12 Basics of Chemistry

12
Chapter
Chapter Outline
Why Study Chemistry?
Chemistry
Basics of
Chemistry
Matter
Potential Hydrogen (pH)
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Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will be able to:
LO1 Explain the difference between organic and inorganic chemistry.

LO2 Describe the different states of matter: solid, liquid, and gas.
LO3 Describe oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions.
LO4 Explain the differences between pure substances and physical mixtures.
LO5 Explain the difference among solutions, suspensions, and emulsions.
LO6 Explain pH and the pH scale.
Key Terms
Page number indicates where in the chapter the term is used.
acidic solution element miscible reduction
pg. 257 pg. 247 pg. 252 pg. 250
alkaline solution elemental molecule molecule reduction reaction
pg. 257 pg. 248 pg. 247 pg. 250
alkalis (bases) emulsifier oil-in-water (O/W) silicones
pg. 257 pg. 253 emulsion pg. 255
pg. 254
alkanolamines emulsion solute
pg. 255 pg. 253 organic chemistry pg. 252
pg. 246
alpha hydroxy exothermic solution
acids (AHAs) reactions oxidation pg. 252
pg. 257 pg. 250 pg. 250
solvent
ammonia glycerin oxidation-reduction pg. 252
pg. 255 pg. 255 (redox)
pg. 250 states of matter
anion immiscible pg. 248
pg. 256 pg. 252 oxidizing agent
pg. 250 surfactants
atoms inorganic chemistry pg. 254
pg. 247 pg. 246 pH
pg. 256 suspensions
cation ion pg. 252
pg. 256 pg. 256 pH scale
pg. 257 thioglycolic acid
chemical change ionization pg. 257
pg. 250 pg. 256 physical change
pg. 249 volatile alcohols
chemical properties lipophilic pg. 255
pg. 249 pg. 254 physical mixture
pg. 251 volatile organic
chemistry logarithm compounds (VOCs)
pg. 246 pg. 257 physical properties pg. 256
pg. 249
combustion matter water-in-oil (W/O)
pg. 250 pg. 247 pure substance emulsion
pg. 251 pg. 254
compound
molecules reducing agent
(compounds) pg. 250
pg. 248
12
W hat do you think about when someone mentions the word
chemistry? Beakers of mixtures bubbling in a lab? Test tubes filled
with strange-looking liquids? Petrie dishes growing fuzzy things?
Most cosmetology services depend on the use of chemicals. So, studying
the basics of chemistry means that you will have the knowledge you need
to understand the products that you are using in the salon to give your
clients the professional services they deserve.
Why Study Chemistry?

Cosmetologists should study and have a thorough understanding
of chemistry because:
■■ Without an understanding of basic chemistry you would not be able
to use professional products effectively and safely.
■■ Every product used in the salon and in cosmetology services contains
some type of chemical.
■■ With an understanding of chemistry, you will be able to troubleshoot and
© Melinda Fawver, 2010; used under license from Shutterstock.com.

solve common problems you may encounter with chemical services.
Chemistry
Chemistry is the science that deals with the composition, structures, and
properties of matter and how matter changes under different conditions.
Organic chemistry is the study of substances that contain the element
carbon. All living things or things that were once alive, whether they
are plants or animals, contain carbon. Organic substances that contain
both carbon and hydrogen can burn. Although the term organic is often
used to mean safe or natural because of its association with living things,
such as foods or food ingredients, not all organic substances are natural,
healthy, or safe.
You may be surprised to learn that poison ivy, gasoline, motor oil,
plastics, synthetic fabrics, pesticides, and fertilizers are all organic
substances. All haircolor products, chemical texturizers, shampoos,
conditioners, styling aids, nail enhancements, and skin care products
are organic chemicals. So remember, the word organic, as applied to
chemistry, does not mean natural or healthy; it means that the material
contains both carbon and hydrogen from either natural or synthetic
sources.
Inorganic chemistry is the study of substances that do not contain the
element carbon, but may contain the element hydrogen. Most inorganic
substances do not burn because they do not contain carbon. Inorganic
substances are not, and never were, alive. Metals, minerals, glass, water,
and air are inorganic substances. Pure water and oxygen are inorganic, yet
they are essential to life. Hydrogen peroxide, hydroxide hair relaxers, and
12 246 Chapter 12 Basics of Chemistry Part 2: General Sciences

