Naval Postgraduate School: Monterey, California

NAVAL
POSTGRADUATE
SCHOOL
MONTEREY, CALIFORNIA
THESIS
DIGITAL SEMAPHORE: TACTICAL IMPLICATIONS OF

QR CODE OPTICAL SIGNALING FOR FLEET
COMMUNICATIONS
by
Stephen P. Richter
June 2013
Thesis Co-Advisors: Don Brutzman

Ray Buettner
Second Reader: Jeff Weekley
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DIGITAL SEMAPHORE: TACTICAL IMPLICATIONS OF QR CODE OPTICAL
SIGNALING FOR FLEET COMMUNICATIONS
6. AUTHOR Stephen P. Richter
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13. ABSTRACT
This thesis focuses on potential tactical uses of Quick Response (QR) codes for optical signaling. It examines visual
communications methods used effectively by the fleet throughout history, both during peace and wartime operations.
Due to the advent of new technology, radio frequency line-of-sight (RF LOS) communications have come to the
forefront of current operations, leaving the fleet vulnerable when conducting operations in an emissions controlled
(EMCON) environment. In addition, the use of QR codes can circumvent the issues associated with Hazards of
Electromagnetic Radiation to Ordinance (HERO) as well as provide a new effective method for conducting
Identification Friend Foe/Neutral (IFFN). The ultimate goal of this thesis is to initiate new efforts that provide the
fleet with an option for a new visual communication method. The need for a reliable visual line-of-sight (LOS)
communications method has become apparent.
This work proposes the tactical use of QR codes for visual communications, conveniently described as
“Digital Semaphore.” QR codes have the ability to become the newest and most effective method of visual
communication, replacing older, less effective forms. This thesis examines the use of various sensors and cameras to
read and decode QR codes, and also proposes new practical uses of QR codes for communications on board ships,
aircraft, and unmanned vehicles. Prototype software is provided as an initial-candidate QR Tactical Decision Aid
(TDA). The ultimate goal of this thesis is to provide the fleet with an option for a visual communications method that
allows ships and other units operating in a tactical emissions controlled environment to minimize communications
vulnerability and maximize operational effectiveness.
14. SUBJECT TERMS: Radio Frequency line-of-sight (RF LOS), Emissions Control (EMCON), QR 15. NUMBER OF
Code, Digital Semaphore, Visual communications. PAGES
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DIGITAL SEMAPHORE: TACTICAL IMPLICATIONS OF QR CODE

OPTICAL SIGNALING FOR FLEET COMMUNICATIONS
Stephen P. Richter
Lieutenant, United States Navy
B.A., Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 2007
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE IN SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY

(COMMAND, CONTROL & COMMUNICATIONS)
from the
NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL

June 2013
Author: Stephen P. Richter
Approved by: Dr. Don Brutzman

ThesisCo-Advisor
Dr. Ray Buettner

Thesis Co-Advisor
Jeff Weekley
Second Reader
Dr. Dan Boger

Chair, Department of Information Sciences
iii
iv
ABSTRACT
This thesis focuses on potential tactical uses of Quick Response (QR) codes for optical
signaling. It examines visual communications methods used effectively by the fleet
throughout history, both during peace and wartime operations. Due to the advent of new
technology, radio frequency line-of-sight (RF LOS) communications have come to the
forefront of current operations, leaving the fleet vulnerable when conducting operations
in an emissions controlled (EMCON) environment. In addition, the use of QR codes can
circumvent the issues associated with Hazards of Electromagnetic Radiation to Ordinance
(HERO) as well as provide a new effective method for conducting Identification Friend
Foe/Neutral (IFFN). The ultimate goal of this thesis is to initiate new efforts that provide
the fleet with an option for a new visual communication method. The need for a reliable
visual line-of-sight (LOS) communications method has become apparent.
This work proposes the tactical use of QR codes for visual communications,
conveniently described as “Digital Semaphore.” QR codes have the ability to become the
newest and most effective method of visual communication, replacing older, less
effective forms. This thesis examines the use of various sensors and cameras to read and
decode QR codes, and also proposes new practical uses of QR codes for communications
on board ships, aircraft, and unmanned vehicles. Prototype software is provided as an
initial-candidate QR Tactical Decision Aid (TDA). The ultimate goal of this thesis is to
provide the fleet with an option for a visual communications method that allows ships
and other units operating in a tactical emissions controlled environment to minimize
communications vulnerability and maximize operational effectiveness.
v
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................1
A. ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................1
B. PROBLEM STATEMENT .............................................................................1
C. SOLUTION OVERVIEW ...............................................................................2
D. PURPOSE AND MOTIVATION ...................................................................3
E. RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESIS ........................................4
1. Research Questions ..............................................................................4
2. Hypothesis.............................................................................................4
F. METHODOLOGY ..........................................................................................4
G. SCOPE ..............................................................................................................5
H. THESIS ORGANIZATION ............................................................................5
I. BENEFITS OF STUDY...................................................................................6
J. CHAPTER SUMMARY..................................................................................7
II. RELATED WORK AND PROBLEM DESCRIPTION ..........................................9
A. OVERVIEW .....................................................................................................9
B. CRUSER WORKSHOP ..................................................................................9
1. Electro Magnetic Maneuver Massive Multiplayer Online War
Game (EM2 MMOWGLI) ................................................................10
C. PROBLEM DESCRIPTION ........................................................................10
D. PROBLEM BACKGROUND INFORMATION ........................................11
E. CHAPTER SUMMARY................................................................................11
III. HISTORICAL MARITIME COMMUNICATIONS AND VISUAL
COMMUNICATIONS METHODS .........................................................................13
A. CHAPTER OVERVIEW ..............................................................................13
B. EFFECTIVENESS THROUGHOUT HISTORY.......................................14
1. Battle of Trafalgar .............................................................................14
2. World War II......................................................................................15
C. PRESENT-DAY COMMUNICATIONS .....................................................16
D. JUSTIFICATION FOR VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS.........................16
E. VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS METHODS .............................................17
1. Flag Semaphore ..................................................................................17
a. Present-day uses ......................................................................19
b. Advantages of flag semaphore................................................19
c. Disadvantages of flag semaphore ...........................................20
2. Flag Hoist ............................................................................................20
a. Flag hoist description..............................................................21
b. Key historical uses...................................................................22
c. Present-day uses ......................................................................22
d. Advantages of flag hoist..........................................................23
e. Disadvantages of flag hoist .....................................................23
3. Flashing Light.....................................................................................24
vii
a. Flashing light description .......................................................24
b. Key historical uses...................................................................25
c. Present-day uses ......................................................................26
d. Advantages of flashing light ...................................................26
e. Disadvantages of flashing light ..............................................27
F. CHAPTER SUMMARY................................................................................27
IV. RF LINE-OF-SIGHT (LOS) COMMUNICATIONS OVERVIEW .....................29
B. HF LOS DESCRIPTION ..............................................................................29
C. VHF LOS DESCRIPTION ...........................................................................30
1. VHF LOS Historical Tactical Uses ...................................................31
2. VHF LOS Present-day Uses ..............................................................31
3. Advantages of VHF LOS Communications .....................................32
4. Vulnerabilities of VHF LOS Communications ...............................33
D. UHF LOS COMMUNICATIONS OVERVIEW ........................................33
1. UHF LOS Description .......................................................................33
2. UHF LOS Present Day Uses..............................................................34
3. Advantages of UHF LOS Communications .....................................34
4. Vulnerabilities of UHF LOS Communications ...............................35
E. CHAPTER SUMMARY................................................................................35
V. ONE-DIMENSIONAL (1D) BAR CODES, TWO-DIMENSIONAL (2D)
BAR CODES, AND QR CODES ..............................................................................37
B. HISTORY OF BAR CODES AND QR CODES .........................................37
C. CHARACTERISTICS AND GENERATION OF QR CODES ................38
D. READING QR CODES .................................................................................42
1. Mobile Devices ....................................................................................42
2. Specialized Cameras ..........................................................................42
3. Software Implementations ................................................................42
E. QR CODE SECURITY CONSIDERATIONS ............................................43
1. General Purpose Data Channel ........................................................43
2. Encryption ..........................................................................................44
3. Camouflage .........................................................................................44
4. Obfuscation.........................................................................................44
5. Steganography ....................................................................................45
6. Vulnerabilities ....................................................................................46
F. QR CODES FOR TACTICAL COMMUNICATIONS .............................46
1. Advantages..........................................................................................46
2. Disadvantages .....................................................................................47
G. CHAPTER SUMMARY................................................................................48
VI. EMISSION RESTRICTIONS ..................................................................................49
B. EMISSIONS CONTROL (EMCON) ...........................................................49
1. EMCON Description .........................................................................49
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2. EMCON Levels ..................................................................................50
3. Situations that Require EMCON to be in Place..............................50
4. Impact of EMCON on RF LOS Communications ..........................51
C. HAZARDS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION TO
ORDINANCE (HERO) .................................................................................51
1. HERO Description .............................................................................51
2. HERO Classifications ........................................................................52
3. Situations that Require HERO Conditions to be in Place .............53
4. Impact of HERO Conditions on RF LOS Communications ..........53
D. CHAPTER SUMMARY................................................................................53
VII. TACTICAL SCENARIOS FOR USING QR CODE COMMUNICATIONS .....55
B. SHIP/UAV/AIRCRAFT PLATFORMS ......................................................55
1. Littoral Combat Ship.........................................................................55
2. Cruisers ...............................................................................................57
3. Destroyers ...........................................................................................59
4. San Antonio Class LPD .....................................................................60
C. TACTICAL UNITS .......................................................................................61
D. AIRCRAFT ....................................................................................................62
1. SH-60 ...................................................................................................62
2. UAV Platforms ...................................................................................63
E. TACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF QR CODES FOR FLEET
COMMUNICATIONS ..................................................................................64
1. Underway Replenishment .................................................................64
2. Landing/Launching Helicopters .......................................................67
3. Formation Steaming ..........................................................................67
4. Well Deck Operations ........................................................................68
5. Small Boat Operations .......................................................................68
6. Identification Friend or Foe/Neutral (IFFN) ...................................69
7. Medical Use of QR Codes ..................................................................69
F. ALTERNATIVES TO QR CODES FOR FLEET
COMMUNICATIONS ..................................................................................70
G. CHAPTER SUMMARY................................................................................70
VIII. RESEARCH METHODS ..........................................................................................73
B. SIMULATION ...............................................................................................73
1. Baseline Distance Simulation ............................................................73
2. Angle Simulation ................................................................................75
3. Image Preparation .............................................................................77
C. FIELD EXPERIMENTATION ....................................................................79
1. Range Determination .........................................................................80
2. Satellite Capability Demonstration ..................................................83
3. Limited Camp Roberts UAV Testing ...............................................87
D. CHAPTER SUMMARY................................................................................90
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IX. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND ANALYSIS ...................................................91
1. Maximum Range Capabilities ..........................................................91
2. Equipment Variances ........................................................................91
3. Result Categories ...............................................................................92
4. Analysis Tools .....................................................................................92
B. ANALYSIS METHODS ................................................................................92
C. SIMULATION RESULTS ............................................................................93
1. Distance Simulation ...........................................................................93
2. Angle Simulation ................................................................................97
D. FIELD EXPERIMENT (FX) RESULTS .....................................................98
1. Range Determination .........................................................................98
2. Aircraft and Satellite Demonstration .............................................101
3. UAV Testing .....................................................................................102
E. RESULTS ANALYSIS ................................................................................102
1. Simulation Analysis .........................................................................102
2. Field Experiment Validation...........................................................104
3. Minimum QR Code Sizes ................................................................107
4. QR Code Reconstruction.................................................................110
F. QUALITATIVE RESULTS ........................................................................112
G. CHAPTER SUMMARY..............................................................................113
X. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.................................................115
A. RESEARCH FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS .....................................115
B. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE WORK....................................116
1. QR Code Tactical Decision Aid (TDA) ..........................................116
2. Laser Technology Communications ...............................................116
3. Aircraft and Airfield use of QR codes............................................116
4. Probability of Detection Simulation ...............................................117
5. Obfuscation Methods .......................................................................117
6. Realistic Environment Testing........................................................117
7. Tactical Signaling .............................................................................118
8. Tactical Performance Study............................................................118
9. Capabilities Beyond Naval Applications........................................118
10. Flag Semaphore Camera Recognition ...........................................118
11. Point-to-Point Protocol ....................................................................118
12. QR Codes in the Underwater Domain ...........................................118
APPENDIX A. EXPERIMENT SCHEDULE OF EVENTS ..................................121
APPENDIX B. SIMULATION AND EXPERIMENT DATA ...............................123
APPENDIX C. QR TACTICAL DECISION AID (TDA) ......................................129
APPENDIX D. QR CODE WIKIPEDIA .................................................................135
LIST OF REFERENCES ....................................................................................................149
INITIAL DISTRIBUTION LIST .......................................................................................153
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Operational concept graphic of the tactical implementation of QR codes as

a visual communication method. QR codes allow Emissions Control to be
achieved for a full range of in-theater fleet tactical operations. ........................2
Figure 2. Admiral Nelson’s formation at the Battle of Trafalgar (From Lyon, 1996). ...15
Figure 3. An illustration of the flag semaphore method of visual communication
(From Martin, 2012). .......................................................................................17
Figure 4. A chart of the Semaphore characters (From Communications Instructions
Signaling Procedures in the Visual Medium, 2005). .......................................18
Figure 5. Sailors conducting a flag hoist exercise conducted in the Seventh Fleet
Area of Operations (From the U.S. Seventh Fleet website, 15APR2013).......21
Figure 6. Sailor sending a Morse code signal via the flashing light technique (From
the U.S. Seventh Fleet website, 22APR2013). ................................................25
Figure 7. Range versus height chart illustrates that increased range is achievable
through a taller antenna height in VHF/UHF LOS communications (From
Kim & Muehldorf, 1995). ................................................................................31
Figure 8. Side by side comparison of commonly used 2D barcodes, to include
matrix and stacked bar code styles...................................................................38
Figure 9. General characteristics of a 2D QR code compared to a 1D traditional
barcode (From Sutheebanjard & Premchaiswad, 2010). .................................39
Figure 10. Key structural features of a QR code symbol (International Organization
of Standards, 2006, September 01). .................................................................39
Figure 11. Comparison of version 1 and 2 QR code symbols (International
Organization of Standards, 2006, September 01). ...........................................40
Figure 12. Characteristics of a version 14 QR code symbol (International
Organization of Standards, 2006, September 01). ...........................................40
Figure 13. An artist’s rendering of a QR code reading, “http://qr.nps.edu” with the
traditional finder patterns replaced by alternate patterns. ................................44
Figure 14. As an example of obfuscation, a valid QR code reading,
“http://qr.nps.edu” is placed within a complex background. The required
white boundary layer is obscured, but can be regenerated from the finder
references. ........................................................................................................45
Figure 15. Example image of a HERO warning label (From McManamon, 2008). .........52
Figure 16. Littoral Combat Ship at sea, forward view (From www.militaryimages.net
on 27MAR2013). .............................................................................................56
Figure 17. Littoral combat ship at sea, stern view (From www.worldaffairsboard.com
on 01MAY2013). .............................................................................................57
Figure 18. Ticonderoga Class Cruiser at sea, forward view (From
www.combatindex.com on 27MAR2013). ......................................................58
Figure 19. Ticonderoga class cruiser at sea, stern view (From www.seaforces.org on
01MAY2013). ..................................................................................................58
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Figure 20. Arleigh Burke Class Destroyer at sea, forward view (From www.naval-
technology.com on 28MAR2013). ..................................................................59
Figure 21. Arleigh Burke Class destroyer at sea, stern view (From www.naval-
technology.com on 01MAY2013) ...................................................................60
Figure 22. San Antonio Class LPD at sea (From www.san-antonio.navy.mil on
28MAR2013). ..................................................................................................61
Figure 23. San Antonio Class LPD at sea, stern view (From www.globalsecurity.org
on 01MAY2013). .............................................................................................61
Figure 24. SH-60 helicopter landing on the flight deck of a surface ship (From
www.military-today.com on 29MAR2013). ....................................................63
Figure 25. ScanEagle UAV in flight (From www.naval-technology.com on
29MAR2013). ..................................................................................................64
Figure 26. Two ships conducting underway replenishment at sea (From
www.seaforces.org on 27MAR2013). .............................................................65
Figure 27. Flag hoist meanings for underway replenishment evolution
communications (From Naval Warfare Publication Underway
Replenishment NWP 4–01.4). .........................................................................66
Figure 28. Well deck view of a surface ship recovering or launching an LCAC (From
www.navsource.org on 29MAR2013). ............................................................68
Figure 29. Imaging equipment characteristics for simulation and field
experimentation................................................................................................74
Figure 30. Capturing a digitally displayed 35% QR code image during simulation.........74
Figure 31. Capturing a print displayed 80% QR code image during simulation. .............75
Figure 32. Capturing a digitally displayed 56 degree off-perpendicular QR code
image during simulation. .................................................................................76
Figure 33. Capturing a print displayed 80 degree off-perpendicular QR code image
during simulation. ............................................................................................76
Figure 34. X3D image simulation tool displaying “http:qr.nps.edu” at an angle of 36
degrees from a perpendicular viewpoint. .........................................................77
Figure 35. Test QR code image: “From technical to tactical.” Version 2, ECC L
(7%), 25 x 25 QR bits. Note the necessary standards-compliant inclusion
of the quiet zone 4 QR bits wide......................................................................78
Figure 36. Field testing QR display stand constructed of basic lumber and plywood.
Test QR code image: “From technical to tactical.” Version 2, ECC
L(7%), 25 x 25 QR bits, 37.5 inches x 37.5 inches. ........................................80
Figure 37. NPS LOS Location: 215 yards available between the Hermann Hall circle
and the main gate (After http://maps.google.com). .........................................81
Figure 38. Test Image Placement at NPS in the Spruance courtyard next to Spanagel
Hall facing the Hermann Hall Circle. ..............................................................81
Figure 39. Fort Ord LOS Location: 650 yards available diagonally across the asphalt
lot at the motor pool (After http://maps.google.com). . ...................................82
Figure 40. Test image placement at the Northwest corner of the motor pool lot at Fort
Ord. ..................................................................................................................83
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Figure 41. Bushnell Elite 1600 ARC laser range finder used for distance
determination during all field testing. Capable of determining distances of
6 to 1600 yards (From www.bushnell.com on 23MAR2013). ........................83
Figure 42. Complete view of King Hall QR code from atop Spanagel Hall. ....................84
Figure 43. Conceptual aerial View of King Hall QR Code using commercial open
source overhead imagery (After http://maps.google.com). .............................85
Figure 44. Aerial view of King Hall QR code using commercial overhead imagery
captured from DigitalGlobe Worldview-1 dated 14 April, 2013. ....................85
Figure 45. Safety setup at the work area entry point atop King Hall. ...............................86
Figure 46. Safety setup atop King Hall showing the complete work area including
visual safety barriers and entry point. ..............................................................87
Figure 47. PSI Corp. InstantEye quad rotor UAV. ...........................................................88
Figure 48. InstantEye HD video capture of the test QR image on the runway at
McMillan Field, Camp Roberts. ......................................................................88
Figure 49. InstantEye LWIR video capture of the test QR image on the runway at
McMillan Field, Camp Roberts. ......................................................................89
Figure 50. Artist’s depiction of potential QR code locations at McMillan airfield
using commercial open source overhead imagery (After
http://maps.google.com). .................................................................................89
Figure 51. Range extrapolation of simulation data from still image cameras captured
from a digitally displayed QR code. ................................................................94
Figure 52. Range extrapolation of simulation data from video cameras captured from
a digitally displayed QR code. .........................................................................94
from a print displayed QR code. ......................................................................95
a print displayed QR code. ...............................................................................95
from both digital and print displayed QR codes. .............................................96
both digital and print displayed QR codes. ......................................................96
Figure 57. Range extrapolation of simulation data from both still image and video
cameras captured from a digitally displayed QR code. ...................................97
cameras captured from both a print and digitally displayed QR code. ............97
Figure 59. Maximum ranges of successfully read QR codes from images captured
from still image cameras. .................................................................................99
from video cameras. .........................................................................................99
from both still image and video cameras. ......................................................100
Figure 62. Process steps showing the iterative improvements of a raw captured image
resulting in a readable QR code. ....................................................................100
Figure 63. WorldView-1 satellite demonstration imagery (0.5 meter pixel resolution).
Not readable. ..................................................................................................101
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Figure 64. WorldView-2 satellite demonstration imagery (0.46 meter pixel
resolution). Not readable. ...............................................................................102
Figure 65. Extrapolation curves from still image camera simulation. ............................103
Figure 66. Extrapolation curves from video camera simulation. ....................................103
Figure 67. Extrapolation curves from still image and video camera simulations. ..........104
from still image cameras superimposed on expected ranges extrapolated
from simulation data. .....................................................................................105
from video cameras superimposed on expected ranges extrapolated from
simulation data. ..............................................................................................106
from both still image and video cameras superimposed on expected ranges
extrapolated from simulation data. ................................................................106
Figure 71. Statistical evaluation of QR bit size data from primary evaluation of
simulated data ranges. ....................................................................................108
Figure 72. Statistical evaluation of QR bit size data from secondary evaluation of
simulated range images. .................................................................................108
experimental range images. ...........................................................................109
experimental range images. ...........................................................................109
Figure 75. Demonstration of single QR bit reconstruction using 4K video camera
image of 100 inch x 100 inch QR code captured at 750 yards. .....................111
Figure 76. Sending side of the Tactical Decision Aid watching a directory for new
text files..........................................................................................................130
Figure 77. Sequencing process of tactical decision aid illustrating both the sending
and receiving capabilities of the TDA. ..........................................................131
Figure 78. Image of the actual text to be detected, encoded, and displayed by the
tactical decision aid. .......................................................................................132
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Summary table providing a comparison of HF, VHF, and UHF

