Wind Turbine Blade
Wind Turbine Blade
Wind Turbine Blade
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Composite materials, in particular fibre reinforced polymers, present a challenge when reaching their end of life.
Composite materials Current recycling processes are unable to capture the high-end material quality, thus challenging (re)use of
Circular economy composite materials in a Circular Economy. Structurally reusing segmented parts of end-of-life products as
Structural reuse
construction elements has been demonstrated to provide a promising alternative. However, reflection on the
Design strategies
consequences for the initial design of composite products is still missing. This study investigates the effect of the
Wind turbine blades
original product design on the recovery and reuse of composite products, taking wind turbine blades as case
material. Construction elements were cut from a decommissioned blade and reused in a design study. Obser
vations from the recovery and design process were connected to decisions made in the original product design.
The insights were discussed with experts from the field of blade design. This resulted in identification of design
aspects that enable multiple lifecycles of the composite material as construction panels, if considered during
initial product design.
1. Introduction 2012). Mechanical recycling, i.e. shredding and grinding, yields frag
ments that can be reused as filler material in new plastics, or as feedstock
Composites, specifically fibre reinforced polymers, provide many for further thermal or chemical processing. Thermal processes range
advantageous properties to use in product design (Yang et al., 2012). from co-combustion in a cement kiln, retrieving energy and ashes, to
The high stiffness to weight ratio and form freedom enables lightweight pyrolysis which retrieves fibres while polymers are converted into small
designs and large structures with complex shapes. The material is mostly hydrocarbons. Chemical processing results in clean fibres, while the
found in applications where weight savings or efficient structural design matrix is converted into monomers, but this is not yet feasible as bulk
bring an advantage. For example, lightweight designs reduce fuel con recycling method. Overall, currently little reprocessing capacity is
sumption or increase payload capacity in aerospace and automotive available and the recyclate value does not offset the costs (Oliveux et al.,
applications (Mangino et al., 2007). For construction industry, weight 2015; UBA, 2019). Consequently, the majority of composite waste is
reduction goes hand in hand with extending a structures’ maximum landfilled or incinerated (Jensen, 2019; Mativenga et al., 2017; Ratner
span, as demonstrated by the use in bridges and wind turbine blades et al., 2020).
(Mallick, 2007; Papadakis et al., 2009; Teuwen, 2011). Landfilling and incineration are undesirable from many perspectives.
Design of composite products is currently optimised for mechanical Landfilling is at the bottom of the Waste Management Hierarchy, ban
performance in the use phase (Perry et al., 2012). This focus, combined ned in an increasing number of countries and prevents further use of the
with the complex and heterogeneous nature of the materials, leads to material (Cherrington et al., 2012). This option is not further considered
problematic end-of-life (EoL) processing (Naqvi et al., 2018; Yang et al., in recovery frameworks, such as 9R (van Buren et al., 2016). Incinera
2012). In particular for Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastics (GFRP), which tion recovers energy, but presents additional problems with release of
dominates the composites market, no clear recycling route is available toxic gases, fly-ash and the need to process the solid residue (Chen et al.,
even though various options exist (Job, 2014; Liu et al., 2019). 2019; Jensen, 2019). To prevent such treatments, we need reprocessing
Composite materials can be recycled using mechanical, thermal or options that are efficient, cost-effective and have minimum environ
chemical processes (Chen et al., 2019; Oliveux et al., 2015; Yang et al., mental impact (Chen et al., 2019; Psomopoulos et al., 2019).
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (J. Joustra), [email protected] (B. Flipsen), [email protected] (R. Balkenende).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.105393
Received 28 May 2020; Received in revised form 20 December 2020; Accepted 29 December 2020
Available online 19 January 2021
0921-3449/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
J. Joustra et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 167 (2021) 105393
2. Background
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J. Joustra et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 167 (2021) 105393
Fig. 3. Structural reuse of a wind turbine blade: segmentation into construction elements, reuse in diverse applications. Building on (Beauson and Brøndsted, 2016;
Jensen and Skelton, 2018).
A well-known example of repurposing large parts is the Wikado strategies. For example, designing a product for adaptability and dis-
playground in Rotterdam (Fig. 2) (Beauson and Brøndsted, 2016; and reassembly were found to facilitate structural reuse. In this study,
Peeren et al., 2012). The blades are generally considered safe to use in we used the design aspects from this framework to code and analyse
such a different application (Jensen and Skelton, 2018). But precautions, observations made in the design case study. Appendix A lists the design
e.g. surface treatments, are required to prevent exposing users to sharp aspects and their descriptions.
glass fibres, and degradation of the resin from exposure to UV and
moisture (Medici et al., 2020). Such applications are, however, chal 3. Methods
lenging to upscale. Beauson and Brøndsted (2016) conclude that reuse of
wind turbine blades as an entity or in parts is largely coincidental. As Structural reuse of wind turbine blades and its relation to the initial
result, the volume of repurposed blades stands in bleak comparison to design was investigated following a Research through Design approach.
