1 = 0.013 = 28.765 𝑚
𝑄𝑇′ 0.824 0.3 2𝑔(0.0707)2
𝑄2′ 0.345 550 0.3432

𝑄2 = ×𝑄 = × 0.82 = 0.343 𝑚3 /𝑠 ℎ𝑓2 = 0.013 = 28.591 𝑚
𝑄𝑇′ 0.824 0.3 2𝑔(0.0707)2
𝑄3′ 0.229 1250 0.2282

𝑄3 = ×𝑄 = × 0.82 = 0.228 𝑚3 /𝑠 ℎ𝑓3 = 0.013 = 28.712 𝑚
𝑄𝑇′ 0.824 0.3 2𝑔(0.0707)2
160
Example 5.11:
For a total flow of 12 cfs, determine
the flow through each pipe and the
pressure head at B. Given:  =2.0
slug/ft3, ν = 0.00003 ft2/s, PA=80 psi,
ZA = 100 ft, ZB = 80 ft.
Solution:
Pipe Length(ft) Diameter  (ft) Q' (m3/s) h'f (ft) Q (ft3/s) hf (ft)
Pipe1 3000 1 ft 0.001
Pipe2 2000 8 in 0.0001
Pipe3 4000 16 in 0.0008
The pressure head at B =
Pipe 1: Assume: 𝑄1′ = 3 𝑐𝑓𝑠;
3.82×1 𝜖
then 𝑉1′ = 3.82 𝑐𝑓𝑠, 𝑅𝑒1′ = = 127,000 , 1 = 0.001, 𝑓1′ = 0.022 (Moody), and
0.00003 𝐷1
′
3000 3.822
ℎ𝑓1 = 0.022 × = 14.97 𝑓𝑡
1 2 × 32.2
′ ′ 2000 𝑉2′2
Pipe 2: ℎ𝑓2 = ℎ𝑓1 = 14.97 = 𝑓2′ ×
8/12 2×32.2
𝜖2 4.11×8/12
= 0.00015, assume 𝑓2′ = 0.020; then 𝑉2′ = 4.11 𝑓𝑡/𝑠 , 𝑅𝑒2′ = = 89,000
𝐷2 0.00003
, 𝑓2′ = 0.019 (Moody), 𝑉2′ = 4.11 𝑓𝑡/𝑠, 𝑄2′ = 1.44 𝑐𝑓𝑠.
′ ′ 4000 𝑉3′2
Pipe 3: ℎ𝑓3 = ℎ𝑓1 = 14.97 = 𝑓3′ ×
16/12 2×32.2
𝜖3 4.01×16/12
= 0.0006, assume 𝑓3′ = 0.020; then 𝑉3′ = 4.01 𝑓𝑡/𝑠 , 𝑅𝑒3′ = = 178,000
𝐷3 0.00003
, 𝑓3′ = 0.020 (Moody) , 𝑄3′ = 5.60 𝑐𝑓𝑠.
→ The total discharge for the assumed conditions is: 𝑄𝑇′ = 3.00 + 1.44 + 5.60 = 10.04 𝑐𝑓𝑠
Correction can be made now to find the discharge in each pipe:
𝑄′ 3.00
𝑄1 = 𝑄1′ × 𝑄 = 10.04 × 12 = 3.58 𝑐𝑓𝑠 𝑉1 = 4.56𝑓𝑝𝑠 ,𝑅𝑒1 = 152,000, 𝑓1 = 0.021, ℎ𝑓1 = 20.4𝑓𝑡
𝑇
𝑄2′ 1.44
𝑄2 = 𝑄′ × 𝑄 = 10.04 × 12 = 1.721 𝑐𝑓𝑠𝑉2 = 4.93𝑓𝑝𝑠, 𝑅𝑒2 = 109,200, 𝑓2 = 0.019, ℎ𝑓2 = 21.6 𝑓𝑡
𝑇
𝑄3′ 5.60
𝑄3 = 𝑄′ × 𝑄 = 10.04 × 12 = 6.70 𝑐𝑓𝑠𝑉3 = 4.80𝑓𝑝𝑠,𝑅𝑒3 = 213,000, 𝑓3 = 0.019, ℎ𝑓2 = 20.4 𝑓𝑡
𝑇
𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐵 𝑃𝐵 80×144
To find 𝑷𝑩 : + 𝑍𝐴 = + 𝑍𝐵 + ℎ𝑓  = + 100 − 80 − 20.8 = 183.5 𝑓𝑡.
𝛾 𝛾 𝛾 62.4
161
Example 12: (different solution approach)

given three pipes connected in parallel as shown. The total flow in the system is 7 L/s. All the
pipes are made of galvanized iron. Find the flow rates and the haedlosses in the pipes.
Given:
L1=90m, D1=20mm, (A1=0.000314m2)
L2=150m, D2=40mm,(A2=0.001256m2)
L3=80m, D3=60mm, (A3=0.00282m2)
Crude oil (Sp.Gr.= 0.855)
ν= 3.810-6 m2/s
e = 0.00015 m
Solution:
𝐿1 𝑉12 𝐿2 𝑉22 𝐿3 𝑉32
1st trial: 𝑓1 = 𝑓2 = 𝑓3
𝐷1 2𝑔 𝐷2 2𝑔 𝐷3 2𝑔
assume the friction factor f’s values are the same (cancel each other).
Substituting for vales of L and D: 4500𝑉12 = 3750𝑉22 = 1333𝑉32
So, 𝑉2 = 1.095𝑉1 , 𝑉3 = 1.837𝑉1
Using the continuity equatiuon: 𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3
𝜋
𝑄 = 0.007𝑚3 /𝑠 = [0.022 𝑉1 + 0.042 (1.095𝑉1 ) + 0.062 (1.837𝑉1 )] = 0.00689𝑉1
4
𝑉1 𝐷1
 𝑉1 = 1.017 𝑚/𝑠 ; 𝑅𝑒1 = = 5351 , 𝑅𝑒2 = 11723 , 𝑅𝑒3 = 29491 (Turbulent flow).
𝜈
2nd trial: using Moody diagram  𝑓1 = 0.044, 𝑓2 = 0.035, 𝑓3 = 0.029
𝐿1 𝑉12 𝐿2 𝑉22 𝐿3 𝑉32
Using the equation: 𝑓1 = 𝑓2 = 𝑓3 
𝐷1 2𝑔 𝐷2 2𝑔 𝐷3 2𝑔
(0.044)4500𝑉12 = (0.035)3750𝑉22 = (0.029)1333𝑉32  𝑉2 = 1.236𝑉1 , 𝑉3 = 2.28𝑉1

Using the continuity equatiuon:
𝜋
𝑄 = 0.007𝑚3 /𝑠 = [0.022 𝑉1 + 0.042 (1.236𝑉1 ) + 0.062 (2.281.837𝑉1 )] = 0.00831𝑉1
4
𝑚
 𝑉1 = 0.842 (21% 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒) ; 𝑅𝑒1 = 4432 , 𝑅𝑒2 = 10955 , 𝑅𝑒3 = 30310
𝑠
3rd trial: Moody diagram  𝑓1 = 0.046, 𝑓2 = 0.0353, 𝑓3 = 0.0288
𝐿1 𝑉12 𝐿2 𝑉22 𝐿3 𝑉32
Using the equation: 𝑓1 = 𝑓2 = 𝑓3 
𝐷1 2𝑔 𝐷2 2𝑔 𝐷3 2𝑔
(0.046)4500𝑉12 = (0.0353)3750𝑉22 = (0.0288)1333𝑉32  𝑉2 = 1.252𝑉1 , 𝑉3 = 2.33𝑉1

Using the continuity equatiuon:
𝜋
𝑄 = 0.007𝑚3 /𝑠 = [0.022 𝑉1 + 0.042 (1.525𝑉1 ) + 0.062 (2.33𝑉1 )] = 0.00846𝑉1
4
𝑚
 𝑉1 = 0.827 (1.8% 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒, 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ) ;
𝑠
The final results:
Q1=(/4)(0.02)2 (0.827)= 0.26 L/s, Q2=(/4)(0.04)2 (1.2520.827)=1.3 L/s
Q3=(/4)(0.06)2 (2.330.827)=5.44L/s, and, hL=7.32m.
162
Tutorial 8
Q1. For the given flow piping system, where the total flow is 1.4 m3/s, find:
I- The Gauge Pressure of the water in tank (1), and
II- The flow discharge distribution in each pipe.
III-What should be the diameter of a single pipe from B to C that can replace the 3-
parallel pipes keeping the values of the total system capacity and the
pressure at tank (1) the same?
 All the pipes are made of GALVANIZED IRON.
 Assume complete turbulence, rough pipes and neglect all the minor losses.
Length Diameter Area ε/D 𝒇 𝒇𝑫𝑳 𝟐𝒈𝟏𝑨𝟐

Pipe (m) (m) Q' Q
(m2) 3
(m /s) h'f (m) (m3/s) hf (m)
AB 280 0.4 XXXXX XXXXXX

CD 170 0.5 XXXXX XXXXXX
Pipe1 145 0.35
Pipe2 135 0.25
Pipe3 140 0.2
The pressure of water in Tank (1) = ................... Pascal
Diameter of the replacement pipe = ....................m
Q2. The total discharge of water in the following parallel pipe system is 0.8 m3/s.
Determine the flow rate in each pipe given that the diameter of each pipe is 0.5 m
and the length of pipes 1 and 3 is 15 m while the length of pipe 2 is 10 m. The pipes
are made of commercial steel and the kinematic viscosity is  = 3×10-6 m2/s.
163
Q3. Three pipes A, B, and C are interconnected as shown in the figure. The pipes
characteristics are as follows:
Find:
(1) The rate at which water will flow in each pipe.
(2) The pressure at point P.
Solution of Q1.
Length Diameter Area ε/D 𝒇 𝒇𝑫𝑳 𝟐𝒈𝟏𝑨𝟐
Pipe (m) (m)
(m2) Q' (m3/s) h'f (m) Q (m3/s) hf (m)
AB 280 0.4 0.126 0.00038 0.0157 35.507444 XXXXX XXXXXX 1.4 69.5945902
CD 170 0.5 0.196 0.0003 0.0149 6.7041983 XXXXX XXXXXX 1.4 13.1402287
Pipe1 145 0.35 0.096 0.00043 0.0161 36.7633721 0.25 2.29771076 0.840594328 25.9769555
Pipe2 135 0.25 0.049 0.0006 0.0174 198.950327 0.10746706 2.29771076 0.36134479 25.9769555
Pipe3 140 0.2 0.031 0.00075 0.0183 662.202522 0.05890501 2.29771076 0.198060883 25.9769555
The pressure of water in Tank (1) = ................... Pascal
Diameter of the replacement pipe = ....................m
Pipe (1):
Assume Q'1 =0.25 m3/s
So, ℎ́𝑓1 = 𝑓 𝐷𝐿 2𝑔1𝐴2 × 𝑄́12 = 2.297710𝑚 (table)
Pipe (2):
ℎ́𝑓2 = ℎ́𝑓1 = 2.297710𝑚 = 198.95032𝑄́22 → 𝑄́2 = 0.1074670 𝑚3 /𝑠
Pipe (3):
ℎ́𝑓3 = ℎ́𝑓1 = 2.297710𝑚 = 662.2𝑄́32 → 𝑄́3 = 0.0589 𝑚3 /𝑠
164
Correction:
𝑄1′ 0.25 𝑚3
𝑄1 = ×𝑄 = × 1.4 = 0.84059 → ℎ𝑓1 =
𝑄𝑇′ (0.25+0.10746+0.0589) 𝑠
25.976 𝑚
Q2 and Q3 are found the same way (See the table)
To find the pressure in Tank (1):

Take energy equation between Tank (1) and (2)
𝑝1
+ 0 + 0 = 0 + 0 + 0 + ℎ𝑃𝑖𝑝𝑒−𝐴𝐵 + ℎ𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 + ℎ𝑃𝑖𝑝𝑒−𝐶𝐷
9810
𝑁
𝑝1 = 9810 3 (69.59𝑚 + 25.97𝑚 + 13.14𝑚)
𝑚
To find the replacement Pipe:

This pipe will replace the parallel system and will keep the same losses and
discharge.
It’s length = avg (145,135,140)=140m
Q=1.4 m3/s
140 1.42
ℎ𝑓 = 25.97 = 𝑓
𝐷 2𝑔 (𝜋 𝐷2 )2
4
Assume f=0.02, Find D, find V, find Re, find k/D, find f again and compare it with
previous. Keep until f is not changing and consider D to be correct.
Q3. Three pipes A, B, and C are interconnected as shown in the figure. The pipes
characteristics are as follows:
Find:
(1) The rate at which water will flow in each pipe.
(2) The pressure at point P.
165
Solution:
 Applying energy equation between (1) and (2):
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2 + ℎ𝐿 (1−2) (1)
 The losses from the tank to the exit at (2) can be given as the losses through pipe
(A) or (B) plus the losses in pipe (C)
ℎ𝐿 (1−2) = ℎ𝐿 (𝐴) + ℎ𝐿 (𝐶)
𝐿𝐴 𝑉𝐴2 𝐿𝐶 𝑉𝐶2
ℎ𝐿 (1−2) = 𝑓 +𝑓
𝐷𝐴 2𝑔 𝐷𝐶 2𝑔
2000 𝑉𝐴 2
4000 𝑉𝐶2
ℎ𝐿 (1−2) = 0.02 + 0.024
6/12 2(32.2) 8/12 2(32.2)
ℎ𝐿 (1−2) = 1.242𝑉𝐴 + 2.236𝑉𝐶2
2
→ the energy equation between (1) and (2) can be given as:
𝑉𝐶2
0 + 0 + 200 = 0 + + 50 + ℎ𝐿 (1−2)
2(32.2)
𝑉𝐶2
150 = + 1.242𝑉𝐴2 + 2.236𝑉𝐶2
2(32.2)
150 = 1.242𝑉𝐴2 + 2.252𝑉𝐶2 (2)
 The continuity equation in the parallel pipes system can be given as:
𝑄𝐴 + 𝑄𝐵 = 𝑄𝐶
𝜋(6/12)2 𝜋(4/12)2 𝜋(8/12)2

𝑉𝐴 + 𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉𝐶
4 4 4
0.1963𝑉𝐴 + 0.08727𝑉𝐵 = 0.3491𝑉𝐶 (3)
 The losses in the parallel pipes (A) and (B) are equal:
ℎ𝑓(𝐴) = ℎ𝑓(𝐵)
2000 𝑉𝐴2 1600 𝑉𝐵2

0.02 + 0.032
6/12 2(32.2) 4/12 2(32.2)
𝑉𝐵 = 0.7217 𝑉𝐴 (4)
 Substituting (4) into (3):
166
0.1963𝑉𝐴 + 0.08727(0.7217 𝑉𝐴 ) = 0.3491𝑉𝐶
𝑉𝐴 = 1.346𝑉𝐶 (5)
 Substituting (5) into (2):
150 = (1.242)(1.346𝑉𝐶 )2 + 2.252𝑉𝐶2
 𝑉𝐶 = 5.772 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
8 2
𝜋( )
 𝑄𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶 𝑉𝐶 = (5.772) = 2.01 𝑓𝑡 3 /𝑠
12
4
 𝑉𝐴 = 1.346𝑉𝐶 = 𝑉𝐴 = 1.346(5.772) = 7.769 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
6 2
𝜋( )
 𝑄𝐴 = 𝐴𝐴 𝑉𝐴 = 12
(7.769) = 1.53 𝑓𝑡 3 /𝑠
4
 Substituting into equation (3):
0.1963(7.769) + 0.08727𝑉𝐵 = 0.3491(1.53) =

 𝑉𝐵 = 5.614 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
4 2
𝜋( )
 𝑄𝐵 = 𝐴𝐵 𝑉𝐵 = 12
(5.614) = 0.490 𝑓𝑡 3 /𝑠
4
 To find the pressure at point P, Apply the energy equation between P and (2):
𝑃𝑃 𝑉𝑃2 𝑉22 4000 5.7722

+ + 120 = 0 + + 50 + (0.024) ( )
62.4 2𝑔 2𝑔 8/12 2 × 32.2
 𝑃𝑃 = 0.0135 𝐼𝑏/𝑓𝑡 2
167
QUIZ 
Q1. Three reservoirs (1), (2), and (3) are connected respectively with pipes 1, 2, and 3 joining
at a common junction J. The elevations of the reservoirs, the lengths of pipes, and the
diameters are all shown on the figure. The friction factor for all the pipes is f = 0.026.
a) The flow from reservoir (1) to junction J is ……………….. m3/s.
b) The flow from reservoir (2) to junction J is ……………….. m3/s.
c) The flow in pipe 3 is ……………………………….. m3/s.
d) The Elevation of water at Tank 3 is…………………………m
𝟓𝟓𝟎 𝑸𝟐𝟏
𝑷𝒊𝒑𝒆 𝟏: 𝟒𝟎 − 𝟐𝟕 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟔 𝟐
(𝟏)
𝟎. 𝟐 𝝅 𝟐
𝟐𝒈 ( 𝟒 𝟎. 𝟐 )
𝟒𝟓𝟎 𝑸𝟐𝟐
𝑷𝒊𝒑𝒆 𝟐: 𝟑𝟎 − 𝟐𝟕 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟔 𝟐
(𝟐)
𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 𝝅 𝟐
𝟐𝒈 ( 𝟒 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 )
Both Tanks 1 and 2 are feeding the junction, so:

𝑸𝟑 = 𝑸𝟏 + 𝑸𝟐 (𝟑)
𝟕𝟓𝟎 𝑸𝟐𝟑
𝑷𝒊𝒑𝒆 𝟑: 𝟐𝟕 − 𝒁𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟔 𝟐
(𝟒)
𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝝅
𝟐𝒈 ( 𝟒 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝟐 )
Q1 = 0.0594 m3/s
Q2 = 0.0154 m3/s
Q3 = 0.0747 m3/s
Z3 17.797 m3/s
168
Q2. given three pipes connected in parallel as shown. The total flow in the system is 7 L/s. All
the pipes are made of galvanized iron. Find the flow rates and the haedlosses in the pipes. Given
that the flow is fully turbulent.
Given:
L1=90m, D1=20mm, (A1=0.000314m2)
L2=150m, D2=40mm,(A2=0.001256m2)
L3=80m, D3=60mm, (A3=0.00282m2)
Crude oil (Sp.Gr.= 0.855)
ν= 3.810-6 m2/s
e = 0.00015 m
Pipe L(m) D(m) A(m) f
 The previous tables shows the solution for four different values of
assumed 𝑸 ̃𝟏
 It can be seen that all the solutions gave the same results.
169
Chapter 6: Pipe networks
Pipe network: Interconnected pipes, could be of large numbers, through which the
water to a given outlets may come from several circuits.
Examples:
 Water supply distribution systems in municipal districts.

 Irrigation systems.
 Fire network.
Network analysis: it is the analysis of the fluid flow through a hydraulics network,
containing several or many interconnected branches. The aim is to determine the flow rates
and pressure drops in the individual sections of the network.
Figure 6.1. Examples of pipe networks
170
Considering the laws of conservation of mass and energy, the following conditions can
be made for any network of pipes:
1. The algebric sum of the energy drops around each circuit must be zero. This means
that between any two junctions in the network, the total headloss is independent of
the path taken. For example if we find the losses between the junctions a and g ,in
figure 6.2, as:
𝒉𝒂𝒈 = 𝒉𝒂𝒃 + 𝒉𝒃𝒄 + 𝒉𝒄𝒅 + 𝒉𝒅𝒈 (6.1)
it should be the same as:
𝒉𝒂𝒈 = 𝒉𝒂𝒊 + 𝒉𝒊𝒉 + 𝒉𝒉𝒈 (6.2)
This can be given in another approach, if we consider each loop and find the losses in
each pipe , then the sum of the losses in the clockwise direction is the same as that
in the counter-clockwise direction (conservation of energy).
2. The flow into each junction must equal that out of the junction (conservation of mass
or continuity equation).
∑ 𝑄𝑖𝑛 = ∑ 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 (6.3)
3. The Darcy-Weisbach equation must be satisfied for each pipe (proper relation between
headloss and discharge for each pipe).
Figure 6.2 Layout of a water network
171
The previuos coinditions can be summerized as:
 The energy drop between any two points is the same and does not depend on the
path taken.
For example: loop b, c, d, and e.