communications. ..............................................................................................29
Table 2. QR code error correcting capability levels (Sutheebanjard &
Premchaiswad, 2010). ......................................................................................41
Table 3. QR code capacity (International Organization of Standards, 2006,
September 01). .................................................................................................41
Table 4. Test QR code image parameters. .....................................................................78
Table 5. Maximum distances in yards at which a QR code was successfully
captured and decoded for each camera. ...........................................................91
Table 6. Range extrapolation from simulation...............................................................93
Table 7. Maximum off-perpendicular angles of successfully read QR images. ............98
Table 8. Field experiment maximum range results. .......................................................98
Table 9. Simulation prediction equations. ...................................................................104
Table 10. QR bit size, in pixels, from the smallest readable QR code images digitally
displayed. .......................................................................................................107
Table 11. QR bit size, in pixels, from the smallest readable QR code images print
displayed. .......................................................................................................107
Table 12. QR bit size, in pixels, from highest-range readable QR code images . .........109
Table 13. Simulation and Field Experiment Results Legend.........................................123
Table 14. Digital Display Simulation Data ....................................................................124
Table 15. Printed Display Simulation Data ...................................................................125
Table 16. Still Image Camera Field Experiment Data ...................................................126
Table 17. Video Camera Field Experiment Data. ..........................................................127
xv
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LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
2D Two Dimensional
A2AD Anti-Access Area Denial
AAV Amphibious Assault Vehicle
AIM Association for Automatic Identification & Mobility
ARSENL Advanced Robotic Systems Engineering Laboratory
BMD Ballistic Missile Defense
BTB Bridge-to-Bridge
CIWS Close-in Weapons System
CO Commanding Officer
COTS Commercial off the Shelf
CRUSER Consortium for Robotics and Unmanned Systems Education and Research
CSG Carrier Strike Group
EM Electromagnetic
EMCON Emissions Control
ESG Expeditionary Strike Group
EW Electronic Warfare
FOV Field of View
HERO Hazards of Electromagnetic Radiation to Ordinance
HF High Frequency
HHQ Higher Headquarters
HVU High Value Unit
IFFN Identification Friend or Foe/Neutral
ILE In-line Encryption

xvii
ISO International Standards Organization
JIS Japanese Industrial Standards
KHz Kilohertz
LARC Lighter, Amphibious Supply, Cargo
LCAC Landing Craft Air Cushion
LCU Landing Craft, Utility
LOS Line-of-Sight
LPD Low Probability of Detection
LPE Low Probability of Exploitation
LPI Low Probability of Intercept
MHz Megahertz
MOVES Modeling, Virtual Environments and Simulation
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization
QPSK Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
QR Quick Response
RF Radio Frequency
SRBOC Super Rapid Bloom Off-Board Chaff
UAV Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
UHF Ultra High Frequency
UPC Universal Product Code
URL Uniform Resource Locator
USV Unmanned Surface Vehicle
VBSS Visit Board Search and Seizure
VHF Very High Frequency
X3D Extensible 3D Graphics International Standard

xviii
GLOSSARY
Alignment Pattern. The small bullseye patterns appearing in QR code versions 2 and
greater allowing for optical alignment of codes with linear and non-linear distortions.
Anti-Access/Area Denial. Enemy actions which inhibit military movement into a theater
of operations, and activities that seek to deny freedom of action within areas under the
enemy’s control.
CCD. A device that is used to convert reflected light into an electrical signal. A charge-
transfer device used as an image sensor in which the image-representing electrical charge
is moved, usually from within the device to an area where the charge can be manipulated.
CMOS. Integrated circuit sensors where multiple active transistors represent each pixel
allowing for on-chip processing.
De-Bayering. The use of a 50% green, 25% red, and 25% blue pattern to reconstruct
image sensor data into a viewable, color image.
Dynamic Range (DR). The ratio between the maximum and minimum measurable light
intensities (white and black). The ratio between the maximum signal and the rms noise.
Emissions Control (EMCON). The control of all electromagnetic and acoustic

radiations, including communications, radar, EW and sonar. During its imposition, no
electronic emitting device within designated bands, including personal communication
devices, will be operated unless absolutely essential to the mission.
Encryption. A process to ensure data or information is read or used only by its intended
readers or users.
Error Correcting Code (ECC). A code in which each group of characters or signals
conforms to specific rules of construction so that departures from this construction in the
received signals can be automatically detected and some or all of the errors can be
automatically corrected.
Finder Pattern. The large bullseye pattern located at three corners of a QR code
specifying the location of the encoded data.
xix
Flight Deck Operations. The launching, landing, or refueling of aircraft on board
surface ships.
Focal Length. The distance between the center of a convex lens or concave mirror and
the focal point of the lens or mirror that determines how much magnification it provides.
f-stop. The measurement of the aperture setting in a camera lens that determines how
much light is allowed to enter the lens and pass through to the CCD or CMOS sensor.
Hazards of Electromagnetic Radiation to Ordnance (HERO). The program concerned

with prevention of accidental ignition of electrically initiated devices (EID’s) in ordnance
due to RF electromagnetic fields.
Line-of-Sight. A direct propagation path that does not go below the radio horizon.
Long Wave Infrared. The range of invisible radiation wavelengths from 750 nanometers
(just longer than red in the visible spectrum), to 1 millimeter (on the border of the
microwave region).
Low Probability of Detection. The result of measures put in place to disguise or hide
intentional electromagnetic transmissions.
Low Probability of Exploitation. Preventing the exploitation of a signal by denying the

adversary knowledge of the system, its modulation characteristics, its use and its users.
Low Probability of Intercept. Putting measures in place in order to ensure the

interception of signals and messages is not achievable.
Multipath Effects. The propagation phenomenon which results in a time delay due to the
radio signals reaching the receiving antenna by two or more paths. Causes of multipath
effects include ionospheric reflection, refraction, atmospheric ducting, and reflection
from water, buildings, and mountains.
Obfuscation. The hiding of intended meaning in communication, making

communication confusing, willfully ambiguous, and harder to interpret.
QR Bit. The smallest structure within a QR code representing a one (black) or zero
(white).
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QR Code. A two dimensional barcode developed by the Denso Wave corporation in the
1990s for the Japanese automotive manufacturing industry.
Reed-Solomon Error Correction. An error-correcting code that oversamples a

polynomial constructed from the data and the polynomial is evaluated at several different
points. This oversampling causes the polynomial to be over-determined, which allows the
receiver to recover the original polynomial with enough points received correctly.
Resolution. The number of pixels contained on a display monitor, expressed in terms of

the number of pixels on the horizontal axis and the number on the vertical axis. This
helps determine the sharpness of an image.
Semaphore. Visual signaling in which the positions of the hands each holding a flag are
used to represent letters of the alphabet, numerals, punctuation, and certain procedure
words and prosigns that are used for the transmission of messages.
Timing Pattern. Alternating black and white modules in a QR code that assist the
decoder application in detecting the position of each cell in the QR code.
Well Deck Operations. The launching and recovery of amphibious assault craft from a
surface ship.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This thesis might not have been possible without the contributions of many
professionals at Naval Postgraduate School. Many people I have a personal relationship
with also need to be recognized. I would like to take this time to acknowledge the
professional support and dedication received while working on this thesis of the
following:
Jeff Kline, CAPT (USN) retired, for providing me with this most important thesis
topic and introducing me to CRUSER. Without your assistance, I may have never
achieved what I thought was the impossible, completing a meaningful thesis.
My thesis advisor, Dr. Don Brutzman, my thesis co-advisor, Dr. Ray Buettner,
second reader Jeff Weekley, and members of the SAVAGE research group for their
guidance, assistance, and expertise.
I also would like to acknowledge Jeff Weekley and Jeff Malnick for their prior
work on the capabilities of QR codes, and thank them for providing me with the
necessary camera equipment (and guidance on how to use it) to conduct this research as
well as Mike Bailey for his work on developing a Tactical Decision Aid to be used with
QR codes.
Last, I would like to take this time to extend a personal thank you and gratitude to
LCDR Andy Lucas, for tackling the QR code thesis topic with me. Without your
friendship, work ethic, and motivation, I am not sure I would have completed a thesis
during my time here at NPS. Thank you for all of your help and mentorship.
xxiii
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I. INTRODUCTION
A. ABSTRACT
This thesis examines visual communications methods used effectively by the fleet
throughout history, both during peace and wartime operations. Due to the advent of new
technology, radio frequency line-of-sight (RF LOS) communications have come to the
forefront, leaving the fleet vulnerable when conducting operations in an emissions
controlled environment. The need for a reliable visual line-of-sight communications
method has become apparent. The use of QR codes for visual communications has been
coined “Digital Semaphore.” QR codes have the ability to become the newest and most
effective method of visual communication, replacing older, more outdated forms. This
thesis examines the use of various sensors and cameras to read and decode QR codes as
well as discusses theoretical uses of QR codes for communications on board ships,
aircraft, and unmanned vehicles. The ultimate goal of this thesis is to provide the fleet
with an option for a new visual communication method that allows ships and other units
operating in a tactical and emissions-controlled environment to maintain operational
effectiveness.
B. PROBLEM STATEMENT
Ultra-high Frequency (UHF) and Very-high Frequency (VHF) LOS

communications are common throughout the world and an adversary can easily acquire
equipment with which they may be able to intercept or attempt to jam naval
communications. Additionally, tactical units operating in an emission-restricted
environment creates the need for a visual communications method to augment RF LOS
communications methods. This has serious implications for communications between
naval ships, naval aircraft, and unmanned systems.
Further, Emissions Control (EMCON) and Hazards of Electromagnetic Radiation

to Ordnance (HERO) restrict the ability for Naval Vessels to communicate using
traditional radio frequency communications.
1
C. SOLUTION OVERVIEW
Figure 1 illustrates the many possible uses and tactical implementations of QR

codes as a visual communication method. Ships can use QR codes for communication as
well as for different evolutions such as underway replenishment and flight operations.
QR codes can be used to transmit and receive messages via line-of-sight communication
between aircraft, unmanned aerial vehicles, and ships. Aircraft can receive vital
information from a QR displayed on a control tower or the runway itself and tactical units
operating covertly can transmit messages to aircraft and unmanned aerial vehicles. As
indicated in Figure 1, there are only two instances where radio frequencies must be
transmitted, which indicate that QR codes for communication can be effective while
operating in an emissions controlled (EMCON) environment and ultimately restore
EMCON as a feasible tactical condition.
Figure 1. Operational concept graphic of the tactical implementation of QR codes as a

visual communication method. QR codes allow Emissions Control to be
achieved for a full range of in-theater fleet tactical operations.
2
EMCON can be achieved for a full range of fleet in-theater tactical operations and
activities by utilizing QR codes as a communication method. The following is a list of
potential tactical use cases which correspond to Figure 1.
• Ship-to-ship communications to include tactical maneuvering and
underway replenishment.
• Ship-to-aircraft communications and vice versa. Helicopters and aircraft
can receive vital information via this visual communications link in the
battle space.
• Aircraft and helicopters receive and transmit messages from ground units.
Additionally, airstrips and control towers have the ability to communicate
important information.
• UAV’s extend the range of QR codes by acting as a relay in the sky.
• Digital Flashing Light, which is discussed later, is a future work item that
will extend the range and effectiveness of existing flashing light
communications.
D. PURPOSE AND MOTIVATION
Once prominent in tactical situations, visual communications between naval units

has become somewhat of a lost art and is rarely utilized or taught to sailors in the Fleet.
Flag semaphore; flashing light, and flag hoist communications have proved to be
instrumental in tactical naval victories throughout history. Over time, visual
communications have been put on the back burner in favor of voice communications,
which are not as effective in Emissions Controlled or Anti-Access Area Denial (A2AD)
situation. Line-of-sight (LOS) RF communications systems are left vulnerable to
jamming and interception. Without visual communications capabilities, tactical
communications may become non-existent in cases when the most restrictive types of
emissions restrictions are required to be in place.
The promising results of this QR code research shows that further work needs to
be conducted in order to ensure that future communications between tactical units are
more covert, will be extremely difficult to jam, can be decoded in a timely manner, and
can be conducted in an emissions restricted or denied environment. This type of digital
communications can also allow for the military to communicate quickly and effectively
as an alternative to LOS voice communications. Ultimately, the fleet needs to be sure that
3
tactical communications between units are safe, secure and efficient, which makes this
research relevant and important for the future of the fleet.
E. RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESIS
1. Research Questions
• Why is this method of information transfer better than RF LOS

communications?
• What tactical advantages are given by QR codes that are not given by RF
LOS?
• What tactical disadvantages can be experienced by QR code
communications?
• How will this capability improve tactical performance for various
platforms?
• What capabilities will this system provide beyond naval applications?
• Does the probability of detection become drastically reduced when
communicating with QR codes vice using existing RF LOS voice
communications?
• What methods of data transmission are feasible in a visually precluded
environment (i.e., fog, line-of-sight obstruction)?
• Which environments are permissive and non-permissive for QR code
communications?
2. Hypothesis
QR code communications can allow for ships operating in a tactical environment

to have discrete and virtually undetectable communications. This will enable effective
and efficient tactical communications between units operating in an emissions restricted
environment for the fleet and its allies and will reduce the probability of detection by
adversaries.
F. METHODOLOGY
Research will include modeling, simulation and field experimentation. The

project is building a library of exemplar quick response (QR) codes and software routines
for testing and evaluation. Simulation and modeling compares radio frequency emitters
and QR code displays in various tactical scenarios. This can show the situations in which
4
QR code communications are superior to traditional methods in terms of detection and
intercept. Field experimentations will be conducted to analyze the benefits of various
technologies in an end-to-end assessment of the QR communication chain. This can
identify the ideal technologies required to implement this method with acceptable
performance parameters tactically.
Experimentation included conducting baseline analysis of different camera

technologies and their abilities to read QR codes at various ranges. Testing included
distance experimentation with multiple cameras, satellite imagery pixel detection using a
painted QR code on the roof of King Hall at NPS, satellite imagery QR code detection,
and unmanned aerial vehicle QR code detection at Camp Roberts. Angle simulation was
also performed in order to determine the maximum angle at which a QR code can be read
effectively based on the camera being used and the distance at which the QR code was
displayed.
G. SCOPE
This research includes experiments to validate the use of QR codes in a tactical

environment. Initial testing establishes a baseline for performance expectations using
standard COTS optical and software equipment to generate, capture and decode static QR
images. Further experimentation places these static QR codes into more dynamic situations
to verify the baseline expectations hold consistent in changing conditions. Finally,
experimentation attempts to establish the capability to capture and decode a sequence of
streaming QR codes. The ability to capture and decode streaming QR codes can provide
the fleet with additional capability to be able to transfer larger amounts of data.
H. THESIS ORGANIZATION
This thesis discusses the feasibility and benefits of introducing visual

communications using QR codes tactically between naval units. It explores the various
types of cameras available to read QR codes and will determine effective ranges at which
each camera can read various pixel sizes. It discusses the historical benefits of visual
communications in the tactical environment as well as the improved communications
capabilities experienced by utilizing QR codes between naval units in an emission
5
controlled or emissions restricted environment. In addition, the importance of visual
communications methods is brought to light by discussing emissions control, hazards of
electromagnetic radiation to ordnance, and anti-access area denial (A2AD) environments.
Chapter II summarizes and describes the QR code project overview and other
related work pertinent to this thesis. Chapter III is an overview of the various types of
visual communications methods utilized by the fleet throughout history. Chapter IV
discusses existing RF LOS communications techniques used in the fleet today, to include
high frequency, very-high frequency, and ultra-high frequency communications. Chapter
V is an overview and description of one-dimensional bar codes, two-dimensional bar
codes, and QR codes. Chapter VI is an overview of emissions restrictions including
Emissions Control (EMCON) and Hazards of Electromagnetic Radiation to Ordnance
(HERO). Chapter VII is dedicated to tactical scenarios and use cases for QR codes as an
optical signaling method. Chapters VIII and IX are research methods and experimental
results and analysis, respectively. Chapter X concludes the thesis by drawing conclusions
and providing recommendations and opportunities for future work.
Throughout this thesis, there are many times when technical aspects of QR codes
and the use of camera technology are mentioned. For extensive study regarding these
technologies, refer to Digital Semaphore: Technical Feasibility of QR Code Optical
Signaling for Fleet Communications (Lucas, 2013). This document complements much of
the research herein and shares several chapters. Specifically, Chapter V, One-
Dimensional (1D) Bar Codes, Two-Dimensional (2D) Bar Codes, and QR Codes,
Chapter VIII Research Methods, and Chapter IX, Experimental Results and Analysis are
co-written. Appendix A, Experiment Schedule of Events and Appendix B, Simulation
and Experiment Data are shared as well.
I. BENEFITS OF STUDY
The ultimate benefit of this thesis is to provide an alternative and jam-resistant

form of fast and reliable visual line-of-sight communications to the fleet that will
augment the current RF line-of-sight communications suite. This system is able to
leverage many existing commercial-off-the-shelf technologies in the form of QR code
6
reading and generation software. Additionally, QR code transmissions are platform
agnostic preventing adversaries from identifying the source based on the nature of the
transmission itself.
Using QR code as a form of visual communication may be vulnerable to non-

permissive environments such as hazy conditions, fog, heavy seas, excessive background
lighting or insufficient illumination. However, the use of QR codes for visual
communications between tactical units will provide a method of communications in an
RF non-permissive environment when situations call for EMCON or Hazards of
Electromagnetic Radiation to Ordinance (HERO) to be employed. Unless exclusive
equipment is used, any unencrypted transmissions may be vulnerable to intercept by an
adversary.
This thesis can ultimately recommend the purchase of equipment to be distributed

throughout the fleet in order to provide ships and other tactical units with the QR code
communications capability known as digital semaphore. This work has fundamental
implications for naval warfare. Literature review to date has not revealed any industry or
academic efforts that are exploring these possibilities. The plan is to begin submitting
patent applications to ensure that the Navy’s long-term Intellectual Property Rights (IPR)
are protected.
J. CHAPTER SUMMARY
This thesis explores the use of QR codes for communications between tactical
units using different camera technology. It proves the point that traditional methods of
visual communication have largely been abandoned in favor or voice communications
which rely upon the EM spectrum and RF transmissions. In an emission restricted
environment, it is imperative to have an alternative means to communicate in order to
remain undetected by adversaries. A QR code used as visual communications is the
perfect solution for this issue because of the fact that these transmissions cannot be
jammed or be intercepted as easily as voice transmissions. Additionally, these messages
can be transmitted, received, and decoded in a short amount of time, increasing the
efficiency of communications at sea.
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II. RELATED WORK AND PROBLEM DESCRIPTION
A. OVERVIEW
Work with Quick Response codes has been done through a CRUSER sponsored
workshop. This work was mostly geared toward live streaming of QR codes and
documenting the different capabilities that various cameras provide with regard to
reading QR codes. Little has been with regard to post-processing of QR codes utilizing
different types of software and applications. There has not been much documented work
with regard to using QR codes for digital and visual communications. The ultimate goal
for this research is to ensure that the fleet is provided with a form of visual
communications to augment the current VHF and UHF line-of-sight communications that
will be difficult to jam and detect, simple to use, and has low maintenance requirements.
If successful, QR codes for communications can provide the fleet and other tactical units
with an effective and reliable form of visual communications that can also be effective in
an emissions controlled environment.
B. CRUSER WORKSHOP
Through a CRUSER sponsored workshop (Digital Semaphore, 2012), it has been

noted that the ability to create and display QR codes can be achieved easily. The
increasing use of online and offline QR code creation applications in industry and the
availability of digital storage allow users to find encode and decode these two-
dimensional bar codes with few barriers to success. However, this research has shown
that QR code use for communications purposes in tactical environments will require
specialized equipment, signal processing, and specific procedures in order to fully
implement the technology (Digital Semaphore, 2012). Although work has been done with
QR codes through CRUSER, there has not been any work or experimentation done for
the purpose of utilizing QR codes for tactical communications. No work has been done to
date on the implementation and feasibility of using QR codes as a visual communication
method.
9
1. Electro Magnetic Maneuver Massive Multiplayer Online War Game
(EM2 MMOWGLI)
An Electro Magnetic Maneuver Massive Multiplayer Online War Game