titanium dioxide (a white pigment used to make white
enhancement polymer powders and nail polish) are
© Luchschen, 2010; used under license from Shutterstock.com.
examples of inorganic substances. L01
Matter
Matter is any substance that occupies space and has
mass (weight). All matter has physical and chemical
properties and exists in the form of a solid, liquid, or
gas. Since matter is made from chemicals, everything
made out of matter is a chemical.
Matter has physical properties that we can touch, taste, smell, or see.
In fact, everything you can touch and everything you can see—with
the exception of light and electricity—is matter. All matter is made up
of chemicals. You can see visible light and light that electrical sparks
create, but these are not made of matter. Light and electricity are forms
of energy, and energy is not matter. Everything known to exist in the
universe is either made of matter or energy. There are no exceptions to
this rule.
Energy does not occupy space or have mass (weight). Energy is discussed
did you know?
in Chapter 13, Basics of Electricity. This chapter is dedicated to matter. Using the word chemical to
describe something does not
Elements mean it is dangerous or harmful.
An element is the simplest form of chemical matter. It cannot be broken Water and air are 100 percent
down into a simpler substance without a loss of identity. There are 90 chemicals. Even your body
naturally occurring elements, each with its own distinct physical and is completely composed of
chemical properties. All matter in the universe is made up of these 90 chemicals.
different chemical elements. Each element is identified by a letter symbol,
The vast majority of chemicals
such as O for oxygen, C for carbon, H for hydrogen, N for nitrogen, and
you come in contact with every
S for sulfur. Symbols for all elements can be found in the Periodic Table
day are safe and harmless. When
of Elements in chemistry textbooks or by searching the Internet.
chemicals do have the potential
to cause harm, manufacturers
Atoms are required to describe that
Atoms are the smallest chemical components (often called particles) of potential harm on the packaging
an element. They are the structures that make up an element and have or label. There is no such thing
the same properties of the element. Elements are different from one as a chemical-free product, so
another because the structure of their atoms is different. Atoms cannot do not be fooled by misleading
be divided into simpler substances by ordinary chemical means. marketing claims.
Molecules
Just as words are made by combining letters, molecules are made
by combining atoms. A molecule (MAHL-uuh-kyool) is a chemical
combination of two or more atoms in definite (fixed) proportions.
For example, water is made from hydrogen atoms and oxygen atoms.
Carbon dioxide is made from carbon atoms and oxygen atoms.
Part 2: General Sciences Chapter 12 Basics of Chemistry 247 12

Atmospheric oxygen and other chemical substances, such as nitrogen
O
and water vapor, make up the air you breathe. This type of oxygen is
Atomic oxygen
called an elemental molecule (EL-uh-men-tul MAHL-uh-kyool), a
O molecule containing two or more atoms of the same element (in this
case, oxygen) in definite (fixed) proportions. It is written as O2. Ozone
O O O O
is another elemental molecule made up of oxygen. Ozone is a major
component of smog and can be very dangerous. It contains three atoms
Oxygen, O2 Ozone, O3
of the element oxygen and is written as O3 (Figure 12–1).
Figure 12–1
Elemental molecules contain Compound molecules (KAHM-pownd MAHL-uh-kyools), also
two or more atoms of the same known as compounds, are a chemical combination of two or more
element in definite (fixed)
proportions. atoms of different elements in definite (fixed) proportions (Figure 12–2).
Sodium chloride (NaCl), common table salt, is an example of compound
molecules. Each sodium chloride molecule contains one atom of the
element sodium (Na) and one atom of the element chlorine (Cl).
States of Matter
All matter exists in one of three different physical forms:
Sodium chloride, NaCl
H
• Solid
H H
O O
O O C O • Liquid
H
• Gas
Water, H2O Carbon dioxide, CO2 Hydrogen peroxide, H2O2
These three forms are called the states of matter.
Figure 12–2
Compound molecules contain two or
Matter (Table 12–1) becomes one of these states,
more atoms of different elements in depending on its temperature (Figure 12–3).
definite (fixed) proportions.
Like many other substances, water (H2O) can exist in all three states
of matter, depending on its temperature. For example, water changes
according to how the temperature changes, but it is still water. When
water freezes, it turns to ice. When ice melts, it turns back into water.
When water boils, it turns to steam. When the steam cools, it turns
back into water. The water stays the same chemical, but it becomes a
different physical form. When one chemical changes its state of matter,
STATES OF MATTER
S TAT E DESCRIPTION EXAMPLES
Rigid; has a fixed shape and volume. brush, roller, wooden nail
Solid
pusher, ice
Liquid Definite volume but takes the shape bleach, shampoo, haircolor, water
of its container.
© Milady, a part of Cengage Learning.
Gas No fixed volume or shape; takes the propellant in hairspray, mousse,

shape and volume of its container. propane
Can never be liquid at normal
temperatures or pressures.
Table 12–1 States of Matter.

Solid Liquid Gas
Figure 12–3
Solid, liquid, and gas states of matter.
the change is called a physical change. (See Physical and Chemical

Changes in this chapter.)
Vapor is a liquid that has evaporated into a gas-like state. Vapors can
return to being a liquid when they cool to room temperatures, unlike
a gas. Steam is an example of a vapor. Vapors are not a unique state
of matter; they are liquids that have undergone a physical change.
L02
Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter

Every substance has unique properties that allow us to identify it. The
two types of properties are physical and chemical.
Physical properties are characteristics that can be determined without
a chemical reaction and that do not involve a chemical change in the
substance. Physical properties include color, size, weight, hardness, and
glossiness. (As described above, the state of matter that a substance
becomes is an example of a physical property.)
Chemical properties are characteristics that can only be determined
by a chemical reaction and a chemical change in the substance. Steam
Examples of chemical properties include the ability of iron to rust,
wood to burn, or hair to change color through the use of haircolor
and hydrogen peroxide.
Ice
Physical and Chemical Changes