The sum of losses in the counterclock wise drection along pipes bc,
and cd must be equal the sum of losses in the clockwise direction
along pipes be, and ed.
𝒉𝒇 + 𝒉𝒇 = 𝒉𝒇 + 𝒉𝒇
𝒃𝒆 𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒄 𝒄𝒅
 For each junction a,c,..,f; the total inflow must equal the total outflow.
For example:
For junction a,
𝑸𝟏 = 𝑸𝒂𝒃 + 𝑸𝒂𝒊 ,
also for junction b,
𝑸𝒂𝒃 = 𝑸𝒃𝒆 + 𝑸𝒃𝒄 ,
and the same can be said for all the junctions.
The previous conditions should be satisfied for each loop and junction.
Based on the previous two basic principles, the pipe networks are generally solved by
the methods of successive approximation. The widely used method of pipe network analysis
is the Hardy-Cross method.
6.1 Hardy-Cross Method

 Pipe Network Analysis determines the flow rates Q’s and energy drops hf’s in the
individual sections of a hydraulic network.
 This method consists of assuming a distribution of flow in the network in such a way
that the principle of continuity is satisfied at each junction.
 A correction to these assumed flows is then computed successively for each pipe
loop in the network, until the correction is reduced to an acceptable magnitude.
172
6.1.1 Finding analysis solution method:
 Start by assuming a distribution of flows in each pipe such that the total inflow
equals the total outflow at each junction throughout the whole pipe network
(condition 1 is achieved).
 The pipe diameters, lengths, friction cofficients, junction elevations are given.
 Based on the assumed values of discharges it is expected that the headlosses
resulting in all the pipes will not achieve the second condition (conservation of
energy).
 Values of headlosses in each pipe in a starting loop are computed.
 The assumed pipe flows need to be adjusted until headlosses in the clock wise
direction equal headlosses in the counter clock wise direction in the loop.
 The headloss in each pipe is:
𝐿 𝑄2 𝐿 1
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑓 = [𝑓 ] 𝑄2 = 𝐾𝑄2 ; (6.4)
𝐷 2𝑔𝐴2 𝐷 2𝑔𝐴2
So, we can use a constant for the losses in each pipe given as:
𝐿 1
𝐾 =𝑓 (6.5)
𝐷 2𝑔𝐴2
 In any loop: the total headloss in the clockwise direction (C) is the sum of the
headlosses in all the pipes that carry flow in the clockwise direction, on the other
hand, total headloss in the counter clockwise direction (CC) is the sum of the
headlosses in all the pipes that carry flow in the counter clockwise direction (CC):
∑ ℎ𝑓𝐶 = ∑ 𝐾𝐶 𝑄𝐶2 (6.6)
2
∑ ℎ𝑓𝐶𝐶 = ∑ 𝐾𝐶𝐶 𝑄𝐶𝐶 (6.7)
 Using the assumed flowrates, Q’s , it is not expected that these two values of
equations 6.6 and 6.7 will be equal during the first trial.
 The difference {∑ 𝐾𝐶 𝑄𝐶2 − ∑ 𝐾𝐶𝐶 𝑄𝐶𝐶2 }
is the closure error in the first trial.
 We are looking for a flow correction ∆𝑸 that when subtracted from 𝑸𝑪 and
added to 𝑸𝑪𝑪 the values {∑ 𝐾𝐶 𝑄𝐶2 = ∑ 𝐾𝐶𝐶 𝑄𝐶𝐶 2 }
will be equalized (second
condition for network of pipes).
 Thus ∆Q (the correction) must satisfy:
173
∑ 𝐾𝐶 (𝑄𝐶 − ∆𝑄)2 = ∑ 𝐾𝐶𝐶 (𝑄𝐶𝐶 + ∆𝑄)2 (6.8)
∑ 𝐾𝐶 (𝑄𝐶2 − 2𝑄𝐶 ∆𝑄 + ∆2 𝑄) = ∑ 𝐾𝐶𝐶 (𝑄𝐶𝐶

2
+ 2𝑄𝐶𝐶 ∆𝑄 + ∆2 𝑄) (6.9)
Since ∆Q  QC & QCC 
∑ 𝐾𝐶 (𝑄𝐶2 − 2𝑄𝐶 ∆𝑄) = ∑ 𝐾𝐶𝐶 (𝑄𝐶𝐶

2
+ 2𝑄𝐶𝐶 ∆𝑄) (6.10)
ℎ𝑓
 Given that: ℎ𝑓 = 𝐾𝑄2  𝐾𝑄 = 
𝑄
∑ ℎ𝑓𝐶 −∑ ℎ𝑓𝐶𝐶
∆𝑄 = ℎ𝑓 ℎ𝑓 (6.11)
𝐶
2(∑ +∑ 𝐶𝐶 )
𝑄𝐶 𝑄𝐶𝐶
 A second iteration uses this correction to determine a new flow distribution.

 For the pipes common to two loops, correction should be performed befor
starting the second loop.
 Successive computational procedure continue to be repeated until each loop in
the entire network is balanced (mass and energy).
Example 6.1:
Find the missing flow values in pipes 2, 7, 8; and the input and output values to the
network shown.
174
Example 6.2:
A water-supply distribution system for a park is schematically shown. The demands on
different joints of the system are shown on figure 6.4 with flow rates given in litres per
second. Water enters the system at junction A from a water storage tank. All pipes are aged
ductile iron (e=0.26mm) .The water surface elevation in the tank is 50 m above the elevation
of point A. The elevations of the junctions and the lengths of the pipes are provided in the
tables below. Calculate the flow rate in each pipe, the pressure at each junction and the
power required in each pipe. Check if the pressure values will be high enough to satisfy the
customer requirement at each junction (185 kPa). If any of the junctions did not satisfy the
required pressure, suggest modifications to the system to accommodate the customer.
Figure 6.4 Layout of the network of example 6.2

Joint A B C D E F G H
Elevation(m) 0 0.8 1 0.9 0.8 1 1.1 1.6
Solution:
The following table is used to organize the data of the pipes and to present the
suggested values of discharges in each pipe and the final results of Q, hL, and Power. The
values of ”f” were found as ultimate values (assuming complete turbulence). It is very
difficult not to assume that as the values of velocity in each pipe will be changing along the
solution and the need to find the friction factor each time as a function of roughness and
Reynold’s number will be very difficult.
Q (m3/s) Q (m3/s) hL (m) Power
Pipe L (m) D (m) e/D f K
(assumed) (final) (final) (Kw)
AB 300 0.30 0.00087 0.019 194 0.20
AD 250 0.25
mm 0.00104 0.020 423 0.10
BC 350 0.20 m 0.0013 0.021 1,900 0.08
BG 125 0.20 m 0.0013 0.021 678 0.12
GH 350 0.20 m 0.0013 0.021 1,900 0.02
CH 125 0.20 m 0.0013 0.021 678 0.03
DE 300 0.20 m 0.0013 0.021 1,630 0.10
GE 125 0.15 m 0.00173 0.022 2,990 0.00
EF 350 0.20 m 0.0013 0.021 1,900 0.10
HF 125 0.15 m 0.00173 0.022 2,990 0.05
𝐿 1
The values of K were found from the relation: 𝐾 = 𝑓 .
𝐷 2𝑔𝐴2
175
A suggested distribution of flow was made as the following:
This distribution achieves the continuity for each junction as shown:
The direction of flow in the pipes is indicated in the table as the sequence of the letters. For
example the direction of flow in pipe AB is from junction A to B. This direction may change
within the solution ( be reversed), the letters will be reversed then.
The clockwise specifier (C) means only the flows that are moving clockwise in our loop, while
the counter-clockwise specifier (CC) is only the flows that are moving counter-clockwise. It
can be indicated in the table by putting the values for the counterclockwise flow between
brackets. [...].
176
Using Hardy-Cross method to solve the question requires:
 Taking the loops one at a time.
𝑳 𝟏
 The losses withen each pipe is found using the Darcy-Weisbach equation 𝑲 = 𝒇 .
𝑫 𝟐𝒈𝑨𝟐
 The correction to the flow ∆Q is calculated then.
 This value (∆Q) is subtracted from the flow discharges in the clockwise direction and
added to the flows in the counter clockwise direction. This will not change the first
condition (continuity equation) and will make the distribution closer to the correct
distribution that achieve the second condition (energy equation balance) 𝑸 ± ∆𝑸.
 Before starting the 2nd loop, the flow in the common pipes should be updated from the
previous corrections.
1st cycle 2nd cycle
Loop
Q hf/Q hf Q QNew
(1) K QNew (m3/s) hf/Q hf
(m3/s) (KQ) (KQ2) (m3/s) (m3/s)
Pipe
AB 0.200 194 38.8 7.76 0.2-(-0.005)=0.205
BG 0.120 678 81.3 9.76 0.12-(-0.005)=0.125
GE 0.000 2,990 0.0 0.0 0-(-0.005)=0.005
AD [0.100] 423 [42.3] [4.23] 0.1+(-0.005)=0.0095
DE [0.100] 1,630 [163.0] [16.3] 0.1+(-0.005)=0.0095
∑ ℎ𝑓𝐶 −∑ ℎ𝑓𝐶𝐶 (7.76+9.76)−(4.23+16.3)
 First cycle: ∆𝑄 = ℎ𝑓 ℎ𝑓 = = −0.005 𝑚3 /𝑠
2[(38.8+81.3)+(42.3+163.0)]
2(∑ 𝐶 +∑ 𝐶𝐶 )
1st cycle 2nd cycle

Loop
Q hf/Q hf Q QNew
(m3/s) (KQ) (KQ2) (m3/s) (m3/s)
Pipe
BC 0.080 1,900 152.5 12.2 0.08-(0.002)=0.078
CH 0.030 678 20.3 0.61 0.03-(0.002)=0.028
BG [0.125] 678 [84.8] [10.6] 0.125+(0.002)=[0.127]
GH [0.020] 1,900 [38.0] [0.76] 0.02+(0.002)=[0.022]
∑ ℎ𝑓𝐶 −∑ ℎ𝑓𝐶𝐶 (12.2+0.61)−(10.6+0.76)
 First cycle: ∆𝑄 = ℎ𝑓 ℎ𝑓 = = +0.002 𝑚3 /𝑠
2[(152.5+20.3)+(84.8+38.0)]
2(∑ 𝐶 +∑ 𝐶𝐶 )
1st cycle 2nd cycle

Loop
Q hf/Q hf Q QNew
(m3/s) (KQ) (KQ2) (m3/s) (m3/s)
Pipe
GH 0.022 1,900 41.8 0.92 0.022-(-0.13)=0.035
HF 0.050 2,900 194.6 7.48 0.063
GE [0.005] 2,900 [14.0] [0.07] 0.005+(-0.013)= -0.008
EF [0.100] 1,900 [190.0] [19.0] 0.1+(0.013)=0.087
∑ ℎ𝑓𝐶 −∑ ℎ𝑓𝐶𝐶 (0.92+7.48)−(0.07+19.0)
 First cycle: ∆𝑄 = ℎ𝑓 ℎ𝑓 = = −0.013 𝑚3 /𝑠
2[(41.8+149.6)+(14.0+190.0)]
2(∑ 𝐶 +∑ 𝐶𝐶 )
177
 Note that the sign of New Q for pipe GE was negative after the correction in the first cycle,
which requires reversing the direction of flow in the pipe.
1st cycle 2nd cycle
Loop
Q hf/Q hf Q QNew
(m3/s) (KQ) (KQ2) (m3/s) (m3/s)
Pipe
AB 0.200 194 38.8 7.76 0.2-(-0.005)=0.205 0.205 39.8 8.15 0.205
BG 0.120 678 81.3 9.76 0.12-(-0.005)=0.125 0.127 85.8 10.9 0.127
GE 0.000 2,990 0.0 0.0 0-(-0.005)=0.005 [0.008] [23.8] [0.19] [0.008]
AD [0.100] 423 [42.3] [4.23] 0.1+(-0.005)=0.0095 [0.095] [40.2] [3.82] [0.095]
DE [0.100] 1,630 [163.0] [16.3] 0.1+(-0.005)=0.0095 [0.095] [154.7] [14.7] [0.095]
∑ ℎ𝑓𝐶 −∑ ℎ𝑓𝐶𝐶 (8.15+10.9)−(3.82+14.7+0.19)
 Second cycle: ∆𝑄 = ℎ𝑓 ℎ𝑓 = = +0.000 𝑚3 /𝑠
2[(39.8+85.8)+(40.2+154.7+23.8)]
2(∑ 𝐶 +∑ 𝐶𝐶 )
This correction is very small ( 0.0005𝑚3 /𝑠 ).

1st cycle nd cycle
Loop
Q hf/Q hf Q QNew
(m3/s) (KQ) (KQ2) (m3/s) (m3/s)
Pipe
BC 0.080 1,900 152.5 12.2 0.08-(0.002)=0.078 0.078 148.7 11.6 0.080
CH 0.030 678 20.3 0.61 0.03-(0.002)=0.028 0.028 18.9 0.53 0.030
BG [0.125] 678 [84.8] [10.6] 0.125+(0.002)=[0.127] [0.127] [85.8] [10.9] [0.125]
GH [0.020] 1,900 [38.0] [0.76] 0.02+(0.002)=[0.022] [0.035] [66.6] [2.33] [0.033]
∑ ℎ𝑓𝐶 −∑ ℎ𝑓𝐶𝐶 (11.6+0.53)−(10.9+2.33)
 Second cycle: ∆𝑄 = ℎ𝑓 ℎ𝑓 = = −0.002 𝑚3 /𝑠
𝐶 2[(148.7+18.9)+(85.8+66.6)]
2(∑ +∑ 𝐶𝐶 )
This correction is very small.

1st cycle 2nd cycle
Loop
Q hf/Q hf Q QNew
(m3/s) (KQ) (KQ2) (m3/s) (m3/s)
Pipe
GH 0.022 1,900 41.8 0.92 0.022-(-0.13)=0.035 0.033 62.7 2.07 0.033
HF 0.050 2,900 194.6 7.48 0.063 0.063 188.9 11.9 0.063
GE [0.005] 2,900 [14.0] [0.07] 0.005+(-0.013)= -0.008 0.008 23.8 0.19 0.008
EF [0.100] 1,900 [190.0] [19.0] 0.1+(0.013)=0.087 [0.087] [165.5] [14.4] [0.087]
∑ ℎ𝑓𝐶 −∑ ℎ𝑓𝐶𝐶 (2.07+11.9+0.19)−(14.4)
 Second cycle: ∆𝑄 = ℎ𝑓 ℎ𝑓 = = −0.000 𝑚3 /𝑠
𝐶 2[(62.7+188.9+23.8)+(165.5)]
2(∑ +∑ 𝐶𝐶 )
Because the corrections are very small on all three loops, the flow rates can be accepted and
the process can be ended.
178
Finding the final pressure at each junction:
Q (L/s) hf (m) Power(Kw)
Pipe  hf (kPa)
(final) 2
(kQ ) ( Q hf)
AB 205 8.2 80.3 16.4615
AD 95 3.8 37.2 3.534
BC 80 12.2 119.4 9.552
BG 125 10.6 103.8 12.975
GH 33 2.1 20.6 0.6798
CH 30 0.6 5.9 0.177
DE 95 14.7 143.9 13.6705
GE 8 0.2 2.0 0.016
EF 87 14.4 141.0 12.267
HF 63 11.9 116.5 7.3395
Finding the final pressure at each junction:

 PA can be found from the water elevation at the tank: PA=50m9790N/m3=489.5 kPa.
 PB can be found by considering the energy equation between A and B:
𝑃𝐵 = 𝑃𝐴 − 𝛾ℎ𝑓𝐴𝐵 + 𝛾(𝑍𝐴 − 𝑍𝐵 ) = 489.5 − 80.3 + 9.79(0 − 0.8) = 401.368 𝑘𝑃𝑎
Energy equation can be used to find the pressure at each junction be considering two
successive junction as shown:
179
𝑃𝐶 = 𝑃𝐵 − 𝛾ℎ𝑓𝐵𝐶 + 𝛾(𝑍𝐵 − 𝑍𝐶 ) = 401.368 − 119.4 + 9.79(0.8 − 1.0) = 280.01 𝑘𝑃𝑎

𝑃𝐷 = 𝑃𝐴 − 𝛾ℎ𝑓𝐴𝐷 + 𝛾(𝑍𝐴 − 𝑍𝐵 ) = 498.5 − 37.2 + 9.79(0 − 0.9) = 443. .368 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑃𝐸 = 𝑃𝐷 − 𝛾ℎ𝑓𝐷𝐸 + 𝛾(𝑍𝐷 − 𝑍𝐸 ) = 443.489 − 143.9 + 9.79(0.9 − 0.8) = 300.568 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑃𝐹 = 𝑃𝐸 − 𝛾ℎ𝑓𝐸𝐹 + 𝛾(𝑍𝐸 − 𝑍𝐹 ) = 300.568 − 141 + 9.79(0.8 − 1.0) = 157.61 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑃𝐺 = 𝑃𝐵 − 𝛾ℎ𝑓𝐵𝐺 + 𝛾(𝑍𝐵 − 𝑍𝐺 ) = 401.368 − 103.8 + 9.79(0.8 − 1.1) = 294.631 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑃𝐻 = 𝑃𝐺 − 𝛾ℎ𝑓𝐻𝐺 + 𝛾(𝑍𝐺 − 𝑍𝐻 ) = 294.631 − 20.6 + 9.79(1.1 − 1.6) = 268.236 𝑘𝑃𝑎
Joint A B C D E F G H
Elevation(m) 0 0.8 1 0.9 0.8 1 1.1 1.6
Pressure (kPa) 489.5 401.368 280.01 443.489 300.568 157.61 294.631 268.236
The pressure at F is less than 157.61 kPa. Modifications should be made to the pipe
diameters to solve this issue.
180
Example 6.3:
Determine the distribution of flow in the pipe network shown using Hardy cross
method.
Figure 6.5 Layout of the network of example 6.3

Loop
(1) QNew QNew QNew
3 3
Pipe Q K hf/Q hf (m /s) Q hf/Q hf (m /s) Q hf/Q hf m3/s
AB 30 2 60 1800 81.96 81.96 163.92 13434.88 79.786 79.786 159.572 12731.6 77.577
BE 10 3 30 300 61.96 53.074 159.222 8450.548 50.9 56.4676 169.403 9565.77 53.797
DE ]150[ 2 300 45000 98.04 ]98.04[ 196.08 19223.68 100.214 100.214 200.428 20085.7 102.42
AD ]70[ 1 70 4900 18.04 ]18.04[ 18.04 325.44 20.214 20.214 20.214 408.606 22.42
(1800 + 300) − (45000 + 4900)

∆𝑄 = = −51.96
2(60 + 30 + 300 + 70)
∆𝑄 = 2.174
∆𝑄 = 2.67
Loop
(2) QNew QNew QNew
Pipe Q K hf/Q hf m3/s Q hf/Q hf (m3/s) Q hf/Q hf m3/s
BC 50 1 50 2500 57.88 57.88 57.88 3350.09 57.746 57.746 57.746 3334.6 58.078
CF 60 2 120 7200 67.88 67.88 135.76 9215.39 67.7462 67.7462 135.492 9179.1 68.0782
EF ]70[ 1 70 4900 62.11 62.11 62.11 3857.65 62.2538 62.2538 62.2538 3875.54 61.9318
BE ]61.96[ 3 185.88 11517.125 53.074 50.9 152.7 7772.43 56.4676 53.797 161.391 8682.35 53.475
(2500 + 7200) − (4900 + 11517.125)

∆𝑄 = = −7.885
2(50 + 120 + 70 + 185.88)
∆𝑄 = 2.7838
∆𝑄 = −0.332
181
Tutorial 9
Q1. Perform pipe network analysis and calculate water flow in all branches.
Q2. Perform pipe network analysis and calculate water flow in all branches. Hazen Williams
coefficient for each pipe is provided in table below.
182
Extra Reading:
Pipe Network Analysis using Epp and Fowler Approach