Leveraging the Internet (EM2 MMOWGLI) was conducted to explore the vulnerability
that exists inherent to the technological nature of modern warfare
(https://mmowgli.nps.edu/em2). The three phases of the game were:
• Know the EM Environment: Understanding EM Energy
• Be Agile: C2 in the EM Environment
• Paradigm Change: Tactical Employment of EM Weapons
As a result of the EM2 MMOWGLI, five action plans focused on QR code and
other means of visual communications emerged:
Action plan 25 was titled QR Code Characteristics for Optical Signaling and
Streaming Transmission. This plan introduced the idea of using QR codes for optical
communications between tactical environments. Action plan 27 was titled DFL for
Unjammable LOS Signaling Between Navy Ships. This plan looked beyond the
limitations of QR code by coupling existing light display capabilities with a system from
controlling those lights for tactical communications. Action Plans 26, 39, and 40
demonstrated sound tactical applications for the use of QR codes in communications.
These plans are titled: Tactical QR Code Streaming: High-Speed Optical Signaling for
Fleet and Unmanned-System Communications, QR Code IFFN: Identification Friend,
Foe or Neutral, and Vertical QR Message to Aircraft and Spacecraft.
The EM2 war game provided valuable input from the MMOWGLI community
assessing the validity of this research (EM2 MMOWGLI, 2013).
C. PROBLEM DESCRIPTION
“The positive necessity for radio silence on the part of vessels engaged in naval
operations during war cannot be emphasized too strongly. The importance of adequate
means of visual communication is therefore apparent,” (Lewis, 1928). This quote
illustrates the importance for the fleet to maintain a form of tactical visual
communications in a radio silent or emissions restricted environment. If radio silence is
10
required, communications must still be maintained in order to ensure the vessels remain
synchronized in battle. Radio silence is a method employed by tactical units in order to
greatly reduce or completely avoid detection by adversaries. Although this quote comes
from a book written and published almost one hundred years ago, the importance of
maintaining radio silence still resonates in today’s tactical environments, which leads to
the necessity for visual communications to ensure a tactical advantage is established and
maintained.
D. PROBLEM BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Visual communications between naval vessels at sea have become relatively

obsolete and the need to remain undetectable from adversaries is essential. The fleet
relies heavily upon RF LOS communications in the form of HF, VHF, and UHF, but
these communications systems are vulnerable to jamming, electronic attack, interception,
and are far less effective when emissions control measures are in place, which require the
systems to be shut down for an unknown period of time in order to remain undetected for
as long as possible.
The vulnerabilities of RF LOS communications mentioned here is evidence that

the fleet needs a reliable, quick, simple, and effective visual communications method.
One possible solution to this problem is implementing Quick Response codes as a sort of
“Digital Semaphore” or “Tactical QR Communications.” This type of visual
communication can provide the fleet with an alternate means to line-of-sight radio
communications and allow tactical units to greatly reduce electronic signature and
probability of detection by adversaries.
E. CHAPTER SUMMARY
Work has been done with Quick Response codes through the CRUSER Lab in
order to demonstrate that QR codes can be captured with still image and video cameras
and then decoded using post-processing software (Digital Semaphore, 2012). This testing
and experimentation is only the beginning portion of reaching the end goal of being able
to utilize Quick Response Codes as a communications method in tactical environments. If
successful, this new technology might provide the Fleet with a visual communication
11
technique that will be simple to operate, require a minimum amount of training for
operators of the system, and be extremely difficult to detect and jam by adversaries.
Warfighters operating in tactical environments that require a covert communications
method might ultimately benefit from a new method of communication, such as the use
of Quick Response codes. Existing RF LOS methods of communication leave tactical
units vulnerable to jamming, detection and interception by adversaries and can ultimately
lead to the unit’s intentions and plans compromised. Protective measures such as
emissions control or radio silence might ultimately be circumvented by implementing a
fast, reliable, and simple visual communications method, which provides further
protection for and maintain effective command and control for the tactical unit or units in
question.
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III. HISTORICAL MARITIME COMMUNICATIONS AND
VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS METHODS
A. CHAPTER OVERVIEW
“Tactical communications are principally orders to our own forces in contact with
the enemy when maneuvering preparatory to and during engagement. The function of
communications during battle is principally tactical: to assist in concentrating our attack
upon a weak or exposed part of the enemy’s battle line, breaking up his tactical
formations and destroying his vessels, through important communications relating to
tactical movements, fire control, and fire concentration,” (Lewis, 1928). This quote from
A Digest of Naval Communications defines tactical communications and illustrates the
importance of maintaining tactical communications between vessels at sea engaged in
battle, preparing for battle, or while executing training exercises and evolutions. This
chapter will discuss the various types of tactical communications used at sea throughout
history and the significance of each
Throughout history, visual communications have played a major role in naval

engagements. Admiral Horatio Nelson of the British Royal Navy is famous for his
service and one of the most notable battles in history; the Battle of Trafalgar. He is
credited with mastering the art of tactical visual communications and was an expert in
unconventional naval tactics and strategy (Lyon, 1996). Nelson was able to communicate
effectively with other ships under his command using flag hoist communication. The
Battle of Trafalgar demonstrated the importance of visual communications in a time
where radio frequency line-of-sight communications were not yet in existence. The
effectiveness with which Nelson was able to visually communicate with his fleet
demonstrates the need to explore new forms of visual communications for use in today’s
fleet, especially given the growing threat of Anti-access Area Denial operations by
adversaries and the importance of remaining undetected for the duration of extended
tactical operations.
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B. EFFECTIVENESS THROUGHOUT HISTORY
1. Battle of Trafalgar
Admiral Horatio Nelson was able to make history by utilizing his

communications skills and training to ensure that his fleet of ships worked together in
order to achieve success. This combination of skill and communication culminated with
him leading the Royal Navy to a victory at the Battle of Trafalgar. Nelson used flag hoist
communications to perfection by signaling the British fleet to form into two columns to
approach the French fleet although the flag hoist signals were important, the success of
Admiral Nelson and his ships was not only due to the effective signaling demonstrated.
“Of paramount importance, Nelson had done what Brueys had not; he had spent his two
months at sea not merely drilling his force but discussing and planning the battle,”
(Hughes, 2000). It took months and even years of meetings with his Officers and crews in
order to ensure that his concept of operations was fully understood by all parties.
Throughout the battle, Nelson maintained control of the ships under his command by
visually communicating his orders and intent. Nelson only sent two signals via flag hoist
throughout the entire engagement which illustrates the effectiveness of his
communication (Pope, 1999). Nelson’s visual communications skills and expertise
allowed for the British fleet to maintain organization and ultimately emerge as the victors
in this battle.
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Figure 2. Admiral Nelson’s formation at the Battle of Trafalgar (From Lyon, 1996).
2. World War II
The most common type of visual communications used during World War II
battles was the flashing light method. Flag semaphore and flag hoist were used as well,
but with the advent of radio communications and the convenience associated with voice
communications caused traditional, visual methods of communication were used less as
time progressed. In the event that radio communications were destroyed due to the nature
of the war, visual communications were used in their place and were effective, especially
given the fact that Allied forces all knew and understood Morse code, the primary
foundation for flashing light communications. Visual communications methods were not
only used at sea, but also in land battles. Flares were lit to inform units of their positions
15
and flashing light was used in order to communicate instructions and orders from sea to
land based units.
C. PRESENT-DAY COMMUNICATIONS
Today, the Fleet relies heavily upon radio and voice communications and rarely
uses any sort of visual communications method. Flag semaphore, flashing light, and flag
hoist are only used in specific ways and proficiency with these methods is lacking. Flag
hoist communications are generally used to express an explicit message such as “I am
coming alongside” or “Commence refueling” or to relay a continuous short message
while in port such as “There are Personnel Working Aloft” or “There are Divers Over the
Side.” Flag semaphore is rarely used for anything in the present day and when used, it is
primarily to send messages between ships for underway replenishment or to guide
helicopters to safe landings on flight decks of smaller vessels. Flashing light is the least
used of the three methods mentioned as the Morse code and techniques are no longer
required to be taught, and many ships are not equipped with the required equipment to
execute the communication method.
D. JUSTIFICATION FOR VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS
Visual communications need to be a point of emphasis moving forward into the

future. The Fleet and the military in general have gotten away from being proficient with
and utilizing visual communications in favor of voice communications, but threats exist
today that render voice communications inoperable, which requires proficiency and an
understanding of how to send and receive signals visually. For instance, voice
communications are much more susceptible to jamming and interception. In an A2AD
environment, when adversaries are attempting to deny the use of the electromagnetic
spectrum, the use of visual communications is imperative because electronic signature
needs to be reduced in order to avoid detection by adversaries.
Foreign navies are much more proficient and practice visual communications
much more often, so when operating with foreign ships, it is vital that the Fleet know the
procedures and proper way to operate visual communications equipment such as flag
hoist, flag semaphore and flashing light. Visual communication techniques allow for a
16
more discrete and essentially jam free method of communication in an emissions
controlled or restricted environment, which will certainly be seen more often now and in
the future.
E. VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS METHODS
1. Flag Semaphore
“Semaphore is used in the fleet primarily for dispatch work. It is the most rapid
means of daylight communication for this purpose and its use is universal,” (Lewis,
1928). The most prominent type of flag semaphore used throughout the history of the
Navy is that of two flag semaphore. The two flags are square in shape and signals are
encoded based on the position that the flags are held and waved. Flags are colored
differently for sea based and land based communications.
Figure 3. An illustration of the flag semaphore method of visual communication (From

Martin, 2012).
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Sea based communication flags are red and yellow, while the land based flags are
white and blue. Five motions are used by the signaler in order to send messages. The flags
can be moved to the left, moved to the vertical position, moving the flags to the right, back
to vertical position, and then dipping the flags. Moving the flags in different combinations
of directions sends the message. Different angles the flags are displayed at also translate to
different meanings. The flags are generally fifteen inches square and are mounted on
twenty-two inch long staffs.
Figure 4. A chart of the Semaphore characters (From Communications Instructions

Signaling Procedures in the Visual Medium, 2005).
18
a. Present-day uses
Flag semaphore is rarely utilized in the Fleet as a regular communications

method, except for a few specific evolutions. This method is no longer taught to young
sailors and is, for all intents and purposes, a lost art. Flag semaphore can still be utilized
in specific instances, such as providing quick and efficient visual communications
between ships during Underway Replenishment. For UNREP, signals are passed back
and forth from the refueling stations in order to ensure the operation is conducted
smoothly and safely. Other uses of flag semaphore include flight deck operations for
smaller ships operating with a helicopter or well deck operations on an amphibious ship
when launching and recovering amphibious assault vehicles. Signals are sent to the
helicopter from the flight deck instructing it to land or wave off the landing. Flag
Semaphore should be used more than it is now, because of its simplicity and
effectiveness. This form of communication allows naval vessels to conduct special
evolutions efficiently during times of increased emissions restrictions.
b. Advantages of flag semaphore
Flag semaphore is best used when ships are within a couple thousand
yards of one another and a clear line-of-sight is available. In addition, no electromagnetic
energy is required to be emitted in order to execute the transmission and receipt of a
message, which ensures that flag semaphore is an effective method of communicating in
an EMCON or HERO environment. The range can be extended if there are binoculars
available to see the flags and what signals are being passed from the sender. Flag
semaphore is a quick and efficient method of communicating short messages between
two ships. While executing an event such as an underway replenishment or helicopter
operations, where clear and concise communications are required to ensure the evolution
runs smoothly, flag semaphore works perfectly. The components needed to execute flag
semaphore are kept to a bare minimum. All it requires are two sailors and flags in order
to communicate the messages and intents of each ship and because the messages are
relatively simple and short, the risk of confusion is minimized. Flag semaphore is
effective for launching and recovering amphibious assault vehicles from a ship due to its
19
simplicity and the fact that the proximity between signalman and the vehicle is close, so
there is no risk of losing the signal through any visual obstruction. This form of
communication makes launching, recovering, and moving amphibious assault vehicles
around in the well deck an easier task if voice communications are not available because
of emissions control or HERO restrictions.
c. Disadvantages of flag semaphore
Flag semaphore requires the signalman to be knowledgeable in order to

ensure that the proper signals are sent, which can pose an issue and leave a chance that an
error in the signal can occur. Additionally, the flag semaphore technique can be slower
than other techniques, depending on the length and complexity of the message being
transmitted and requires the vessel receiving the message to have eyes on target at all
times to ensure the full message is received as intended. Flag semaphore also requires a
clear line-of-sight with no obstructions between the signaler and receiver. If there are any
obstructions between the two stations communicating, then this method of
communication will most likely become ineffective and difficult to execute. Flag
Semaphore also requires the communicating vessels to be operating in close proximity to
one another due to the fact that the flags are much smaller than the ones used for Flag
Hoist Communications. A feasible distance that which flag semaphore can be transmitted
and received is less than a mile, unless some sort of device such as binoculars are in use
by the receiving unit.
2. Flag Hoist
Figure 5 provides an illustration of the flag hoist method of visual

communication. In Figure 5, Sailors are conducting a flag hoist exercise, which is
important in maintaining proficiency in this important skill.
20
Figure 5. Sailors conducting a flag hoist exercise conducted in the Seventh Fleet Area
of Operations (From the U.S. Seventh Fleet website, 15APR2013).
a. Flag hoist description
The French developed flag hoist systems in the latter part of the eighteenth
century and were meant to provide ships with a quick, simple, and effective method of
communication. These flags all had specific meanings that were predetermined and
allowed ships to communicate with one another while at sea or in port. Flag signaling
allowed ships to maneuver tactically together and communicate other types of important
signals. The flags also have different meanings based on where they are hoisted on the
mast and how they are oriented with one another.
Flags used for flag hoist communications come in four different shapes;
rectangular, rectangular with a triangular cut in the outboard edge, a smaller triangular
shape, and a slightly longer triangular that comes to a point (usually termed “pennant”).
Flags used also have different patterns and color combinations in order to provide a more
simple and effective method of distinguishing the flags from one another (Sterling, 2008).
The shapes and colors of the flags remain largely unchanged today and because of this,
most nations using this form of communication have a common understanding of the
21
meanings of flag hoist signals. Flag hoist signals are most often used to convey a single
message or code, and change infrequently. This type of visual signaling is done by raising
and lowering individual flags, one at a time. The flags are used to convey messages to
another unit. Flags must be retrieved from a storage bin, unfolded, attached to the
halyard, and then raised. Once the message is no longer needed, the flags are then
lowered, folded up, and put back into the storage area. The raising and lowering of these
flags is a long and tedious process.
b. Key historical uses
Admiral Horatio Nelson used flag hoist communications heavily during

the battle of Trafalgar as well as previous battles in which Admiral Nelson was a part of.
It was the simplest and most effective way to communicate commands to other ships in
his battle groups. As previously stated, Admiral Nelson only needed to communicate two
separate flag hoist signals during the battle of Trafalgar in order to guide his British fleet
to a victory (Lyon, 1996). The fact that only two signals were required shows that while
flag hoist communications is simple, it can be extremely effective if executed properly.
Throughout his naval career, Admiral Nelson continued to use flag hoist communications
and was able to demonstrate its effectiveness in both peacetime steaming and war time
steaming.
c. Present-day uses
Today, flag hoist communications are rarely used for tactical

communications as most tactical signals are transmitted and received through line-of-
sight voice methods. Flag hoist has become obsolete in terms of tactical communications
but is still used by ships in port and a few cases underway to convey intentions of the
vessel or an operation that the vessel is engaged in. Examples of these are underway
replenishment and helicopter operations underway and personnel working aloft,
refueling, moving ammunition, and personnel working over the side in port.
Flag hoist communications are more often used to convey a simple

message to other vessels in the surrounding areas, but they are not generally used in
tactical maneuvering situations or combat operations. Flag hoist exercises are conducted
22
while ships are in port to ensure that ships can at least transmit and receive simple
signals. Flag hoist communications are not used for executing turns and speed changes
while steaming in formation like they once were. These signals are now sent and received
via voice communications methods, which can cause delay in reaction due to the time it
takes to decode the message, and in a worst case scenario can result in collision at sea.
d. Advantages of flag hoist
Flag hoist communications are advantageous because they are pre-

determined messages for each flag hoisted and are simple for other ships to distinguish as
long as visibility is clear. Flags also have the ability to stay hoisted for a period of time so
that a message can be in effect for as long as it is required. Flag hoists are also used to
signal formation changes when ships are steaming in formation and require maneuvers to
be performed simultaneously. This type of communication allows for quick and effective
communications between ships in formation and as long as visibility is clear, there is
limited confusion. Flag hoist communications have been common practice throughout
naval history until recently because of the development of voice communication. This
fact indicates a distinct advantage associated with flag hoist because it is widely known
and understood, which means it can be an effective method of visually communicating
with foreign ships and foreign navies in a time of war.
e. Disadvantages of flag hoist
The flag hoist method of communication is at a distinct disadvantage

when compared to other methods of communications such as VHF and UHF line-of-sight
because the vessel sending the signal is limited in what can be transmitted. Shorter, pre-
prepared signals are the only feasible type of signals that can be sent whereas with voice
communications and other visual methods, longer, more precise messages can be
transmitted. In addition to short length messages and the lack of ability to send specific
and detailed messages, flag hoist communication is also susceptible to color confusion
and a lack of wind which could make it more difficult to determine what flag is hoisted
(Sterling, 2008). Additionally, because flag hoist is so widely understood and widely
used around the world, adversaries might easily be able to decipher what messages were
23
being transmitted if they were within line-of-sight of the sender and receiver. This
method of communication is also susceptible to LOS obstructions or changing ship
orientation. In instances where thick fog, high sea state or poor weather is present, signals
are much more difficult to transmit and receive.
3. Flashing Light
a. Flashing light description
Morse code was developed primarily by the telegraph inventor Samuel

F.B. Morse in 1843. Morse code is essentially numbers and letters represented by short
and long sounds. Morse code is usable via many different methods to include telegraph,
sound, and flashing lights. Flashing light communication was derived from Morse code,
as the signals are similar and can be easily translated. The United States Navy adopted
the English Morse Code for signaling in 1876, but in 1905 moved away from English
Morse Code and transitioned to the Continental Morse Code. “Flashing lights are
primarily used by the fleet when the ships are darkened and it becomes necessary to
disclose the presence of the fleet or the location of the ships in it,” (Lewis, 1928).
Flashing light is mostly utilized as a short distance/line-of-sight type of communication at
dark or in low light situations. Flashing light communications started out utilizing
lanterns which required fuel, but by 1916 the Navy started using the arc-signal
searchlight which had a quick-closing, venetian-blind shutter, which allowed signals to
be sent quicker and more efficiently. Although messages are able to be transmitted
quickly, decoding the messages can be difficult. Figure 6 illustrates how the Navy sends
Morse code signals via the flashing light technique.
24
Figure 6. Sailor sending a Morse code signal via the flashing light technique (From the
U.S. Seventh Fleet website, 22APR2013).
b. Key historical uses
One of the most well-known uses of Morse code throughout history has
been the story from the battleship Oklahoma shortly after the attacks by the Japanese on
the United States Fleet at Pearl Harbor in 1941. Sailors trapped in the capsized vessel that
fateful day were able to utilize Morse code by tapping on the hull of the vessel indicating
the number of sailors who were still alive and needed evacuation. Sailors on the outside
were able to maintain communications with the sailors trapped inside the ship by tapping
on the hull. This type of communications was vital in saving as many as three-hundred
sailors that day and was the platform for flashing light communications, so these sailors
were proficient with it.
A quote from Military Communications; From Ancient Times to the 21st