Matter can be changed in two different ways. Physical forces cause
physical changes and chemical reactions cause chemical changes.
A physical change is a change in the form or physical properties
of a substance, without a chemical reaction or the creation of a new
substance. No chemical reactions are involved in physical change and Heating and Water Water is
cooling of formed by
no new chemicals are formed. Solid ice undergoes a physical change water physical
when it melts into water and then converts into steam (Figure 12–4). changes.
A physical change occurs when a temporary haircolor is applied to the Figure 12–4
hair or nail polish is taken off the nail with a remover solvent. Physical changes.

A chemical change is a change in the chemical composition or make-
HEAT up of a substance. This change is caused by chemical reactions that
create new chemical substances, usually by combining or subtracting
certain elements. Those new substances have different chemical and
physical properties (Figure 12–5). An example of a chemical change
is the oxidation (ahk-sih-DAY-shun) of haircolor. The term oxidation
Reaction of acids
refers to a chemical reaction that combines a substance with oxygen to
Water is formed
with alkalis by chemical produce an oxide. Another example of oxidation is wood turning into
(neutralization) change.
charcoal after it has burned.
Figure 12–5
Chemical changes. Oxidation–reduction, also known as redox (ree-DOCS), is a chemical
reaction in which the oxidizing agent is reduced (by losing oxygen)
and the reducing agent is oxidized (by gaining oxygen). Even though
the word order is reversed, redox is used as a contraction of the term
oxidation-reduction.
An oxidizing agent is a substance that releases oxygen. Hydrogen
peroxide (H2O2), which can be thought of as water with an extra atom
did you know? of oxygen, is an example of an oxidizing agent. A reducing agent is

a substance that adds hydrogen to a chemical compound or subtracts
oxygen from the compound. When hydrogen peroxide is mixed with
The sugar in grapes is chemically an oxidation haircolor, oxygen is subtracted from the hydrogen peroxide
converted into ethyl alcohol by and the hydrogen peroxide is reduced. At the same time, oxygen is
certain types of yeast when wine added to the haircolor and the haircolor is oxidized. In this example,
is fermented in a wooden vat. haircolor is the reducing agent.
Fermentation is an example of a
chemical reaction. A reduction is the process through which oxygen is subtracted from
or hydrogen is added to a substance through a chemical reaction.
This chemical reaction is called a reduction reaction. Oxidation and
reduction (redox) reactions always occur at the same time. Redox
reactions involve a transfer between the oxidizing agent and the
reducing agent. The oxidizing agent is reduced, and the reducing agent
is oxidized. Redox reactions can take place without oxygen because
oxidation also can occur when hydrogen is subtracted from a substance
(Figure 12–6). Redox reactions are also responsible for the chemical
OXIDATION REDUCTION changes created by haircolors, hair lighteners, permanent wave solutions,
Oxygen Oxygen and thioglycolic acid neutralizers. These chemical services would not be
Hydrogen Hydrogen possible without oxidation–reduction (redox) reactions.
Under certain circumstances, chemical reactions can release a significant
Figure 12–6 amount of heat. These types of chemical reactions are called exothermic
Chart of oxidation and reduction reactions (ek-soh-THUR-mik ree-AK-shunz). In fact, all oxidation reactions
reactions.
are exothermic reactions. An example of an exothermic reaction is a nail
product that hardens (polymerizes) to create nail enhancements. Exothermic
reactions occur, but usually clients cannot feel the heat being released.
Combustion (kum-BUS-chun) is the rapid oxidation of a substance,

accompanied by the production of heat and light. Lighting a match is
an example of rapid oxidation. Oxidation requires the presence of oxygen;
this is the reason that there cannot be a fire without air. L03

Pure Substances and Physical Mixtures
All matter can be classified as either a pure substance or a physical
mixture (blend).
A pure substance is a chemical combination of matter in definite
(fixed) proportions. Pure substances have unique properties. All atoms,
elements, elemental molecules, and compound molecules are pure
substances. Distilled water is a pure substance that results from the
combination of two atoms of the element hydrogen and one atom
of the element oxygen in fixed proportions. Water that comes out of
a faucet is not pure water.
Most substances do not exist in a pure state. Air contains many
substances including nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and water vapor. This
is an example of a physical mixture. A physical mixture is a physical
combination of matter in any proportions. The properties of a physical
mixture are the combined properties of the substances in the mixture.
Salt water is a physical mixture of salt and water in any proportion. The
properties of salt water are the properties contained in salt and in water:
salt water is salty and wet. Most of the products cosmetologists and nail
technicians use are physical mixtures (Figure 12–7). Oxygen, aluminum, gold,
Elements
sodium
Table 12–2 summarizes the differences
Pure
between pure substances and physical substances
mixtures. L04 Compounds Pure (distilled) water,
ammonia, salt, aspirin
Solutions, Suspensions, and All matter