Hardy Cross Method is the oldest and probably best known solution method for pipe
networks. In this method, each loop correction is determined independently of other loops.
Epp and Fowler (1970) have developed a more efficient approach by simultaneously
computing corrections for all loops. This section illustrates the use of Simultaneous Loop Flow
Adjustment Algorithm in modelling pipe network analysis in excel spreadsheet by solving an
example.
Example
A water supply distribution system is shown in the figure below. All pipes are cast iron with
lengths and diameters as provided in the table below. Perform pipe network analysis and
calculate water flow in all branches.
 An initial flow estimate is made across all pipe branches that satisfies continuity at all
nodes.
 Head loss across each pipe is determined using Darcy – Weisbach equation:
hf = K Q²
𝐿 1 8𝑓𝐿
K =𝑓 𝜋 2 = 2 5
𝐷 2𝑔( 𝐷2 ) 𝜋 𝑔𝐷
4
 The equation for head loss across each loop is made by summing the loss in each pipe
of the loop assuming the sum of the losses to be zero:
F(I) : K1.Q1² + K3.Q3² - K8.Q8² - K4.Q4² - K2.Q2² = 0
F(II) : K5.Q5² + K7.Q7² - K6.Q6² - K3.Q3² = 0
F(III): K6.Q6² + K10.Q10² - K9.Q9² + K8.Q8² = 0
 Newton Raphson method is used to solve above equations for flow correction factor
ΔQ (ΔQI, ΔQII, ΔQIII) across each loop.
 In vector form all loops can be written as :
183
JL.ΔQ = -F(Qm-1)
Where,
- ΔQ is a vector of loop flow corrections
- JL is the first derivatives of the loop equations evaluated at Qm-1
Coefficient Matrix, JL
Derivative for a single pipe is obtained as:
𝜕(𝐾1𝑄12 )
= 2𝐾1. 𝑄1
𝜕(△ 𝑄1 )
Diagonal terms are obtained by adding the derivatives of all the pipes in the loop and
always have a positive sign:
𝜕(𝐹𝐼 )
= 2(|𝐾1𝑄1 | + |𝐾3𝑄3 | + |𝐾8𝑄8 | + ⌈𝐾4⌉𝑄4 + |𝐾2𝑄2 |) = 979.03
𝜕(△ 𝑄𝐼 )
𝜕(𝐹2 )
= 2(|𝐾5𝑄5 | + |𝐾7𝑄7 | + |𝐾6𝑄6 | + ⌈𝐾3⌉𝑄3 ) = 794.35
𝜕(△ 𝑄2 )
𝜕(𝐹3 )
= 2(|𝐾6𝑄6 | + |𝐾10𝑄10 | + |𝐾9𝑄9 | + ⌈𝐾8⌉𝑄8 ) = 1408.23
𝜕(△ 𝑄3 )
Off-diagonal terms are gradients for pipes that appear in different loops (common
pipes between two loops) and always have a negative sign.
𝜕(𝐹𝐼 ) 𝜕(𝐹 )
= −𝑛(|𝐾3𝑄3 |) = 𝜕(△𝑄𝐼𝐼 ) = −165.6 (common pipe between loop 1 and 2 (pipe 3))
𝜕(△𝑄𝐼𝐼 ) 𝐼
𝜕(𝐹𝐼 ) 𝜕(𝐹𝐼𝐼𝐼 )
= −𝑛(|𝐾8𝑄8 |) = = −314.81 (common pipe between loop 1 and 3 (pipe 8))
𝜕(△𝑄𝐼𝐼𝐼 ) 𝜕(△𝑄𝐼 )
𝜕(𝐹𝐼𝐼 ) 𝜕(𝐹 )
= −𝑛(|𝐾6𝑄6 |) = 𝜕(△𝑄𝐼𝐼𝐼 ) = −273.72 (common pipe between loop 2 and 3 (pipe 6))
𝜕(△𝑄𝐼𝐼𝐼 ) 𝐼𝐼
In the above derivative change in Loop I due to flow change in Loop II will be due to
common pipe 3. Above gradient is also for δFII/δ(ΔQI).
184
The JL matrix is obtained as the following:
J12=J21= - K3Q3 =-165.60 (pipe 3 is common between loops 1 and 2) ,

J13=J31= - K8Q8 =-314.81 (pipe 8 is common between loops 1 and 3) ,
J23=J32= - K6Q6 =-273.72 (pipe 6 is common between loops 2 and 3) .
- F(Qm-1) is the vector of the sum of energy losses with negative sign given for the flow
counter clockwise
[𝑲𝟏. 𝑸𝟐𝟏 + 𝑲𝟑. 𝑸𝟐𝟑 − 𝑲𝟖. 𝑸𝟐𝟖 − 𝑲𝟒. 𝑸𝟐𝟒 − 𝑲𝟐. 𝑸𝟐𝟐 𝑲𝟓. 𝑸𝟐𝟓 + 𝑲𝟕. 𝑸𝟐𝟕 − 𝑲𝟔. 𝑸𝟐𝟔 − 𝑲𝟑. 𝑸𝟐𝟑 𝑲𝟔. 𝑸𝟐𝟔 + 𝑲𝟏𝟎. 𝑸𝟐𝟏𝟎 − 𝑲𝟗. 𝑸𝟐𝟗 + 𝑲𝟖. 𝑸𝟐𝟖 ]
𝐾1. 𝑄21 + 𝐾3. 𝑄23 − 𝐾8. 𝑄28 − 𝐾4. 𝑄24 − 𝐾2. 𝑄22 = 10.94
𝐾5. 𝑄25 + 𝐾7. 𝑄27 − 𝐾6. 𝑄26 − 𝐾3. 𝑄23 = 6.4
𝐾6. 𝑄26 + 𝐾10. 𝑄210 − 𝐾9. 𝑄29 + 𝐾8. 𝑄28 = −43.62
F matrix is obtained as:
F(Qm-1)T = [-10.94 -6.40 43.62 ]
Below, the matrix is solved in excel to obtain ΔQ.
JL.ΔQ = - F
JL-1 is determined using Minverse function. Select 3×3 cells in excel and type
MINVERSE(Input Array) and press CTRL+SHIFT+ENTER to evaluate inverse of matrix.
Do multiplication of JL-1 and -F vector using MMULT function. Select 3×1 cells in excel
and type MMULT(Inverse Array, F array) and press CTRL+SHIFT+ENTER to evaluate
multiplication. ΔQ array is obtained as following: ΔQ = [ 0.00066 -0.00261 -0.03133]
As flow changes are larg, another iteration is done, with flows adjusted based on ΔQ
values. For example flow rate in Pipe 3 will become.
Q3 = Q30 + ΔQI - ΔQII
= 0.12 + (0.00066) - (-0.00261)
= 0.123
New flowrates are calculated and above steps are repeated.
185
To do more iterations copy entire rows and paste them below the above cells to carry
out further calculation till change in flowrates become negligible. For this example ΔQ
becomes negligible in 5 iterations. Final flows in m³/s are as following.
If a pipe’s flow direction changes from the assumed value, the signs for that pipe head loss
terms are switched for all loops containing the pipe during the next iteration in loop
equations. JL matrix signs will remain same as above.
Below matrix is solved in excel to obtain ΔQ.
JL.ΔQ = - F
JL-1 is determined using Minverse function. Select 3×3 cells in excel and type
MINVERSE(Input Array) and press CTRL+SHIFT+ENTER to evaluate inverse of matrix.
Do multiplication of JL-1 and -F vector using MMULT function. Select 3×1 cells in excel
and type MMULT(Inverse Array, F array) and press CTRL+SHIFT+ENTER to evaluate
multiplication. ΔQ array is obtained as following.
ΔQ = [ 0.00066 -0.00261 -0.03133]
186
As flow changes are larger another iteration is done, with flows adjusted based on ΔQ
values. For example flow rate in Pipe 3 will become.
Q3 = Q30 + ΔQI - ΔQII
= 0.12 + (0.00066) - (-0.00261)
= 0.123
New flowrates are calculated and above steps are repeated. To do more iterations copy
entire rows and paste them below the above cells to carry out further calculation till
change in flowrates become negligible. For this example ΔQ becomes negligible in 5
iterations. Final flows in m³/s are as following.
If a pipe’s flow direction changes from the assumed value, the signs for that pipe head loss
terms are switched for all loops containing the pipe during the next iteration in loop
equations. JL matrix signs will remain same as above.
187
Example
Perform pipe network analysis and calculate water flow in all branches.
Iteration 1
Head
Pipe Flow Length Diameter e/D Velocity Reynold's Friction Loss
Factor,
m3/s m m m/s Number f K hL nHL/Q
1 0.100 1000 0.40 0.00087 0.80 318310 0.020 162 1.62 32.49
2 0.200 2000 0.45 0.00104 1.26 565884 0.020 183 7.33 73.28
3 0.030 1000 0.30 0.00130 0.42 127324 0.023 779 0.70 46.74
4 0.030 2000 0.30 0.00130 0.42 127324 0.023 1558 1.40 93.48
5 0.070 1000 0.40 0.00130 0.56 222817 0.022 179 0.88 25.06
6 0.080 750 0.30 0.00130 1.13 339531 0.022 556 3.56 89.01
7 0.020 2200 0.30 0.00130 0.28 84883 0.024 1770 0.71 70.80
8 0.170 2000 0.30 0.00173 2.41 721502 0.023 1559 45.05 529.98
9 0.020 500 0.25 0.00130 0.41 101859 0.023 986 0.39 39.42
10 0.020 2200 0.25 0.00173 0.41 101859 0.025 4574 1.83 182.95
Coefficient
Matrix Inverse F DQ
245.99 -46.74 -93.48 4.72E-03 2.76E-04 1.59E-03 -5.00 -0.04182
-46.74 799.10 0.00 2.76E-04 1.27E-03 9.27E-05 -46.57 -0.06073
-93.48 0.00 278.36 1.59E-03 9.27E-05 4.12E-03 -3.38 -0.02618
188
Iteration2
Head
Factor,
1 0.142 1000 0.40 0.00087 1.13 451438 0.020 160 3.22 45.40
2 0.158 2000 0.45 0.00104 0.99 447548 0.021 184 4.62 58.35
3 0.049 1000 0.30 0.00130 0.69 207547 0.022 757 1.81 74.03
4 0.046 2000 0.30 0.00130 0.65 193718 0.022 1519 3.16 138.68
5 0.096 1000 0.40 0.00130 0.77 306150 0.022 177 1.63 33.98
6 0.054 750 0.30 0.00130 0.76 228420 0.022 565 1.64 60.83
7 0.046 2200 0.30 0.00130 0.65 195993 0.022 1670 3.56 154.24
8 0.109 2000 0.30 0.00173 1.55 463775 0.023 1571 18.76 343.33
9 -0.041 500 0.25 0.00130 0.83 207414 0.022 942 -1.56 76.71
10 -0.041 2200 0.25 0.00173 0.83 207414 0.024 4404 -7.30 358.74
Coefficient
Matrix Inverse F DQ
316.47 -74.03 -138.68 3.84E-03 3.33E-04 1.37E-03 -0.04 -0.00231
-74.03 852.81 0.00 3.33E-04 1.20E-03 1.19E-04 -8.08 -0.00968
-138.68 0.00 387.73 1.37E-03 1.19E-04 3.07E-03 0.39 0.00019
Iteration3
Head
Factor,
1 0.144 1000 0.40 0.00087 1.15 458788 0.020 160 3.32 46.12
2 0.156 2000 0.45 0.00104 0.98 441015 0.021 185 4.48 57.53
3 0.056 1000 0.30 0.00130 0.80 238817 0.022 752 2.38 84.63
4 0.048 2000 0.30 0.00130 0.68 204325 0.022 1515 3.51 145.87
5 0.096 1000 0.40 0.00130 0.76 305545 0.022 177 1.63 33.92
6 0.054 750 0.30 0.00130 0.76 229227 0.022 565 1.65 61.03
7 0.046 2200 0.30 0.00130 0.65 195187 0.022 1670 3.53 153.64
8 0.100 2000 0.30 0.00173 1.41 422705 0.023 1574 15.62 313.57
9 -0.050 500 0.25 0.00130 1.03 256698 0.022 933 -2.37 94.02
10 -0.050 2200 0.25 0.00173 1.03 256698 0.023 4370 -11.10 440.48
Coefficient
Matrix Inverse F DQ
334.15 -84.63 -145.87 3.67E-03 3.33E-04 1.36E-03 -0.03 -0.00003
-84.63 932.69 0.00 3.33E-04 1.10E-03 1.23E-04 0.24 0.00025
-145.87 0.00 394.47 1.36E-03 1.23E-04 3.04E-03 0.00 -0.00001
189
Iteration4
Head
Factor,
1 0.144 1000 0.40 0.00087 1.15 458879 0.020 160 3.32 46.13
2 0.156 2000 0.45 0.00104 0.98 440934 0.021 185 4.48 57.52
3 0.056 1000 0.30 0.00130 0.79 237634 0.022 752 2.36 84.23
4 0.048 2000 0.30 0.00130 0.68 204414 0.022 1515 3.51 145.93
5 0.096 1000 0.40 0.00130 0.76 305569 0.022 177 1.63 33.92
6 0.054 750 0.30 0.00130 0.76 229195 0.022 565 1.65 61.03
7 0.046 2200 0.30 0.00130 0.65 195218 0.022 1670 3.53 153.66
8 0.100 2000 0.30 0.00173 1.41 423766 0.023 1574 15.69 314.34
9 -0.050 500 0.25 0.00130 1.02 255424 0.022 933 -2.35 93.57
10 -0.050 2200 0.25 0.00173 1.02 255424 0.023 4370 -10.99 438.37
Coefficient
Matrix Inverse F DQ
333.81 -84.23 -145.93 3.67E-03 3.33E-04 1.36E-03 0.00 0.00000
-84.23 930.50 0.00 3.33E-04 1.10E-03 1.23E-04 0.00 0.00000
-145.93 0.00 394.55 1.36E-03 1.23E-04 3.04E-03 0.00 0.00000
190
Example
Perform pipe network analysis and calculate water flow in all branches. Hazen Williams
coefficient for each pipe is provided in table below.
Head loss is calculated using Hazen-Williams equation.
HL = 10.67LQ1.85 / C1.85 D4.87
191
Iteration 1
Head
Pipe Flow Diameter Length C Loss
m3/s mm m HL, m nHL/Q
1 1.000 1000 1000 100 2.13 3.94
2 6.000 750 925 100 219.96 67.82
3 3.000 750 1000 100 65.96 40.68
4 1.000 750 925 100 7.99 14.79
5 3.000 500 350 100 166.31 102.56
6 2.000 500 671 100 150.59 139.30
7 1.000 500 400 100 24.90 46.07
8 1.000 500 650 100 40.47 74.86
9 1.000 750 1000 120 6.17 11.41
10 6.000 1000 1000 120 41.81 12.89
11 6.000 1000 925 120 38.67 11.92
12 6.000 1000 800 120 33.45 10.31
13 1.000 750 763 120 4.71 8.71
14 4.000 1000 650 120 12.84 5.94
15 0.500 750 400 120 0.68 2.53
16 0.500 750 125 120 0.21 0.79
17 0.500 750 400 120 0.68 2.53
18 0.500 500 125 120 1.54 5.70
19 1.000 500 800 120 35.55 65.76
20 2.000 500 125 120 20.02 18.52
21 2.000 500 800 120 128.14 118.53
22 1.000 500 1000 120 44.43 82.20
Coefficient Matrix F
127.22 -67.8 -40.7 0 0 0 0 -280.05
-67.8 104.05 0 -11.41 0 0 0 229.26
-40.7 0 403.47 -74.9 0 0 0 367.30
0 -11.41 -74.86 303.25 -5.94 -118.5 0 -95.69
0 0 0 -5.94 17.17 0 -2.53 8.81
0 0 0 -118.5 0 208.51 -5.70 182.17
0 0 0 0 -2.53 -5.70 11.56 1.33
Inverted Matrix
1.3E-02 8.5E-03 1.5E-03 8.9E-04 3.6E-04 5.1E-04 3.3E-04 ΔQ1 -1.10677
8.5E-03 1.5E-02 1.1E-03 1.1E-03 4.4E-04 6.3E-04 4.1E-04 ΔQ2 1.52773
1.5E-03 1.1E-03 2.8E-03 9.6E-04 3.8E-04 5.5E-04 3.6E-04 ΔQ3 0.87608
8.9E-04 1.1E-03 9.6E-04 4.7E-03 1.9E-03 2.7E-03 1.7E-03 ΔQ4 0.41659
3.6E-04 4.4E-04 3.8E-04 1.9E-03 6.1E-02 1.4E-03 1.4E-02 ΔQ5 0.78179
5.1E-04 6.3E-04 5.5E-04 2.7E-03 1.4E-03 6.4E-03 3.5E-03 ΔQ6 1.13359
3.3E-04 4.1E-04 3.6E-04 1.7E-03 1.4E-02 3.5E-03 9.1E-02 ΔQ7 0.84530
192
Iteration2
Head
1 -0.107 1000 1000 100 -0.03 0.59
2 3.366 750 925 100 75.47 41.49
3 1.017 750 1000 100 8.92 16.22
4 2.107 750 925 100 31.73 27.86
5 2.124 500 350 100 87.79 76.47
6 1.124 500 671 100 51.85 85.35
7 0.124 500 400 100 0.52 7.81
8 1.459 500 650 100 81.45 103.24
9 -0.111 750 1000 120 -0.11 1.76
10 4.472 1000 1000 120 24.27 10.04
11 7.528 1000 925 120 58.84 14.46
12 6.417 1000 800 120 37.87 10.92
13 1.782 750 763 120 13.70 14.23
14 3.635 1000 650 120 10.75 5.47
15 0.564 750 400 120 0.85 2.80
16 1.345 750 125 120 1.33 1.84
17 -0.345 750 400 120 -0.35 1.85
18 0.788 500 125 120 3.58 8.39
19 -0.134 500 800 120 -0.86 11.88
20 0.866 500 125 120 4.26 9.10
21 1.283 500 800 120 56.36 81.27
22 0.583 500 1000 120 16.40 51.99
86.16 -41.5 -16.2 0 0 0 0 -52.63
-41.5 67.75 0 -1.76 0 0 0 40.81
-16.2 0 289.08 -103.2 0 0 0 67.64
0 -1.76 -103.24 254.66 -5.47 -81.3 0 -7.04
0 0 0 -5.47 22.50 0 -2.80 -2.10
0 0 0 -81.3 0 110.64 -8.39 56.19
0 0 0 0 -2.80 -8.39 14.88 1.04
Inverted Matrix
1.7E-02 1.0E-02 1.2E-03 7.5E-04 2.3E-04 5.8E-04 3.7E-04 ΔQ1 -0.35431
1.0E-02 2.1E-02 8.0E-04 6.3E-04 1.9E-04 4.9E-04 3.1E-04 ΔQ2 0.39534
1.2E-03 8.0E-04 4.4E-03 2.4E-03 7.3E-04 1.8E-03 1.2E-03 ΔQ3 0.35149
7.5E-04 6.3E-04 2.4E-03 6.6E-03 2.0E-03 5.1E-03 3.2E-03 ΔQ4 0.38474
2.3E-04 1.9E-04 7.3E-04 2.0E-03 4.6E-02 2.2E-03 9.9E-03 ΔQ5 0.06931
5.8E-04 4.9E-04 1.8E-03 5.1E-03 2.2E-03 1.3E-02 8.0E-03 ΔQ6 0.83237
3.7E-04 3.1E-04 1.2E-03 3.2E-03 9.9E-03 8.0E-03 7.4E-02 ΔQ7 0.55268
193
Iteration3
Head
1 -0.461 1000 1000 100 -0.51 2.04
2 2.616 750 925 100 47.35 33.49
3 0.311 750 1000 100 1.00 5.93
4 2.461 750 925 100 42.30 31.80
5 1.772 500 350 100 62.82 65.57
6 0.772 500 671 100 25.91 62.05
7 -0.228 500 400 100 -1.61 13.09
8 1.426 500 650 100 78.05 101.24
9 -0.122 750 1000 120 -0.13 1.91
10 4.077 1000 1000 120 20.45 9.28
11 7.923 1000 925 120 64.68 15.10
12 6.801 1000 800 120 42.18 11.47
13 1.851 750 763 120 14.70 14.69
14 3.950 1000 650 120 12.54 5.87
15 1.047 750 400 120 2.69 4.75
16 1.898 750 125 120 2.52 2.46
17 -0.898 750 400 120 -2.02 4.17
18 1.068 500 125 120 6.27 10.87
19 -0.966 500 800 120 -33.34 63.85
20 0.034 500 125 120 0.01 0.58
21 0.835 500 800 120 25.48 56.44
22 0.199 500 1000 120 2.23 20.81
73.26 -33.5 -5.9 0 0 0 0 -5.54
-33.5 59.78 0 -1.91 0 0 0 3.00
-5.9 0 247.88 -101.2 0 0 0 10.07
0 -1.91 -101.24 197.73 -5.87 -56.4 0 0.21
0 0 0 -5.87 25.31 0 -4.75 0.52
0 0 0 -56.4 0 131.73 -10.87 -14.12
0 0 0 0 -4.75 -10.87 22.24 -0.96
Inverted Matrix
1.8E-02 1.0E-02 6.4E-04 5.0E-04 1.4E-04 2.2E-04 1.4E-04 ΔQ1 -0.06775
1.0E-02 2.3E-02 4.6E-04 5.3E-04 1.5E-04 2.4E-04 1.5E-04 ΔQ2 0.01168
6.4E-04 4.6E-04 5.3E-03 3.2E-03 9.1E-04 1.4E-03 8.9E-04 ΔQ3 0.03167
5.0E-04 5.3E-04 3.2E-03 7.8E-03 2.2E-03 3.5E-03 2.2E-03 ΔQ4 -0.01795
1.4E-04 1.5E-04 9.1E-04 2.2E-03 4.2E-02 1.8E-03 9.8E-03 ΔQ5 -0.00297
2.2E-04 2.4E-04 1.4E-03 3.5E-03 1.8E-03 9.5E-03 5.0E-03 ΔQ6 -0.12344
1.4E-04 1.5E-04 8.9E-04 2.2E-03 9.8E-03 5.0E-03 5.0E-02 ΔQ7 -0.10401
194
Iteration4
Head
1 -0.529 1000 1000 100 -0.66 2.29
2 2.536 750 925 100 44.73 32.62
3 0.212 750 1000 100 0.49 4.28
4 2.529 750 925 100 44.48 32.54
5 1.741 500 350 100 60.76 64.57
6 0.741 500 671 100 23.98 59.88
7 -0.259 500 400 100 -2.05 14.62
8 1.476 500 650 100 83.14 104.22
9 -0.151 750 1000 120 -0.19 2.29
10 4.065 1000 1000 120 20.35 9.26
11 7.935 1000 925 120 64.86 15.12
12 6.783 1000 800 120 41.97 11.45
13 1.848 750 763 120 14.66 14.67
14 3.935 1000 650 120 12.45 5.85
15 0.946 750 400 120 2.23 4.35
16 1.794 750 125 120 2.27 2.34
17 -0.794 750 400 120 -1.61 3.75
18 1.049 500 125 120 6.06 10.70
19 -0.843 500 800 120 -25.89 56.85
20 0.157 500 125 120 0.18 2.14
21 0.941 500 800 120 31.75 62.44
22 0.217 500 1000 120 2.62 22.40
71.73 -32.6 -4.3 0 0 0 0 -0.08
-32.6 59.30 0 -2.29 0 0 0 0.03
-4.3 0 247.58 -104.2 0 0 0 0.03
0 -2.29 -104.22 208.65 -5.85 -62.4 0 -0.22
0 0 0 -5.85 24.88 0 -4.35 0.02
0 0 0 -62.4 0 132.12 -10.70 -0.02
0 0 0 0 -4.35 -10.70 21.15 -0.05
Inverted Matrix
1.9E-02 1.0E-02 5.0E-04 4.3E-04 1.3E-04 2.2E-04 1.3E-04 ΔQ1 -0.00132
1.0E-02 2.3E-02 4.0E-04 5.3E-04 1.5E-04 2.6E-04 1.7E-04 ΔQ2 -0.00031
5.0E-04 4.0E-04 5.4E-03 3.2E-03 9.3E-04 1.6E-03 1.0E-03 ΔQ3 -0.00062
4.3E-04 5.3E-04 3.2E-03 7.6E-03 2.2E-03 3.8E-03 2.4E-03 ΔQ4 -0.00174
1.3E-04 1.5E-04 9.3E-04 2.2E-03 4.2E-02 1.8E-03 9.6E-03 ΔQ5 -0.00009
2.2E-04 2.6E-04 1.6E-03 3.8E-03 1.8E-03 9.8E-03 5.3E-03 ΔQ6 -0.00116
1.3E-04 1.7E-04 1.0E-03 2.4E-03 9.6E-03 5.3E-03 5.2E-02 ΔQ7 -0.00276
195
Iteration5
Head
1 -0.530 1000 1000 100 -0.66 2.30
2 2.535 750 925 100 44.69 32.61
3 0.211 750 1000 100 0.49 4.26
4 2.530 750 925 100 44.52 32.55
5 1.741 500 350 100 60.80 64.59
6 0.741 500 671 100 24.01 59.92
7 -0.259 500 400 100 -2.04 14.59
8 1.477 500 650 100 83.26 104.29
9 -0.153 750 1000 120 -0.19 2.31
10 4.066 1000 1000 120 20.35 9.26
11 7.934 1000 925 120 64.85 15.12
12 6.782 1000 800 120 41.95 11.44
13 1.848 750 763 120 14.66 14.67
14 3.934 1000 650 120 12.44 5.85
15 0.943 750 400 120 2.21 4.34
16 1.791 750 125 120 2.27 2.34
17 -0.791 750 400 120 -1.60 3.74
18 1.050 500 125 120 6.08 10.71
19 -0.841 500 800 120 -25.82 56.78
20 0.159 500 125 120 0.18 2.15
21 0.940 500 800 120 31.72 62.41
22 0.218 500 1000 120 2.66 22.55
71.73 -32.6 -4.3 0 0 0 0 0.00
-32.6 59.30 0 -2.31 0 0 0 0.00
-4.3 0 247.66 -104.3 0 0 0 0.00
0 -2.31 -104.29 208.85 -5.85 -62.4 0 0.00
0 0 0 -5.85 24.87 0 -4.34 0.00
0 0 0 -62.4 0 132.05 -10.71 0.00
0 0 0 0 -4.34 -10.71 21.14 0.00
Inverted Matrix
1.9E-02 1.0E-02 5.0E-04 4.3E-04 1.3E-04 2.2E-04 1.3E-04 ΔQ1 0.00000
1.0E-02 2.3E-02 4.0E-04 5.3E-04 1.5E-04 2.7E-04 1.7E-04 ΔQ2 0.00000
5.0E-04 4.0E-04 5.4E-03 3.2E-03 9.3E-04 1.6E-03 1.0E-03 ΔQ3 0.00000
4.3E-04 5.3E-04 3.2E-03 7.6E-03 2.2E-03 3.8E-03 2.4E-03 ΔQ4 0.00000
1.3E-04 1.5E-04 9.3E-04 2.2E-03 4.2E-02 1.8E-03 9.6E-03 ΔQ5 0.00000
2.2E-04 2.7E-04 1.6E-03 3.8E-03 1.8E-03 9.8E-03 5.3E-03 ΔQ6 0.00000
1.3E-04 1.7E-04 1.0E-03 2.4E-03 9.6E-03 5.3E-03 5.2E-02 ΔQ7 0.00000
196
Project (semester II 2016-2017)