Century sums up the importance of this method of communicating. “Almost every
signalman or radioman in the U.S. Navy learned how to send and receive Morse by sound
over a telegraph line or radio, a tap on the ship’s hull, or by flashing light visible day or
night,” (Sterling, 2008). The proficiency demonstrated in this instance is not the same for
25
most of today’s sailors in the Navy, which is why there is a growing need to acquire and
become proficient at a visual communications method such as QR codes for
communications.
c. Present-day uses
As previously stated, the use of flashing light and Morse code has fallen
off significantly with the advent of new technology and is not generally used prominently
in the Fleet. Many ships in the fleet today do not have functioning equipment in order to
send signals via the flashing light method, and only ensure that the equipment can pass
materiel inspection every couple of years. Training sailors in this method of
communication is generally left to each individual ship, but it typically does not receive
the necessary training attention because it is too time consuming. Additionally, training
sailors prior to arriving at the ship is also too expensive and is not feasible. Even for the
ships that do have functioning equipment, this type of communication is still rarely
utilized, except for the occasional training exercise between ships. Many other countries
are much more proficient with Flashing Light and Morse code, which makes it important
for the Fleet to understand in order to effectively communicate with other NATO ships in
an A2AD or emissions restricted/controlled environment.
d. Advantages of flashing light
In 1958, Colonel Charles W. Gibbs stated that the trend for the future was
away from voice communication and towards visual communications because visual
signals are much faster and more accurate than audible signals. In addition, he argued,
“the human voice is too slow for the millisecond environment of the modern missile”
(Woods, 1965). Accuracy and timeliness are two important qualities to have with regard
to tactical communications and are two distinct advantages of the flashing light
communications system. Additionally, flashing light communications are used across the
globe by foreign Navy’s, which allows for a communications system that can be used
when operating with ships from other countries. Morse code has been practiced and
comprehended for many hundreds of years, which makes provides the flashing light
technique with this distinct advantage. Flashing light cannot be jammed because no RF
26
energy is emitted through this technique. The only way a flashing light message can be
intercepted is if the adversary is within line-of-sight and has a clear view of the message
being transmitted by the sending unit. Although flashing light communications are
normally limited to line-of-sight, it is believed that these transmissions can be bounced
off clouds at night in order to achieve a longer range.
e. Disadvantages of flashing light
The flashing light communications system is limited by the human eye’s

ability to detect it. If the receiving vessel or station is not able to locate the signal due to
distance or any line-of-sight obstruction, then the signal will not be received.
Additionally, if some portion of the signal is received, but another portion is missed, then
the advantage of delivering a timely signal is lost because the signal will need to be
retransmitted which might prove costly in a tactical environment. In reference to the line-
of-sight obstructions being a disadvantage, “If the weather is a thick dense fog or pelting
rain it might stop it,” (Woods, 1965). Although this statement is accurate, there are stories
of ships in World War II communicating with flashing light in extended ranges by
bouncing the light off of clouds in order to reach farther distances. It was previously
stated that flashing light and Morse code were understood globally. Although this is an
advantage for this communications method, it is also a distinct disadvantage. Because of
this, adversaries can easily intercept and decode a message not intended for them if the
enemy has a clear line-of-sight to the sender and receiver.
F. CHAPTER SUMMARY
Throughout the duration of its use, flag semaphore has proven to be an effective
visual communications method for the United States Navy. It requires little equipment, a
small amount of manpower, and a basic knowledge of the signals in order to execute it
properly. This method has provided assistance in landing helicopters on flight decks, and
successfully refueling ships at sea for many years, all without having ever having to emit
any RF energy. This method of communication is simple and effective, has been used
when conducting a variety of shipboard operations for many years, and allows the vessels
operating together to remain radio silent and stay undetected by the adversary.
27
Flag hoist communication was once prominent and proved to be an extremely
effective method of communication in battles such as The Battle of Trafalgar, when
Admiral Nelson transmitted essential messages to his subordinates in order to ensure
victory. Although it is not used as much underway as it once was, Flag Hoist
Communications has a place in the Fleet to be used during special evolutions and by
ships in port to transmit multiple continuous, short messages at one time. Although an
advantage to Flag Hoist is that it requires zero RF emissions to be effective, there are also
downsides to the method mentioned in this chapter such as the restrictions of
communicating only short, predetermined messages.
Flashing light communication is an effective method of visual communication

when it is understood fully. Its wide field of view allows ships to be stationed at wider
angles off of the transmitting ship and still be able to receive the message. Unfortunately,
Flashing Light is yet another example of an effective visual communication method that
has been forgotten by the United States Navy and other branches of the military because
of newer communication technologies. Other countries remain proficient and stress the
importance of it, while the United States relies heavily upon voice communications to
transmit and receive messages, which might eventually place the United States military at
a distinct disadvantage when operating in an Anti-Access Area Denial situation or an
emissions restricted environment.
28
IV. RF LINE-OF-SIGHT (LOS) COMMUNICATIONS OVERVIEW
A. CHAPTER OVERVIEW
This chapter briefly describes the High Frequency (HF) Line-of-Sight, Very High
Frequency (VHF) Line-of-Sight and Ultra High Frequency (UHF) Line-of-Sight
communications methods. It provides a general description of HF/VHF/UHF line-of-sight
communications, examples of historical use, and examples of present day use, how the
system functions, advantages of the HF/VHF/UHF LOS technique, and disadvantages
associated with HF/VHF/UHF LOS communication. There is no doubt that
HF/VHF/UHF line-of-sight offers many advantages over visual communication methods,
but this does not dismiss the fact that the fleet maintains a strong necessity to be
proficient with at least one visual communication method based on the emerging threats
posed from other nations moving into the future. Table 1 provides a brief overview of the
frequency ranges, effective ranges, wavelength ranges, and vulnerabilities associated with
each RF LOS communication method.
Frequency Effective Wavelength Vulnerability

Range Range
HF 3MHz-30MHz 25–50 100 meters to 10 Ionospheric
kilometers meters effects, jamming
VHF 30MHz- 25–50 10 meters to 1 Multipath effects,
300MHz kilometers meter jamming
UHF 300MHz-3GHz 25–50 1 meter to 0.1 Multipath effects,
kilometers meter jamming
Table 1. Summary table providing a comparison of HF, VHF, and UHF
communications.
B. HF LOS DESCRIPTION
High Frequency (HF) communications are those RF communications that occur

between the frequencies of 3 MHz and 30 MHz (Kim & Muehldorf, 1995).
Communications systems operating in the HF portion of the electromagnetic spectrum
have the ability to operate at long distances because of the fact that the radio waves are
29
reflected back down to Earth from the ionosphere. HF communications can be used over
distances up to 8000 km given ideal environmental conditions. The HF frequency range
provides the optimal frequencies for long distance communications, without having to
rely upon satellites for relay. HF communications can provide data transfer rates of up to
4800 bits per second. The HF spectrum is a limited resource, so effective use of the
spectrum is especially important. HF is highly susceptible to ionospheric changes, which
leads to the requirement of multiple frequencies being available for use in this spectrum.
C. VHF LOS DESCRIPTION
Very high frequency line-of-sight communications operate between 30MHz and

300MHz in the EM spectrum. VHF communications support ship-to-ship, ship-to-shore,
and ship-to-air line-of-sight communications. The VHF band is attractive because line-of-
sight propagation results in a low detectability and the availability of wider than usual
bandwidths allows for spread spectrum application.
VHF signal propagation is not affected by ionospheric reflection and the signals
travel in straight lines, but for ship-to-air communications, and vice versa, there is a
multipath effect on the transmissions. Multipath effects allow this form of transmission to
be less susceptible to jamming, but can also have negative effects on the transmission
such as delayed receipt of the message and longer time to transmit (Kim & Muehldorf,
1995). Ship’s structures can cause reflections, which can interfere with direct line-of-
sight signals. Superstructures of ships can also cause multipath effects, which can often
result in a weaker radio signal. VHF line-of-sight communications range is affected and
limited by these effects. Figure 7 demonstrates the ability to achieve longer ranges with a
taller antenna height.
30
Figure 7. Range versus height chart illustrates that increased range is achievable
through a taller antenna height in VHF/UHF LOS communications
(From Kim & Muehldorf, 1995).
1. VHF LOS Historical Tactical Uses
VHF LOS communication came into prominence before World War II and has
been in use ever since. Voice communications allowed the United States Navy to conduct
various different types of raids and operate effectively in battles during World War II.
This type of communication is a great supplement to visual communications, and during
WWII, voice communications were not as susceptible to jamming and detection as they
are today because of the limited technologies possessed by adversaries. This is not as true
today as it once was because adversaries are extremely technologically advanced and can
match most of our own technologies.
2. VHF LOS Present-day Uses
The most common use of VHF LOS communications in today’s environment is

that of Bridge to Bridge (BTB) radio. Commercial and military vessels at sea utilize BTB
communication to arrange safe passage and to identify vessels at sea. This is an
31
important application of VHF LOS communication and without it, everyday
transportation at sea is more difficult because of the reliance vessels now have on this
service because of the fact that its usage is required by International Law. In addition,
BTB communication is the most prominently used method when conducting Visit Board
Search and Seizure and Anti-Piracy operations. VBSS missions require constant BTB
communications between small boats and surface combatant. Anti-Piracy operations
require that interrogations by the surface combatant to the vessel in question be
conducted via BTB communication due to the fact that BTB is internationally used and
understood. It is also important in the air domain as it is the primary means of
communication between air traffic controller and aircraft. In other words, VHF LOS
communications serves an important purpose in both the air and sea domains because it
reduces the risk of collisions occurring and is an effective method for identifying vessels
and aircraft that are unknown.
3. Advantages of VHF LOS Communications
VHF LOS Communications offers a plethora of advantages over visual

communications. This type of communication is quick and effective when transmitting
and receiving messages because the messages do not have to be encoded in any way. All
that is required is to think, key, and speak to transmit the message. The receiver will be
able to hear the message and understand it without having to refer to a publication or
manual to decode the message because it is sent in plain voice. VHF LOS has a range of
twenty-five to fifty kilometers between two ships and a longer range between ships and
helicopters due to the height of the sensors being used. The range increases again when
transmitting from a ship to an aircraft.
This longer range is useful because the sender and receiver do not necessarily
need to be within sight of each other, as long as there is a clear path between the
transmitting sensor and receiving sensor. VHF LOS communications do not require
larger sensors or antennas which make it an ideal system for shipboard use because of the
inherent lack of space on board a ship’s mast or superstructure for mounting antennas and
other equipment required for voice communications to be effective. VHF LOS
32
communication is less effected by interference from other electrical devices when
compared to lower frequencies (Kim & Muehldorf, 1995).
4. Vulnerabilities of VHF LOS Communications
There is much vulnerability associated with VHF LOS communications.

Multipath effects, ionospheric effects, the threat of being jammed, and conditions which
warrant emissions control to be in effect are all examples of vulnerabilities associated
with VHF LOS communications. These vulnerabilities are necessary to be addressed in
order to have a better understanding of limitations associated with this type of voice
communications system.
The multipath effect can have a negative impact on VHF LOS communications
due to interference with other signals or reflections from a ship’s structure. “When an
aircraft transmits signals to a ship, the direct wave and the reflected wave interfere with
each other as the two waves arrive with different phases,” (Kim & Muehldorf, 1995).
Multipath effects on VHF LOS communications are not avoidable and add to the
vulnerabilities associated with this method of voice communications.
Ionospheric effects occur often and can interfere with radio communications.
These effects are due to the ionized regions differing in ionization density and have a
negative impact on the propagation of radio waves through the atmosphere. “These
effects include reflection, refraction, absorption, change of polarization, scatter, and
diffraction of some or all of the incident radio energy,” (Little, Rayton & Roof, 1956). If
these ionospheric effects are severe enough, the transmitted signal might be lost, which
leads to a delay in receiving the signal if it needs to be retransmitted.
D. UHF LOS COMMUNICATIONS OVERVIEW
1. UHF LOS Description
The radio frequency spectrum that makes up UHF is between 300 MHz and 3
GHz. The effective range of UHF line-of-sight communications when being used for
ship-to-ship communications is between twenty-five and fifty kilometers. The standard
UHF LOS radio found on board a naval vessel is the AN/WSC-3(V)6 radio. This radio
33
operates in the 225 MHz to 400 MHz range. The radio consists of an antenna coupler, a
receiver-transmitter, and a QPSK modem (Kim & Muehldorf, 1995). In addition to this
radio, the Navy’s Link 4A aircraft control link also operates in the UHF spectrum. Link
16 also relies on this type of communication medium and is essential for the fleet to be
able to operate effectively and efficiently. UHF LOS communications are similar to that
of VHF LOS communications.
2. UHF LOS Present Day Uses
Link 16 relies heavily upon UHF LOS communications and is presently the
United States Navy’s most vital tactical data link to ensure combat operations and
training exercises are effective. This system is vastly important to the mission of the
Navy and ensures that all the units involved in a mission share a common operational
picture. It is best described as a high speed, digital data link between ships, aircraft and
other units. UHF line-of-sight communications are the backbone of the naval fleet, but in
situations that require emissions control to be in place, many of the systems operating in
the UHF spectrum are secured, which can inhibit the operational effectiveness of vessels
at sea. For this reason, a reliable and effective visual communication method is needed
(Kim & Muehldorf, 1995).
3. Advantages of UHF LOS Communications
UHF LOS communications are more difficult to jam over the traditional HF band
because of the ability to use spread spectrum techniques. “With wider signal bandwidth
and adaptive equalization, much higher data transmission rates can be achieved at UHF,
using a wide variety of modulation methods,” (Kim & Muehldorf, 1995). The spread
spectrum capability allows for the system to combat interferers and jammers to some
degree. UHF line-of-sight communications systems do not require large antennas, which
make it suitable for use on board ships because of the natural lack of space available.
This type of LOS voice communications is quick and simple to execute if all of the
equipment functions properly as intended. In addition, UHF LOS communication allows
for a much higher data rate than other lower frequency communication systems.
34
4. Vulnerabilities of UHF LOS Communications
Although UHF line-of-sight communications are effective and efficient, there are
a few vulnerabilities associated with this type of communications that need to be
addressed. UHF LOS communications cannot be used during some instances when
certain Emissions Control parameters are in effect, which essentially renders the UHF
band inoperable for the time period that EMCON remains in effect. Additionally, the
UHF band is susceptible to jamming, which can also render it inoperable. These
limitations make it all the more necessary for a visual method of communicating
tactically between naval units at sea.
UHF LOS communications suffer from multipath effects that can weaken the
signal and due to the small wavelength associated with UHF signals; a ship’s
superstructure can interfere with the signal and cause reflections which can also weaken
the signal. Another drawback associated with UHF LOS communications is that there is a
significant range limitation. In order to expand the range of UHF communications, the
use of aircraft and unmanned aerial vehicles is required.
E. CHAPTER SUMMARY
While VHF/UHF LOS communications offers the Fleet and the tactical user many
advantages over other forms of voice communications and visual communications, it is
still susceptible to jamming and detection by the adversary. It provides users with unique
capabilities such as Link 16, but is also prone to multipath effects and ionospheric effects,
which can affect the clarity and timeliness of the signal. In an emissions restricted or
Anti-Access Area Denial (A2AD) environment, VHF/UHF LOS communications can be
much less effective, due to its electromagnetic transmissions, further stressing the need
for a reliable visual communication method. With the possible advent of a new visual
communications method such as QR code communications; the significance of these
effects can be greatly reduced.
35
36
V. ONE-DIMENSIONAL (1D) BAR CODES, TWO-
DIMENSIONAL (2D) BAR CODES, AND QR CODES
A. CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Over time, one-dimensional bar codes evolved into two-dimensional barcodes,

which then led to the creation of quick response codes. QR codes were ultimately
developed due to the fact that there was a growing need to be able to more effectively
track inventory and the requirement to have the ability to store more and more data
within these barcodes was growing. This chapter discusses the many features of QR
codes that allow them to be effective for visual communications.
B. HISTORY OF BAR CODES AND QR CODES
Bar codes have been used for many years and are versatile in their use. They are
limited though in their data capacity and tend to require larger displays to be read
reliably. Originally developed for cataloging railroad cars in the 1960s, one-dimensional
barcodes were not commercially prolific until they were used to automate retail checkout
systems in the mid-1970s. In the years to follow, the Universal Product Code (UPC)
format became the standard method for representing products throughout the retail
industry (Fox, 2011).
A QR code is a two dimensional bar code designed to work similarly to a once

dimensional bar code but with significantly more data capability. QR codes were
originally developed for Denso Corporation in 1994 (Kieseberg et al., 2010). Ultimately,
these QR codes were a solution to the growing need for the ability to effectively track
inventory in the automotive manufacturing industry and to have the ability to store larger
amounts of data within the barcodes themselves. QR codes have been approved as AIM,
JIS and ISO standards and are fast becoming a mainstream technology (Sutheebanjard &
Premchaiswad, 2010). Aside from QR codes, other examples of two dimensional matrix
codes are Aztec, DataMatrix, Code One, Semacode, SPARQ, MicroQR and MaxiCode.
Similarly, two dimensional bar codes can exist as stacked one dimensional bar codes such
as PDF417 and Code 16K.
37
Figure 8. Side by side comparison of commonly used 2D barcodes, to include matrix
and stacked bar code styles.
A common use for QR codes is to conveniently provide mobile phone users with
URLs to promote websites and advertisements. As evidence to the increasing use of QR
codes, URL shortening services such as Goo.gl and Bit.ly now exist. Additionally, there
are countless web-based services that can be used to generate and read QR codes.
C. CHARACTERISTICS AND GENERATION OF QR CODES
The details provided in these sections provide a simple overview of the key
characteristics of QR codes. The Wikipedia article on QR codes
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QR_Code) is a primary resource necessary for
understanding the potential capabilities and design choices presented in this work. It is
provided as a ready reference in Appendix D.
A QR code is a two-dimensional binary representation of data structured using

black and white patterns. The represented data can consist of numeric, alphanumeric,
binary and kanji characters. Since a two-dimensional code adds data in the vertical
direction as well as the traditional horizontal direction of a one-dimensional barcode, it is
capable of representing magnitudes greater of data.
38
Figure 9. General characteristics of a 2D QR code compared to a 1D traditional barcode
(From Sutheebanjard & Premchaiswad, 2010).
The patterns are comprised of black QR bits overlayed on a field of white. Each
black QR bit represents a binary 1 while the white spaces or the absence of a bit
represents a binary 0. Three finder patters that look like a square bullseye are located at
the corners with timing bits located between each. Because the finder patterns are always
present and in the same configuration, a QR code can be detected and decoded regardless
of its orientation within the plane. An added benefit of the three finder patterns is
identification of the QR symbol in a complex background environment. An additional
alignment pattern is added in QR codes version 2 and greater to assist in resolving codes
with optical distortion.
Figure 10. Key structural features of a QR code symbol (International Organization of

Standards, 2006, September 01).
39
Alignment Pattern
Figure 11. Comparison of version 1 and 2 QR code symbols (International Organization

of Standards, 2006, September 01).
Figure 12. Characteristics of a version 14 QR code symbol (International Organization of

Standards, 2006, September 01).
40
Inherent in every QR code is error correcting code (ECC) to compensate for
misreading a QR bit or accommodating for a portion of the image missing or unreadable.
Reed-Solomon error correction provides this capability, similar to nearly all other forms of
2D barcodes. The drawback of having a larger ECC is a reduced data capacity within the
code. The error correction levels are as follows (Sutheebanjard & Premchaiswad, 2010):
Level Maximum Correction Capability

L 7%
M 15%
Q 25%
H 30%
Table 2. QR code error correcting capability levels

(Sutheebanjard & Premchaiswad, 2010).
Forty versions of QR codes exist each representing a unique amount of data that
can be encoded and represented. Each version has a set capacity based on the available
space in the code following the finder, timing and alignment patterns, and the version and
format data (Sutheebanjard & Premchaiswad, 2010). A few capacity examples based on
data types and a 7% ECC are shown below:
QR Code Alphanumeric
Numeric Data Binary Data Kanji Symbols
Version Data
1 41 25 17 10
2 77 47 32 20
3 127 77 53 32
5 255 154 106 65
10 652 395 271 167
20 2061 1246 858 528
40 7089 4296 2953 1817
Table 3. QR code capacity (International Organization of Standards,

2006, September 01).
41
D. READING QR CODES
QR Codes can be read from a variety of readers available on the Internet and as
applications for mobile phones. In addition to these readers, there are many open source
and proprietary programs that can be installed on a desktop or laptop for reading directly
from files or through a webcam.
1. Mobile Devices
Nearly all modern mobile devices have the ability to scan and decode QR codes.
Many free and inexpensive QR-reading mobile applications (apps) are available in the
iPhone App Store and the Android Market. A few examples are NeoReader, QRReader,
Scan, Quick Scan, AT&T Code Scanner, Scanner Pro, and QR Droid. A few mobile apps
have the ability to create QR codes such as Qrafter, Quick Scan, QR Generator, and
Market QR. Not all QR reading apps perform at the same level, but all do include the
basic functionality required to read QR codes at a reasonably close distance.
2. Specialized Cameras
With the current mobile technology market it is not likely that a device will be
developed dedicated solely to generating, reading, and processing QR codes or barcodes
in general. If this capability were requested by a specific entity, such as the military, it
would be reasonable to expect technology developers to easily develop such a product.
3. Software Implementations
Many websites exist that serve to assist with QR code functions. RACO
(racoindustries.com) maintains a robust catalog one and two-dimensional barcode
generators as does ZXing (zxing.org). Other websites, such as INVX (invx.com) offer
simple and limited generators that are effective and simple to use. Some websites, such as
Kaywa (kaywa.com), work only with QR codes, but provide detailed control when
creating the codes.
Three common mechanisms currently exist with software applications that read
QR codes. The first is to enter the URL of a page containing a QR code, and the service
42
returns the decoded version of any QR codes found on that page. ZXing (zxing.com) and
MiniQR (miniqr.com) offer this service. Second, a locally running software application
may be allowed to interface with a computer’s webcam to capture the image of a QR
code and will return the decoded version. MiniQR uses this method. Third, and the most
common, a website or software application may allow a user to upload a file containing a
QR image for decoding. websites that offer this functionality are Online Barcode Reader
(onlinebarcodereader.com), Patrick Wied QR (Patrick-wied.at) and QR Code Generator
and Recovery (esponce.com).
E. QR CODE SECURITY CONSIDERATIONS
Before QR code communications can be seriously considered for tactical military

applications, proper security matching or exceeding the capability of current
communication systems must be proven. While a standards-compliant QR code contains
a measure of security in its current design, current security mechanisms are not sufficient
to ensure the protection of the data it will carry.
1. General Purpose Data Channel
The algorithms currently used to encode a QR code clearly prevent the data from
being man-readable. These algorithms however, are derived from open-source libraries
available to anybody with common Internet access. For increased security at this level,
private encoding algorithms must be developed for communications among authorized
users and protected from all potential adversaries.
Further security can be obtained by developing a proprietary two-dimensional