Emulsions air,solutions of salt water,
Uniform
Solutions, suspensions, and hydrogen peroxide
emulsions are all physical mixtures. Mixtures
The differences among solutions,
Most cosmetology and
suspensions, and emulsions are Nonuniform
nail products
Figure 12–7
Examples of pure substances
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PURE and physical mixtures.
SUBSTANCES AND PHYSICAL MIXTURES
P U R E S U B S TA N C E S PHYSICAL MIXTURES
United chemically United physically
Definite (fixed) proportions Any proportions
Unique chemical and physical Combined chemical and physical

properties properties
Salt and pure (distilled) water are Salt water is a physical mixture.
examples of pure substances.
Table 12–2 Differences Between Pure Substances and Physical Mixtures.

ACT ivity
© Marlena Zagajewska, 2010; used under license

Put a tablespoon of sugar in a cup of hot water. Cover it loosely with a
paper towel and set it aside for a week. What happens when the water
evaporates? What are the crystals that form inside the cup made
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from? Taste them to see whether your conclusions were right.
When sugar dissolves in water, is it a physical or chemical change?
determined by the types of substances, the size of the particles, and the
solubility of the substances.
• A solution is a stable physical mixture of two or more substances.
The solute (SAHL-yoot) is the substance that is dissolved into solution.
The solvent (SAHL-vent) is the substance that dissolves the solute and
makes the solution. For example, when salt is dissolved in water, salt
is the solute and water is the solvent. Water is known as a universal
solvent because it has the ability to dissolve more substances than any
other solvent.
All liquids are either miscible or immiscible.
did you know? Miscible (MIS-uh-bul) liquids are mutually soluble,

meaning that they can be mixed together to form
stable solutions. Water and alcohol are examples
Soaps were the first synthetic surfactants. People
of miscible liquids, as are polish remover and water.
began making soaps about 4,500 years ago by boiling
When these substances are mixed together, they will
oil or animal fat with wood ashes. Modern soaps are
stay mixed, forming a solution. Solutions contain
made from animal fats or vegetable oils. Traditional
small particles that are invisible to the naked eye.
bar soaps are highly alkaline and combine with the
Solutions are usually transparent, although they
minerals in hard water to form an insoluble film that
may be colored. They do not separate when left still.
coats skin and can cause hands to feel dry, itchy,
Again, salt water is an example of a solution with a
and irritated. Cosmetologists who are performing nail
solid dissolved in a liquid. Water is the solvent that
services should be aware that soaps can leave a film
dissolves the salt (solute) and holds it in solution.
on the nail plate, which could contribute to lifting of
the nail enhancement. Modern synthetic surfactants Immiscible (im-IS-uh-bul) liquids are not capable
have overcome these disadvantages and are superior of being mixed together to form stable solutions.
to soaps; many are milder on the skin than soaps Water and oil are examples of immiscible liquids.
used in the past. These substances can be mixed together, but they
will separate when left sitting still. When immiscible
liquids are combined, they form suspensions.
• Suspensions (sus-PEN-shunz) are unstable physical mixtures
of undissolved particles in a liquid. Compared with solutions,
suspensions contain larger and less miscible particles. The particles
are generally visible to the naked eye but are not large enough to
settle quickly to the bottom. Suspensions are not usually transparent
and may be colored. They are unstable and separate over time, which
is why some lotions and creams can separate in the bottle and need

to be shaken before they are used. Another example of a suspension
is the glitter in nail polish that can separate from the polish.
Oil and vinegar salad dressing is an example of a suspension, with
tiny oil droplets suspended in the vinegar. The suspension will
separate when left sitting still and must be shaken before using.
Calamine lotion and nail polish are other examples of suspensions.
• An emulsion (ee-MUL-shun) is an unstable physical mixture of two
or more immiscible substances (substances that normally will not stay
blended) plus a special ingredient called an emulsifier. An emulsifier
(ee-MUL-suh-fy-ur) is an ingredient that brings two normally
incompatible materials together and binds them into a uniform and
fairly stable blend. Emulsions are considered to be a special
type of suspension because they can separate, but the separation
usually happens very slowly over a long period of time. An
example of an emulsion is hand lotion. A properly formulated
emulsion, stored under ideal conditions, can be stable up to three
© Ed Isaacs, 2010; used under license from Shutterstock.com.
years. Since conditions are rarely ideal, all cosmetic emulsions

should be used within one year of purchase. Always refer to the
product’s instructions and cautions for specific details.
Table 12–3 offers a summary of the differences among solutions,
suspensions, and emulsions.
Surfactants (sur-FAK-tants) are substances that allow oil
and water to mix, or emulsify. They are one type of emulsifier.
The term surfactant is a contraction for surface active agent. A
DIFFERENCES AMONG SOLUTIONS,