the surplus of EoL blade material (Liu and Barlow, 2017; Papadakis In this methodology, design plays a formative role in the generation of
et al., 2010). knowledge (Stappers and Giaccardi, 2017). Research through Design,
Beauson and Brøndsted (2016) expect that cutting large blades into closely related to Design Inclusive Research, regards the act of design as
practically usable construction elements will diversify the potential essential for knowledge generation, in particular when the design task is
applications (Fig. 3). This could simulate larger demand, as construction carried out by the researcher himself (Horvath, 2008; Stappers et al.,
elements are commonly used for diverse applications in building and 2019). Physical prototype development plays an important role, but is
construction, infrastructure and furniture industry. Initial experimen not a goal in itself. While it may result in interesting spin-offs, the pro
tation showed that several high valued object can be made, as for totype is an object of study. It is used to integrate knowledge from
example furniture (Beauson and Brøndsted, 2016; Jensen and Skelton, various fields and make a future situation observable (Stappers and
2018). This requires a two-step approach. First, the blade is segmented Giaccardi, 2017). In this case, insights on blade design, manufacturing,
into reusable construction elements like panels (from shells and shear materials and recovery were elicited using a furniture prototype.
webs) and beams (from the spar caps). Second, the obtained elements A design case study was done with recovered wind turbine blade
are used in a next product lifecycle. material. This provided rich data on design, manufacturing and recov
ery, as well as on social acceptance of the resulting construction mate
rials. Finally, insights were derived on how composite products can be
2.3. Relating circular strategies to design aspects designed to facilitate recovery of structural elements. The applicability
of these insights were evaluated with experts from the field of wind
To analyse how initial blade design affects the opportunities for turbine blade manufacturing.
circular strategies, a framework connecting circular strategies to design
aspects is needed. The Circular Product Design framework for compos
ites has been developed for this purpose (Joustra et al., 2019). The 3.1. Design case study
framework relates 5 circular strategies to 20 design aspects. These
connections indicate how aspects in new product design can support The design case study started by acquiring materials and formulating
recovery of products, parts and materials through particular circular design requirements for the next lifecycle of the material in a new
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J. Joustra et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 167 (2021) 105393
product. These two are strongly connected, as the material properties then determined according to dimensional standard ISO 2768-m
and prototyping possibilities set boundary conditions for the design (NEN-ISO, 1990), a common standard for design drawings and compo
project (Stappers et al., 2019). Blade material was made available for nent specifications.
this study by a composite recycling company. The 80 m. long blade was The process was documented according to the critical journaling
originally made for testing purposes, its design specifications and origins guidelines for Research through Design projects (Sadokierski, 2019).
were not disclosed. It was uncoated, making the Balsa core material The documentation captured rich information on the evolving design,
clearly visible through the transparent GFRP laminate. The recycling the materials at hand, and the structural reuse process as a whole. This
company segmented the blade into pieces ranging from 0.3 × 0.5 m2 up design documentation included both observations and intermediate re
to 6 × 2 m2 using a portable waterjet cutter. In these segments, we flections on the process. As such it can be regarded as a combination of
distinguish between panels and beams. Where, following the definitions both field notes and analytical memos as described by Saldaña (2009).
of Ashby (2011) and Mallick (2007), a panel resembles a flat slab, like a
table top, and a beam is a slender structural member which can come in 3.2. Design insights and expert opinion
many shapes. The panels are retrieved from the blade shells, the beams
are found in the spar caps. Design challenges were identified by tracing back observations from
the design documentation to the original blade design. The design
3.1.1. Prototype design documentation was coded to reveal design features affecting recovery of
We developed a prototype product using the panels from the blade construction elements. This was done for the original design (wind
shell. Furniture is identified as one of the potential sectors for reuse of turbine blade), the recovery process (reuse as construction panels), the
structural elements in previous studies (Beauson and Brøndsted, 2016). next lifecycle prototype (picnic table) and feedback notes (exhibition
Moreover, it has the additional advantage of being recognisable to a responses). This analysis followed a provisional coding approach (Sal
broad audience, enabling discussions on the acceptation and perceived daña, 2009), using codes derived from the Circular Product Design
value of recovered materials. A picnic table was chosen as an appro framework for composites (Joustra et al., 2019).
priate example of a next lifecycle product, as such tables are typically Analysis of the coded observations resulted in design insights for
made of standardised construction elements, yet allow for exploration of structural reuse. These insights were annotated to a wind turbine blade
construction and shape. drawing to directly connect them to the blade design and to trigger
Design for multiple life cycles is a distinguishing aspect in circular discussions with experts from the field. Two experts were selected based
product design strategies (Sumter et al., 2020). Thus, subsequent on their experience in design and engineering of wind turbine blades, for
structural reuse at EoL of the second lifecycle product was also consid the manufacturing as well as the end of life stage. Both have working
ered. To enable successive recovery and use cycles, the next lifecycle experience in industry as well as academia and contribute to innovations
product (i.e. the picnic table) was designed to enable both subsequent in the field, many of which aim for optimisation of manufacturing or
structural reuse as well as materials recycling. The design therefore had recycling technologies. Expert 1 works in academia on new blade design
to allow for disassembly and prevent materials degradation during use. and production techniques, and has an industry background in blade
To enable recycling, addition of foreign materials was minimised to engineering. Expert 2 works at the research and development depart
prevent further complicating the materials mixture for recycling. ment of a large blade manufacturing company, and has a background in
Various prototypes were used in the design process. 1:20 scale materials research. Expert responses were collected in a semi-structured
models, including 3D printed parts of a wind turbine blade, were used to interview (Patton, 2002) in which the annotated blade drawing served
explore shape and segmentation into construction elements. Larger as interview guide. The interviews were conducted through a video call
models (1:6 scale) were used to evaluate assembly and joints. These and took one hour each. Notes were taken during the interviews and
models were lasercut from 5 mm plywood, which corresponded to an connected to the proposed design insights afterwards. This reflection
average shell panel thickness of 30 mm. After detailing in Solidworks, a connected the design case study insights to industry practice.