(2D) barcode format similar to QR codes or by modifying the existing format. For
instance, the finder patterns can be omitted and replaced by unique patterns
unrecognizable by open-source QR readers. Another option is to invert all or a portion of
the QR bits such that only an intended recipient knows to recognize and account for this
change. This technique might be considered a simple Caeser cipher. Indeed, an important
area for future work is to perform a comparative survey of all encryption methods and
then consider what corresponding visual encryption techniques might be relevant.
43
Figure 13. An artist’s rendering of a QR code reading, “http://qr.nps.edu” with the
traditional finder patterns replaced by alternate patterns.
2. Encryption
Traditional methods of data encryption can also be used to add a layer of security.
Once a QR code communication system is implemented, in-line encryption (ILE) devices
or algorithms can be used to encrypt data before it is transformed to a QR code format.
With such security in place, an intercepted and decoded QR code remains meaningless to
unintended recipients.
3. Camouflage
Camouflage is a viable option for obscuring a QR code from the view of

unauthorized users. If the camouflage material will be directly between the display and
the recipient, however, modifications to the system must be in place. The normal visible
spectrum can be replaced with infrared or ultraviolet displays in order to pass through the
camouflage.
4. Obfuscation
Obfuscation may also be key to ensuring communication security with a QR code

system. If a QR code is placed within a complex background, human interpretation may
not detect its presence. With the appropriate finder patterns in place, only an optical
scanner feeding imagery into an obfuscation-aware data processing algorithm can
44
recognize the existence of the QR code, determine its boundaries, and extract the encoded
data. Other standardized QR tools simply fail to read the image. In Figure 14, note the
valid QR code identified by the finder patterns located in the center of the image.
Figure 14. As an example of obfuscation, a valid QR code reading, “http://qr.nps.edu” is

placed within a complex background. The required white boundary layer is
obscured, but can be regenerated from the finder references.
5. Steganography
Steganography is the practice of hiding information within a message, image or

file. The difference between visual steganography and obfuscation in this context is that
the message in steganography is much more difficult to “stumble” upon. In Figure 14, if
an observer happens to scan the image, the hidden message will likely decode since some
readers are forgiving about white border. With steganography, the hidden data is in such
deliberately modified format, that only the recipient will know to expect it and know how
to extract.
An example of information steganography is the use of intentional error bits in a

series of QR codes to build a hidden data set. Most QR readers dismiss error bits and
45
produce only the decoded message. Following successful message receipt, however, it is
possible to deliberately construct a secondary message, from the decoded text and then
produce a list of erroneous QR bits by comparing the two images. Reconstruction of data
can then occur by using the error bits such that when all of these error bits are combined,
they decode to a separate message. For example, a 1 might be deliberately changing a
white QR bit to black, and a 0 might be changing a black QR bit to white. Other
variations are possible based on spatial or numeric locations in the image. Of note is that
separate encryption schemes can be used for these hidden messages.
6. Vulnerabilities
URL shortening services (e.g., http//bitly.com) are enticing to allow a user to

encode lengthy web addresses into small QR codes. Unless this shortening is performed
by a known reliable and trusted source, increased vulnerabilities are increased into the
system. A nefarious third party can use these services to implement malicious code
through shortened URLs.
F. QR CODES FOR TACTICAL COMMUNICATIONS
1. Advantages
Arguably the most significant advantage of QR code LOS communications is the

fact that they can be conducted without emitting energy in the RF spectrum. In an
emissions controlled (EMCON) environment, this will provide a critical ability to
communicate between ships without increasing the possibility of position detection.
This form of communication also revitalizes historical means for LOS

communications such as flag semaphore of blinking light. This capability will be
imperative in a communications-denied anti-access area denial (A2AD) environment.
QR codes are easily generated, easily read, and are very simple to use, therefore
they are much easier to support with common and available technology. Thus, the
infrastructure for deployment ashore or within a ship is already available and in place.
This ready availability also reduces the need for extensive training of personnel using the
technology.
46
A significant characteristic of QR codes is the ability to encode large amounts of
data within one QR image. This allows for lengthy messages to be communicated through
a QR code, which greatly reduces the time required to decode the message compared to the
traditional ways of encoding and transmitting a tactical signal. A QR code is capable of
containing a maximum of up to 4,296 characters if the message is alphanumeric, which is
more than enough for any tactical signal. If a series of QR codes are transmitted and
coupled, this opens a significantly sized data stream between two users.
Quick response (QR) codes are also capable of storing data in both the horizontal
and vertical directions, making them an ideal platform to create and transmit messages in
a timely fashion.
Because QR codes are largely unidirectional and short-range, the area in which an
adversary must be stationed to detect a QR code transmission is small. This creates a
significantly low probability of detection (LPD) and in turn low probabilities of
interception and exploitation (LPI/LPE). As discussed above, multiple options for
encrypting QR codes provide an elevated level of security against any adversary.
Beyond those reasons stated here, there are many other advantages for the use of
QR codes for communications. As QR code supporting and leveraging technology
continues to evolve, many other advantages will emerge that have yet to be used or
discovered.
2. Disadvantages
Although the use of QR code technology as digital semaphore provides many

advantages, it is also necessary to mention possible associated disadvantages associated
with this type of communication.
The proper environment is essential to the success of QR communications.

Sufficient lighting required to capture a QR code and have the ability to decode it is
important to ensure the proper contrast between QR bits for decoding. The different
types of QR code readers may react differently to changes in lighting, which can pose an
issue for transmitting these signals at night or in low light situations. In a shipboard
environment, where this type of communications is ultimately desired, other issues such
47
as sea state, extreme reflections from the sun, the presence of fog or sea spray and the
various different angles at which ships operate in reference to one another can all
contribute to communication failures.
Angular performance must be studied in order to determine acceptable maximum

angles at which QR codes can be successfully read and decoded using various sensors. It
is likely that ship movements from high seas and ship positioning will all affect the angle
at which a QR display is presented significantly enough to reduce the reliability of the
communication channel.
With current technology, range performance for QR codes is still poor. This limits
the use of QR communications to very close quarters. In a maritime environment,
operations in close proximity come with significant risk and are only performed when
necessary (i.e., replenishment at sea).
In the case when an adversary is located in close proximity and near perpendicular
to a QR code display, the possibility of detection, interception and exploitation of the signal
is elevated. Current QR code reading technology is readily available to the public and many
QR reading solutions are free to smart phone users. If encryption of the QR code is weak or
absent, an adversary positioned as such can easily intercept and decode the
communications. In addition, an adversary can effectively jam these communications by
establishing a smoke screen in the vicinity of the transmitting platform.
As technology matures, it is likely that many of these disadvantages can be

overcome. It is also likely that disadvantages that have not been considered or do not yet
exist will emerge.
G. CHAPTER SUMMARY
Quick response codes are capable of storing more data than one or two-
dimensional horizontal bar codes in a much smaller space. Multiple versions of QR codes
allow for varying amounts of data to be encoded based upon the situation. QR codes are
omnidirectional, which means that they are capable of being read at any orientation. For
all these reasons, using QR codes for communications is feasible, provided that an
uninhibited line-of-sight exists and each unit is equipped with the proper equipment.
48
VI. EMISSION RESTRICTIONS
A. CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Emissions control is necessary to be in place for naval vessels and can often
require full radio silence for a period of time. This has major implications for voice
communications and tactical capabilities, which can be augmented by a visual
communications system. During radio silence, the vessel will not be able to stay in
communication with the command station or other vessels operating in the area, which
clearly hampers the tactical abilities and effectiveness of the vessel. This chapter
discusses Emissions Control, the different levels of EMCON, and situations in which
EMCON may be required of a vessel at sea. In addition to discussing emissions control,
this chapter will also describe Hazards of Electromagnetic Radiation to Ordnance and the
impact that HERO has on RF LOS communications.
B. EMISSIONS CONTROL (EMCON)
1. EMCON Description
Naval Telecommunications Procedures Four defines emissions control as follows:

“EMCON is control of all electromagnetic and acoustic radiations, including
communications, radar, EW and sonar. During its imposition, no electronic emitting
device within designated bands, including personal communications devices, will be
operated unless absolutely essential to the mission,” (Starling, 2008). During some
operations, operational requirements may require full radio silence, which means that all
voice communications systems will be inoperable for that specific time period requiring
EMCON, including VHF and UHF LOS communications. A reliable visual
communications method can circumvent these requirements and still allow tactical units
or vessels in the same Operational Area (OPAREA) to communicate effectively and
efficiently. “The objectives of EMCON are to deny the enemy any way that it may locate
your position, to support the efforts to disrupt the enemy’s effectiveness, and to allow
your actions to go unnoticed,” (Starling, 2008). This fact indicates the need for a reliable
49
visual communication method in order to allow tactical units or vessels to maintain
effective and efficient command and control.
2. EMCON Levels
There are four basic levels of emissions control that vessels utilize at sea. The
least restrictive level of EMCON is Delta. EMCON Delta is used during normal
underway steaming and there are no emissions restrictions under level Delta, which
means that the vessel is allowed to radiate any sensor that is essential to accomplishing
the mission. The next level in EMCON is Charlie. EMCON level Charlie is designed to
disguise the electronic signature of the vessel. Charlie allows the ship to radiate and
transmit from mission-essential equipment and sensors, but it does require that sensors
unique to that type of vessel be shut down in order to prevent adversaries from
identifying the class of ship. EMCON level Charlie allows the ship operating in the
emissions controlled environment to blend in with other vessels in the area to make it
seem as though it is just like any other type of ship (Gibson, 2004).
EMCON level Bravo is more restrictive than Charlie, but still allows the ship to
communicate and transfer data with other ships. Bravo further limits what is authorized to
be radiated and transmitted from, but it is not the most restrictive level of EMCON. The
most restrictive level of EMCON is level Alpha. EMCON level Alpha does not allow the
vessel to transmit or radiate from any sensor, which means that the ship is in complete
radio silence. Although the levels of EMCON are Delta through Alpha, modifications to
these levels are sometimes permitted in order to allow the unit to execute mission-
essential tasks (Gibson, 2004).
3. Situations that Require EMCON to be in Place
When a ship moves into a hostile environment or an environment that requires

stealthy movements in order to remain undetected for a given period of time, some
variation of EMCON will be put into effect. This reduces the electronic signature of the
vessel and makes it more difficult for adversaries to detect. EMCON can be implemented
without prior notice if it is deemed necessary for the operational environment and the
safety of the units. The need to establish and maintain communications with other vessels
50
in the vicinity or strike group and the command station on shore is still a requirement,
which is what makes “Digital Semaphore” such a viable communications option for the
fleet. EMCON has a negative effect on a ship’s ability to perform effective Command
and Control because of the decreased communications capability that comes with
emissions control in place. A reliable and effective visual communications method such
as QR codes can mitigate this effect and allow the ship or ships to maintain positive
communications throughout the duration of EMCON.
4. Impact of EMCON on RF LOS Communications
Clearly, the impact that EMCON has on RF LOS communications is significant.

Depending on the tactical situation, ships may be required to stop radiation and
transmission from all types of emitters, which clearly demonstrates the need for a visual
method of communicating. RF LOS communications in the VHF and UHF ranges are
effected by EMCON, which can greatly reduce the effectiveness of voice
communications between ships operating in a tactical environment. EMCON conditions
can completely eliminate the effectiveness of RF voice communications, increasing the
importance of establishing a reliable and effective visual communications method, such
as “Digital Semaphore.” Communicating tactically with QR codes will enable naval
units to maintain effective command and control, even when RF emitters are secured due
to emissions control measures.
C. HAZARDS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION TO ORDINANCE

(HERO)
1. HERO Description
The purpose of HERO is to prevent the accidental ignition of electrically initiated

devices in ordnance, which is due to the RF electromagnetic fields (McManamon, 2008).
HERO is becoming a more important issue because ordnance systems use more sensitive
and lower power electronic circuits and communications and radar equipment use much
higher powered gear to enable them to radiate at higher levels. HERO conditions allow
for the safe movement and handling of ordnance and ammunition. The restriction
imposed by ordnance that is HERO susceptible is similar to restrictions imposed during
51
Emissions Control. Any communications equipment that must be shut down or secured
while moving or handling ammunition is labeled with a HERO warning label which
indicates restrictions of that device while HERO unsafe ordnance is being handled or
transferred throughout the ship.
Figure 15. Example image of a HERO warning label (From McManamon, 2008).
2. HERO Classifications
There are four different classifications used to label various types of ordnance that
can be found on board ships and elsewhere. The four classifications are HERO safe
ordnance, HERO susceptible ordnance, HERO unsafe ordnance, and HERO unreliable
ordnance (McManamon, 2008). These classifications are important to be familiar with to
ensure that the correct measures are in place when moving and handling different types of
ordnance. Based on the classification in place, different sensors, radars, and
communications equipment must not be used in order to avoid unintentional detonation
of the ordnance.
52
3. Situations that Require HERO Conditions to be in Place
If a ship on deployment is required to perform a missile on load or missile off

load, the ship will be required to shut down certain communications systems and reduce
transmissions from these sensors. Although this operation is done in port, it can still have
an effect on voice communications. Other examples of situations that require HERO
conditions to be employed are moving torpedoes, moving 5-inch shells, uploading and
downloading Close-in Weapon System (CIWS) ammunition, and loading/unloading
Super Rapid Bloom Off-Board Chaff (SRBOC) rounds. These evolutions can occur either
in port or at sea, and can take a significant amount of time, depending on the quantity
being moved, loaded, or unloaded and the efficiency of the personnel performing the
ammunition movements. This can affect a vessel’s ability to communicate effectively via
voice communications with other vessels and Higher Headquarters (HHQ).
4. Impact of HERO Conditions on RF LOS Communications
HERO conditions have a significant impact on the effectiveness of RF line-of-

sight communications on board ships as well as with tactical units. When HERO
conditions are implemented on board ship, certain communications systems and
frequencies are not to be operated due to the possibility of exploding a piece of ordnance
inadvertently. Visually communicating with QR codes allow ships to be able to maintain
exterior communications with other ships in the operating area while still conducting
ammunition on loads, off loads and transfers. In certain extreme cases, all ships operating
in a Carrier Strike Group (CSG) or Expeditionary Strike Group (ESG) might all be
executing ammunition uploading/downloading simultaneously, which require these ships
to be proficient at a visual communication method for the duration of the evolution in
order to ensure that no ordnance is accidentally triggered or set off.
D. CHAPTER SUMMARY
Emissions Control and HERO restrictions significantly hinder a vessel’s ability to

communicate with other units and higher headquarters due to the fact that
communications systems and certain frequency ranges must be secured. Although the
purposes of HERO and EMCON differ, the impacts are similar. There are different
53
classifications of HERO conditions and each type of ammunition falls under a specific
classification with associated communications systems and emitters that must be shut
down. As previously stated, there are four basic emissions control levels and each level
requires different communications systems and frequency ranges to be secured
(McManamon, 2008). The systems can be secured for either a set period of time if it is an
exercise, or an unknown, extended period of time if the vessel’s intentions are to remain
unseen by adversaries in a tactical situation. Emissions Control is a hindrance to voice
communications and QR codes used as visual communications can provide the Fleet with
a method of still maintaining EMCON and HERO effectiveness, while possessing the
ability to communicate with one another.
Emissions Control and Hazards of Electromagnetic Radiation to Ordnance both

affect critical Navy war fighting and readiness capabilities. The use of optical signaling
using QR codes can therefore have a major impact, due to the lack of radio frequency
transmissions that occur.
54
VII. TACTICAL SCENARIOS FOR USING QR CODE
COMMUNICATIONS
A. CHAPTER OVERVIEW
This chapter discusses various scenarios in which QR code communications may

be useful in the tactical environment. It also illustrates theoretical locations for mounting
different cameras required for QR code detection on ships, aircraft, UAV’s and the
warfighter on the ground. It will discuss all necessary infrastructure required in order for
a unit or ship to have a fully operational QR code visual communications system. The
most likely concept for a QR code display on board ships is that of a 360 degree rotating
display. The rotating display will allow for vessels to transmit and receive messages
regardless of orientation to the transmitting ship. These displays can be mounted in a
variety of different locations on board the ship, depending on the ship class and space
available. Angles at which QR codes are read have an effect on decoding, so it is
important to provide this omnidirectional display capability. Figure 1 provides further
visual explanation of the concept for tactical uses of QR codes as a visual communication
method.
B. SHIP/UAV/AIRCRAFT PLATFORMS
The ultimate goal of the concept of QR code communications as digital

semaphore is to employ the technology on board ships throughout the Fleet. Each class of
ship has different radar requirements, mast sizes, available space for mounting new
equipment, and configurations. Because of these facts, it is important to propose locations
that can be ideal for mounting a QR code display on board ship. Due to the fact that QR
codes as communications is a new technology being studied and experimented with,
ships that will be in service for a long period of time and that are most likely to operate in
a tactical environment are discussed here.
1. Littoral Combat Ship
The Littoral Combat Ship will be heavily utilized by the United States Navy in the
near and distant future. Its missions will vary from Anti-Piracy operations to mine
55
hunting operations. Because it is such a flexible platform and can perform a wide range
of missions, QR codes for visual communications can be useful for this type of vessel.
Due to its sleek design and small radar cross section, the LCS is an interesting prospect
for this technology. The image below of the Littoral Combat Ship illustrates the sleek
design of the ship. Even with this sleek design, there are many possible locations for
mounting a QR code display. There are plenty of flat surfaces that can prove to be
sufficient enough for the display. Ideal placement of the display can be just forward of
the flight deck on the upper level. This placement allows the display to transmit messages
to other ships as well as the ship’s own helicopter. Figures 16 and 17 provide an idea of
the area available on the forward and aft portions of the ship.
Figure 16. Littoral Combat Ship at sea, forward view (From www.militaryimages.net on
27MAR2013).
56
Figure 17. Littoral combat ship at sea, stern view (From www.worldaffairsboard.com on
01MAY2013).
2. Cruisers
Cruisers are often employed as Ballistic Missile Defense (BMD) capable ships
and are often times designated as the Air Defense Commander for a battle group or
Carrier Strike Group. They need to be able to effectively communicate with the HVU in
the group in order to relay intentions and acknowledge orders given by the group
commander. Since Cruisers usually operate in a group with other ships, QR code
communications suit this platform nicely. There are no concerns with low radar cross
section on this vessel, so there are many options for the placement of the QR code display
and QR code reader. Additionally, cruisers often times deploy and operate with a
helicopter squadron which leads to the need for communicating with the helicopter while
it is flying. QR codes are a viable option for launching, landing, and transmitting vital
information back and forth between the helicopter and the ship. As there is plenty of
space available, there are many possible locations for mounting a QR code display on the
fore and aft superstructures of the Ticonderoga class cruiser, which is illustrated in
Figures 18 and 19.
57
Figure 18. Ticonderoga Class Cruiser at sea, forward view (From
www.combatindex.com on 27MAR2013).
Figure 19. Ticonderoga class cruiser at sea, stern view (From www.seaforces.org on
01MAY2013).
58
3. Destroyers
Much like the Cruiser, Destroyers are often times deployed as BMD capable ships
or deployed with a battle group or Carrier Strike Group in the operational environment. If
the ship was deployed independently for a Ballistic Missile Defense mission, the
importance of being able to relay messages visually is reduced, but the capability is still
effective for battle group operations. Destroyers usually deploy equipped with an SH-60
helicopter or two, which presents an excellent opportunity to employ QR code
communications in order to land and launch helicopters more efficiently. Much like the
cruiser, there are many possible locations for mounting a QR code display on the fore and
aft superstructures of the ship. Figures 20 and 21 illustrate the available surface area on
board destroyers for mounting QR code displays. This placement allows visual QR code
communications to take place with helicopters as well as other ships and small craft in
the area.
Figure 20. Arleigh Burke Class Destroyer at sea, forward view (From www.naval-
technology.com on 28MAR2013).
59
Figure 21. Arleigh Burke Class destroyer at sea, stern view (From www.naval-
technology.com on 01MAY2013)
4. San Antonio Class LPD
The San Antonio Class LPD are usually deployed or operate with an Amphibious
Readiness Group, so the need to be able to execute effective visual communications with
other ships in the group is essential. This platform also offers a large flight deck and
large, flat areas on the superstructure for mounting an omnidirectional QR code display.
The LPD also presents an opportunity to employ QR codes as communications not only
for flight operations, but also for well deck operations when launching and recovering
LCACs and other amphibious vehicles. Additionally, the San Antonio Class LPD often
times deploy and operate with a helicopter squadron which leads to the need for
communicating with the helicopter while it is flying. QR codes can be a viable option for
launching, landing, and transmitting vital information back and forth between the
helicopter and the ship. Figures 22 and 23 illustrate the space available on board the San
Antonio Class LPD for mounting a QR code display in both the forward and aft locations.
60
Figure 22. San Antonio Class LPD at sea (From www.san-antonio.navy.mil on
28MAR2013).
Figure 23. San Antonio Class LPD at sea, stern view (From www.globalsecurity.org on
01MAY2013).
C. TACTICAL UNITS
There are many possible applications of QR codes as a viable communications

method for embedded tactical units. QR codes might be displayed on vehicles and
equipment in order to identify what it is and who it belongs to. In addition, signals can be
61
transmitted between a tactical unit on the beach and an unmanned aerial vehicle in order
to relay messages back and forth between the unit and a vessel at sea or an aircraft. QR
codes can prove to be important when tactical units require Naval Surface Fire Support
from ships at sea. Signals can be transmitted to either a UAV, submarine, or surface ship.
D. AIRCRAFT
In addition to being a viable option for launching and recovering helicopters from
a ship, there are numerous ways aircraft can benefit from QR codes being used as
communications. QR codes can be painted on the runway and air traffic control towers in
order to convey vital information to aircraft. Aircraft equipped with the proper cameras
and other supporting equipment theoretically have the ability to decode messages from
QR codes on the ground and relay the necessary information to other units requiring it to
maintain a common operational picture. This might be relevant to both fixed winged and
rotary aircraft, whether it be a fighter jet operating from an aircraft carrier or a helicopter
operating with a smaller surface combatant. A viable application of QR codes on aircraft
can be for the aircraft to be equipped with a camera with enough resolution to be able to
take a picture of QR codes on the runway or control tower. These images can then be
transmitted from the camera to a Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) inside the aircraft,
which decode and display the message the pilot. This sort of application reduces the need
to crowd frequencies used by airports and aircraft around the world.
1. SH-60
The SH-60 helicopter is the primary aircraft embarked on board the

aforementioned ships. Some ships deploy and operate with two helicopters, while other
smaller platforms operate with one. These helicopters are capable of performing a variety
of missions, ranging from anti-submarine operations to over-the-horizon (OTH) targeting
for surface ships. They also play a vital role in search and rescue (SAR) and VBSS
operations. QR code communications can allow the helicopter to maintain open
communication with the surface ship while conducting these missions, even if operating
in an emissions controlled environment. In situations where RF energy is not to be
emitted, the helicopter is able to hover near or fly by the surface vessel, capture the QR
62
code being displayed from the ship, decode it on board the helicopter, and continue on
with the mission. QR codes also provide a method for launching and recovering these
assets, as well as refueling, while maintaining radio silence.
Figure 24. SH-60 helicopter landing on the flight deck of a surface ship (From
www.military-today.com on 29MAR2013).
2. UAV Platforms
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles can prove to be a valuable asset in implementing QR

codes for visual communications. If extended range is required in order to transmit and
receive a message without being detected, a UAV might be launched from a surface ship
with pre-programmed coordinates, fly to the ship sending the message, capture the QR
code with a photograph, and then return to its home vessel. With improved technologies,
the UAV can even possibly decode the message on board and transmit the message back
to the receiving ship once in range. Unmanned Aerial Vehicles are a viable option for
transmitting and receiving messages between units operating beyond line-of-sight.
63
Figure 25. ScanEagle UAV in flight (From www.naval-technology.com on
29MAR2013).
E. TACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF QR CODES FOR FLEET