SUSPENSIONS, AND EMULSIONS
SOLUTIONS SUSPENSIONS EMULSIONS
miscible slightly miscible immiscible
no surfactant no surfactant surfactant
small particles larger particles largest particles
unstable, temporary limited stability through

stable mixture
mixture an emulsifier
usually clear usually cloudy usually a solid color
nail polish, glitter in shampoos, conditioners,

solution of nail primer
nail polish hand lotions
Table 12–3 Differences Among Solutions, Suspensions, and Emulsions.

surfactant molecule has two distinct
parts (Figure 12–8). The head of the
Oil-loving Water-loving
tail head
surfactant molecule is hydrophilic
(hy-drah-FIL-ik), capable of
combining with or attracting
Figure 12–8 water (water-loving), and the tail
A surfactant molecule. is lipophilic (ly-puh-FIL-ik), having an affinity for or an attraction
to fat and oils (oil-loving). Following the like-dissolves-like rule, the
hydrophilic head dissolves in water and the lipophilic tail dissolves in
oil. So a surfactant molecule mixes with and dissolves in both oil and
water and temporarily joins them together to form an emulsion.
In an oil-in-water (O/W) emulsion, oil droplets are emulsified in
water. The droplets of oil are surrounded by surfactant molecules with
their lipophilic tails pointing in and their hydrophilic heads pointing
out. Tiny oil droplets form the internal portion of each O/W emulsion
because the oil is completely surrounded by water (Figure 12–9). Oil-in-
water emulsions do not feel as greasy as water-in-oil emulsions because
the oil is hidden and water forms the external portion of the emulsion.
In a water-in-oil (W/O) emulsion, water droplets are emulsified in
oil. The droplets of water are surrounded by surfactants with their
hydrophilic heads pointing in and their lipophilic tails pointing out
(Figure 12–10). Tiny droplets of water form the internal portion of
a W/O emulsion because the water is completely surrounded by oil.
Water-in-oil emulsions feel greasier than oil-in-water emulsions because
Oil Oil Water

Water
Water Water
Oil
Oil
Water Oil
Water Oil
Oil Oil
Water
Oil
Water
Water
Water
Oil Water Oil
Water
Oil
Oil
Oil Water
Water Water Oil
Water
Water
Oil Water Oil
Figure 12–9 Figure 12–10

Oil-in-water emulsions. Water-in-oil emulsions.

ACT ivity
Have you ever heard the saying “Oil and water don’t mix”? Pour some water
into a glass, then add a little cooking oil (or other oil). What happens? Stir
the water briskly with a spoon and observe for a minute or two. What does
the oil do?
the water is hidden and oil forms the external portion of the emulsion.
Styling creams, cold creams, and foot balms are examples. L05
Other Physical Mixtures

Ointments, pastes, pomades, and styling waxes are semisolid mixtures did you know?
made with any combination of petrolatum (petroleum jelly), oil, and wax. Mayonnaise is an example of
Powders are a physical mixture of one or more types of solids. Off-the- an oil-in-water emulsion of two
scalp powdered hair lighteners are physical mixtures. These mixtures immiscible liquids. Although oil
may separate during shipping and storage and should be thoroughly and water are immiscible, the egg
mixed before each use. yolk in mayonnaise emulsifies the
oil droplets and distributes them
Common Chemical Product Ingredients uniformly in the water. Without the
Cosmetologists use many chemical products when performing client egg yolk as an emulsifying agent,
services. Following are some of the most common chemical ingredients the oil and water would separate.
used in salon products. Most of the emulsions used in a
salon are oil-in-water. Haircolor,
Volatile alcohols (VAHL-uh-tul AL-kuh-hawlz) are those that evaporate
shampoos, conditioners, hand
easily, such as isopropyl alcohol (rubbing alcohol) and ethyl alcohol
lotions, and facial creams are oil-
(hairspray and alcoholic beverages). These chemicals are familiar to most
in-water emulsions.
people, but there are many other types of alcohols, from free-flowing liquids
© Vasilyev A.S., 2010; used under license from Shutterstock.com.
to hard, waxy solids. Fatty alcohols, such as cetyl alcohol and cetearyl
alcohol, are nonvolatile alcohol waxes that are used as skin conditioners.
Alkanolamines (al-kan-oh-LAH-mynz) are alkaline substances used to
neutralize acids or raise the pH of many hair products. They are often
used in place of ammonia because they produce less odor.
Ammonia (uh-MOH-nee-uh) is a colorless gas with a pungent odor that
is composed of hydrogen and nitrogen. It is used to raise the pH in hair
products to allow the solution to penetrate the hair shaft. Ammonium
hydroxide and ammonium thioglycolate are examples of ammonia
compounds that are used to perform chemical services in a salon.
Glycerin (GLIS-ur-in) is a sweet, colorless, oily substance. It is used
as a solvent and as a moisturizer in skin and body creams.
Silicones (SIL-ih-kohnz) are a special type of oil used in hair
conditioners, water-resistant lubricants for the skin, and nail polish
dryers. Silicones are less greasy than other oils and form a breathable

film that does not cause comedones (blackheads). Silicones also give
skin a silky, smooth feeling and great shine to hair.
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are compounds that contain
carbon (organic) and evaporate very easily (volatile). For example, a
common VOC used in hairspray is SD alcohol (ethyl alcohol). Volatile
organic solvents such as ethyl acetate and isopropyl alcohol are used in
nail polish, base and top coats, and polish removers.
Potential Hydrogen (pH)