Perform pipe network analysis and calculate water flow and head losses in all branches.
Roughness of the pipes can be taken to be e = 0.29 mm. pipes are all at the same level.
197
Project (semester I - 2017-2018)

Perform pipe network analysis and calculate water flow in all branches, pressure at the junction
between pipes 16 and 17, and fill the following table. Roughness of the pipes is (e = 0.29 mm).
Diameter Length Suggested Q final Q Power

Pipe e/D f K hf (m)
(mm) (m) (m3/s) (m3/s) (watt)
1 1000 1000
2 750 925
3 750 1000
4 750 925
5 500 350
6 500 671
7 500 400
8 500 650
9 750 1000
10 1000 1000
11 1000 925
12 1000 800
13 750 763
14 1000 650
15 750 400
16 750 125
17 750 400
18 500 125
19 500 800
20 500 125
21 500 800
22 500 1000
Pressure difference starting at the node between pipe 1 and 4 until the node between pipes 16 and 17 using two different paths =
………………………………….Pascal
198
Show the suggested flow distribution within the network:
199
Show that the” inflow=outflow” for all the nodes within the network:
200
Do at least three cycles of corrections:
201
Project (sem. I 2018-2019)

Perform pipe network analysis and (a) calculate water flow in all branches,(b) compare pressure
drop along the whole network in different paths, and (3) fill the following tables. (e = 0.25 mm).
Diameter Length Suggested Q final Q Power

Pipe e/D f K hf (m)
(mm) (m) (m3/s) (m3/s) (watt)
1 1325 400
2 1325 375
3 1325 375
4 1050 400
5 1050 550
6 1050 350
7 1050 350
8 1050 660
9 1050 950
10 1050 550
11 1050 370
12 1050 370
13 1050 376
14 1050 950
15 1050 450
16 1050 350
17 1050 350
18 1050 950
Pressure Drop = (……………………………..), (……………………………..), (……………………………..) Pascal
202
Do at least three cycles of corrections:
203
Chapter 7: Open channel flow

7.1 Introduction
Open channel flow , A branch of hydraulics, can be defined as fluid flow with a free
surface open to the atmosphere (water is free to go up and down according to the flow
conditions). Examples include streams, rivers and culverts not flowing full.
Open channel flow assumes that the pressure at the surface is constant (atmospheric)
and the hydraulic grade line matches the surface of the fluid.
The other type of flow within a conduit is a pipe pressurized flow. These two types of
flow are similar in many ways, but differ in one important aspect: open-channel flow has a
free surface, whereas pipe pressurized flow does not.
Figure 7.1 Examples of open channels
An open channel is a physical system in which water flows with a free surface. A
channel can be classified as either natural or artificial channel according to its origin:
Natural channels include all watercourses of varying sizes:

 Small and large rivers.
 Stream: a body of running water (such as a river or brook) flowing on the earth.
 Tiny hillside rivulets: a small stream between hills.
 Brook: a small, natural stream of fresh water.
 Tidal estuaries that exist naturally on the earth.
1. The part of the wide lower course of a river where its current is met by the tides.
2. An arm of the sea that extends inland to meet the mouth of a river.
 Subsurface streams carrying water with a free surface are also treated as natural open
channels.
204
Artificial channels are those constructed or developed by human effort such as:
 Gutters
1. A channel at the edge of a street or road for carrying off surface water.
2. A trough fixed under or along the eaves for draining rainwater from a roof. Also
called regionally eaves trough, rainspout, spouting.
3. A furrow or groove formed by running water.
4. A trough or channel for carrying something off, such as that on either side of a
bowlin galley or that almost level with the water in some swimming pools.
 Drainage channel: A channel for conveying storm-water runoff; usually lined with
concrete, grass, riprap, or the like, to reduce erosion of the channel.
 Ditches: a long, narrow excavation made in the ground by digging, as for draining or
irrigating land.
 Trench.
 Floodways.
 Tunnels.
 log chutes:(chute: an inclined channel, as a trough, tube, or shaft,for conveying water
to a lowerlevel, or a waterfall or steep descent, as in a river)
 Navigation channels: A deeper channel cut into the sea or river bed, to enable
larger ships to pass through to a port.
 Power canals: a canal used for hydraulic power generation, rather than for transport
of watercraft.
 Trough:a channel or conduit for conveying water, as agutter under the eaves of a buil
ding for carryingaway rain water.
 spillways
 Model channels that are built in the laboratory for experimental investigation studies.
 Long distance canals: constructed to achieve the interbasin transfer of water at
National and International levels.
The artificial channel is known by different names, such as " canal "," chute", "culvert",
"drop", "flumes" and "open - flow tunnel", Aqueduct.
The canal is usually a long and mild-sloped channel built in the ground, which may be
lined or unlined with stone masonry, concrete, cement, wood or bituminous materials etc.
205
Figure 7.2 Examples of natural channels
7.2 Difference between pressurized flow and non-pressurized flow:
The main differences bewteen open channel flow and pipe pressurized flow are:
- Pipe pressurized flow fills the entire conduit completely, so that the flow boundaries
are fixed by the conduit geometry: Aflow = Aboundary . While the area of the flow in non-
pressurized open channel flow is related to the flow parameters.
- Pressurized pipe flow posseses a hydraulic pressure that varies from one section to
another along the pipe line. While, open channel flow has a free surface under
atmospheric pressure where the depth adjust itself depending on the flow conditions
(Q, bed slope So, boundary friction, geometry). We need to emphasize that the free
surface is subject to atmospheric pressure which remains constant throughout the
entire length of the channel.
- Open channel non-pressurized flow is driven by the component of the gravitational

force along the channel slope while the driving force in pressurized flow is mainly the
pressure within the flow.
206
Figure 7.3 Examples of artificial channels
207
- Water level in each peizometer represent the

pressure head (P/) in the pipe at the section
itself. Values are positive and variable.
- HGL: (hyd. Grade line), a line connecting the

water levels in the two peizometers tubes.
- EGL: (the total energy grade line) at any

section which is the sum of the elevation
potential head (Z), the pressure head (P/),
2 𝑉2
and the velocity head (𝑉 ⁄2𝑔). [𝑍 + 𝑦 + ].
2𝑔
- The amount of energy lost when water flows

from section (1) into section (2) is indicated as
h L.
- The free water surface in figure (b) is Figure 7.4 Comparison between the energy for the
subjected to atmospheric pressure only (zero pressurized pipe flow and the non-pressurized
pressure reference). flow in open channel.
- The pressure distribution at any section is

directly proportional to the depth from free
water surface.
- In the case of open channel flows. The water

surface line corresponds to the hydraulic
grade line in pipe flow.
208
The following table summerizes the differences between pressurized pipe flow and the free
surface (open channel) flow:
OPEN CHANNEL FLOW PIPE FLOW
 The upper surface of the fluid is exposed to  A pipe is a closed conduit and the fluid is
atmosphere. under pressure.
 The driving force of flow is the gravity  The flow in a pipe is termed as pipe flow only
component at the direction of flow. when the fluid completely fills the cross
 Flow conditions are greatly influenced by section with no free surface of fluid.
the channel slope.  Hydraulic grade line does not coincide with
 Hydraulic grade line coincides with the the water surface.
water surface.  The maximum velocity occurs at the pipe
 The maximum velocity occurs at a little centre.
distance below the water surface.  Velocity Distribution is symmetrical about
 The shape of the velocity profile is the pipe axis
dependent on the channel roughness.
7.2 Important definitions:
 Open channel flow: the flow of water in any conduit with the fluid surface exposed to
the atmosphere (free surface).
 Open channel hydraulics: the study of the mechanics of water flowing in open
conduits, which generally include channels, streams, and pipes (not flowing under
pressure).
 Non presmatic channel: if the channel changes shape, slope, or alignment.
 Uniform presmatic channel: the channel maintains a constant shape and slope.
 Discharge: volume flow of the fluid passing through a flow section per unit time.
 The slope of the channel bottom (So): the vertical fall of the channel bottom divided
by the horizontal run of the bottom.
209
Example 7.1
a channel bottom that drops 1 m in a
length of 20 m has a slope of:
𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 1𝑚 𝑚
𝑆𝑜 = = = 0.05 = 5%.
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 20𝑚 𝑚
Figure 7.5 The slope of the channel bottom
 Water surface slope (sw): drop of water surface divided by the horizontal run of the
bottom.
 Slope of energy grade line (s): drop of energy grade line divided by the horizontal run
of the bottom.
 The depth of flow (D)or (y): the vertical distance from the bottom of the channel to
the water surface.
 Lining of the channel: the material used to form a channel. Channels are constructed
of many different materials, ranging from grass, lined soil to stone or concrete.
- The type of material forming the channel affects the flow because it increases or
decreases velocity at the interface between the water and the channel lining.
- The effect of lining on the velocity of the channel will affect the cross-section area
and the depth of flow.
- The maximum velocity within the section of flow occurs just below the free surface
in the center of the channel and can reach a magnitude of 2 to 2.5 times the
average velocity.
- The lowest velocity is located along the channel lining.
Figure 7.6: Velocity Distribution - open channel, the number indicates percentage of maximum velocity.
210
𝑻+𝑩
 The cross sectional area: the area of a cross section of the flowing fluid: 𝑨 = ( )𝑫
𝟐
 Top width (T): width of the channel section at the free surface.
Figure 7.7 Different channel-cross sections
 Wetted perimeter (P): the distance along the channel cross section that is in contact
with flowing water.
P= sum of the distance ab, bc, and cd.
 Hydraulic radius (Rh): the cross sectional area divided by the wetted perimeter
𝑨
[𝑹𝒉 = ] .
𝑷
𝑸
 Average velocity (V): the discharge divided by the flow rate: [𝑽 = ].
𝑨
𝑨
 Hydraulic depth (Dh): flow area divided by the top width [𝑫𝒉 = ].
𝑻
 Side slope (m, or z): slope of the channel sides defined as vertical over horizontal.
 Bottom width (B): width of the channel section at the bottom.
Figure 7.8 Trapezoidal channel section parameters
211
7.3 Analysis of open channel flow problems:
Open channel hydraulics is the study of the mechanics of water flowing in open
conduits, which generally include channels, streams, and pipes not flowing under pressure.
This study requires to introduce interdependent relationships between the factors

affecting the flow: bed slope of the channel bottom So, discharge Q, water depth y, the
resistance of the boundary, and channel intersection geometry.
It should be indicated that the area of the intersection in open channel flow is a
function of depth y which is a function of flow discharge Q, unlike the pressurized flow where
the area of the flow is the same as the area of the pipe. This means that it is required to relate
the area to the depth of flow.
Many ideas can be made about the previous factors to give better understanding of
the relation required to relate them together.
 Case 1: Assume a channel that has constant flow discharge Q

If the slope of the channel was increased given constant discharge. Then the
driving force will increase. It is expected that the velocity will increase and the
depth of flow and intersection area will decrease.
 Case 2: Assume that the channel resistance was increased

It is expected that the flow depth and intersection area will increase and the
velocity will decrease.
 Case 3: Other factors can be considered also

If the area of the channel was increased by increasing the width or side slopes,
it is expected that the depth of flow will decrease. can not know the effect on
area of flow.
In 1769, the French engineer Antoine Chezy developed the first uniform-flow formula.
This formula was derived based on two assumptions. The first assumption, Chezy assumed
that the force resisting the flow per unit area of the stream bed is proportional to the square
of the velocity (KV2), with K being a proportionality constant. The second assumption was
that the channel was undergoing uniform flow which requires that the depth of flow is
constant.
The Manning formula was introduced later. It is an empirical formula estimating the
average velocity of a liquid flowing in a conduit that does not completely enclose the liquid,
It was first presented by the French engineer Philippe Gauckler in 1867, and later re-
developed by the Irish engineer Robert Manning in 1890. more details will be shown in
section 7.
212
Figure 7.9: Channels with different lining materials
213
Table 7.1 Characteristics of different cross sections Area Wetted Hydraulic Radius Top Width Hydraulic depth
Section (A) Perimeter (P) (Rh) (T) (Dh)
𝑏𝑦
𝑏𝑦 𝑏 + 2𝑦 𝑏 𝑦
𝑏 + 2𝑦
(𝑏 + 𝑚𝑦)𝑦
1 (𝑏 + 𝑚𝑦)𝑦 (𝑏 + 𝑚𝑦)𝑦
[𝑏𝑦 + (𝑚𝑦)𝑦 × 𝑏 + 2𝑦√1 + 𝑚2 𝑏 + 2𝑚𝑦
2 𝑏 + 2𝑦√1 + 𝑚2 𝑏 + 2𝑚𝑦
× 2]
𝑚𝑦
𝑚𝑦 2 2𝑦√1 + 𝑚2 2𝑚𝑦 𝑦/2
2√1 + 𝑚2
1
(2𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃)𝑑𝑜2
8
If the level of water y is
less than the center of
the pipe:
(𝑑𝑜 /2) − 𝑦 1 sin 2𝜃 (sin 𝜃)𝑑0 or 1 2𝜃 − sin 2𝜃
𝜃 = cos−1 𝜃𝑑𝑜 (1 − ) 𝑑𝑜 ( ) 𝑑𝑜
𝑑𝑜 /2 4 2𝜃 2√𝑦(𝑑𝑜 − 𝑦) 8 sin 𝜃
If the leve yl is higher
than the center of the
pipe:
𝑦 − 𝑑𝑜 /2
𝜃 = 90𝑜 + sin−1
𝑑𝑜 /2
214
7.4 Open channel flow classification:

Open channel flow may be classified by space and time creteria.
 Based on the space criterion:

Uniform flow: if the water depth (D) remains the same throughout a length of
channel at a given time.
Note that the depth D at all the

different reaches may change with
time keeping the case uniform
flow.
Uniform flow is more likely to

occur in prismatic channels where
the cross sectional area and
bottom slope do not change.
Varied flow: if the water depth or discharge change along the length of the channel
 can be: gradually varied flow or rapidly varied flow.
Gradually varied flow GVF: occurs when the change of flow depth is small;
and rapidly varied flow: is the case when the change of flow depth is large in
small distance, for example a wave, waterfall, or the rapid transition from a
stream channel into the inlet of a culvert.
Figure 7.10: Different types of flow based on space criterion
215
 Based on the time criterion, open channel flow may be classified into two
categories:
Steady flow: the velocity and water depth at any section do not change with time.
They might be different from one point to another but the whole picture is fixed
with time.
Unsteady flow: the velocity and water depth at any section change with time.
(unsteady uniform flows are very rare in nature).
Figure 7.11: Different types of varied flows
7.4.1 Uniform flow in open channels:

In uniform prismatic channels, when water flows with a constant rate Q and depth
D or y along the channel, the resulting water surface profile will be parallel to the channel
bottom.
Uniform flow in an open channel must satisfy the following conditions:

1. The water depth D or y, flow area A, discharge Q, and velocity distribution must
remain unchanged in all sections of the entire channel reach.
2. The EGL, the water surface D or y, and the channel bottom must be parallel to
each other (se=sw.s=so).
3. Water in an open channel can reach the state of uniform only if no acceleration
or deceleration takes place between sections (∑𝐹 = 0). This is possible only
when the gravity force component and the resistance to the flow are equal and
opposite in direction.
7.4.2 Chezy’s Formula

A free body diagram can be taken between two sections (control volume) of a
uniform open channel flow to show the balance of the forces components of gravity and
resistance .
216
Figure 7.12: Free body diagram of uniform flow in open channel
The forces acting on the FBD in the direction of flow include:

i. The hydrostatic pressure forces, F1 and F2, acting on the control volume.
ii. The weight of the water body in the reach, W, which has a component Wsin
, in the direction of flow.
iii. The resistance force, Ff, exerted by the channel (bottom and sides) on the
flow.
 Summing all the components of these forces in the direction of flow, given
that the case is uniform flow
 (∑𝐹 = 0)  no acceleration:
 ∑𝐹 = 0;
 𝐹1 + 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛() − 𝐹2 − 𝐹𝑓 = 0
 𝐹1 = 𝐹2 (Uniform Flow), no change in water depth.
 The total weight of the water body is:
 𝑊 =  𝐴 𝐿 , (A: cross sectional area, L: length of reach),
 Small slope  𝑠𝑖𝑛 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 𝑆𝑜  𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛() =  𝐴 𝐿 𝑆𝑜 .
 The resistance force (Ff ) exerted by the channel boundaries may be
expressed in terms of resistance force per unit area (shear stress)
multiplied by the total channel bed area that is in contact with the flowing
water.
 Channel contact area is the product of the wetted perimeter (P) and the
length of the channel reach (L).
 In 1769, a French engineer , Antonie Chezy assumed that the shear stress
is proportional to the square of mean velocity 
0 V2  the total resistance force Ff = 0 PL = k v2 PL, (P:wetted perimeter,
0 resistance force of channel bed per unit area) 
217
𝐹1 + 𝑤 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 − 𝐹2 − 𝐹𝑓 = 0 ,
 cancelling F1 and F2 and substituting Ff = k v2 PL and Wsin()=  A L S0 ,

and having So = Se for uniform flow 
𝛾 𝐴
𝑉 = √(( ) 𝑆0 ( )) = 𝑉 = 𝐶 √𝑅ℎ 𝑆𝑒 (7.1)
𝐾 𝑃
Which is known as Chezy’s formula for open channel flow with C =Chezy’s resistance
factor.
7.4.2 Manning equation:

Many attempts have been made to determine the value of Chezy’s C. The simplest
relationship and the most widely applied is derived from the work of an Irish engineer,
Robert Manning (1891-1895). Manning derived the following empirical relations:
1/6
𝐶 = 1/𝑛 𝑅ℎ
In which n is known as Manning cofficient of channel roughness. Manning equation is
written as:
2 1
1 3 2
𝑉 = 𝑅ℎ 𝑆𝑒 (S.I units) (7.2)
𝑛
2 1
1 3 2
𝑄 = 𝑅ℎ 𝐴 𝑆𝑒 (7.3)
𝑛
𝑚
Where,[𝑉 ( 𝑠 ) , 𝑅ℎ (𝑚), 𝑄 (𝑚3 /𝑠), 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐴)(𝑚2 )]
2 1
1.49 3 2
𝑉= 𝑅ℎ 𝑆𝑒 ,(English units) (7.4)
𝑛
2 1
1.49 3 2
𝑄= 𝑅ℎ 𝐴 𝑆𝑒 , (English units) (7.5)
𝑛
𝑓𝑡
Where, [𝑉 ( 𝑠 ) , 𝑅ℎ (𝑓𝑡), 𝑄 (𝑓𝑡 3 /𝑠), 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐴)(𝑓𝑡 2 )].
218
Table 7.2 Typical values of Manning n Compiled from tables presented by Chow 1959].
Material n
Metal
Steel 0.012
Cast iron 0.013
Corrugated metal 0.025
Non-metal
Lucite 0.009
Glass 0.01
Cement 0.011
Concrete 0.013
Wood 0.012
Clay 0.013
Brickwork 0.013
Gunite 0.019
Masonary 0.025
Rock cuts 0.035
Natural streams
Clean and straight 0.03
Bottom:gravel, cobbles and boulders 0.04
Bottom: cobbles with large boulders 0.05
219
Table 7.2 (continue)Manning's n Coefficients (Detailed values)

A-(Source: U.S. Soil Conservation Service 1986.)
Lined Channels Manning's n
Concrete, with surfaces as indicated Formed, no finish 0.013 – 0.017

Trowel finish 0.012 – 0.014
Float finish 0.013 – 0.015
Float finish, gravel on bottom 0.015 – 0.017
Gunite, good section 0.016 – 0.019
Gunite, wavy section 0.018 – 0.022
Concrete, bottom float-finished, sides as Dressed stone in mortar 0.015 – 0.017

indicated
Random stone in mortar 0.017 – 0.020
Cement rubble masonry 0.020 – 0.025
Cement rubble masonry, plastered 0.016 – 0.020
Dry rubble (riprap) 0.020 – 0.030
Gravel bottom, sides as indicated Formed concrete 0.017 – 0.020
Random stone in mortar 0.020 – 0.023
Dry rubble (riprap) 0.023 – 0.033
Brick 0.014 – 0.017
Asphalt Smooth 0.013
Rough 0.016
Wood, planed, clean 0.011 – 0.013
Concrete-lined excavated rock Good section 0.017 – 0.020
Irregular section 0.022 – 0.027
Unlined Channels Manning's n
Earth, uniform section Clean, recently completed 0.016 – 0.018

Clean, after weathering 0.018 – 0.020
With short grass, few weeds 0.022 – 0.027
In gravely soil, uniform section, clean 0.022 – 0.025
Earth, fairly uniform section No vegetation 0.022 – 0.025
Grass, some weeds 0.025 – 0.030
Dense weeds or aquatic plants in deep 0.030 – 0.035

channels
Sides clean, gravel bottom 0.025 – 0.030
220
Sides clean, cobble bottom 0.030 – 0.040
Dragline excavated or dredged No vegetation 0.028 – 0.033
Light brush on banks 0.035 – 0.050
Rock: Based on design section 0.035
Based on actual mean section Smooth and uniform 0.035 – 0.040
Jagged and irregular 0.040 – 0.045
Channels not maintained, weeds and brush Dense weeds, high as flow depth 0.08 – 0.12
uncut
Clean bottom, brush on sides 0.05 – 0.08
Clean bottom, brush on sides, highest stage of flow 0.07 – 0.11
Dense brush, high stage 0.10 – 0.14
Highway Channels and Swales with Maintained Vegetation Manning's n

(Values shown are for velocities of 2 and 5 fps)
Depth of flow up to 0.7 ft.
Bermuda grass, Kentucky bluegrass, buffalo Mowed to 2 in. 0.07 – 0.045

grass
Length 4 to 6 in. 0.09 – 0.05
Good Stand, any grass Length about 12 in. 0.18 – 0.09
Length about 24 in. 0.30 – 0.15
Fair stand, any grass Length about 12 in. 0.14 – 0.08
Depth flow 0.7 ft. to 1.5 ft.
Bermuda grass, Kentucky bluegrass, buffalo Mowed to 2 in. 0.05 – 0.035

grass
Length 4 to 6 in. 0.06 – 0.04
Good Stand, any grass Length about 12 in. 0.12 – 0.07
Fair stand, any grass Length about 12 in. 0.10 – 0.06
Gutters Manning's n
Concrete gutter Troweled finish 0.012

Asphalt pavement Smooth texture 0.013
221
Rough texture 0.016
Concrete gutter with asphalt pavement Smooth 0.013
Rough 0.015
Concrete pavement Float finish 0.014
Broom finish 0.016
For gutters with small slope, where sediment may accumulate, increase all above values of 0.002
n by
Table 7.2 (continue)

B- Manning's n for Channels (Chow, 1959).
Type of Channel and Description Minimum Normal Maximum
Natural streams - minor streams (top width at floodstage < 100 ft)
1. Main Channels
a. clean, straight, full stage, no rifts or deep pools 0.025 0.030 0.033
b. same as above, but more stones and weeds 0.030 0.035 0.040
c. clean, winding, some pools and shoals 0.033 0.040 0.045
d. same as above, but some weeds and stones 0.035 0.045 0.050
e. same as above, lower stages, more ineffective
0.040 0.048 0.055
slopes and sections
f. same as "d" with more stones 0.045 0.050 0.060
g. sluggish reaches, weedy, deep pools 0.050 0.070 0.080
h. very weedy reaches, deep pools, or floodways
0.075 0.100 0.150
with heavy stand of timber and underbrush
2. Mountain streams, no vegetation in channel, banks usually steep, trees and brush along banks
submerged at high stages
a. bottom: gravels, cobbles, and few boulders 0.030 0.040 0.050
b. bottom: cobbles with large boulders 0.040 0.050 0.070
3. Floodplains
a. Pasture, no brush
1.short grass 0.025 0.030 0.035
2. high grass 0.030 0.035 0.050
b. Cultivated areas
1. no crop 0.020 0.030 0.040
2. mature row crops 0.025 0.035 0.045
3. mature field crops 0.030 0.040 0.050
c. Brush
1. scattered brush, heavy weeds 0.035 0.050 0.070
2. light brush and trees, in winter 0.035 0.050 0.060
3. light brush and trees, in summer 0.040 0.060 0.080
4. medium to dense brush, in winter 0.045 0.070 0.110
222
5. medium to dense brush, in summer 0.070 0.100 0.160

d. Trees
1. dense willows, summer, straight 0.110 0.150 0.200
2. cleared land with tree stumps, no sprouts 0.030 0.040 0.050
3. same as above, but with heavy growth of sprouts 0.050 0.060 0.080
4. heavy stand of timber, a few down trees, little
0.080 0.100 0.120
undergrowth, flood stage below branches
5. same as 4. with flood stage reaching branches 0.100 0.120 0.160
4. Excavated or Dredged Channels Minimum Normal Maximum
a. Earth, straight, and uniform
1. clean, recently completed 0.016 0.018 0.020
2. clean, after weathering 0.018 0.022 0.025
3. gravel, uniform section, clean 0.022 0.025 0.030
4. with short grass, few weeds 0.022 0.027 0.033
b. Earth winding and sluggish
1. no vegetation 0.023 0.025 0.030
2. grass, some weeds 0.025 0.030 0.033
3. dense weeds or aquatic plants in deep channels 0.030 0.035 0.040
4. earth bottom and rubble sides 0.028 0.030 0.035
5. stony bottom and weedy banks 0.025 0.035 0.040
6. cobble bottom and clean sides 0.030 0.040 0.050
c. Dragline-excavated or dredged
1. no vegetation 0.025 0.028 0.033
2. light brush on banks 0.035 0.050 0.060
d. Rock cuts
1. smooth and uniform 0.025 0.035 0.040
2. jagged and irregular 0.035 0.040 0.050
e. Channels not maintained, weeds and brush uncut
1. dense weeds, high as flow depth 0.050 0.080 0.120
2. clean bottom, brush on sides 0.040 0.050 0.080
3. same as above, highest stage of flow 0.045 0.070 0.110
4. dense brush, high stage 0.080 0.100 0.140
5. Lined or Constructed Channels Minimum Normal Maximum

a. Cement
1. neat surface 0.010 0.011 0.013
2. mortar 0.011 0.013 0.015
b. Wood
1. planed, untreated 0.010 0.012 0.014
2. planed, creosoted 0.011 0.012 0.015
223
3. unplaned 0.011 0.013 0.015

4. plank with battens 0.012 0.015 0.018
5. lined with roofing paper 0.010 0.014 0.017
c. Concrete
1. trowel finish 0.011 0.013 0.015
2. float finish 0.013 0.015 0.016
3. finished, with gravel on bottom 0.015 0.017 0.020
4. unfinished 0.014 0.017 0.020
5. gunite, good section 0.016 0.019 0.023
6. gunite, wavy section 0.018 0.022 0.025
7. on good excavated rock 0.017 0.020
8. on irregular excavated rock 0.022 0.027
d. Concrete bottom float finish with sides of:
1. dressed stone in mortar 0.015 0.017 0.020
2. random stone in mortar 0.017 0.020 0.024
3. cement rubble masonry, plastered 0.016 0.020 0.024
4. cement rubble masonry 0.020 0.025 0.030
5. dry rubble or riprap 0.020 0.030 0.035
e. Gravel bottom with sides of:
1. formed concrete 0.017 0.020 0.025
2. random stone mortar 0.020 0.023 0.026
3. dry rubble or riprap 0.023 0.033 0.036
f. Brick
1. glazed 0.011 0.013 0.015
2. in cement mortar 0.012 0.015 0.018
g. Masonry
1. cemented rubble 0.017 0.025 0.030
2. dry rubble 0.023 0.032 0.035
h. Dressed ashlar/stone paving 0.013 0.015 0.017
i. Asphalt
1. smooth 0.013 0.013
2. rough 0.016 0.016
j. Vegetal lining 0.030 0.500
224

C- Manning's n for Closed Conduits Flowing Partly Full (Chow, 1959).
Type of Conduit and Description Minimum Normal Maximum
1. Brass, smooth: 0.009 0.010 0.013
2. Steel:
Lockbar and welded 0.010 0.012 0.014
Riveted and spiral 0.013 0.016 0.017
3. Cast Iron:
Coated 0.010 0.013 0.014
Uncoated 0.011 0.014 0.016
4. Wrought Iron:
Black 0.012 0.014 0.015
Galvanized 0.013 0.016 0.017
5. Corrugated Metal:
Subdrain 0.017 0.019 0.021
Stormdrain 0.021 0.024 0.030
6. Cement:
Neat Surface 0.010 0.011 0.013
Mortar 0.011 0.013 0.015
7. Concrete:
Culvert, straight and free of debris 0.010 0.011 0.013
Culvert with bends, connections, and some debris 0.011 0.013 0.014
Finished 0.011 0.012 0.014
Sewer with manholes, inlet, etc., straight 0.013 0.015 0.017
Unfinished, steel form 0.012 0.013 0.014
Unfinished, smooth wood form 0.012 0.014 0.016
Unfinished, rough wood form 0.015 0.017 0.020
8. Wood:
Stave 0.010 0.012 0.014
Laminated, treated 0.015 0.017 0.020
9. Clay:
Common drainage tile 0.011 0.013 0.017
Vitrified sewer 0.011 0.014 0.017
Vitrified sewer with manholes, inlet, etc. 0.013 0.015 0.017
Vitrified Subdrain with open joint 0.014 0.016 0.018
10. Brickwork:
Glazed 0.011 0.013 0.015
Lined with cement mortar 0.012 0.015 0.017
Sanitary sewers coated with sewage slime with 0.012 0.013 0.016
bends
Paved and connections
invert, sewer, smooth bottom 0.016 0.019 0.020
Rubble masonry, cemented 0.018 0.025 0.030
225

D- Manning's n for Corrugated Metal Pipe (AISI, 1980).
Type of Pipe, Diameter and Corrugation Dimension n
1. Annular 2.67 x 1/2 inch (all diameters) 0.024
2. Helical 1.50 x 1/4 inch
8" diameter 0.012
10" diameter 0.014
3. Helical 2.67 x 1/2 inch
12" diameter 0.011
18" diameter 0.014
24" diameter 0.016
36" diameter 0.019
48" diameter 0.020
60" diameter 0.021
4. Annular 3x1 inch (all diameters) 0.027
5. Helical 3x1 inch
48" diameter 0.023
54" diameter 0.023
60" diameter 0.024
66" diameter 0.025
72" diameter 0.026
78" diameter and larger 0.027
6. Corrugations 6x2 inches
60" diameter 0.033
72" diameter 0.032
120" diameter 0.030
180" diameter 0.028
226
Example 7.2:
a 3-m-wide rectangular channel carries a discharge of 25.3 m3/s at a uniform depth of
1.2 m. Determine the slope of the channel if Manning’s n cofficient is n=0.022.
Solution:
For a rectangular channel, the wetted perimeter and the hydraulic radius are:
𝐴 = 𝑏𝑦 = (3)(1.2) = 3.6 𝑚2
𝑃 = 𝑏 + 2𝑦 = 5.4 𝑚
𝐴 3.6 2
𝑅ℎ = = = = 0.667 𝑚
𝑃 5.4 3
2 1 1
1 1 2/3
Given: 𝑄 = 𝑅ℎ 𝐴 𝑆𝑒  25.3 =
3 2
0.022
0.667 (3.6) 𝑆𝑒  𝑆𝑜 = 𝑆𝑒 = 0.041
2
𝑛
Example 7.3:
If the discharge of the channel in the previous example is increased to 40 m3/s, what is
the normal depth of flow?
Solution:
The slope, the channel width b, and Manning’s n value are the same. Changing the flow
will change only the depth of flow.
The geometric parameters are:
𝐴 = 𝑏𝑦 = (3)𝑦
𝑃 = 𝑏 + 2𝑦 = 3 + 2𝑦
𝐴 3𝑦
𝑅ℎ = =
𝑃 3 + 2𝑦
Substituting these values into the Manning’s equation with n = 0.022 and So = 0.041:
2 1
1 1 3𝑦
𝑄 = 𝑅ℎ 𝐴 𝑆𝑒  40 =
3 2
(3𝑦)( )2/3 (0.041)1/2 
𝑛 0.022 3+2𝑦
2
3𝑦 3 (0.022)(40)
(3𝑦) ( ) = = 4.346
3+2𝑦 (0.041)1/2
To solve this problem, it is needed to assume successive values for Y and substitute into
the last equation until the left side is significantly close to the value (4.346) :
2
Y (3𝑦)(3𝑦/(3 + 2𝑦))3 %error
1.3 3.064189784 29.49402

1.4 3.386856699 22.06957
1.5 3.714668155 14.52673
1.6 4.047072048 6.878232
1.65 4.21484523 3.017827
1.69 4.349768525 -0.08671
227
The solution can be made by Excel to get more accurate value. It can be shown that
2
Y=1.68889 m will give (3𝑦)(3𝑦/(3 + 2𝑦)) = 4.346 with a percentage error
3
0.00022%.
Another approach can be used to solve this question by ploting Q versus Y and use the
plot to find the values of Y that corresponds to Q=40 m3/s.
228
Example 7.4:
Find the flow in the following figure if the slope of the channel is 0.0004 and n=0.024.
Side slopes are all 1:1.
Figure 7.13: cross section of the channel

Solution:
A=(3)(3)/2+(3)(20)+(5)(3+3+5)/2+(8)(3+5)+(5)(3+3+5)/2+(3)(25)+(3)(3)/2=263.0 m2
𝑃 = √32 + 32 + 20 + √52 + 52 + 8 + √52 + 52 + 25 + √32 + 32 = 75.63𝑚
R=A/P = 263 / 75.63 = 3.477 m
2
1 1/2 1
𝑄= 𝐴𝑅2/3 𝑆𝑜 = 263.0 (3.477) (0.0004)0.5 = 503 𝑚3 /𝑠
3
𝑛 0.024
229
Figure 7.14: Normal depth solution procedure; (a) Trapezoidal channels (m=side slops) and (b)
circular channels (do=diameter)
230
Tutorial 9
Q1. Calculate P, A, and R for the following channel section.
Sol:
P = the length of the red line =√13 + 1 + √8 + 0.8 + 1 + √2 + √1.25
Area(1)= (32/2)= 3m2

A(2)=21 = 2 m2
A(3)=22 =2 m2
A(4)=11/2= ½ m2
A(5)= 7.8  1 = 7.8 m2 ((7.8=1+2+1+3+0.8))
A (6) = 10.5 /2= 0.5 m2

A=  A(1 to 6)
231
7.5 Pipe (non-pressurized) flow:

Flow of water in pipe not under pressure (partially full) takes the following conditions.
 It conforms the laws of of open channel flow.
 Normal depth is computed using Manning’s equation.
 The only difference between pipe flow and rectangular channel flow is the
geometry of the cross section.
 Velocity distribution in a pipe is similar to that of any open channel flow.
 The principal applications of pipe flow are storm sewers, sanitary sewers, and
culverts.
Figure 7.15: velocity distribution in a circular pipe flowing part flow. Values are multiple of the
average velocity
Example7.5:
a 6-ft-diameter, concrete pipe is
flowing with a free surface (not under
pressure). If the pipe is laid on a slope
of 0.001 and carries a uniform flow at a
depth of 4 feet, what is the discharge?
Solution:
𝑦−𝑑𝑜 /2
𝜃 = 90𝑜 + sin−1
𝑑𝑜 /2
𝑜 −1
4−3 𝑜
109.5𝑜
𝜃 = 90 + sin = 109.5 = (2𝜋) = 0.608𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
3 360𝑜
The area of the circular section is:
1 1
𝐴 = (2𝜃 − sin 2𝜃)𝑑𝑜2 = [2(0.608𝜋) − sin 2(0.608𝜋)](6𝑓𝑡)2 = 20.0 𝑓𝑡 2
8 8
𝑃 = 𝜃𝑑𝑜 = (0.608𝜋)(6𝑓𝑡) = 11.5 𝑓𝑡
Then the hydraulic radius is
𝐴 20 𝑓𝑡 2
𝑅ℎ = = = 1.74𝑓𝑡
𝑃 11.5𝑓𝑡
2 1 2
1.49 1.49
using n=0.013  𝑄 = 𝑅ℎ3 𝐴 𝑆𝑒2 = (20)(1.74)3 (0.001)0.5 = 105 𝑓𝑡 3 /𝑠
𝑛 0.013
232
Example 7.6:
Find the quantity and velocity of flow in an 18-inch-diameter concrete pipe flowing one
quarter full. The slope of the pipe is 1.00 percent and the Manning’s n is 0.015.
Solution:
(𝑑𝑜 /2) − 𝑦
𝜃 = cos −1
𝑑𝑜 /2
cos −1 (18/2) − 4.5
𝜃= = 60𝑜 = 𝜋/3
18/2
2
1 1 18
𝐴 = 2𝜃 − sin 2𝜃 𝑑𝑜 = 2 𝜋/3 − sin 2 𝜋/3 ( 𝑓𝑡) = 0.345 𝑓𝑡 2
( ) 2 [ ( ) ( )]
8 8 12
18
𝑃 = 𝜃𝑑𝑜 = (𝜋/3) ( 𝑓𝑡) = 1.57 𝑓𝑡
12
𝐴 0.345 𝑓𝑡 2
𝑅ℎ = = = 0.220𝑓𝑡
𝑃 1.57𝑓𝑡
1.49 23 12 1.49 2
𝑄= 𝑅ℎ 𝐴 𝑆𝑒 = (0.345)(0.220)3 (0.01)0.5 = 1.25 𝑓𝑡 3 /𝑠
𝑛 0.015
𝑄 1.25
𝑉= = = 3.62 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
𝐴 0.345
𝑦 − 𝑑𝑜 /2
(𝑑𝑜 /2) − 𝑦 𝜃 = 90𝑜 + sin−1
𝜃 = cos −1 𝑑𝑜 /2
𝑑𝑜 /2
𝜋 𝑦 − 𝑑𝑜 /2
𝜃= + sin−1
2 𝑑𝑜 /2
233
7.6 Finding the best (most economical) channel cross-section [rectangular or

trapezoidal]:
The best section will be the one in which for a given Area A (constant), the
discharge will be maximum. The question can be , what is the least area for a given
constant discharge?
The discharge Q is given by:

2 1
1 3 2
𝑄 = 𝑅ℎ 𝐴 𝑆𝑒 (7.6)
𝑛
Given A is constant , what is the sction that will give the maximum Q?
𝑨
It can be easily concluded that ( ) is maximum, or P is minimum (since A is constant).
𝑷
𝒅𝑷
For P to be minimum, [ = 𝟎].
𝒅𝒚
Case 1, for rectangular channel:

𝑃 = 𝑏 + 2𝑦
𝐴
𝐴 = 𝑏𝑦 →𝑏=
𝑦
𝐴
𝑃= + 2𝑦
𝑦
𝑑𝑃 𝐴 𝐴 𝑏𝑦 𝑏
=− +2=0 → =2 → 2=2 → =2 
𝑑𝑦 𝑦2 𝑦2 𝑦 𝑦
𝑏 = 2𝑦
 for this condition:
𝐴 𝑏𝑦 2𝑦𝑦 2𝑦 2 𝑦
𝑅= = = = =
𝑃 𝑏 + 2𝑦 2𝑦 + 2𝑦 4𝑦 2
 For most economical rectangular channel:
𝑦
𝑅= (7.7)
2
𝑏 = 2𝑦 (7.8)
234
Case 2, for trapezoidal channel:
𝐴 = (𝑏 + 𝑚𝑦)𝑦
𝐴
= 𝑏 + 𝑚𝑦
𝑦
𝐴
𝑏 = − 𝑚𝑦
𝑦
Figure 7.16 Cross-section in a trapezoidal channel
𝑃 = 𝑏 + 2𝑦√1 + 𝑚2
𝐴
𝑃 = ( − 𝑚𝑦) + 2𝑦√1 + 𝑚2
𝑦
For minimum P:
𝑑𝑃 𝐴
= 0 = (− 2 − 𝑚) + 2√1 + 𝑚2
𝑑𝑦 𝑦
𝐴
( + 𝑚) = 2√1 + 𝑚2 ,
𝑦2
(𝑏+𝑚𝑦)𝑦
substituting {𝐴 = (𝑏 + 𝑚𝑦)𝑦} in the last equation:  ( + 𝑚) = 2√1 + 𝑚2 
𝑦2
𝑏 + 2𝑚𝑦 = 2𝑦√1 + 𝑚2
[top width = length of the side slopes ]


𝑏 = 2𝑦[√1 + 𝑚2 − 𝑚] (7.9)
To find the hydraulic radius:

𝐴 (𝑏 + 𝑚𝑦)𝑦
𝑅= =
𝑃 𝑏 + 2𝑦√1 + 𝑚2
Substituting with 𝑏 = 2𝑦[√1 + 𝑚2 − 𝑚]
(2𝑦[√1+𝑚2 −𝑚]+𝑚𝑦)𝑦 𝑦[2√1+𝑚2 −𝑚] 𝑦

𝑅= = = (7.10)
2𝑦[√1+𝑚2 −𝑚]+2𝑦√1+𝑚2 2[2√1+𝑚2 −𝑚] 2
235
 for most economical trapezoidal channel:
𝑦
𝑅=
2
𝑏 = 2𝑦 [√1 + 𝑚2 − 𝑚]
Among all open-channel shapes, the semicircle has the least perimeter for a given area, so
it is the most hydraulically efficient of all sections. A channel with a semi-circular cross
section, however, has sides that are curved and almost vertical at the water surface
level, which makes the channel expensive to construct (excavation and forming) and
difficult to maintain (bank stability). In practice, semi-circular sections are only used
when pipes are appropriate or in smaller flumes of prefabricated materials.
236
7.7 Critical depth:

Specific energy, E, is defind as the total energy head above the channel bed:
𝑽𝟐
𝑬=𝒚+ (7.11)
𝟐𝒈
Figure 7.17 Energy components within open channel flow
For a constant Q, and for a specific channel cross-section:

Plotting the values of E versus the corresponding values of y resulting from
variations in depth (can change slope So or n to get different values of y for the
constant Q value and for the same channel) we will obtain the following curve:
Figure 7.18 Specific energy curves for a given channel section and specific discharge
237
It can be noted from the plot of the flow depth versus the specific energy (Fig. 7.18)
that:
 For a very low velocity with very high depth y, the specific energy E approaches the
value of the depth y (most of the energy is composed of flow depth).
 For high velocities , the values of the depths y approach zero (most of the specific
energy is composed of velocity head).
 Each value of the specific energy E is corresponding into two values of y,except the
minimum value of specific energy which correponds into one value of depth.
 The value of depth y at the minimum specific energy is called critical depth yc. It is
a theoretical concept that depends on the channel shape and the flow quantity
only. Yc does not depend on the channel slope So or roughness.
 When the flow depth in the channel is greater than the critical depth yc then the
case represents more tranquil flow called subcritical flow. While when the depth
in the channel is below the critical depth yc then the case is supercritical flow,
which is representing a more rapid case of flow. The case when the depth of flow
concide with the critical depth is critical flow. The velocity of the water at critical
depth is called critical velocity and the slope is critical slope.
 The critical depth can be computed using the following relationship which occurs
𝑑𝐸
only at minimum specific energy( = 0 ), (valid for gradually varied flow):
𝑑𝑦
𝑨𝟑 𝑸𝟐
= (7.12)
𝑻 𝒈
 Where, A is the cross-sectional arae of the chnnel (m2), T is the top width
of the channel (m), and Q is the flow rate (m3/s).
 Using the previous equation for trapezoidal channel requires the

substitution of Q, g, and b. Then, trials should be made to get the value of
depth that achieves the equation.
238
 For rectangular section:
𝑇= 𝑏
𝐴 = 𝑏𝑦
𝐴3 𝑏3 𝑦 3 𝑄2
= = 
𝑇 𝑏 𝑔
3 𝑄2
𝑦𝑐 = √ (7.13)
𝑏2 𝑔
 Only one particular slope result in a normal depth equal to critical depth.
S= Sc  yn = yc
S  Sc  supercritical flow.
S  Sc  subcritical flow.
 The most common occurrence of critical depth is gradually varied flow, in which
the flow depth varies over a certain distance due to a change in one or more of the
channel attributes. The change could be the channel slope or cross sectional shape.
As the depth varies, yc can be attained within the transition region.
239
Figure 7.19: Critical depth solution procedure: (a) trapezoidal channels and (b) circular channels
(Fundamentals of Hydraulic Engineering Systems Ned Hwang)
240
Example 7.7:
A trapezoidal channel has a bottom width of 5 m and side slopes m=2. If the flow rate is
20 m3/s, what is the critical depth?
Solution:
𝑄2 𝐴3 [(𝑏+𝑚𝑦)𝑦]3
By using the equation = =
𝑔 𝑇 𝑏+2𝑚𝑦
202 [(5 + 2𝑦)𝑦]3

= 4.8 =
9.81 5 + 2(2)𝑦
By successive substitution, it is found that yc=1.02 m.
Alternative solution using the figure for critical depth of trapezoidal channels:
𝑄𝑚3/2 20(2)3/2
= = 0.323
𝑔1/2 𝑏 5/2 (9.81)1/2 (5)5/2
𝑚𝑦𝑐 (0.41)(5)
From Fig. 7.19, we obtain = 0.41. Therefore, 𝑦𝑐 = = 1.03𝑚.
𝑏 2
Figure 7.20: Some natural applications of critical depth
 The previous figure shows a profile of channel transition from subcritical flow to
supercritical flow. Depth of flow is at a critical depth near the transition point.
241
 Theoretical critical depth does not change when the channel slope change.
7.7.1 Froude number:

A parameter used to distinguish between subcritical flow and supercritical flow.
For rectangular channel, the Froude number (F) is defined as:
𝑉
𝐹𝑟 = (7.14)
√𝑔𝑦
Where, F is the Froude number, V is the average velocity (m/s), and y is the flow
depth.
When Fr = 1, flow is critical
Fr  1, flow is subcritical
Fr  1, flow is supercritical.
For non-rectangular channels:
The Froude number is defined as:
𝑉
𝐹= (7.15)
√𝑔𝑦ℎ
𝑨
Where yh is the hydraulic depth [𝒚𝒉 = ], A is the cross sectional area and T is the top
𝑻
width.
Example 7.8:
Determine the critical depth and flow velocity in a 10 m wide rectangular channel
carrying 50 m3/s.
Solution:
𝑄2 33 502
𝑦𝑐 = √ 2 = √ = 1.37𝑚
𝑔𝑏 9.81(10)2
𝑉𝑐 = √𝑔𝑦𝑐 = √9.81 × 1.37 = 3.67𝑚
242
7.7.2 Hydraulic Jumps:

Hydraulic jumps can occur naturally in open channels, but are more common in
constructed structures such as energy dissipation basins. They are the results of an abrupt
reduction in flow velocity by means of sudden increase in water depth in the downstream
direction. Hydraulic jumps convert a high-velocity supercritical flow upstream into a low-
velocity subcritical flow downstream. In other words, in hydraulic jumps, low stage
supercritical depth y1 is changed into a high-stage subcritical depth y2. These depths (y1
and y2) are known as the initial depth and the sequent depth of the hydraulic jump.
The violent motions seen in the hydraulic jump are accompanied by a significant loss of
energy head through the jump.
Figure 7.21: Hydraulic jump
Given the discharge Q in a particular channel, the amount of energy head loss
through a jump (∆E) can be determined by measuring the initial and sequent depths and
using the specific energy curves.
Predicting the sequent depth by estimating the energy loss is impractical because
it is difficult to determine the energy loss through the jump.
The relationship between the initial depth and the sequent depth in a hydraulic
jump may be determined by considering the balance of forces and momentum before
and after the jump.
Consider a control volume in the vicinity of a jump as shown:
The balance between the hydro static
forces and the momentum flux through
sections 1 and section 2 per unit width of
the channel is:
𝐹1 − 𝐹2 = 𝜌𝑞(𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )
𝛾 𝛾 𝑞 𝑞 𝑞2 (𝑦1 +𝑦2 )
𝐹1 = 𝑦12 , 𝐹2 = 𝑦22 , 𝑉1 = , 𝑉2 =  = 𝑦1 𝑦2 
2 2 𝑦1 𝑦2 𝑔 2
243
𝑦2 1 𝑦1 1
= (√1 + 8𝐹𝑟21 − 1) Or = (√1 + 8𝐹𝑟22 − 1) (7.16)
𝑦1 2 𝑦2 2
𝑉1
where, 𝐹𝑟1 = , is the Froude number of the flow.
√𝑔 𝑦1
Example 7.9:
A 10 ft-wide rectangular channel carries 500 cfs of water at a 2-ft depth before
entering a jump. Compute the downstream water depth and the critical depth.
Solution:
𝑄2 3 3 5002
𝑦𝑐 = √ 2 = √ = 4.27𝑓𝑡
𝑔𝑏 9.81(10)2
𝑄 500 𝑓𝑡
𝑉1 =
= = 25
𝑏𝑦 10 × 2 𝑠
𝑉1 25
𝐹𝑟1 = = = 3.12
√𝑔 𝑦1 √32.2 × 2
𝑦2 1
= (√1 + 8𝐹𝑟21 − 1)
𝑦1 2
𝑦2 1
= (√1 + 8(3.12)2 − 1)
2.0 2
 𝑦2 = 7.88 𝑓𝑡
The equation {𝐹1 − 𝐹2 = 𝜌𝑞(𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )} can also be arranged as:
𝐹1 + 𝜌𝑞𝑉1 = 𝐹2 + 𝜌𝑞𝑉2 (7.17)
{𝐹𝑠 = 𝐹 + 𝜌𝑞} is known as specific force per unit width of the channel.
244
For a given discharge, the specific force is a function of the water depth at a given
section.
Plotting Fs vesus water depth will give us a curve similar to the specific energy curve
with a vertex that appears at the critical depth.
A hydraulic jump takes place in a short reach therefore it is reasonable to assume
that through a hydraulic jump, the specific forces immediately before and after the jump
are the same.
The energy head loss through the hydraulic jump ∆E may be estimated by:
V12 V22 1 2 2
q2 1 1
∆E = ( + y1 ) − ( + y2 ) = (V1 − V2 ) + (y1 + y2 ) = ( 2 − 2 ) + (y1 − y2 )
2g 2g 2 2g y1 y2
𝑞2 𝑦1 +𝑦2
Given that
𝑔
= 𝑦1 𝑦2 (
2
)
(y2 −y1 )3
∆E = (7.20)
4y1 y2
245
Summary of the hydraulic jump concept:
In general, any abrupt transition from a lower

stage super critical slow to a higher stage
subcritical flow.
Can happen whenever the flow in a channel is

very rapid such as a steep channel transition to
a flat channel, or a flow discharging water under
a sluice gate into a channel.
The value of the Froude number Fr of the incoming flow must be greater than 1.0 for
a hydraulic jump to form (from supercritical flow into a subcritical flow). The greater
the value of Fr , the stronger is the hydraulic jump.
From the figure:
 Flow depth before the jump = y1 : initial depth.
 Flow depth after the jump = y2 : initial depth.
 L : length of the jump.
 A hydraulic jump will form in a rectangular channel when the following equation
𝑦2 1
is satisfied: = (√1 + 8𝐹𝑟21 − 1)
𝑦1 2

246
Example 7.10:
A rectangular channel has a width of b = 3 m, a discharge of 4 m3/s, a bed slope
So=0.001. The channel is lined with Concrete; bottom float-finished, sides are made of
Random stone in mortar. Find the following:
a) The Normal depth yn = ……1.068 m……....
b) The critical depth yc =……..0.566 m…….…
c) The state of flow is: (a) sub-critical, (b) critical, (c) super-critical flow.
d) The minimum specific energy is……0.849 m…….
e) Given that the initial depth in a hydraulic jump is y = 0.1 m, then the sequent
depth is ………1.854 m………….
Solution:
Manning n = 0.018 (Table).
5
1 (3𝑦) ⁄3
(a) 𝑄=4= 0.0010.5  y = 1.068 m
0.0185 (3+2𝑦)2/3
3 42
(b) 𝑦𝑐 = √ = 0.566 𝑚
9.81 (3)2
(c) Sub-critical (yn  ycr)

𝑄2 42
(d) 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑦𝑐𝑟 + = 0.566 + = 0.849m
2𝑔(3𝑦𝑐𝑟 )2 2𝑔(3×0.566)2
4 13.33
(e) 𝑉= = 13.33 𝑚/𝑠, 𝐹 = = 13.46,
3×0.1 √𝑔 (0.1)
1
𝑦2 = (0.1) [√1 + 8(13.46)2 − 1] = 1.854 𝑚
2
Example 7.11:
Design a trapezoidal channel having sides slopes with z =1.5, a discharge of 7 m3/s, with a
velocity of 1.8 m/s, and a smooth asphalt lining:
y = .............1.36m......, b =..............0.822m............, S o.......9.1610-4 (0.000916).
Solution:
Unknowns: y, b, S0
Equations:
V=1.8 m/s = (1/0.013) R2/3 S01/2 ........ (1)
A=7/1.8 = ( b + 1.5 y) y ........(2)
Three Unknowns & 2 equations  Use most efficient section
𝑏 = 2𝑦 [√1 + 1.52 − 1.5 ] ⇒ 𝑏 = 0.606𝑦
R = y /2
Substitute 𝑏 = 0.606𝑦 in (2)  y =1.359 m
R = 1.359 / 2 = 0.6795  substitute in (1)  S0 = 0.000916
247
Example 7.12:
In a rectangular channel 4 m wide with a flow of 7.53 m3/s the depth is 0.3 m. If a
hydraulic jump occurs, find the depth downstream of it. Calculate the loss of specific
energy through the jump.
Solution:
7.53 2
𝑦1 8𝑞 2 0.3 8( )
𝑦2 = ( ) (√1 + 3 − 1) = ( ) (√1 + 4
− 1) = 1.410 𝑚
2 𝑔𝑦 2 1 9.81(0.3)3
Example 7.13:
A hydraulic jump occurs in a 4-m-wide rrectangular channel carrying 5 m3/s on a slope
of 0.004. The depth after the jump is 1.2 m. Find (a) the depth before the jump, (b) the
losses of energy and power in the jump.
5 2
𝑦2 8𝑞 2 1.2 8( )
𝑦1 = ( ) (√1 + 3 − 1) = ( ) (√1 + − 1) = 0.191 𝑚 4
2 𝑔𝑦 2 9.81(1.2)3
2
(𝑦2 −𝑦1 )3 (1.2−0.191)3

𝐸𝑗 = = [4×0.191×1.2] = 1.120 𝑚
4𝑦1 𝑦2
𝑃 = 𝑄𝛾𝐸𝑗 = 5 × 9.79 × 1.120 = 54.8 𝑘𝑊
248
Example 7.14:
A hydraulic transition is designed to connect two rectangular channels of the same

width by a sloped floor. Assume the channel is 3 m wide and is carrying a discharge of
15 m3/s at 3.6 m depth. Also assume a 0.1 m energy loss uniformly distributed through
the transition. Determine the water surface profile in the transition.
Solution:
The specific energy curve can be constructed using the following relationship:
𝑄2 (15)2 1.27
𝐸 =𝑦+ = 𝑦 + = 𝑦 +
2𝑔(6𝑦)2 2(9.81)(3𝑦)2 𝑦2
3 52
𝑦𝑐𝑟 = √ = 1.37 𝑚 , 𝐸𝑐𝑟 = 2.05𝑚
𝑔
At the inlet to the transition, the velocity is Vi:

Vi=Q/Ai=15/(3.6)(3)=1.39 m/s
Where Ai is the water area at the inlet, and the velocity head is
𝑉𝑖2 (1.39)2
= = 0.1 𝑚
2𝑔 2(9.81)
249
The total energy head at the inlet as measured with respect to the datum line is:
𝑉𝑖2
𝐻𝑖 = + 𝑦𝑖 + 𝑧𝑖 = 0.1 + 3.6 + 0.4 = 4.1 𝑚
2𝑔
The energy level is shown on the figure by the top horizontal line.
At the exit of the transition, the total energy available is reduced by 0.1 m as given
and as indicated by the EGL in the figure.
𝑉𝑒2
𝐻𝑒 = + 𝑦𝑒 + 𝑧𝑒 = 𝐻𝑖 − 0.1 = 4.0 𝑚
2𝑔
Ee is the specific energy measured with respect to the channel bottom:
Ee=He=4.00m
The value is applied to the specific energy curve to obtain the water depth at the
exit section.
Water surface elevations for four other sections are computed by using the same
method (4, 8, 12, and 16 m from the entrance section). The results for the six
sections are shown:
Section Inlet 4.00m 8.00m 12.00m 16.00m Exit
Specific Energy, E(m) 3.70 3.76 3.82 3.88 3.94 4.00
Water Depth, y(m) 3.60 3.67 3.73 3.79 3.86 3.92
Example 7.15:
A long, rectangular open channel 3m wide carries a discharge of 15m3/sec. The channel
slope is 0.004, and the Manning's coefficient is 0.01. At a certain point in the channel,
flow reaches normal depth.
(a) Determine the flow classification. Is it supercritical or subcritical?
(b) If a hydraulic jump takes place at this depth, what is the sequent depth?
(c) Estimate the energy head loss through the jump.
Solution
3 𝑄2 3 𝑞2 3 (15)2
(a) The critical depth is calculated using the equation 𝑦𝑐 = √ =√ =√ 2=
𝑔𝑏2 𝑔 𝑔(3)
1.37𝑚. The normal depth of this channel can be determined by the Manning equation:
1 23 12
𝑄 = 𝑅ℎ 𝐴 𝑆𝑒
𝑛
250
𝐴1 𝑦1 𝑏
Where 𝐴 = 𝑦1 𝑏, 𝑅ℎ = = , 𝑏 = 3𝑚
𝑃1 2𝑦1 +𝑏
1 3𝑦1 2/3
15 = ( ) , 𝐴(3𝑦1 ) (0.004)1/2
0.01 2𝑦1 + 3
15 4.63𝑚
Solving the equation for y1, we obtain y1 = 1.08 m, 𝑉1 = = , and
3𝑦1 𝑠
𝑉1
𝐹1 = = 1.42
√𝑔𝑦1
As F 1 > 1, the flow is supercritical.
𝑦 8𝑞 2
(b) Applying the equation of hydraulic jump: 𝑦2 = ( 1) (√1 + 3 − 1) =
2 𝑔𝑦 1
𝑦
( 21) (√1 + 8𝐹12 − 1) = 1.70𝑚.
(c) The head loss can be estimated by using the following equation:
(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )3 (0.62)3
△𝐸 = = = 0.032𝑚
4𝑦1 𝑦2 4(1.70)(1.08)
251
Tutorial. 10
Q1.A sewer line is circular in section has a diameter of 50 cm and is running 0.75 full.
It is laid at a slope of 1:900. If n = 0.02, find the discharge and the mean velocity of
flow.
Q2. Calculate the size of a circular sewer, which is to run 0.8 full, at a gradient of 1
in 250 maintaining a velocity of 1.5 m/s, has n = 0.018. Find also the discharge.
Q3. Prepare a monograph showing Geometric Elements of a circular section giving
relationship between Y/do and {A/Ao, P/Po and AR2/3/AoR02/3}.
Q4.An earthen channel having base width of 5 m and side slopes 1 vertical and 1.5
horizontal carries water with a depth of 1.6 m. The bed slope is 1 in 500. Calculate
the discharge if n = 0.018, what would be the Chezy's C to get the same discharge?
Q5. Calculate the normal depths for the following channels if Q = 6 m3/s, s = 0.0015,
and n = 0.021:
(i) Rectangular channel, b = 8 m
(ii) Trapezoidal channel, b = 7 m, and z = 1 m.
Q6. Design a trapezoidal channel having side slopes with z=1, Q =12 m3/s, s = 1 : 800
and n = 0.02.
Q7. Design a trapezoidal channel carrying water having a velocity of 1.2 m/s and a
discharge of 10 m3/s. n = 0.019 and z = 1.5.
Q8. Determine the most efficient section of a trapezoidal canal to carry discharge of
10 m3/s at a velocity of 1.5 m/s. The canal side slopes are 1V : 0.5H. find the
necessary bed slope also n = 0.02.
Q9. Design a trapezoidal channel , z=1, n=0.019, carrying a discharge of 6 m 3/s at a

velocity of 1.3 m/s, bed slope, s, is 0.002.
Q10. A rectangular channel has b = 6 m, Q = 8 m3/s, s = 0.002, and n = 0.02.
(i) Find the normal depth Yn.