COMMUNICATIONS
1. Underway Replenishment
QR codes might become useful for underway replenishment between two vessels
at sea. Underway replenishment is the transfer of fuel and stores from a supply ship to
another ship and are what enables ships to stay at sea for extended periods of time. Voice
communications and flag hoist communications are traditionally used when conducting
underway replenishment. The evolution has the ability to become much more automated
if QR codes for communications are implemented. QR codes can provide an RF free
evolution in the event of emissions control being in place. A code might be displayed on
board the refueling vessel stating “We are ready for you to come alongside.” The
receiving ship then responds with its own message of “I am making my approach.” The
entire evolution may possibly be done by displaying QR codes rather than
communicating via voice methods. This may perhaps lead to a smoother evolution with
less opportunity for error. Once the ships are alongside, instead of firing a shot line over
with the Phone and Distance line, codes can be continuously displayed on the bridge
wings in order to determine lateral separation between the ships based on the size of the
QR code being displayed.
64
Figure 26. Two ships conducting underway replenishment at sea (From
www.seaforces.org on 27MAR2013).
Usually, ships use the Phone and Distance line to establish voice communications
and provide a method of determining lateral separation. The use of QR codes during
underway replenishment can result in the elimination of watch stations on the forecastle
and allow the Commanding Officer (CO) and Officer of the Deck (OOD) a simple
method of determine safe distance and speed in order to more effectively maintain proper
station. The only downside of using QR codes during underway replenishment is due to
the sea state. If the ships are rocking too much, it may be difficult to get an accurate
picture of the QR code, which might affect its readability and decoding. This is generally,
not an issue due to the fact that most UNREPs are done in low sea state, but is something
worth thinking about. If visibility is affected to the extent that QR codes are not a viable
communication option, infrared technology may be employed to alleviate this issue.
Figure 27 provides an illustration of the various flag signals used during underway
replenishment between two or more vessels at sea.
65
Figure 27. Flag hoist meanings for underway replenishment evolution communications
(From Naval Warfare Publication Underway Replenishment NWP 4–01.4).
66
2. Landing/Launching Helicopters
Launching and recovering helicopters are evolutions that require much

coordination and communication in order to execute successfully. The helicopter
maintains constant voice communications with the ship it is assigned to while taking off
and landing, which means that RF energy is being emitted. Launching and recovering a
helicopter in an emission controlled or restricted environment can be difficult due to the
reliance on voice communications that the Fleet has become accustomed to. A simple
front mounted camera might allow the helicopter to read and decode important messages
when landing or launching. Messages can be transmitted back and forth between
helicopter and ship, without emitting any energy into the electromagnetic spectrum,
which allows the two assets to remain radio silent for the duration of the mission or
exercise, something that is extremely important in hostile territory or an A2AD
environment.
3. Formation Steaming
When ships are operating or are deployed with a Carrier Strike Group or
Expeditionary Strike Group, precision formation steaming is important and requires close
coordination and flawless execution. Due to the close proximity to other vessels, there is
little room for error, because the slightest miscalculation or misunderstanding might
result in disaster. If each ship in the battle group is equipped with the proper equipment,
camera, and QR code display technology, executing turns, course or speed changes might
be accomplished easily when the group commander displays a maneuvering code and has
the rest of the ships decode, display proper responses, and then execute the maneuver.
This method is much quicker and less confusing for the watch standers on each
bridge watch team. Today, most tactical signals for maneuvering in a group of ships are
sent over FLTTAC, which requires the watch stander to first hear the message being
transmitted, refer to a book of signals and then decode the message before sending an
acknowledgement of receipt. This is time consuming and often times, the code takes too
long to get decoded and executed due to the lack of experience and training. A software
system that can automatically decode the QR messages faster increases efficiency of the
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maneuvers. A complete list of tactical signals used for formation steaming can be found
in ATP 1 Volume 2, Allied Maritime Tactical Signal and Maneuvering Book.
4. Well Deck Operations
Voice communications in conjunction with flag semaphore are the most common
forms of communication when conducting well deck operations with amphibious assault
vehicles from an amphibious vessel. Landing Dock Ships conduct launches and
recoveries of amphibious assault vehicles such as LCACs, AAV’s, LARC and LCU.
Orders and instructions are conveyed from the well deck control officer to the vehicles
via flag semaphore signals and voice communication. QR codes may possibly be
displayed in the forward end of the well deck and be visible to all amphibious assault
crafts launching, landing, and moving to different locations within the well deck.
Figure 28. Well deck view of a surface ship recovering or launching an LCAC (From
www.navsource.org on 29MAR2013).
5. Small Boat Operations
Small boats play a crucial role in the Surface fleet as they perform many different
important tasks such as port security, oil platform defense and are a necessity for
executing VBSS operations and boarding other ships. Transmitting and receiving
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information is usually accomplished by bridge-to-bridge radio, but with the proper
technology, might be done by communicating with QR codes. The larger ship can display
the code on the superstructure and the small boat is able to receive the message without
violating emissions control or the electromagnetic spectrum. Mounting the proper display
on the small boat might prove to be a difficult task, but with the proper technology, it is a
strong possibility. This can allow for the small boats to remain operationally effective
while maintain radio silence.
6. Identification Friend or Foe/Neutral (IFFN)
QR codes prove useful as a method of identifying units such as aircraft, ships and
ground vehicles. Identification Friend or Foe/Neutral (IFFN) is common practice today
and allows tactical units to determine who is friend and who is an adversary. QR codes
can be placed on the underside of an aircraft’s wing, which allows for other units to take
a picture of it, scan it, and get the required information in order to determine its status. In
addition, QR codes provide ad-hoc dissemination for vehicles and other units, increasing
the effectiveness of IFFN. The ability to rapidly develop and deploy IFFN codes in the
field, on the fly can provide greater flexibility than is currently possible. Worldwide
availability of QR code printing and scanning capabilities means no more additional
capability is required to deploy a QR tactical application. An additional application of QR
codes with regard to IFFN is that of screening refugees or pirates on board a naval vessel.
QR codes can be utilized in a manner that allows additional information to be gathered in
a situation that requires it as well as provide hidden information in the QR codes.
7. Medical Use of QR Codes
Medical use, such as triage might also benefit from QR codes. QR codes can be
used as an indicator or a method for nurses to identify what type of treatment each patient
requires. The use of QR codes in the medical field can provide an expedited method of
diagnosing and determining the degree of care required by each patient and speed up the
process of providing care and treatment. The use of QR codes in the medical field are a
strong possibility and can provide further benefits and capabilities if implemented
correctly.
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F. ALTERNATIVES TO QR CODES FOR FLEET COMMUNICATIONS
QR codes for fleet communication offers many advantages and can provide
tactical units with a new and effective way to communication visually with one another
and avoid detection by adversaries due to the fact that QR code transmission does not
emit RF energy into the EM spectrum. There are other possibilities and alternatives to
explore in addition to using QR codes. Laser communications are an option to consider if
QR codes prove to be ineffective. Currently, there is no policy prohibiting the use of laser
technology at sea, which means that this area of technology can be implemented in the
future if the technology is developed. Laser communications can provide an advantage to
the fleet such as an extremely high throughput of data, but do not come without
drawbacks. Pointing a laser at another ship in order to transmit a message might present a
few issues for the receiving ship. The receiving ship might make the incorrect assumption
that the transmitting ship is an adversary and is really targeting them with a laser, which
can lead to other issues and potentially escalate the situation. Although lasers pose a few
issues without much exploration, it is necessary to explore laser communications as an
alternative to QR codes.
In addition to laser communications, digital flashing light is another possible

method to defeat HERO and EMCON using a visual communications method.
Traditional flashing light communication does not emit any RF energy and is a relatively
covert method of communicating. It has been an effective method of visual
communication throughout history and can possibly be made into a more automated,
quicker, and more efficient method if a few technologies are developed and implemented.
G. CHAPTER SUMMARY
There are many different platforms that can benefit from a communications
system that uses QR codes. All military units are susceptible to emissions control and are
still expected to maintain effective command and control, as well as communications
with other units/vessels. It is not be difficult to mount the proper displays on ships,
aircraft, small boats, helicopters and amphibious assault vehicles. If each unit was
70
outfitted with the proper display, camera equipment, and software, QR codes for
communications can be an extremely effective system.
71
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VIII. RESEARCH METHODS
A. CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Baseline distance and angle simulation used during the research of QR codes are
described and documented in this chapter. An accurate baseline will allow prediction of
the performance of any given image capturing technology. In addition, field
experimentation to include distance validation, satellite experimentation, and UAV
experimentation are described.
B. SIMULATION
Simulation was conducted by varying QR code size to simulate various distances

in order to predict maximum distances at which various optical devices could resolve a
QR code for decoding. The outcome of this simulation are the charts in section X.E.1
(figure 65, 66, and 67), which correlates the image device configuration to the size of the
image captures, resulting in the ability to predict the performance of any sensor/lens
combination. The chart, based on the size of the image predicts with relative certainty the
maximum distance at which a device can resolve a QR code based on the pixel density of
its sensor, the focal length of the lens and the physical size of the QR code.
Critical characteristics that factor into this simulation are broken into two
categories, digital array performance and camera performance characteristics. The most
common array performance measures are read noise, charge well capacity, and
responsivity. Minimum signal, maximum signal, SNR and dynamic range can be derived
from these measures (Holst, 1998).
1. Baseline Distance Simulation
This test simulated the reading of QR codes from various distances by using a
proven distance at which the test QR code image could be decoded while varying the size
of the displayed image. For each device tested, the maximum simulated distance for QR
code resolving was determined and plotted against the pixel densities listed below. A
controlled indoor environment was used in which light levels and capture distances were
held constant.
73
Model Resolution Sensor Size Sensor Well Density
(Megapixels) (mm x mm) (Megapixels per mm2)
iPhone 4S 8 4.54 x 3.42 0.51
Canon Powershot SD880 10 6.2 x 4.6 0.35
Canon 5D MkII 21.1 36 x 24 0.024
JVC GY-HD200 720p 0.9 6 x 4.8 0.032
JVC GY-HM750 1080p 2.1 6 x 4.8 0.072
Canon DC420 1.07 2.4 x 1.8 0.247
GoPro HERO3 8.3 6.17 x 4.55 0.295
WorldView-1 Imager 24.9 Unknown Unknown
WorldView-2 Imager 33.6 Unknown Unknown
Figure 29. Imaging equipment characteristics for simulation and field experimentation.
Four categories of simulation occurred: Still image capture of digital image

display, still image capture of printed image display, video capture of digital image
display, and video capture of printed image display. For digital image display, the test
image was initialized at 17 inches wide by 17 inches tall (100%) and varied in 1%
decrements to a minimum size of 0.85 inches by 0.85 inches (5%). For printed image
display, the test image was printed in 1% increments starting from 0.32 inches by 0.32
inches (5%) to 8 inches by 8 inches (100%).
Figure 30. Capturing a digitally displayed 35% QR code image during simulation.
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Figure 31. Capturing a print displayed 80% QR code image during simulation.
2. Angle Simulation
This test simulated the reading of QR codes from various angles by using a
proven distance at which the test QR code image could be decoded while simulating
various angles of the displayed image. For each device tested, the maximum simulated
angle (measured against the perpendicular) for QR code resolving was determined. A
controlled indoor environment was used in which light levels and capture distances were
held constant.
Four categories of simulation occurred: Still image capture of digital image

display, still image capture of printed image display, video capture of digital image
display, and video capture of printed image display. For digital image display, the test
image was initialized at 13.25 inches wide by 13.25 inches tall and varied in 1 degree
increments off-perpendicular to a maximum angle of 85 degrees. For printed image
display, a 4 inch tall by 4 inch wide test image was varied from 0 degrees off-
perpendicular to 85 degrees.
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Figure 32. Capturing a digitally displayed 56 degree off-perpendicular QR code image
during simulation.
Figure 33. Capturing a print displayed 80 degree off-perpendicular QR code image

during simulation.
Figure 34 shows an extensible 3D (X3D) tool useful for displaying a QR code at

various angles. This tool allows a user to easily simulate angles as much as 90 degrees
off-perpendicular and makes further angle simulation testing simple. Compared to the
manual methods used in angular simulation discussed, the X3D simulator greatly reduces
image preparation time and discretely displays and specific angle.
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Figure 34. X3D image simulation tool displaying “http:qr.nps.edu” at an angle of 36
degrees from a perpendicular viewpoint.
3. Image Preparation
For all simulations, a QR code generated from the RACO Industries’ QR Code
Barcode Generator was used (http://www.racoindustries.com/barcodegenerator/2d/qr-
code.aspx, 20NOV2012). This generated code has the following parameters:
Version 2
Error Correcting Code L (7%)
77
Size 25 X 25
Max Alphanumeric Capacity 47 characters
Value From technical to tactical
Table 4. Test QR code image parameters.
Figure 35. Test QR code image: “From technical to tactical.” Version 2, ECC L (7%),
25 x 25 QR bits. Note the necessary standards-compliant inclusion of the
quiet zone 4 QR bits wide.
For digital display, the QR code was resized so that it was as large as possible yet
still fit on the screen of the test display. This initial QR code was considered 100% for
digital display purposes. Using Adobe Photoshop, the 100% image was decreased in size
in 1% increments down to the smallest size of 5%. Each sized increment was saved as its
own image test file. For the angular simulation, an initial QR code was saved and labeled
as zero degrees representing a straight-on view of the code or a view from the
perpendicular of the plane it occupies. Again, using Adobe Photoshop, the image was
rotated about the Z-axis in one degree increments to a maximum simulated angle of 85
degrees. Each angled increment was saved as its own image test file.
For the printed displays, the QR code was resized so that it was as large as
possible yet still fit on a single sheet of 8.5” x 11” paper. This initial QR code was
78
considered 100% for printed display purposes. Using Adobe Photoshop, the 100% image
was decreased in size in 1% increments down to the smallest size of 5%. Each sized
increment was printed. For the angular simulation, the angular QR codes used for digital
display were each printed on individual sheets of 8.5” x 11” paper.
C. FIELD EXPERIMENTATION
Field experimentation was conducted from October 2012 through April 2013 to
analyze the benefits of the various technologies in an end-to-end assessment of the QR
code communication chain. Specifically, equipment was assessed based on image sensor
resolution and optical focal length. This will help identify the ideal technologies to enable
QR code communications with acceptable tactical performance parameters.
Range testing was used to validate the distance simulation by recreating the
simulated events using actual distances. A large version of the test QR code measuring
37.5 inch x 37.5 inch was constructed on a plywood stand for longer range testing. The
plywood was painted white to provide the QR code background and 1.5 inch x 1.5 inch
QR bits were glued to represent the test pattern.
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Figure 36. Field testing QR display stand constructed of basic lumber and plywood. Test
QR code image: “From technical to tactical.” Version 2, ECC L(7%), 25 x
25 QR bits, 37.5 inches x 37.5 inches.
1. Range Determination
Initial range determination testing took place in the Spruance courtyard next to
Spanagel Hall at NPS. At this location, a maximum possible LOS for testing of
approximately 220 yards was achievable. Images of the test QR code were collected
using the iPhone 4S, Canon SD880, Canon 5D, Canon DC420, JVC GY-HD200 and JVC
GY-HM750. With each camera, images were captured at approximately 10 yard intervals
from 20 to 200 yards.
80
Figure 37. NPS LOS Location: 215 yards available between the Hermann Hall circle and
the main gate (After http://maps.google.com).
Distances of from the point of each captured image to the test QR code were
measured using a Bushnell Laser Range finder. In Figure 38, the planter on the right was
16 yards and the picnic table on the left was 38 yards from the QR code.
Figure 38. Test Image Placement at NPS in the Spruance courtyard next to Spanagel Hall
facing the Hermann Hall Circle.
81
Range determination testing beyond 200 yards took place at the Fort Ord Motor
Pool lot. At this location, a maximum possible LOS for testing of approximately 650
yards was achievable. Images of the test QR code were collected using the iPhone 4S,
Canon SD880, Canon 5D, Canon DC420, JVC GY-HD200, JVC GY-HM750, and GoPro
HERO3. With each camera, images were captured at approximately 10 yard intervals
from 200 to 500 yards.
Figure 39. Fort Ord LOS Location: 650 yards available diagonally across the asphalt lot
at the motor pool (After http://maps.google.com). .
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Figure 40. Test image placement at the Northwest corner of the motor pool lot at Fort
Ord.
As with the range testing at NPS, the distances from camera to test image were
measures using a Bushnell Laser Range Finder.
Figure 41. Bushnell Elite 1600 ARC laser range finder used for distance determination
during all field testing. Capable of determining distances of 6 to 1600 yards
(From www.bushnell.com on 23MAR2013).
2. Satellite Capability Demonstration
To demonstrate the ability to send data to high altitudes either to aircraft or

spacecraft, a large QR code was painted on the roof of King Hall. A field of white
exterior latex paint was applied with a sprayer to the rooftop in a square pattern
approximately 45 feet by 45 feet. Within the background, black 1.64 foot QR bits were
83
masked and sprayed to match the test QR code pattern. 1.64 foot QR bits were selected
based on the anticipated resolution of the overhead sensors available to capture images.
Figure 42. Complete view of King Hall QR code from atop Spanagel Hall.
84
Figure 43. Conceptual aerial View of King Hall QR Code using commercial open source
overhead imagery (After http://maps.google.com).
Figure 44. Aerial view of King Hall QR code using commercial overhead imagery
captured from DigitalGlobe Worldview-1 dated 14 April, 2013.
Official safety procedures were observed while working aloft on King Hall, with
corresponding setup/teardown labor costing approximately $1000. Costs included labor
85
to provide roof access, setup of visual safety barriers, and worker safety training. The
NPS Public Works department provided an industrial paint sprayer and operational
training.
Figure 45. Safety setup at the work area entry point atop King Hall.
86
Figure 46. Safety setup atop King Hall showing the complete work area including visual
safety barriers and entry point.
3. Limited Camp Roberts UAV Testing
A site survey was conducted at Camp Roberts to determine the feasibility of