Although pH, the abbreviation used for potential hydrogen, is often
mentioned when talking about salon products, it is one of the least
understood chemical properties. Notice that pH is written with a small
p (which represents a quantity) and a capital H (which represents the
hydrogen ion). The term pH represents the quantity of hydrogen ions.
Understanding pH and how it affects the hair, skin, and nails is essential
to understanding all salon services. For more information about the pH of
products used in salon services, see Chapter 15, Scalp Care, Shampooing,
and Conditioning, and Chapter 20, Chemical Texture Services.
Water and pH
Before you can understand pH, you need to learn about
ions. An ion (EYE-on) is an atom or molecule that carries
© originalpunkt, 2010; used under license from Shutterstock.com.

an electrical charge. Ionization (eye-on-ih-ZAY-shun) is
the separation of an atom or molecule into positive and
negative ions. An ion with a negative electrical charge is an
anion (AN-eye-on). An ion with a positive electrical charge
is a cation (KAT-eye-on).
In water, some of the water (H20) molecules naturally ionize into
hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions. The pH scale measures these ions.
The hydrogen ion (H+) is acidic. The more hydrogen ions there are
in a substance, the more acidic it will be. The hydroxide ion (OH-)
is alkaline. The more hydroxide ions there are in a substance, the more
alkaline it will be. pH is only possible because of this
ionization of water. Only products that contain water

can have a pH.
H H H H
In pure (distilled) water, each water molecule
O Ionization O that ionizes produces one hydrogen ion and one

hydroxide ion (Figure 12–11). Pure water has a
neutral pH because it contains the same number
of hydrogen ions as hydroxide ions. It is an equal
Figure 12–11
The ionization of water. balance of 50 percent acidic and 50 percent alkaline.
The pH of any substance is always a balance of both
acidity and alkalinity. As acidity increases, alkalinity

Hair & skin
"Pure" rain (5.6)
Lemon juice Distilled water
Vinegar Baking
soda Ammonia
Figure 12–12
The pH scale.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Acidic Neutral Alkaline
decreases. The opposite is also true; as alkalinity increases, acidity

decreases. Even the strongest acid also contains some alkalinity.
The pH Scale
A pH scale is a measure of the acidity and alkalinity of a substance. It has
a range of 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is a neutral solution, a pH below 7 indicates
an acidic solution, and a pH above 7 indicates an alkaline solution
(Figure 12–12).
The term logarithm (LOG-ah-rhythm) means multiples of 10. Since
the pH scale is a logarithmic scale, a change of one whole number
represents a tenfold change in pH. This means, for example, that a pH
of 8 is 10 times more alkaline than a pH of 7. A change of two whole
numbers represents a change of 10 times 10, or a 100-fold change. So a
pH of 9 is 100 times more alkaline than a pH of 7. Even a small change
on the pH scale represents a large change in the pH.
pH is always a balance of both acidity and alkalinity. Pure water has a
pH of 7, which is an equal balance of acid and alkaline. Although a pH
of 7 is neutral on the pH scale, it is not neutral compared to the hair
and skin, which have an average pH of 5. Pure (distilled) water, with
a pH of 7, is 100 times more alkaline than a pH of 5, so pure water
is 100 times more alkaline than your hair and skin. This difference in
pH is the reason pure water can cause the hair to swell as much as 20
percent and the reason that water is drying to the skin. L06
Acids and Alkalis

All acids owe their chemical reactivity to the hydrogen ion. Acids have a
pH below 7.0.
Alpha hydroxy acids (AHAs) (al-FAH HY-drok-see AS-udz), derived
from plants (mostly fruit), are examples of acids often used in salons to
exfoliate the skin and to help adjust the pH of a lotion or cream. Acids
contract and harden hair. One such acid is thioglycolic acid (thy-oh-
GLY-kuh-lik AS-ud), a colorless liquid or white crystals with a strong
unpleasant odor that is used in permanent waving solutions.
All alkalis (AL-kuh-lyz), also known as bases, owe their chemical
reactivity to the hydroxide ion. Alkalis are compounds that react with

ACT ivity
For a product to have a pH, it must contain water. Shampoos, conditioners, haircolor,
permanent waves, relaxers, lotions, and creams have a pH. Divide into groups and research
these products online to find their pH. If the information is not available online, contact the
manufacturers. Make a chart and compare your findings with what your classmates found.
How will the pH of these products affect the hair?
Here is a hint to save you some time: oils, waxes, nail polish,
and nail monomers have no pH because they contain no water.
© Kitch Bain, 2010; used under license from Shutterstock.com.