(ii) Find the critical depth Ycr.
(iii) Find the state of flow (sub-critical, critical, or supercritical).
(iv) Find the minimum specific energy (it occurs at Y=Ycr).
(v) If the depth of flow Y (either Y1 or Y2) is 0.3m, find the alternative depth
(Y2 or Y1).
(vi) For the same channel, assume the depth was 0.1 m before entering a
jump, compute the downstream depth
252
Solution of tutorial 10
Q1. A sewer line is circular in section has a diameter of 50 cm and is running 0.75 full. It is
laid at a slope of 1:900. If n = 0.02, find the discharge and the mean velocity of flow.
So= 1/900
n = 0.02
Q=?
V=?
Y=0.7550=37.5 cm
37.5−50/2 2 37.5−50/2
 = /2 + sin−1 = 𝜋 ,  = 90o + sin−1 = 120𝑜
50/2 3 50/2
1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐴) = 8(2×23𝜋−sin(2×120𝑜 )(0.5)2 = 0.157 𝑚2
2
𝑃 = 𝜃𝑑𝑜 = 3𝜋 ×0.5=1.0472 𝑚
⁄
1 2⁄ 0.5 1 0.157 2 3 1 0.5
𝑄= 𝐴𝑅 3 𝑆𝑜 = (0.157) ( ) ( )
𝑛 0.02 1.0472 900
Q2. Calculate the size of a circular sewer, which is to run 0.8 full, at a gradient of 1 in 250
maintaining a velocity of 1.5 m/s, has n = 0.018. Find also the discharge.
0.3 𝑑𝑜 0.3 𝑑𝑜
 = /2 + sin−1 = 0.704𝜋 ,  = 90o + sin−1 = 126.87𝑜
0.5 𝑑𝑜 0.5 𝑑𝑜
1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐴) = 8(2×0.704𝜋−sin(2×126.87𝑜 )(𝑑𝑜)2 = 0.673(𝑑𝑜 )2
𝑃 = 𝜃𝑑𝑜 = 0.704𝜋𝑑𝑜
2⁄3
1 0.673𝑑02 1
𝑉 = 1.5 𝑚/𝑠 = 𝑛1 𝑅2⁄3𝑆𝑜0.5 = ( ) ( )0.5
0.018 0.704𝜋𝑑0 250
253
Q4.
1 23 12 1 𝐴5/3 12 1 [(5 + 1.5 × 1.6) × 1.6]5/3

𝑄 = 𝑅ℎ 𝐴 𝑆𝑒 = 𝑆 = (1/500)0.5
𝑛 𝑛 𝑃 2/3 𝑒 0.018 [5 + 2 × 1.6√1 + 1.52 ]2/3
𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴√𝑅ℎ 𝑆𝑓
Q5. By trial
1 𝐴5/3 12
3
1 𝐴5/3
𝑄 = 6 𝑚 /𝑠 = 𝑆 = (0.0015)0.5
𝑛 𝑃2/3 𝑒 0.021 𝑃2/3
(i) Rectangular channel, b = 8 m
A =8 × Y ,P=8+2Y
(ii)
Q6. Q = 12 m3/s , So=1/800 , n = 0.02
1 23 12
𝑄 = 𝑅ℎ 𝐴 𝑆𝑒
𝑛
2
𝑚3 𝐴 𝐴 3 1 0.5
12 = ( ) ( ) (1)
𝑠 0.02 𝑃 800
 Two unknowns Y & b
 One equation (Manning’s eq.)
→ Need another equation
𝒀
→ Use the most efficient section. {𝑹 = } , {𝒃 = 𝟐𝒀[√𝟏 + 𝒛𝟐 − 𝒛]}
𝟐
254
𝑏 = 2𝑌[√1 + 12 − 1] = 0.828𝑌 , substitute in (1), given that A=(b+zY)Y
𝑚3 𝐴 2 1
12 = (𝑅ℎ )3 ( )0.5
𝑠 0.02 800
2
𝑚3 [(𝑏 + 1 × 𝑌) × 𝑌] 𝑌 3 1 0.5
12 = ( ) ( )
𝑠 0.02 2 800
2
𝑚3 [(0.828𝑌 + 𝑌) × 𝑌] 𝑌 3 1 0.5
12 = ( ) ( )
𝑠 0.02 2 800
Q7. Z=1.5 , {V=1.2 m/s , Q=10 m3/s }
We have two equations:

𝑄 10
𝐴= = = (𝑏 + 𝑧𝑌) × 𝑌 = (𝑏 + 1.5𝑌)𝑌 (1)
𝑉 1.2
𝑚 1 1/2
𝑉 = 1.2 = 𝑅 2/3 𝑆𝑓 (2)
𝑠 0.019
We have three unknowns { So , b, Y } and two equations.
→ need another equation
𝒀
→ use the most economical section {𝑹 = } , {𝒃 = 𝟐𝒀[√𝟏 + 𝒛𝟐 − 𝒛]}
𝟐
𝑏 = 2𝑌[√1 + 1.52 − 1.5] = 0.605𝑌 , which can be substituted in (1) to give:

10
= (0.605𝑌 + 1.5𝑌) × 𝑌 → Y=3.96 m , b=2.39 m
1.2
The value of Y is substituted in (2) to find So:

𝑚 1 𝑌 1/2
1.2 = ( )2/3 𝑆𝑜 → So =0.00033
𝑠 0.019 2
Q8. Z=0.5 , {V=1.5 m/s , Q=10 m3/s } , n=0.02
Must use efficient section as required by the question
We have two equations:

𝑄 10
𝐴= = = (𝑏 + 𝑧𝑌) × 𝑌 = (𝑏 + 0.5𝑌)𝑌 (1)
𝑉 1.5
𝑚 1 2/3 1/2
𝑉 = 1.5 = 𝑅 𝑆𝑓 (2)
𝑠 0.02
255
𝒀
→ use the most economical section {𝑹 = } , {𝒃 = 𝟐𝒀[√𝟏 + 𝒛𝟐 − 𝒛]}
𝟐
𝑏 = 2𝑌[√1 + 0.52 − 0.5] = 1.236𝑌 , which can be substituted in (1) to give:

10
= (1.236𝑌 + 0.5𝑌) × 𝑌 → Y=3.84 m , b=4.75 m
1.5
The value of Y is substituted in (2) to find So:

𝑚 13.84 2/3 1/2
1.5 = () 𝑆𝑜 → So =0.00038
𝑠 0.02 2
Q9. Q=6 m3/s, V=1.3 m/s, n=0.019, So=0.002, z=1.
Two unknowns Y, and b
Two equations
→ We don’t go to the most economical section
𝑄 6 6 1
𝐴= = = (𝑏 + 𝑌 ) × 𝑌 →𝑏= × − 𝑌 (1)
𝑉 1.3 1.3 𝑌
𝑚 1
𝑉 = 1.3 = 𝑅 2/3 (0.002)1/2 (2)
𝑠 0.019
Equation (1) is substituted in (2)
Q10.
5
1 (6𝑦) ⁄3 (6𝑦)5/3
I. 𝑄=8= 0.0020.5  = 3.578 → By trial {y = 0.806 m}
0.02 (6+2𝑦) (6+2𝑦)2/3
3 82
II. 𝑦𝑐 = √ = 0.566 𝑚
9.81 (6)2
III. Sub-critical (yn  ycr)

𝑄2 82
IV. 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑦𝑐𝑟 + )2
= 0.566 + = 0.849m
2𝑔(6𝑦𝑐𝑟 2𝑔(6×0.566)2
V. y = 0.3 m is y1 as 0.3 ˂ yc =0.566 m, so we have to find y2.

𝑄2 𝑄2
𝐸 = 𝑦1 + = 𝑦2 +
2𝑔𝐴12 2𝑔𝐴22
82 82
0.3 + = 𝑦2 +
2𝑔 × 62 × (0.3)2 2𝑔 × 62 × 𝑦22
By trials y2 = 1.242 m
8 13.33
VI. 𝑉= = 13.33 𝑚/𝑠, 𝐹 = = 13.46,
6×0.1 √𝑔 (0.1)
1
𝑦2 = (0.1) [√1 + 8(13.46)2 − 1] = 1.854 𝑚
2
256
Steady, gradually varied open channel flow:

Gradually varied flow in open channels differs from uniform flow and rapidly varied flow
(hydraulic jumps, flow through a streamlined transition, etc.) in that the change in water
depth in the channel takes place very gradually with distance. So the depth of flow is
varying gradually along the length of the channel as the driving (motivating) forces are
not balanced with the drag forces.
Figure-
In uniform flow, the water depth remains a constant value known as the normal. The
energy grade line is parallel to the water surface and the channel bottom. The velocity
distribution also remains unchanged throughout the reach. The computation of one
water depth is sufficient for the entire channel reach. In rapidly varied flow such as a
hydraulic jump, rapid changes in water take place in a short distance. A significant change
in water velocities is associated with the rapid variation of water cross-sectional area. At
this high rate of flow deceleration, the energy loss is very high. The computation of water
depths using the energy principles is not reliable. In this case, computations can only be
carried out applying the momentum principles (𝐹1 − 𝐹2 = 𝜌𝑞(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 ). In gradually
varied flow, velocity changes take place very gradually with distance so that the effects of
acceleration on the flow between two adjacent sections are negligible. Thus, computation
of the water surface profile defined as depth changes along the channel length can be
carried out on energy considerations.
The total energy head at any section in an open channel can be given as:
𝑉2 𝑄2
𝐻= +𝑦+𝑧 = +𝑦+𝑧
2𝑔 2𝑔𝐴2
To compute the water surface profile, we must first obtain the variation of the total
energy head along the channel. Differentiating H with respect to the channel distance x,
we obtain the energy gradient in the direction of the flow:
257
𝑑𝐻 𝑄2 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝑄2 𝑇 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
=− 3 + + =− 3 + +
𝑑𝑥 𝑔𝐴 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑔𝐴 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Where 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑇(𝑑𝑦). Rearranging the equation gives:
𝑑𝐻 𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑑𝑥
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑄2 𝑇
1−
𝑔𝐴3
The term dH/dx is the slope of the energy grade line. It is always a negative quantity
because the total energy head reduces in the direction of the flow, or Se = -dH/dx.
Similarly, the term dz/dx is the slope of the channel bed. It is negative when the elevation
of the channel bed reduces in the direction of the flow; it is positive when the elevation
of the channel bed increases in the direction of the flow. In general, we may write S0 = -
dz/dx. The energy slope in gradually varied flow between two adjacent sections may also
be approximated by using a uniform flow formula. For simplicity, the derivation will be
demonstrated with a wide rectangular channel section where A = by, Q = bq, and Rh = A/P
= by/(b + 2y) == y (for wide rectangular channels because b >> y). Using the Manning
formula we get:
𝑑𝐻 𝑛2 𝑄2 𝑛2 𝑄 2
𝑆𝑒 = − = 4 = 2 10/3
𝑑𝑥 𝑏 𝑦
𝑅ℎ3 𝐴2
The slope of the channel bed may also be expressed in similar terms if uniform flow were
assumed to take place in the channel. Because the slope of the channel bed is equal to
the energy slope in uniform flow, the hypothetical uniform flow conditions are designated
with the subscript n. We have
𝑑𝑧 𝑛2 𝑄 2
𝑆𝑜 = − = ( 2 10/3 )𝑛
𝑑𝑥 𝑏 𝑦
3 𝑄2 3 𝑞2
For rectangular channels, we have 𝑦𝑐 = √ =√
𝑔𝑏2 𝑔
Or
2
𝑔𝐴3𝑐
𝑄 = 𝑔𝑦𝑐3 𝑏 2 =
𝑏
Rearranging the equations, we get:
𝑦𝑛 10/3
𝑑𝑦 𝑆𝑜 [1 − ( 𝑦 )
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑦 3
[1 − ( 𝑐 ) ]
𝑦
The general equation for nonrectangular channels:
258
𝑦𝑛 𝑁
𝑆 [1 − ( ]
𝑑𝑦 𝑜 𝑦)
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑦 𝑀
[1 − ( 𝑐 ) ]
𝑦
where the exponents M and N depend on the cross-sectional shape and the flow
conditions as given by V. T. Chow.
This form of the gradually varied flow equation is very useful for a qualitative analysis,
which helps to understand the gradually varied flow classifications covered in the next
sections. Other forms are often used to compute water surface profiles. Physically, the
term dy/dx represents the slope of the water surface with respect to the bottom of the
channel. For dy/dx = 0, the water depth remains constant throughout the reach or the
special case of uniform flow. For dy/dx < 0, the water depth decreases in the direction of
the flow. For dy/dx > 0, the water depth increases in the direction of the flow. Solutions
of this equation under different conditions will yield the various water surface profiles
that occur in open channels.
Another Approach:
The dynamic equation of GVF can be
obtained by differentiating the energy
equation with respect to the channel
bed (x-direction):H= z + y cos  + V2/2g
2
𝑑𝐻 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦 𝑑(𝑉 ⁄2𝑔)
= 𝑑𝑥 + cos 𝜃 +
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝐻 𝑑𝑧
𝑆𝑓 = − 𝑑𝑥 ; 𝑆𝑜 = sin 𝜃 = − 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑆𝑜 −𝑆𝑓
= 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑(𝑉 ⁄2𝑔)
cos 𝜃+
𝑑𝑦
𝑉2 𝑄2
𝑑( ⁄2𝑔) 𝑑( ⁄ ) 2𝑄 2 𝑑𝐴
2𝑔𝐴2
= = − 2𝑔𝐴3 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝐴
= 𝑇, width of the liquid surface.
𝑑𝑦
2
𝑑(𝑉 ⁄2𝑔) 𝑄2 𝑇
= − 𝑔𝐴3
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑆𝑜 −𝑆𝑓
For small channel slope, cos  = 1.0  = 1−𝑄2 𝑇/(𝐴3 𝑔) , which gives the slope of the water
𝑑𝑥
surface relative to the bed.
Various types of gradually varied flow surface profile can occur. A very important factor is the type
of bed slope, mild, steep, critical, horizontal, or adverse. And the depth of flow relative to the critical
flow and depending on the type of bed slope (mild, steep, ..).
259
Classifications of gradually varied flow:

In analyzing gradually varied flow, the role of critical depth, Yc is very important. When
open channel flow approaches critical depth (y = yc), the denominator of the equation
𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑆𝑜 [1−( 𝑛 )10/3
𝑦
= 𝑦 3
approaches zero and the value of dy/dx approaches infinity. The water
𝑑𝑥 [1−( 𝑐 ) ]
𝑦
surface becomes very steep. This is seen at hydraulic jumps or at a water surface entering
a steep channel from a mild channel or a lake. The latter case provides a unique one-to-
one relationship between the discharge and the water depth in a channel and is known
as a control section in open-channel flow.
Depending on the channel slope, geometry, roughness, and discharge, open channels
may be classified into five categories:
1. steep channels,
2. critical channels,
3. mild channels,
4. horizontal channels, and
5. adverse channels.
The classification depends on the flow conditions in the channel as indicated by the
relative positions of normal depth (yn) and critical depth (yc) calculated for each particular
channel.
The criteria are as follows:
Steep channels: Yn/Yc < 1.0 or Yn < Yc
Critical channels: Yn/Yc = l.0 or Yn = Yc
Mild channels: Yn/Yc > 1.0 or Yn > Yc
Horizontal channels: S0 = 0
Adverse channels: S0 < 0
A further classification of water surface profile curves depends on the actual water and
its relationship to the critical and normal depths. The ratios of y/yc and y/yn may be used
in the analysis, where y is the actual water depth at any section of interest in the channel.
1. If both y/yc and y/yn are greater than 1.0, then the water surface profile curve is
above both the critical depth line and the normal depth line in the channel, as
depicted in following figure. The curve is designated as a type l curve. There are S-
1, C-1, and M-1 curves for steep, critical, and mild channels, respectively.
2. If the water depth is between the normal depth yn and the critical depth yc, the
curves are designated as type 2 curves. There are S-2, M-2, H-2, and A-2 curves.
The type 2 curve does not exist in critical channels. In critical channels, normal
depth is equal to critical depth. Thus, no depth of flow can come between the two.
260
3. If the water depth is less than both Yc and Yn' then the water surface profile curves
are type 3. There are S-3, C-3, M-3, H-3, and A-3 curves. Each of these water
surface profile curves is listed and shown schematically in the following figure.
Examples of physical occurrences in open channels are also given. Certain important
characteristics of water surface profile curves can be demonstrated from direct analysis
261
𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑆𝑜 [1−( 𝑛 )10/3
𝑦
of the gradually varied flow equation ( = 𝑦 3
). By making substitutions into
𝑑𝑥 [1−( 𝑐 ) ]
𝑦
this equation, we note the following:
1. For type 1 curves, y/yc > 1 and y/yn > l. Thus, the value of dy/dx is positive,
indicating that water depth increases in the direction of the flow.
2. For type 2 curves, the value of dy/dx is negative. The water depth decreases in the
direction of the flow.
3. For type 3 curves, the value of dy/dx is again positive. The water depth increases
in the direction of the flow.
Characteristics of water surface profile curves
4. When the actual water depth approaches critical depth, y = yc , the gradually varied
𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑆𝑜 [1−( 𝑛 )10/3 𝑑𝑦
𝑦
flow equation ( = 𝑦 3
) yields = ∞, indicating that the slope of the
𝑑𝑥 [1−( 𝑐 ) ] 𝑑𝑥
𝑦
water surface profile curve is theoretically vertical. Likewise, as y approaches yn ,
dy/dx approaches zero, indicating that the water surface profile approaches the
normal depth line asymptotically.
5. A few types of water surface profile curves never approach a horizontal line (S-2,
S-3, M-2, M-3, C-3, H-3, and A-3). Others approach a horizontal line asymptotically,
except for the C-1 curve, which is horizontal throughout the channel reach.
Because Yn = Yc in a critical channel, the gradually varied flow equation yields dy/dx
= SO, indicating the water depth increases at the same rate as the channel bed
elevation decreases, which theoretically, results in a horizontal water surface
profile.
In channels where y < yc, the velocity of water flow is greater than that of the disturbance
wave. For this reason, flow conditions in the downstream channel will not affect those
upstream. The change of water depth resulting from any channel disturbance propagates
in the downstream direction. Thus, computation of the water surface profile should be
carried out in the downstream direction S-2, S-3, C-3, H-3, and A-3).
262
In channels where y > yn the speed of wave propagation is greater than the velocity of
water flow. Any disturbance in the downstream channel can travel upstream and affect
the flow conditions upstream as well as downstream. Any change of water depth in the
downstream channel propagates upstream and may also change the water depth in the
upstream channel. Thus, computation of the water surface profile should be carried out
in the upstream direction (M-1, M-2, S-1, C-1, H-2, and A-2). At the break of a channel
from mild to steep slope or a significant drop of the channel bottom, critical depth is
assumed to take place in the immediate vicinity of the brink. At this point, a definite
depth-discharge relationship can be obtained (i.e., control section) and is frequently used
as a starting point for water surface profile computations.
Computation of gradually varied flow:

Water surface profiles for gradually varied flow may be computed by using the gradually
𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑆𝑜 [1−( 𝑛 )10/3
𝑦
varied flow equation ( = 𝑦 3
). The computation normally begins at a section
𝑑𝑥 [1−( 𝑐 ) ]
𝑦
where the relationship between the water surface elevation (or flow depth) and the
discharge is known. These sections are commonly known as
Control sections in open channels

control sections (or mathematically, boundary conditions). A few examples of common
control sections in open channels are depicted in the figure. Locations where uniform
flow occurs can also be viewed as a control section because the Manning equation
describes a flow depth discharge relationship. Uniform flow (i.e., flow at normal depth)
tends to occur in the absence of or far away from other control sections and where the
stream slope and cross section are relatively constant. A successive computational
procedure based on an energy balance is used to obtain the water surface elevation at
263
the next section, either upstream or downstream from the control section. The distance
between sections is critical because the water surface will be represented by a straight
line. Thus, if the depth of flow is changing quickly over short distances, adjacent sections
should be closely spaced to represent accurately the water surface profile. The step-by
step procedure is carried out in the downstream direction for rapid (supercritical) flows
and in the upstream direction for tranquil (subcritical) flows.
Standard Step Method
The standard step method is presented to calculate gradually varied flow water surface
profiles. The method employs a finite difference solution scheme to solve the differential,
𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑆𝑜 [1−( 𝑛 )10/3
𝑦
gradually varied flow equation ( = 𝑦 3
). It is the most common algorithm used
𝑑𝑥 [1−( 𝑐 ) ]
𝑦
in computer software packages that solve gradually varied flow profiles. For example, it
is the primary algorithm in the widely used HEC-RAS program developed by the U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers.
Energy relationships in a water surface profile
The standard step method is derived directly from an energy balance between two
adjacent cross sections (Figure) that are separated by a sufficiently short distance so that
the water surface can be approximated a straight line. The energy relation between the
two sections may be written as:
𝑣22 𝑣12
+ 𝑦2 +△ 𝑧 = + 𝑦1 + ℎ𝐿
2𝑔 2𝑔
where △ 𝑧 is the elevation difference in the channel bottom and is the energy head loss
between the two sections, as shown in the figure. or the equation may be rewritten as:
𝑣22 𝑣12
+ 𝑦2 + 𝑧2 = + 𝑦1 + 𝑧1 + 𝑆𝑒 △ 𝐿
2𝑔 2𝑔
𝐸2′ = 𝐸1′ + 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
Where z is the position head (channel bottom elevation with respect to some datum) and
E' is the total energy head (position + depth + velocity). It is important to note that, in
264
previous energy equations, the sections 1 and 2 represent downstream and upstream
sections, respectively. If the sections are numbered differently, the losses should always
be added to the downstream side. The computation procedure yields the correct depth
at a cross section that is a distance △ 𝐿 away from a section with a known depth.
Computations begin at a control section and progress upstream (subcritical flow) or
downstream (supercritical flow). For subcritical flow, the water surface profile is
occasionally called a backwater curve because the process moves from downstream to
upstream. Likewise, the profile for supercritical flow is occasionally called a front-water
𝑣22 𝑣12
curve. Equation ( + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2 = + 𝑦1 + 𝑧1 + 𝑆𝑒 △ 𝐿 ) cannot be solved directly for the
2𝑔 2𝑔
unknown depth (e.g., y2) because v2 and Se depend on y2. Therefore, an iterative
procedure is required using successive approximations of y2 until the downstream and
upstream energies balance (or come within an acceptable range). The energy slope (Se)
can be computed by applying the Manning equation, in either SI units:
𝑛2 𝑣 2
𝑆𝑒 = 4/3
𝑅ℎ
Or BG:
𝑛2 𝑣 2
𝑆𝑒 = 4/3
2.22𝑅ℎ
Where, Se is the average of the energy (EGL) slopes at the upstream and downstream
sections. A tabulated computation procedure is recommended as illustrated in the
example problems to follow.
The astute reader may ask why △ 𝐿 is not solved for in the energy equation. By assigning
a depth to the next section instead of the depth, the equation could be used to determine
the distance between sections and avoid the iterative process altogether. This is a
legitimate solution procedure called the direct step but it only works for prismatic
channels (channels of uniform slope and cross section). When water surface profiles are
sought in natural stream channels that are non prismatic, cross sections on these streams
are field surveyed or obtained from geographic information system maps at
predetermined locations, which establishes the distance between sections. Then the
standard step method is used to assess depth of flow at these sections. Fortunately, water
surface profiles are generally solved with the aid of computer software, which takes the
drudgery out of the iterative process
Direct Step Method
In the direct step method, the gradually varied flow equations are rearranged to
determine the distance (△ 𝐿) explicitly between two selected flow depths. This method is
applicable to prismatic channels only because the same cross-sectional geometric
relationships are used for an the sections along the channel.
265
Replacing sections 1 and 2 with U and D, respectively, and noting that 𝑆𝑜 = (𝑍𝑈 − 𝑍𝐷 )/△
△𝑍 𝑣22 𝑣12
𝐿= ), energy equation ( + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2 = + 𝑦1 + 𝑧1 + 𝑆𝑒 △ 𝐿 )is rearranged as
△𝐿 2𝑔 2𝑔
𝑣𝑑2 𝑣𝑈2
(𝑦𝐷 + 2𝑔) − (𝑦𝑈 + 2𝑔 𝐸𝐷 − 𝐸𝑈
△𝐿 = =
𝑆𝑜 − 𝑆𝑒 𝑆𝑜 − 𝑆𝑒
𝑣2
Where 𝐸 = 𝑦 + is specific energy. In this equation, U and D represent upstream and
2𝑔
downstream sections, respectively. For subcritical flow, the computations begin at the
downstream end and progress upstream. In this case yD and ED would be known. An
appropriate value for yu is selected and the associated Eu is calculated. Then △ 𝐿 is
determined by using Equation last equation.
For supercritical flow, the computations begin at the upstream end and progress
downstream. In this case, yu and Eu would be known. An appropriate value for yD is
selected, and the associated ED is calculated. Then △ 𝐿 is determined by using the last
equation.
Example
A grouted-riprap, trapezoidal channel (n = 0.025) with a bottom width of 4 meters and
side slopes of m = 1 carries a discharge 12.5 m3/sec on a 0.001 slope. Compute the
backwater curve (upstream water surface profile) created a low dam that backs water up
to a depth of 2m immediately behind the dam. Specifically, water depths are required at
critical diversion points that are located at distances of 18 8 m, 423 m, 748 m, and 1,675
m upstream of the dam.
Solution:
Normal depth for this channel can be calculated by using Manning equation (iterative
solution), or the figure for normal depth solution.
𝑛𝑄 (0.025)(12.5)
1/2
= 1/2 8/3
= 0.245
𝑘𝑀 𝑆 𝑏8/3 (1.00)(0.001) (4)
𝑜
From the following figure with m=1,
we obtain yn/b=0.415 therefore, yn=(4m)(0.415)=1.66m.
𝑄2 𝐴3
Critical depth for this channel can be calculated by using the equation = (iterative
𝑔 𝑇
3/2
𝑄𝑚 (12.5)(1)3/2
solution) or by the figure. Using the figure: = 1 = 0.125, from the figure,
𝑔1/2 𝑏5/2 (9.81)2 (4)5/2
𝑚𝑦𝑐 (4)(0.23)
we obtain = 0.23; therefore, 𝑦𝑐 = = 0.92𝑚.
𝑏 1.0
266
Figure:Critical depth solution procedure: (a) trapezoidal channels, and (b) circular channels.
We will first use the standard step method. Water surface profile computations require
the use of the Manning equation, which contains the variables Rh, and v. Recall from
earlier discussions that Rh = A/P, where A is the flow area and P is the wetted perimeter,
and v = Q/A. The computation procedure displayed in the following table is used to
determine the water surface profile. The depth just upstream from the dam is the control
section, designated as section 1. Energy balance computations begin here and progress
upstream (backwater) because the flow is subcritical (Yc < Yn)· The finite difference
process is iterative; the depth of flow is assumed at section 2 until the energy at the first
𝑣22 𝑣12
two sections match using the equation ( + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2 = + 𝑦1 + 𝑧1 + 𝑆𝑒 △ 𝐿 ). Once
2𝑔 2𝑔
the water depth at section 2 is determined, the depth of flow at section 3 is assumed until
the energies at sections 2 and 3 balance. This stepwise procedure continues upstream
until the entire water surface profile is developed. Because the starting depth of 2.00 m
is greater than the normal depth and normal depth exceeds critical depth, the profile has
an M-1 classification (Figure). The flow depth will approach normal depth asymptotically
as the computations progress upstream, as depicted in the figure.
267
Once the depth becomes normal, or relatively close, the computation procedure is ended.
The first few standard step computations are displayed in the following table (a);
completion of the problem is left to the student.
Because the channel considered in this example is prismatic, we can also use the direct
step method to calculate the water surface profile. Table (b) is used to determine the
𝑣2 2
𝑣
(𝑦𝐷 + 𝑑 )−(𝑦𝑈 + 𝑈
2𝑔 2𝑔 𝐸𝐷 −𝐸𝑈
profile by setting up and solving Equation △ 𝐿 = = . The
𝑆𝑜 −𝑆𝑒 𝑆𝑜 −𝑆𝑒
calculations in the table are self-explanatory. Like the standard step method, the
computations begin at the downstream end and progress upstream. For the first channel
reach considered, y0 = 2. 00 m is known, and Yu = 1. 91 m is a depth we select based on
the water surface profile (M-1; depths go down) and to compare with the standard step
method solution. Then we calculate the distance between the sections with these two
depths. For the next reach, 1. 91 m becomes the downstream depth, and we select Yu =
1. 82 m. The results are slightly different from those of the standard step method. The
discrepancies result from the iterative nature of the standard step method in which the
results depend on the tolerance limit selected.
268
(a) Water surface profile (Backwater) computations using the standard step method
269
(b) Water surface profile (backwater) computations using the direct step method.
270
Example
A rough-concrete trapezoidal channel (n = 0.022) with a 3.5-ft bottom width, side slope
m = 2, and bed slope of 0.012 discharges 185 cfs of fresh water from a reservoir.
Determine the water surface profile in the discharge channel to within 2 percent of
normal depth.
Solution:
Normal depth and critical depth are calculated before solving water surface profiles in
order to determine the gradually varied flow classification.
Normal depth may be determined using the Manning equation in conjunction with the
figure:
𝑛𝑄 (0.022)(18.5)
1/2
= 1/2 8/3
= 0.883
𝑘𝑀 𝑆 𝑏 8/3 (1.49)(0.012) (3.5)
𝑜
From the figure , we obtain yn/b=0.685 therefore, yn=(3.5ft)(0.685)=2.40 ft.
Alternatively, normal depth can be obtained with the Manning equation (using successive
substitution) or by using appropriate computer software.
Critical depth can be computed using the equation and the table:
𝑄2 𝑇 𝑄2 (𝑏 + 2𝑚𝑦𝑐 ) (185)2 [3.5 + 2(2)𝑦𝑐 ]
= = =1
𝑔𝐴3 𝑔[(𝑏 + 𝑚𝑦𝑐 )𝑦𝑐 ]3 32.2[(3.5 + 2𝑦𝑐 )𝑦𝑐 ]3
By successive substitution, we obtain yc=2.76 ft.
Because critical depth exceeds normal depth, the channel is steep with an S-2
classification. Water from the reservoir will enter the channel and pass through critical
depth as depicted in the figure.
Because the control section is at the entrance to the channel and flow is supercritical (Yn
< Yc), computations will proceed in the downstream direction (front-water) starting from
critical depth at the entrance section and approaching normal depth asymptotically. In an
S-2 profile, the water surface elevation changes quickly at first and then approaches
normal depth more gradually. Therefore, use five cross sections, including the control
section, with separation distances (△ 𝐿) of 2, 5, 10, and 40 feet, respectively, moving
downstream. The first few standard step computations are displayed in the following
table (a); completion of the problem is left to the student in Problem 6.8.7.
271
We can also use the direct step method to calculate the water surface profile in this
problem because the channel is prismatic. The calculations are summarized in table (b).
Again, the calculations begin from the upstream end and progress downstream. For the
first channel reach considered, Yu = 2.76 ft is known, and YD = 2.66 ft is a depth we select
based on the type of the water surface profile (S-2; depths go down) and to compare with
the standard step method solution. We then calculate the distance between the sections
with these two depths. For the next reach, 2.66 ft is the upstream depth, and we select
YD = 2.58 ft The discrepancies between the standard step and the direct step method
result from the iterative nature of the standard step method in which the results depend
on the tolerance limit selected.
272
(a) Water surface profile (front-water) computations using the standard step method
273
(b) Water surface profile (front-water) computations using direct step method.
274
Another Approach: The gradually varied flow profile can be calculated using numerical
solution of its equation. Computation of the gradually varied flow surface profiles should
proceed upstream from the control section in subcritical flow and downstream from the
control section in supercritical flow.
1. The direct step method:
2. This method is applicable to prismatic channels. Depths of flow are specified and the
distances between successive depths are calculated.
Consider the elements of flow in the figure.
Equating the total heads at (1) and (2),

𝑉12 𝑉22
𝑆𝑜 ∆𝑥 + 𝑦1 + = 𝑦2 + + 𝑆𝑓 ∆𝑥
2𝑔 2𝑔
𝐸2 − 𝐸1
𝑖. 𝑒. ∆𝑥 =
𝑆𝑜 − 𝑆𝑓
Where E is the specific energy.
In the computations Sf is calculated for depths y1 and y2 and the average taken
denoted by 𝑆𝑓̅ .
Example: a trapezoidal concrete-lined channel has a constant slope of 0.0015, a bed
width of 3 m and side slopes 1:1. A control gate increases the depth immediately
upstream to 4.0 m when the discharge is 19.0 m3/s. Compute the water surface profile
to a depth 5 % greater than the uniform flow depth using the direct step method.
Take n=0.017.
Solution:
275
The depth at the control section is 4.0 m.
A=by+my2 = 3.0 (4.0)+ 1 (4.0)2= 28.0 m2.
𝑅 = 𝐴/𝑃 = 28.0 /(3.0 + 2√4.02 + (1)2 4.02 = 1.956 𝑚
𝑄2 192
Specific energy (𝑦 + ) = 4.0 + 19.62×282 = 4.024 𝑚
2𝑔𝐴2
𝑄 2 𝑛2 𝐸2 −𝐸1
𝑆𝑓 = = 5.44 × 10−5 , ∆𝑥 =
𝐴2 𝑅 4/3 𝑆𝑜 −𝑆𝑓
y(m) A (m2) R (m) E ∆E sf sf avg ∆X X (m)

4 28 1.956167 4.023469 ***** 5.43937E-05 0 0 0
3.9 26.91 1.917914 3.925409 0.09806 6.04607E-05 5.74272E-05 67.97595 67.97595
3.8 25.84 1.879543 3.827556 0.097852 6.73625E-05 6.39116E-05 68.13798 136.1139
3.7 24.79 1.841045 3.72994 0.097616 7.52374E-05 7.12999E-05 68.3252 204.4391
3.6 23.76 1.802412 3.632592 0.097348 8.42509E-05 7.97441E-05 68.54251 272.9816
3.5 22.75 1.763635 3.53555 0.097042 9.46015E-05 8.94262E-05 68.79601 341.7777
3.4 21.76 1.724705 3.438859 0.096692 0.000106529 0.000100565 69.09332 410.871
3.3 20.79 1.685611 3.34257 0.096289 0.000120324 0.000113427 69.4441 480.3151
3.2 19.84 1.646341 3.246744 0.095826 0.000136342 0.000128333 69.86075 550.1758
3.1 18.91 1.606883 3.151455 0.095289 0.000155016 0.000145679 70.35938 620.5352
3 18 1.567223 3.056789 0.094666 0.000176883 0.00016595 70.96122 691.4964
2.9 17.11 1.527346 2.96285 0.093938 0.000202608 0.000189745 71.6948 763.1912
2.8 16.24 1.487235 2.869765 0.093086 0.000233021 0.000217814 72.59919 835.7904
2.7 15.39 1.44687 2.777684 0.092081 0.000269167 0.000251094 73.72923 909.5196
2.6 14.56 1.406232 2.686793 0.090891 0.000312373 0.00029077 75.16415 984.6838
2.5 13.75 1.365297 2.59732 0.089473 0.000364332 0.000338352 77.02249 1061.706
2.4 12.96 1.32404 2.509546 0.087774 0.000427229 0.00039578 79.48939 1141.196
2.3 12.19 1.282431 2.423823 0.085724 0.000503909 0.000465569 82.87029 1224.066
2.2 11.44 1.240439 2.340591 0.083232 0.000598117 0.000551013 87.70647 1311.772
2.1 10.71 1.198027 2.260409 0.080181 0.000714832 0.000656475 95.05506 1406.827
2 10 1.155154 2.183996 0.076413 0.000860767 0.000787799 107.2918 1514.119
1.9 9.31 1.111773 2.11228 0.071716 0.001045084 0.000952925 131.09 1645.209
1.8 8.64 1.067831 2.046479 0.0658 0.001280485 0.001162784 195.1285 1840.338
276
4.5
3.5
2.5
Y (m)
1.5
0.5
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
X (m)
3. The standard step method:

This method is Applicable to non-prismatic and natural channels. The station
positions should be determined before. It is required then to calculate the surface
elevations, and hence the depths at the stations.
277

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2020-2021

Dr. Fuad Ahmad Musleh

First Day Quiz  !!!!!!

True False Fluids can be Liquids or gases.

III. Define in simple word:

(4): Find the pressure in pipe A

(7): Select the best answer:

 Examples: (@4 oC, 1 atm):

Water water = 1000 kg/m3 = 1 Ton/m3 = 1kg/Lit =1 g/cm3.

1.2 Water Pressure and Pressure Forces

1.2.1 The variation of hydrostatic pressure between any two points in a

Example1.2: The diameters of

Example1.3: The closed tank shown is at 20 oC. If the

PA + air hAC - water hDC - air hDB = PB 

 The negative pressure at B can be referred to as vacuum (less than atmospheric

Example1.4: a gage pressure is measured to be vacuum of 23 kPa at a location where

1.2.2 Surfaces of equal pressure:

1. The points should be at the same elevation (located on a horizontal surface).

(A) 422 mm (B) 375 mm (C) 231 mm (D) 147 mm

Example1.5: Find the location of

PA+ 10 cm water - ∆ h  Liquid = 0

0+10 cmwater - ∆ h  (3 water )= 0

PA – 1.3m(0.9w)+1.5m w -1.0m (13.6w)=0

 Mathematically: shear stress in the fluid is directly proportional to velocity

µ is called dynamic (absolute) viscosity of the fluid (N.S/m2).

 Many calculations in fluid mechanics involves the ratio of dynamic viscosity to

ν = µ/ρ (m2/s) (1.9)

Q1. Define the following terms:

Q.7 What is the water pressure at a depth of 35 m in the tank shown?

Q9. A manometer connects

Q16. A closed cylindrical tank

b) The pressure at pint C.

Q17. Consider the steady flow in a water

Q18. A 0.3-m-diameter, 0.6-m-long cylinder floats in an open tank containing a liquid

Chapter 2: Dynamics of Fluid Flow

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜌. 𝑉𝑎𝑥 , (2.1)

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = (𝐹𝑃𝑥 + 𝐹𝑔𝑥 + 𝐹𝜈𝑥 + 𝐹𝑡𝑥 + 𝐹𝐶𝑥 + 𝐹𝜎𝑥 ) (2.3)

𝐹𝑃𝑥 + 𝐹𝑔𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥  Euler’s Equation (2.4)

𝐹𝑃𝑥 + 𝐹𝑔𝑥 + 𝐹𝜈𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥  Navier-stoke’s Equation (2.5)

𝐹𝑃𝑥 + 𝐹𝑔𝑥 + 𝐹𝜈𝑥 + 𝐹𝑡𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥  Reynold’s Equation. (2.6)

2.1 Euler’s Equation:

∆s = Length of the fluid element.

𝒅𝑾 = Weight of the fluid element.

P = Pressure on the element at A.

𝑷 + ∆𝑷 = Pressure on the element

v = velocity of the fluid element.

- The mass of the fluid element is : 𝑚 =   𝑑𝐴  ∆𝑆

𝐹𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = −𝑑𝑊𝑆 = −𝜌𝑔 × 𝑑𝐴 × ∆𝑆 sin 𝛼 , (2.8)

(Differential equation for acceleration in S direction).

 The acceleration is related to the change in peizometric pressure with distance.

2.2 Bernoulli’s Equation:

Bernoulli’s equation is based on the conservation of energy. It represent the total

“The total energy carried by a given mass of incompressible fluid as it flows

Pressure head + Elevation head +Velocity head = constant

Figure 2.4 Quiz

 Also, continuity equation can be applied

Figure 2.5 Figure for example 2.1

𝑷𝟏 − 𝜸(𝒁𝟐 − 𝒁𝟏 ) − 𝜸𝒍 − 𝜸𝒉 + 𝑺𝑮(𝜸𝒉) + 𝜸𝒍 = 𝑷𝟐 (2.17)

𝑷𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐 = 𝜸(𝒁𝟐 − 𝒁𝟏 ) + (𝟏 − 𝑺𝑮)𝜸𝒉 (2.18)