various field tests at that location. During the site survey, the intent was to affix a 16 inch
by 16 inch QR code to the underside of the UAV from the ARSENL lab and capture
images of opportunity based solely on the set flight plan. ARSENL did not fly, so the
opportunity was lost. PSI Corporation was present the same day and was flying their
multi-rotor UAV presenting another opportunity for imagery collection. A 16 inch by 16
inch QR code was affixed to the runway and the InstantEye UAV completed several
87
passes over top collecting video. The UAV provided video from three cameras: stock,
GoPro, and LWIR. The stock video camera provided standard definition interlaced video.
The GoPro camera provided high definition interlaced video. The LWIR camera provided
high definition progressive video.
Figure 47. PSI Corp. InstantEye quad rotor UAV.
Figure 48. InstantEye HD video capture of the test QR image on the runway at
McMillan Field, Camp Roberts.
88
Figure 49. InstantEye LWIR video capture of the test QR image on the runway at
McMillan Field, Camp Roberts.
Much more testing is needed. Important future work includes placing a permanent
marker on the McMillan airfield runway to support test and calibration during UAV
operations conducted as part of ongoing NPS field experiments.
Figure 50. Artist’s depiction of potential QR code locations at McMillan airfield using
commercial open source overhead imagery (After http://maps.google.com).
89
D. CHAPTER SUMMARY
Nine different video and still image cameras were used during the simulation and
field experimentation portions of this research including commercial satellite imagers.
Results for each type of camera were documented following the baseline simulations,
field experiment validations, and satellite and UAV demonstrations.
90
IX. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
A. CHAPTER OVERVIEW
1. Maximum Range Capabilities
Table 4 shows the maximum distance for each camera that the QR code test
image was successfully captured and decoded. In all cases, with the exception of the
iPhone 4S, digital image magnification was required for success. For the iPhone 4S,
secondary evaluation provided no range increase over direct evaluation of raw image.
Still Image Cameras Video Cameras

iPhone 4S 67 Canon DC420 284
Canon SD880IS 85 JVC HD200 345
Canon 5D MkII 428 JVC HD750 457
GoPro HERO3 40
Table 5. Maximum distances in yards at which a QR code was successfully captured
and decoded for each camera.
2. Equipment Variances
It is important to note that comparisons between differing equipment are general,

but each camera and each lens has its own inherent variations based on construction and
manufacturing tolerances. These variations are not controlled for in our experimentation.
Because two apparent variables emerged when classifying the image capture
equipment, a Camera Capability Factor (CCF) was defined to more appropriately
organize the data. The capabilities of each imaging device are mainly dependent on the
image sensor resolution and the size of the lens. To combine these into a single variable,
the Camera Capability Factor (CCF) was defined as follows:
𝐶𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑎 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝐶𝐶𝐹) = 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝐹𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
where the resultant number is measured in MegaPixels X mm.
91
3. Result Categories
In all cases, image performance results in one of three categories: direct

evaluation, secondary evaluation, or unsuccessful evaluation. Direct evaluation is the
successful decoding of a QR code using QR Sight, a desktop application, directly from
raw image data. Secondary evaluation is the successful decoding of an enhanced QR code
using a mobile app (Google Goggles or QRReader) following unsuccessful primary
evaluation. Enhancement was simply in the form of displaying the captured image on a
computer monitor and increasing it in size. No complex processing occurred in this
method. Unsuccessful evaluation was declared if neither of the above two methods
resulted in a decoded QR code.
4. Analysis Tools
Multiple tools were used for the analysis of captured data in both still image and
video formats. MPEG Streamclip (http://www.squared5.com) and VLC Player
(www.videolan.org) were used to extract single frames for analysis from videos. MPEG
Streamclip produced JPEG and VLC Player produced PNG images, both in the original
resolution of the raw video.
Gnu Image Manipulation Program (GIMP; www.gimp.org) and Adobe Photoshop

(www.adobe.com) were used for post collection image manipulation where necessary.
QR Sight (www.appvetica.com), QRReader (www.tapmedia.co.uk), Google Goggles
(www.google.com/mobile/goggles), and NeoReader (www.neoreader.com) were all used
for QR decoding. QR Sight is an OS X-based drag and drop QR reading program.
QRReader, Google Googles, and NeoReader are mobile apps for reading QR codes.
B. ANALYSIS METHODS
Simulation and modeling results will compare traditional RF detection and

interception probabilities to QR code transmissions to determine the extent to which QR
codes are superior. Field experimentation results will be used to compare various
technologies to determine the most efficient end-to-end equipment chain in terms of
capability, reliability, effectiveness, and cost.
During experimentation, it must be noted that the recognition and decoding of

images is dependent on the medium with which it is being displayed. If the QR code is
92
physically printed, the resolution of the QR code is based on dots per inch (dpi) of the
equipment used to print the image. If the QR code is digitally displayed, the resolution of
the QR code is based upon the technical specification of that display (i.e. 1080p).
One expected result of the baseline experimentation is a formula to predict

successful QR code decoding based on the “crispness” of the display. This will be
determined by pixels or dots (dpi) per QR bit.
C. SIMULATION RESULTS
1. Distance Simulation
Distance simulation images were captured as discussed in chapter IX.B.1. The full
results are listed in Appendix B. The simulation results show the smallest QR images
successfully decoded by each optical device. Each of these values was extrapolated to an
equivalent distance based on the size QR code used for field experimentation. Using a
reference size of 37 inches by 37 inches and a reference distance of 60 inches, the
following ratio relates the simulation results to the extrapolated distance:
𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒
𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = × 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒
Based on the simulation data, the maximum extrapolated ranges for each imaging
device are as follows:

Primary Secondary Primary Secondary
Technology Technology
Evaluated Evaluated Evaluated Evaluated
Factor Factor
Range range Range range
MP x mm yards yards MP x mm Yards Yards
Digital 34.2 10.5 24.5 5.0 18.4 24.5
QR Code 50.0 13.6 24.5 11.6 21.6 26.3
Displays 1055.0 24.5 61.3
Printed 34.2 33.4 52.5 5.0 36.8 52.5
QR Code 50.0 33.4 61.3 11.6 36.8 61.3
Displays 506.4 26.3 52.5
Table 6. Range extrapolation from simulation.
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Digital QR Display, Still Image Camera
70.0
Extrapolated Range (yards)

60.0
50.0
Primary
40.0 Evaluation
30.0
Secondary
20.0 Evaluation
10.0
0.0
0.0 200.0 400.0 600.0 800.0 1000.0 1200.0
CCF (MP x mm)
from a digitally displayed QR code.
Digital QR Display, Video Camera

27.0
25.0
23.0 Primary
Evaluation
21.0
Secondary
19.0
Evaluation
17.0
15.0
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0
CCF (MP x mm)
Figure 52. Range extrapolation of simulation data from video cameras captured from a
digitally displayed QR code.
94
Printed QR Display, Still Image Camera
65.0
60.0

55.0
50.0 Primary
Evaluation
45.0
40.0
Secondary
35.0
Evaluation
30.0
25.0
20.0
0.0 100.0 200.0 300.0 400.0 500.0 600.0
CCF (MP x mm)
from a print displayed QR code.
Printed QR Display, Video Camera

65.0
60.0
55.0
Primary
50.0 Evaluation
45.0
Secondary
40.0 Evaluation
35.0
30.0
4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0
CCF (MP x mm)
Figure 54. Range extrapolation of simulation data from video cameras captured from a
print displayed QR code.
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Digital and Printed QR Display, Still Image Cameras
70.0

60.0
50.0
Primary
40.0 Evaluation
30.0
Secondary
20.0 Evaluation
10.0
0.0
0.0 200.0 400.0 600.0 800.0 1000.0 1200.0
CCF (MP x mm)
from both digital and print displayed QR codes.
Digital and Printed QR Display, Video Cameras

70.0
60.0
50.0 Primary
Evaluation
40.0
Secondary
30.0
Evaluation
20.0
10.0
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0
CCF (MP x mm)
both digital and print displayed QR codes.
96
Digital QR Display, Still Image and Video Cameras
70.0

60.0
50.0
Primary
40.0 Evaluation
30.0
Secondary
20.0 Evaluation
10.0
0.0
1.0 10.0 100.0 1000.0 10000.0
CCF (MP x mm)
cameras captured from a digitally displayed QR code.
Printed QR Display, Still Image and Video Cameras

65.0
60.0
55.0
50.0 Primary
Evaluation
45.0
40.0
Secondary
35.0
Evaluation
30.0
25.0
20.0
1.0 10.0 100.0 1000.0
CCF (MP x mm)
cameras captured from both a print and digitally displayed QR code.
2. Angle Simulation
Angle simulation images were captured as discussed in chapter IX.B.2. The

results are as follows:
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Factor Factor
Angle Angle Angle Angle
MP X mm Degrees Degrees MP X mm Degrees Degrees
Digital 34 75 76 5 65 75
QR
50 60 70 12 68 74
Code
Displays 1055 78 78
Printed 34 60 70 5 73 74
QR
50 55 70 12 42 72
Code
Displays 506 64 70
Table 7. Maximum off-perpendicular angles of successfully read QR images.
Due to time constraints, full follow-on experimentation of angle analysis was not
possible. Because of the implications of field of view (FOV) restrictions on QR code
detection, it is important that future work on this research include full angle analysis.
D. FIELD EXPERIMENT (FX) RESULTS
1. Range Determination
Range determination images were captured as discussed in chapter IX.C.1. The

full field experiment results are listed in Appendix B. Based on the field experiment data,
the maximum ranges for each imaging device are as follows:

Factor Factor
range Range range Range
MP x mm yards yards MP x mm yards Yards
34.24 33 67 11.55 42
200 85 85 49.2 22 26
506.4 81 105 52.91 241 284
1793.5 127 207 79.2 130 345
4220 199 428 99.6 34 40
184.8 442 457
Table 8. Field experiment maximum range results.
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Maximum Range, Still Image Cameras
500
Maximum Range (yards)

400
Primary
300 Evaluation
200 Secondary
Evaluation
100
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
CCF (MP x mm)
Figure 59. Maximum ranges of successfully read QR codes from images captured from
still image cameras.
Maximum Range, Video Cameras

500
400
300 Primary
Evaluation
200
Secondary
100
Evaluation
0
0 50 100 150 200
-100
CCF (MP x mm)
video cameras.
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Maximum Range, Still Image and Video Cameras
500

400
Primary
300 Evaluation
200 Secondary
Evaluation
100
0
10 100 1000 10000
CCF (MP x mm)
both still image and video cameras.
Extended range testing enabled range evaluation of images captured with a 4K

cinematic video camera. This additional field experimentation provided an opportunity to
develop an initial image enhancement process as illustrated in Figure 62.
Figure 62. Process steps showing the iterative improvements of a raw captured image
resulting in a readable QR code.
In general, if a human can reconstruct a precise QR code from a distorted image.

Then image-processing software can do as well or better. The unprocessed image is that
of a 100 inch x 100 inch QR code displayed at a distance of 750 yards. The transform
step simply rotates the QR code to place the finder patterns on the top right, top left and
bottom left corners of the image. The white balance stem applies color correction and
adjustment to darken the black QR bits and lighten the white space. The warp/perspective
step adjusts full and partial image space for any orthogonal inconstancies restoring the
QR code to its original known square state. Edge detection uses a Photoshop and the
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increased contrast from the white balance step algorithm to discretely define all
transitions from black to white. Finally, the difference map is a validation technique that
compares the final image to the source image to verify the enhancement process
sufficiently reconstructs the QR code.
2. Aircraft and Satellite Demonstration
To date, no images taken by aircraft of the King Hall rooftop QR code have been
received. This remains an important area of future work.
Satellite images were captured as discussed in chapter IX.C.2. The resolution of

both WorldView-1 and 2 was insufficient to capture imagery of the rooftop QR code with
enough clarity for processing by a QR reader. In the case of WorldView-1, reflective
light from the white portions of the code washed out the majority of the black portions
making the QR code unrecognizable in general. In the case of WorldView-2, the QR code
is distinguishable and the 3 QR bit by 3 QR bit portions of the finder pattern appear
clearly in the image. It is presumable, from this data that if 3 x 3 image pixels were
captured as a single QR bit, the QR code is likely to be readable. It is possible that if the
orientation of the QR bits were aligned with the flight path and sensor patterns of the
optical imagers on the satellites, then the individual QR bits appear more distinctly
(without aliasing errors) and post-processing image enhancement is more likely to
recover the original QR code.
Not readable.
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Not readable.
3. UAV Testing
UAV testing images were captured as discussed in Chapter IX.C.3. Because this
experiment was a target of opportunity, it was not controlled similarly to the previous
experiments. The video captured demonstrated the ability to locate QR codes from a
UAV; however the quality was insufficient to provide any readable images without
significant image manipulation.
E. RESULTS ANALYSIS
1. Simulation Analysis
Figures 65, 66, and 67 represent the predictions of QR code performance based on
any combination of resolution and optics in an imaging device. In the case of the still
image camera, both prediction lines rise as expected, indicating an increase in
performance as the product of sensor resolution and lens size increases. In the case of the
video camera, both prediction lines decrease as Camera Capability Factor (CCF)
increases. This is likely due to an insufficient amount of simulated data collected. When
both still image and video camera simulation data are combined, the primary prediction
line decreases and the secondary prediction line increases as the CCF increases.
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Still Image Camera Simulation Data Extrapolation
65.0
60.0
Linear
Extrapolated Range (yards) 55.0 y = 0.021x + 40.054
(Primary
50.0 Evaluation)
45.0
40.0
35.0 Linear
(Secondary
30.0
y = 0.0024x + 22.917 Evaluation)
25.0
20.0
0.0 200.0 400.0 600.0 800.0 1000.0 1200.0
CCF (MP x mm)
Figure 65. Extrapolation curves from still image camera simulation.
Video Camera Simulation Data Extrapolation

65.0
60.0
Linear
55.0
(Primary
50.0 Evaluation)
y = -0.0085x + 57.055
45.0
40.0
35.0 Linear
(Secondary
30.0 y = -0.0188x + 35.614 Evaluation)
25.0
20.0
0.0 100.0 200.0 300.0 400.0 500.0 600.0
CCF (MP x mm)
Figure 66. Extrapolation curves from video camera simulation.
103
Full Simulation Data Extrapolation
65.0
60.0
Linear
Extrapolated Range (yards) 55.0 y = 0.0204x + 40.516
(Primary
50.0 Evaluation)
45.0
40.0
35.0 Linear
(Secondary
30.0
y = -0.001x + 25.7 Evaluation)
25.0
20.0
0.0 200.0 400.0 600.0 800.0 1000.0 1200.0
CCF (MP x mm)
Figure 67. Extrapolation curves from still image and video camera simulations.
In all cases, these prediction curves will benefit from further data collection. In
the current state, it is likely that predictions based on these curves will be largely
inaccurate. The prediction curves provide the following equations to anticipate the
performance of any given lens and sensor combination:
Primary analysis Secondary analysis

equation equation
Still Image Cameras y = 0.021x + 40.054 y = 0.0024x + 22.917
Video Cameras y = -0.0085x + 57.055 y = -0.0188x + 35.614
Still Image and Video Cameras y = 0.0204x + 40.516 y = -0.001x + 25.7
Table 9. Simulation prediction equations.
2. Field Experiment Validation
The following charts shows extrapolated ranges for all simulation data
superimposed on field experiment results. In the case of the still image cameras, the
simulation predicted the trends of the field experiment results accurately, but at a
differing slope. In the case of the video cameras, the field experiment results were too
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dispersed to discern a relatable trend. Again, no discernible trends are apparent when
both still image and video camera results are combined.
It is important to note, that in all cases, secondary evaluation of QR code images

from a given optical device resulted in successful decoding from further distances. Nearly
all experimental data met or exceeded preliminary estimates of expected maximum range.
Maximum Range, Still Image Cameras

(with Simulation Extrapolation)
500
Primary
Evaluation
400
Secondary
300 Evaluation
Linear
200 (Primary
Extrapolation)
100 Linear
(Secondary
Extrapolation)
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
CCF (MP x mm)
still image cameras superimposed on expected ranges extrapolated from
simulation data.
105
Maximum Range, Video Cameras
500
Primary
450 Evaluation
400
350 Secondary
300 Evaluation
250
Linear
200 (Primary
150 Extrapolation)
100 Linear
50 (Secondary
Extrapolation)
0
0 50 100 150 200
CCF (MP x mm)
video cameras superimposed on expected ranges extrapolated from
simulation data.
Maximum Range, Still image and Video Cameras

500
Primary
450 Evaluation
400
350 Secondary
300 Evaluation
250
Linear
200 (Primary
150 Extrapolation)
100 Linear
50 (Secondary
Extrapolation)
0
10 100 1000 10000
CCF (MP x mm)
both still image and video cameras superimposed on expected ranges
extrapolated from simulation data.
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3. Minimum QR Code Sizes
The following charts show the size, in pixels, of the QR bits from images
determined to be at the limits of readability. Measurements were taken for both primary
evaluation of the raw images by QR Sight and secondary evaluation of the images by
mobile QR readers.
Digital Display
Primary Evaluation Secondary Evaluation
Finder Pattern QR Bit Finder Pattern QR Bit
Camera Diagonal Size Diagonal Size
(pixels) (pixels) (pixels) (pixels)
iPhone 4S 101.9 10.3 44.6 4.5
Still
Canon SD880 84.9 8.6 45.3 4.6
Image
Canon 5D
Cameras 115.3 11.6 38.2 3.9
MkII
Video JVC HD200 36.1 3.6 26.2 2.6
Cameras JVC HD750 45.3 4.6 35.4 3.6
Table 10. QR bit size, in pixels, from the smallest readable QR code images digitally
displayed.
Printed Display
iPhone 4S 43.9 4.4 26.9 2.7
Still
Canon SD880 43.1 4.4 21.2 2.1
Image
Cameras Canon 5D
55.2 5.6 26.9 2.7
MkII
Video JVC HD200 23.3 2.4 17.0 1.7
Cameras JVC HD750 33.9 3.4 21.2 2.1
Table 11. QR bit size, in pixels, from the smallest readable QR code images print
displayed.
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Figure 71. Statistical evaluation of QR bit size data from primary evaluation of simulated
data ranges.
simulated range images.
The mean of the primary evaluation results of the simulation data is 5.89 and the
mean of the secondary evaluation results of the simulation data is 3.05. This predicts that
these values are the minimum sizes, in pixels, of a QR bit in a QR code that can be
decoded using QR sight for primary evaluation and mobile QR reader applications for
secondary evaluation. The imaging device sample size is small, therefore it is likely that
these numbers are inaccurate until more simulation data points can be collected.
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iPhone 4S 38.2 3.9 19.8 2.0
Still Canon SD880 55.2 5.6 none none
Image 65.8 6.6 49.5 5.0
Canon 5D
Cameras 42.8 4.3 26.6 2.7
MkII
61.6 6.2 28.0 2.8
Canon DC420 27.6 2.8 25.5 2.6
JVC HD200 78.5 7.9 24.8 2.5
Video none none 22.6 2.3
JVC HD750
Cameras 31.1 3.1 28.3 2.9
HERO3 2.7K 22.6 2.3 19.1 1.9
HERO3 4K 21.2 2.1 19.1 1.9
Table 12. QR bit size, in pixels, from highest-range readable QR code images
.
experimental range images.
experimental range images.
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The mean of the primary evaluation results of the field experiment data is 4.48
and the mean of the secondary evaluation results of the field experiment data is 2.55. The
outlier seen in the secondary evaluation of the field results is most likely due to the poor
quality of captured images. When compared to the above simulation data, it shows that
the simulation estimate provides a more conservative value and that actual results are
measurable better than simulated results. Again, the data sample size is small and it is
likely that these numbers are inaccurate until more simulation data points can be
collected.
One recommendation for QR signaling to satellites is to align the code to be

parallel to the expected satellite track direction for maximum overhead resolution when
seen from nadir.
Similar to the decoding capability seen with range, in all cases, minimum QR bit
size in pixels is smaller when comparing secondary to primary evaluations.
4. QR Code Reconstruction
In Figure 75, an original 4K image is cropped to a single QR bit, revealing that

each QR bit occupies a pixel array of 16 x 16. This easily satisfies the minimum
requirement of 3 x 3 image pixels. The cropped image is then scaled by 50% in each
dimension using a common nearest neighbor (edge preserving) algorithm, and so forth
until an approximation of a signal from a standard definition (NTSC VHS) is reached. In
the 960 x 480 sample, the pixels that would clamp to black roughly equal the pixels that
would clamp to white, so it is indeterminate. Images below that resolution could not be
used to reconstruct a QR bit and therefore not useful to reconstruct a QR code.
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Figure 75. Demonstration of single QR bit reconstruction using 4K video camera image
of 100 inch x 100 inch QR code captured at 750 yards.
QR bits read from 2000 yards returned an approximate 5 x 5 image pixel matrix,
though because of optical turbulence, the image is noisy. However, it also satisfies the 3 x
3 image pixel rule. Since optical turbulence is much less of a factor over large bodies of
water, it is conceivable that transmission would be successful given focal length
(580mm) and 4K sensor size at 2000 yards or more (Frehlich, 1992).
It should be noted that since QR codes are generally constructed of black QR bits
on a white background, the de-Bayering, or reconstruction of the signal into a color
image is likely unnecessary. Pixels are known to be black in Figure 75; yet because of
sensor noise or ambient conditions, they are returned as dark brown or grey. Simple
image processing such as clamping values below 50% luma as black and above 50%
luma as white would compensate for these anomalies. Other, simple image processing
steps are illustrated in Figure 62. Advanced, but still common techniques used in
computer vision, such as deriving a histogram of gradient vectors could reconstruct a QR
code from even very noisy images. This is possible because the QR code itself is
constructed so that gradient vectors would be highly predictive of QR bit arrangements.
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F. QUALITATIVE RESULTS
Based on the vast amount of images captured, it is clear that a rigorous