acids to form salts. Alkalis have a pH above 7.0. They feel slippery and
soapy on the skin. Alkalis soften and swell hair, skin, the cuticle on the
nail plate, and calloused skin.
Sodium hydroxide, commonly known as lye, is a very strong alkali used
in chemical hair relaxers, callous softeners, and drain cleaners. These
products must be used according to manufacturer’s instructions, and it
is very important that you do not let the products touch or sit on the
skin as they may cause injury to or a burning sensation on the skin.
Sodium hydroxide products may be especially dangerous if they get into
the eyes, so always wear safety glasses to avoid eye contact. Consult the
product’s MSDS for more specific information on safe use.
Acid-Alkali Neutralization Reactions

The same reaction that naturally ionizes water into hydrogen ions
and hydroxide ions also runs in reverse. When acids and alkalis are
mixed together in equal proportions, they neutralize each other to
form water (Figure 12–13). Neutralizing shampoos and normalizing
lotions used to neutralize hair relaxers work by creating an acid-
alkali neutralization reaction. Liquid soaps are usually slightly acidic
and can neutralize alkaline callous softener residues left on the skin
after rinsing.
Chemistry Will Help You

in the Salon1
H H H H
Acid/alkali
Whether you are studying the pH of
O neutralization O products, redox reactions, or suspensions,
solutions, and emulsions, there is a lot
to learn about how chemistry affects the
Figure 12–13 products you use in the salon. Having a
Acid and alkali neutralization reaction.
basic understanding of chemistry will help you use professional
products effectively and safely in the salon.

Review Questions
1. What is chemistry?
2. What is the difference between organic and inorganic chemistry?
3. What is matter?
4. What is an element?
5. What are atoms?
6. Explain the difference between elemental molecules and compound molecules. Give examples.
7. Name and describe the three states of matter.
8. What are the physical and chemical properties of matter? Give examples.
9. What is the difference between physical and chemical change? Give examples.
10. Explain oxidation-reduction (redox).
11. Explain pure substances and physical mixtures. Give examples.
12. What are the differences among solutions, suspensions, and emulsions? Give examples.
13. Define pH and the pH scale.
Chapter Glossary
acidic solution A solution that has a pH below 7.0 (neutral).
alkaline solution A solution that has a pH above 7.0 (neutral).
alkalis Also known as bases; compounds that react with acids to form salts.
alkanolamines Alkaline substances used to neutralize acids or raise the pH of many hair products.
alpha hydroxy acids Abbreviated AHAs; acids derived from plants (mostly fruit) that are often used to exfoliate the
skin.
ammonia Colorless gas with a pungent odor that is composed of hydrogen and nitrogen.
anion An ion with a negative electrical charge.
atoms The smallest chemical components (often called particles) of an element; structures that
make up the element and have the same properties of the element.
cation An ion with a positive electrical charge.
chemical change A change in the chemical composition or make-up of a substance.
chemical properties Characteristics that can only be determined by a chemical reaction and a chemical change
in the substance.

Chapter Glossary
chemistry Science that deals with the composition, structures, and properties of matter, and how
matter changes under different conditions.
combustion Rapid oxidation of a substance, accompanied by the production of heat and light.
compound Also known as compounds; a chemical combination of two or more atoms of different
molecules elements in definite (fixed) proportions.
element The simplest form of chemical matter; an element cannot be broken down into a simpler
substance without a loss of identity.
elemental molecule Molecule containing two or more atoms of the same element in definite (fixed) proportions.
emulsifier An ingredient that brings two normally incompatible materials together and binds them into
a uniform and fairly stable blend.
emulsion An unstable physical mixture of two or more immiscible substances (substances that
normally will not stay blended) plus a special ingredient called an emulsifier.
exothermic reactions Chemical reactions that release a significant amount of heat.
glycerin Sweet, colorless, oily substance used as a solvent and as a moisturizer in skin and
body creams.
immiscible Liquids that are not capable of being mixed together to form stable solutions.
inorganic chemistry The study of substances that do not contain the element carbon, but may contain the
element hydrogen.
ion An atom or molecule that carries an electrical charge.
ionization The separation of an atom or molecule into positive and negative ions.
lipophilic Having an affinity for or an attraction to fat and oils (oil-loving).
logarithm Multiples of ten.
matter Any substance that occupies space and has mass (weight).
miscible Liquids that are mutually soluble, meaning that they can be mixed together to form
stable solutions.
molecule A chemical combination of two or more atoms in definite (fixed) proportions.
oil-in-water emulsion Abbreviated O/W emulsion; oil droplets emulsified in water.
organic chemistry The study of substances that contain the element carbon.
oxidation A chemical reaction that combines a substance with oxygen to produce an oxide.
oxidation-reduction Also known as redox; a chemical reaction in which the oxidizing agent is reduced (by losing
oxygen) and the reducing agent is oxidized (by gaining oxygen).