accountability system must be established in order to usefully organize collected data.
The initial cataloging proposal for imagery was to superimpose telemetry data over the
image. In a tactical environment, however, there may be no way to control the location of
the QR code within the captured image. If the code is positioned in the same location as
the telemetry data, there is a good chance that the code would be unreadable. Two
cataloging alternatives are available: filename structure and embedded metadata.
With filename structure, in-situ image processing would name the image in the
file system with appropriate labels to uniquely identify each image as it is captured and
stored in memory. Basic labels will be mandatory such as imager identification, geo-
location, date and time. A user can then add additional informational tags such as imager
resolution, environmental descriptions, operation name, etc. While this method is
thorough, long filenames may become cumbersome.
Metadata simplifies complex labeling by appending each file with encoded data
that uniquely describes the image. The labeling structure is identical to the filename
method, but the labels themselves are stored within the file itself. The filenames then
become arbitrary and the internally recorded label data remains unreadable until extracted
by an appropriate software interface.
Field experimentation has shown that there is a significant increase in capability

when images are processed and enhanced prior to analysis by a QR pattern decoding
program. In most cases ranges nearly doubled when images were simply increased in
size, displayed on a computer monitor and evaluated with a mobile QR reader
application. Further capability increases occurred when the images are enhanced digitally
by sharpening the boundaries and increasing the contrast between the black and white QR
bits. This is often necessary when lighting conditions are not ideal as the white QR bits
tend to shift in color based on the environment. Custom decoding algorithms could be
programmed to incrementally decrease the contrast threshold required for detecting QR
codes when a code is not initially detected in an image.
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G. CHAPTER SUMMARY
This chapter discussed the results of both simulation and field experiments in
order to determine the effectiveness of the various technologies available for detection
and decoding of QR codes at longer distances. The most common trend encountered is
that of increased capability as the focal length and or resolution of the imaging device
increases. Additionally, the introduction of post processing of QR code images drastically
increased decoding performance.
113
114
X. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
A. RESEARCH FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS
The results of this research show that there are numerous advantages to QR codes
for communications in a tactical environment. QR code communication provides
numerous advantages over traditional RF LOS communications. Since QR codes can be a
visual method of communicating, there are no RF emissions, which greatly reduce the
possibility of detection, intercept, and exploitation. RF LOS communications are
susceptible to emissions control measures, which reduces the effectiveness of
communications. QR codes are a tool that can be used to circumvent emissions control
restrictions, much like flashing light, flag semaphore and flag hoist methods. QR codes
allow tactical units to communicate efficiently and effectively where radio
communications are not permitted and it is necessary to remain undetected.
Although the advantages of QR codes for communications are plentiful, it must

be noted that simulation and experimentation uncovered numerous disadvantages as well.
Until further technology is tested with QR codes, it is difficult to determine the effects
that movement has on a code. All testing was done in a controlled environment, with a
stationary QR code. Aboard ships at sea, where this technology can be extremely useful,
could uncover problems associated with this. The range at which a QR code can be
decoded was roughly five hundred yards with the available technology. This distance is
not sufficient enough to be considered a useful communication tool for the fleet. The
testing of better technology can most likely reveal that distances of a few miles can be
achieved.
Traditional visual communications methods such as flashing light, flag semaphore

and flag hoist did not rely on technology in order to transmit and receive messages. The
present state of technology associated with QR codes indicates that different
environments can have a variety of effects on the transmission and receipt of messages.
No testing was done with the presence of fog or reduced visibility, but almost certainly
115
has a negative impact on the transmission of messages via QR codes. Testing did reveal
that even a change in lighting or reflection on the code made it more difficult to decode.
B. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE WORK
1. QR Code Tactical Decision Aid (TDA)
QR code technology and use for tactical communications has been explored in
this thesis, but there are many aspects that remain to be researched and experimented
with. If QR code digital communications is to be used in the fleet, it will be necessary to
develop some sort of tactical guidance/guidelines for the use of QR codes. In addition to
this tactical guidance, a tactical decision aid can prove useful for watch standers and
warfighters. Developing a tactical decision aid along with a computer interface might
prove useful to tactical units because it allows for the QR code to be captured and
decoded all through the computer program. The decoded message might then be
displayed at the watch stander’s console, drastically reducing the complexity of the visual
communication process. Additional description of the Tactical Decision Aid for QR
codes can be found in Appendix C of this thesis.
2. Laser Technology Communications
There have been discussions regarding utilizing laser technology for

communications due to its higher data rate capabilities; however, there are many
disadvantages and risks associated with using lasers for communications in a tactical
environment. Research and experimentation can be done to determine what the
advantages, disadvantages, and risks are associated with lasers for tactical
communications. This type of visual communication method might extend the range of
QR code communication, which can prove to be important when operating in an EMCON
environment.
3. Aircraft and Airfield use of QR codes
There are many other possible applications of QR codes that are not related to
visual communications that can be explored. QR codes can prove effective if displayed
on airstrips and runways around the world to convey messages and other vital
116
information to aircraft taking off and landing. Chris Sokol, an employee of the United
States Strategic Command is working with Dr. Don Brutzman and is performing research
and experimentation on the use of QR codes for aircraft and airfields with an emphasis on
airfield and aircraft safety. Additional research and experimentation is needed in this area
to determine the value added by QR codes.
4. Probability of Detection Simulation
A probability of detection simulation can compare the probability of detection of

a QR code with traditional RF LOS technologies. This will attempt to show that the
probability of detection of QR codes is lower than that of current HF, VHF and UHF
communications suites. It is believed that a probability of detection simulation will yield
results to support the theory that QR codes for communications will be more difficult to
detect over RF LOS communications.
5. Obfuscation Methods
Obfuscation methods to prevent unauthorized users from reading QR codes are a

vital piece of the puzzle. Should QR codes be implemented in the fleet, it is important to
have methods of ensuring that adversaries in the vicinity not be able to decode message
transmissions. This topic may be better suited if QR code security in general was
explored. Development of additional security measures, other than those mentioned in
this thesis, are important as well and can be studied and analyzed.
6. Realistic Environment Testing
Testing of this technology in a realistic environment can be done in order to

ensure that this is a viable method of communicating for the fleet. Factors such as sea
state, fog, reflections from the sun, sea spray, and rain all have the potential to interfere
with and reduce the effectiveness of QR codes. Testing can include ship-to-ship, surface-
to-air, and ship-to-shore at a minimum.
117
7. Tactical Signaling
This implements characters representing longer character strings that commonly

occur in messages. For instance, if the first character in a QR code is “U” or “S” it might
mean the following message is preceded by “http://” or “https//” respectively. Testing can
be done in this area in order to determine if there are methods of shortening a message
transmission.
8. Tactical Performance Study
Valuable research can be done in order to determine how the QR code

capability will improve tactical performance of various platforms using the technology.
How will this capability improve tactical performance for various platforms?
9. Capabilities Beyond Naval Applications
QR codes have the ability to make an impact on other industries as well as the
Department of Defense. Researching what capabilities QR codes can provide beyond
naval applications might prove important.
10. Flag Semaphore Camera Recognition
Research of camera recognition of image and video capture of semaphore

characters and flag movements can provide an extended range of flag semaphore, which
can provide the fleet with a valuable visual signaling method.
11. Point-to-Point Protocol
It will be necessary to evaluate the appropriate use of Point-to-Point protocol and

possibly develop a new QR code over IP streaming protocol. This can have a major
impact on the implementation and use of QR codes in a tactical environment. This future
work item is crucial to the future success of QR codes as a visual communication method.
12. QR Codes in the Underwater Domain
Additionally, the tactical applications of QR codes in the underwater domain were

not explored due to time constraints. Limiting factors for the use of QR codes in an
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underwater environment is restricted amounts of light, restricted power, and limited
range. Since power consumption of light displays is prohibitive, acoustic modes are likely
to be far preferable for this application. QR codes might be employed as a tactic for
marking mines or as a docking station for submarines or unmanned underwater vehicles.
This capability is limited to short range, and a more viable option may be simpler
markers. It might be valuable to explore underwater use of QR code communications.
119
120
APPENDIX A. EXPERIMENT SCHEDULE OF EVENTS
The following experiments were initially planned for this research. Due to time
and resource constraints, only experiments B, C, D, and I were completed. The remainder
of experiments should be completed as future work.
C. BASELINE DISTANCE SIMULATION
Date: 26 – 30 November 2012
Objective: Determine the most distant readable QR code for each image
capturing device through lab simulation.
D. BASELINE DISTANCE VALIDATION EXPERIMENT
Date: 26 – 30 November 2012
Objective: Determine the most distant readable QR code for each image
capturing device through field experimentation.
E. BASELINE ANGULAR SIMULATION
Date: 3 – 7 December 2012
Objective: Determine the widest off-perpendicular angle at which a QR code can

be read through lab simulation.
F. BASELINE ANGULAR VALIDATION EXPERIMENT
Objective: Determine the widest off-perpendicular angle at which a QR code can

be read through field experimentation.
G. PROBABILITY OF DETECTION SIMULATION
Objectives: Determine optimal positioning and initial probabilities for QR code

detection through lab simulation.
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H. PROBABILITY OF DETECTION VALIDATION EXPERIMENT
Objectives: Determine optimal positioning and initial probabilities for QR code

detection through field experimentation.
I. AIRCRAFT/UAV QR CODE DETECTION
Date: 7 – 11 January 2013
Objective: Validate baseline simulation data and demonstrate ability to read a QR

code from an aircraft.
J. SATELLITE IMAGERY QR PIXEL AND QR CODE DETECTION
Objective: Validate baseline simulation data and demonstrate ability to read a QR

code from an orbiting spacecraft.
K. USV TWO-WAY QR CODE DETECTION
Objective: Validate baseline simulation data and demonstrate ability to read a

water vessel mounted QR code in a realistic environment.
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APPENDIX B. SIMULATION AND EXPERIMENT DATA
This data represents both simulation and field experiment results. The tables are
interpreted with the following legend:
Legend
Decoded by direct evaluation with QR Sight
Decoded only by secondary evaluation despite

further range points successfully decoded by direct
evaluation
Decoded by secondary evaluation with Google

Goggles or QRReader
Not Decoded by any means
Table 13. Simulation and Field Experiment Results Legend
Associated with each imaging device is:

• The focal length of the optics used during the experiment measured in mm.
• The resolution of each image sensor measured in megapixels.
• The Camera Capability Factor (CCF) allowing the results to be related to both the
focal length and the resolution of the equipment used for each experiment. The
CCF is the product of the focal length and the resolution.
123
Digital Display
Still Camera Images Video Camera Images
Canon Canon 5D JVC JVC
Sensor iPhone 4S
SD880 MkII GY-HD200 GY-HD750
Focal Length (mm) 4.28 5 50 5.5 5.5
Megapixels 8 10 21.1 0.9 2.1
CCF 34.2 50.0 1055.0 5.0 11.6
66 66 66 66 66
Image Size
… … … … …
(% of 17 in X 17 in)
35 35 35 35 35
34 34 34 34 34
33 33 33 33 33
… … … … …
28 28 28 28 28
27 27 27 27 27
26 26 26 26 26
25 25 25 25 25
… … … … …
21 21 21 21 21
20 20 20 20 20
19 19 19 19 19
18 18 18 18 18
17 17 17 17 17
16 16 16 16 16
15 15 15 15 15
14 14 14 14 14
13 13 13 13 13
… … … … …
7 7 7 7 7
6 6 6 6 6
5 5 5 5 5
Table 14. Digital Display Simulation Data
124
Printed Display
Video Camera
Still Camera Images Images
JVC JVC
iPhone Canon Canon
Sensor GY- GY-
4S SD880 5D MkII
HD200 HD750
Focal Length (mm) 4.28 5 24 5.5 5.5
Megapixels 8 10 21.1 0.9 2.1
CCF 34.24 50 506.4 4.95 11.55
14 14 14 14 14
13 13 13 13 13
12 12 12 12 12
11 11 11 11 11
Image Size
10 10 10 10 10
(% of 13.25 in X 13.25
in) 9 9 9 9 9
8 8 8 8 8
7 7 7 7 7
6 6 6 6 6
5 5 5 5 5
Table 15. Printed Display Simulation Data
125
Range Analysis
Still Camera Images
iPhone Canon
Sensor Canon 5D MkII
4S SD880IS
Focal Length
4.28 5 20 24 85 200
(mm)
Megapixels 8 10 10 21.1 21.1 21.1
CCF 34.2 50.0 200.0 506.4 1793.5 4220.0
19 85 85 3 85 84
27 93 93 15 93 94
33 100 100 24 100 105
41 108 108 34 108 118
50 114 114 46 114 130
59 127 127 59 127 143
67 136 136 71 136 157
75 143 143 81 143 176
81 201 201 84 148 189
89 85 158 199
95 94 167 207
100 96 175 222
105 185 235
196 249
201 263
207 275
289
Range (yds) 303
311
321
335
347
356
368
379
390
402
413
428
442
457
470
482
495
505
Table 16. Still Image Camera Field Experiment Data

126
Video Camera Range Analysis
Canon JVC JVC GoPro GoPro
Sensor
DC420 HD200 HD750 2.7K 4K
Focal Length
96.2 88 88 12 12
(mm)
Megapixels 0.55 0.9 2.1 4.1 8.3
CCF 52.9 79.2 184.8 49.2 99.6
43 84 42 6 3
Range (yds)
… … … … …
Note: Range 84 130 207 22 7
values are not 97 143 217 26 8
correlated
between columns 109 157 227 30 9
120 … 237 35 14
134 334 … 40 19
143 345 257 45 24
156 355 258 29
165 367 266 34
178 377 269 40
189 387 275 45
200 397 279 51
202 408 285
213 418 289
227 428 294
241 441 298
255 453 303
270 464 …
284 476 402
302 486 413
497 428
503 442
505 457
470
482
495
505
Table 17. Video Camera Field Experiment Data.
127
128
APPENDIX C. QR TACTICAL DECISION AID (TDA)
This Appendix discusses and describes the QR Tactical Decision Aid (TDA)
which is being implemented for the use with QR codes. Work on this Decision Aid has
been largely been done by Don Brutzman and Mike Bailey at the Naval Postgraduate
School. The program is a desktop application, written in Java and in early stages of
development. The QR TDA utilizes the Swing Graphic User Interface library and can be
run headless which means that there is no Graphic User Interface required. In addition to
the Swing library, additional Java libraries are used such as the QR code library known as
the Google “zebra crossing” (zxing). “Pipes” is another Java library and is used as the
dataflow library, which allows for the user to utilize the different tabs in the program.
The TDA is basically broken up into two parts, sender and receiver. The sending side
monitors a directory for new text files and when a new file is found and the program is
running, it takes the file and goes through a series of steps to open, read, and encode the
file before displaying a QR code on the screen. Once the QR code is displayed, the
message is fired off to the receiver; the receiving side of the TDA monitors a
predetermined directory, finds the message, reads the text, decodes the message and
displays the proper QR code. If the TDA works correctly, identical QR codes will be
displayed on either side of the program. The directory simulates an optical link between
the two programs. The dataflow used in this program is component-based and externally
configurable. Figure 76 is an image showing the sending side looking for and encoding a
message found in the directory.
There are a few possible use cases for the QR TDA:
• QR TDA used during formation steaming allows quick and effective

communication between multiple tactical units. This drastically
reduces the time needed to encode and decode messages, which make
tactical movements simpler to perform and reduces watch stander
involvement in developing and decoding messages.
129
• When a message or tactical movement is required with short notice,
the QR TDA can create the message and display the code effectively
and efficiently.
Figure 76. Sending side of the Tactical Decision Aid watching a directory for new text
files.
Figure 77 illustrates the sequencing process of the TDA. The basic operation
behind this process is that the sender monitors a directory, finds the text file, and begins
encoding the message. The sender breaks up the longer message into several smaller,
130
more readable messages and adds a sequencing number to the message. The sequencing
number ensures that the receiving unit is able to reassemble the message in the correct
order even if the messages are not transmitted in order. As long as the sequencing
numbers are correctly assigned, the receiving unit is able to reconstruct the original
message. Figure 77 also illustrates the various tabs on the left side of the sender and the
right side of the receiver, which is sort of a sequencing tool that is able to be utilized by
the user. In addition to the existing tabs, encryption and decryption is a viable option in
the future to enable the TDA to integrate security capabilities when developing and
sending messages between tactical units.
Figure 77. Sequencing process of tactical decision aid illustrating both the sending and
receiving capabilities of the TDA.
Figure 78 illustrates the longer message mentioned previously that is broken up

into smaller messages and transmitted. This image also shows a string of “and” symbols,
which indicates that there was an error in the message. This message was able to be
broken up into smaller segments, encoded, and transmitted. Again, as long as the proper
sequencing numbers are assigned to each individual QR code message, the receiver will
be able to decode each message and reconstruct the original message.
131
Figure 78. Image of the actual text to be detected, encoded, and displayed by the tactical
decision aid.
132
The QR TDA is ultimately designed to allow war fighters operating in different
tactical scenarios to be able to quickly and effectively write a message, encode the text in
a QR code and fire the QR code off to another unit with the tactical signal. This is an
additional tool to create an effective visual communication method to ensure that
Emission Control is adhered to by all units when it is required. The vision of the Tactical
Decision Aid is to be able to ultimately provide a point-to-point protocol connection
between tactical units, which will allow them to communicate covertly and effectively.
133
134
APPENDIX D. QR CODE WIKIPEDIA
Wikipedia is an online open-content collaborative encyclopedia; that is, a

voluntary association of individuals and groups working to develop a
common resource of human knowledge. The structure of the project
allows anyone with an Internet connection to alter its content. Please be
advised that nothing found here has necessarily been reviewed by people
with the expertise required to provide you with complete, accurate or
reliable information.
That is not to say that you will not find valuable and accurate
information in Wikipedia; much of the time you will. However, Wikipedia
cannot guarantee the validity of the information found here. The content of
any given article may recently have been changed, vandalized or altered
by someone whose opinion does not correspond with the state of
knowledge in the relevant fields. (Wikipedia, n.d.)
The remainder of this appendix is taken directly from the QR Code Wikipedia
page (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QR_code, 14 May 2013). It is a non-standard
reference and is included in the interest of completeness for the reader to understand the
capabilities of QR code technology. By no means is this intended to be a de-facto
reference for the development, implementation, or operation of an optical QR code
communication system. It is provided here as a user reference.
135
136
137
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NAVAL

DIGITAL SEMAPHORE: TACTICAL IMPLICATIONS OF

Thesis Co-Advisors: Don Brutzman

Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited

DIGITAL SEMAPHORE: TACTICAL IMPLICATIONS OF QR CODE

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY

NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL

Author: Stephen P. Richter

Approved by: Dr. Don Brutzman

Dr. Ray Buettner

Dr. Dan Boger

Figure 1. Operational concept graphic of the tactical implementation of QR codes as

Table 1. Summary table providing a comparison of HF, VHF, and UHF

A2AD Anti-Access Area Denial

AAV Amphibious Assault Vehicle

AIM Association for Automatic Identification & Mobility

ARSENL Advanced Robotic Systems Engineering Laboratory

BMD Ballistic Missile Defense

CIWS Close-in Weapons System

COTS Commercial off the Shelf

CSG Carrier Strike Group

EMCON Emissions Control

ESG Expeditionary Strike Group

FOV Field of View

HERO Hazards of Electromagnetic Radiation to Ordinance

HHQ Higher Headquarters

HVU High Value Unit

IFFN Identification Friend or Foe/Neutral

ILE In-line Encryption

JIS Japanese Industrial Standards

LARC Lighter, Amphibious Supply, Cargo

LCAC Landing Craft Air Cushion

LCU Landing Craft, Utility

LPD Low Probability of Detection

LPE Low Probability of Exploitation

LPI Low Probability of Intercept

MOVES Modeling, Virtual Environments and Simulation

NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization

QPSK Quadrature Phase Shift Keying

SRBOC Super Rapid Bloom Off-Board Chaff

UAV Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

UHF Ultra High Frequency

UPC Universal Product Code

URL Uniform Resource Locator

USV Unmanned Surface Vehicle

VBSS Visit Board Search and Seizure

VHF Very High Frequency

X3D Extensible 3D Graphics International Standard

Emissions Control (EMCON). The control of all electromagnetic and acoustic

Hazards of Electromagnetic Radiation to Ordnance (HERO). The program concerned

Low Probability of Exploitation. Preventing the exploitation of a signal by denying the

Low Probability of Intercept. Putting measures in place in order to ensure the

Obfuscation. The hiding of intended meaning in communication, making

Reed-Solomon Error Correction. An error-correcting code that oversamples a

Resolution. The number of pixels contained on a display monitor, expressed in terms of

Ultra-high Frequency (UHF) and Very-high Frequency (VHF) LOS

Further, Emissions Control (EMCON) and Hazards of Electromagnetic Radiation