Chapter Glossary
oxidizing agent Substance that releases oxygen.
pH The abbreviation used for potential hydrogen. pH represents the quantity of hydrogen ions.
pH scale A measure of the acidity and alkalinity of a substance; the pH scale has a range of 0 to 14,
with 7 being neutral. A pH below 7 is an acidic solution; a pH above 7 is an alkaline solution.
physical change A change in the form or physical properties of a substance, without a chemical reaction or
the creation of a new substance.
physical mixture A physical combination of matter in any proportions.
physical properties Characteristics that can be determined without a chemical reaction and that do not cause
a chemical change in the substance.
pure substance A chemical combination of matter in definite (fixed) proportions.
reducing agent A substance that adds hydrogen to a chemical compound or subtracts oxygen from
the compound.
reduction The process through which oxygen is subtracted from or hydrogen is added to a substance
through a chemical reaction.
reduction reaction A chemical reaction in which oxygen is subtracted from or hydrogen is added to
a substance.
silicones Special type of oil used in hair conditioners, water-resistant lubricants for the skin, and nail
polish dryers.
solute The substance that is dissolved in a solution.
solution A stable physical mixture of two or more substances.
solvent The substance that dissolves the solute and makes a solution.
states of matter The three different physical forms of matter—solid, liquid, and gas.
surfactants A contraction of surface active agents; substances that allow oil and water to mix,
or emulsify.
suspensions Unstable physical mixtures of undissolved particles in a liquid.
thioglycolic acid A colorless liquid or white crystals with a strong unpleasant odor that is used in permanent
waving solutions.
volatile alcohols Alcohols that evaporate easily.
volatile organic Abbreviated VOCs; compounds that contain carbon (organic) and evaporate very easily
compounds (volatile).
water-in-oil emulsion Abbreviated W/O emulsion; water droplets are emulsified in oil.


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12

Potential Hydrogen (pH)

© Vladimir, 2010; used under license from iStockphoto.com.

LO1 Explain the difference between organic and inorganic chemistry.

Why Study Chemistry?

© Melinda Fawver, 2010; used under license from Shutterstock.com.

12 246 Chapter 12 Basics of Chemistry Part 2: General Sciences

examples of inorganic substances. L01

Part 2: General Sciences Chapter 12 Basics of Chemistry 247 12

S TAT E DESCRIPTION EXAMPLES

Gas No fixed volume or shape; takes the propellant in hairspray, mousse,

12 248 Chapter 12 Basics of Chemistry Part 2: General Sciences

the change is called a physical change. (See Physical and Chemical

Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter

Physical and Chemical Changes

Part 2: General Sciences Chapter 12 Basics of Chemistry 249 12

did you know? of oxygen, is an example of an oxidizing agent. A reducing agent is

Combustion (kum-BUS-chun) is the rapid oxidation of a substance,

12 250 Chapter 12 Basics of Chemistry Part 2: General Sciences

Solutions, Suspensions, and All matter

United chemically United physically

Definite (fixed) proportions Any proportions

Unique chemical and physical Combined chemical and physical

Part 2: General Sciences Chapter 12 Basics of Chemistry 251 12

© Marlena Zagajewska, 2010; used under license

did you know? Miscible (MIS-uh-bul) liquids are mutually soluble,

12 252 Chapter 12 Basics of Chemistry Part 2: General Sciences

years. Since conditions are rarely ideal, all cosmetic emulsions

DIFFERENCES AMONG SOLUTIONS,

SOLUTIONS SUSPENSIONS EMULSIONS

miscible slightly miscible immiscible

no surfactant no surfactant surfactant

small particles larger particles largest particles

unstable, temporary limited stability through

usually clear usually cloudy usually a solid color

nail polish, glitter in shampoos, conditioners,

Part 2: General Sciences Chapter 12 Basics of Chemistry 253 12

Oil Oil Water

Oil Water Oil

Figure 12–9 Figure 12–10

12 254 Chapter 12 Basics of Chemistry Part 2: General Sciences

Other Physical Mixtures

Part 2: General Sciences Chapter 12 Basics of Chemistry 255 12

Potential Hydrogen (pH)

© originalpunkt, 2010; used under license from Shutterstock.com.

O Ionization  O that ionizes produces one hydrogen ion and one

12 256 Chapter 12 Basics of Chemistry Part 2: General Sciences

Acidic Neutral Alkaline

decreases. The opposite is also true; as alkalinity increases, acidity

Acids and Alkalis

Part 2: General Sciences Chapter 12 Basics of Chemistry 257 12

© Kitch Bain, 2010; used under license from Shutterstock.com.

Acid-Alkali Neutralization Reactions

  Chemistry Will Help You

12 258 Chapter 12 Basics of Chemistry Part 2: General Sciences

alkaline solution A solution that has a pH above 7.0 (neutral).

anion An ion with a negative electrical charge.

cation An ion with a positive electrical charge.

chemical change A change in the chemical composition or make-up of a substance.

Part 2: General Sciences Chapter 12 Basics of Chemistry 259 12

O Ionization O that ionizes produces one hydrogen ion and one

Chemistry Will Help You