full size prototype was made to evaluate manufacturing and user Social acceptance and perceived material value was evaluated with
perception. potential users by exhibiting the prototype at the (Dutch Design Week,
2019), a week-long national design event held in Eindhoven, The
3.1.2. Prototype manufacturing Netherlands. The context of structural reuse was further presented with
The full-scale prototype was made with recovered blade materials. other exhibition artefacts. including a blade segment and scale models.
Components were cut from the blade material using a CNC waterjet Visitors were invited to talk through the project with the authors and
cutter. The prototype was finalized and assembled by the researcher at share their views. Since it is of particular interest how "imperfections” in
the model building workshop of Industrial Design Engineering at TU the shape and materials are appreciated, we indicated those and asked
Delft. The dimensional drawings are provided as supplementary mate the visitors to explicitly reflect upon them. Responses were documented
rials to this article. informally and reflected upon at the end of each day as described by
The manufacturing quality was evaluated by visual inspection of the Sadokierski (2019).
cutting edges and measuring part dimensions. The cutting accuracy was
Fig. 4. Segments cut from a 1:20 scale blade(a) and used in a model (b).
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Fig. 5. Connection types used in the table design. Form fits (a), fasteners (b), adhesive bonds (c).
4. Results
The design case study started with acquiring segments cut from a
wind turbine blade. The shape and structural properties of individual
construction elements depend on where and according to which pattern
they have been cut from the blade (Bank et al., 2018; Jensen and Skel
ton, 2018).
Due to the lack of specifications linked to the original design of the
blade, the segmentation pattern was based on directly measurable and
visible material properties: material composition (sandwich versus
monolithic), surface quality, curvature and outer dimensions. From the
segmented blade, we selected shell panels which showed no obvious
surface damage, were portable and had dimensions that allowed reuse in
furniture. The selected segments had a sandwich structure and ranged Fig. 6. Picnic table prototype, made from construction elements cut from a
from 0.3 × 0.7 m2 up to 2.5 × 1 m2. The thickness ranged from 18 up to wind turbine blade.
40 mm, the core thickness transitioned stepwise.
to deteriorate in moist conditions, adhesive bonds effectively prolong
4.1.1. Prototype design product lifetime by preventing water ingress. The adhesive bonds are
In this design case study, the sandwich panels were reused for a designed to be disassembled by applying a perpendicular force, loading
picnic table, which served to explore opportunities and barriers for the bond in peel rather than shear. All connection types had their pros
segmented reuse. The table consists of a table top and two seats, and cons, and not a single solution was ideal for all joints. Attention for
mounted to two frames. The effect of the blade’s curvature was explored recovery and reuse in design and prototyping led to selecting connection
using 1:20 scale models (Fig. 4). On scale, 0.3 m wide leading edge types that preserve material integrity and facilitate disassembly.
segments were used for the seats, a 0.8 m wide trailing edge segment for
the table top. In this way, both sections with strong and little curvature 4.1.2. Prototype manufacturing
were used. As such, the sectioning pattern and next lifecycle product A full scale prototype was made to test the material in manufacturing
design were adapted to each other to deliver required components. and use (Fig. 6). The materials composition, a sandwich of Balsa and
The design was then detailed and prepared for manufacturing. Rails GFRP, can be cut with standard tools like (circular) saws and drills.
and diagonal stringers were added to shorten the leverage arm on the Processing (i.e. resizing) of the panels was discussed with multiple
joints, reducing loads and slack in the construction. Detailed designs workshops. Contrary to expectations, none was willing to work with the
were prototyped at 1:6 scale by laser cutting 5 mm plywood. From these material. GFRP is known to cause excessive wear on tooling (e.g. sawing
prototypes, it became apparent that the joining methods selected for the blades) and to generate fine dust, which irritates skin and respiratory
next lifecycle design (in this case the picnic table) are essential for system, as well as pollute dust extraction systems. Finally, waterjet
performance in manufacturing, use and recovery. cutting was found to address these concerns. In this process, the GFRP
Three connection types were investigated in the table: form fits, did not degrade tooling and dust was collected in the runoff water. The
fasteners and adhesive bonding (Fig. 5). Form fits, i.e., slotted joints, material supplier, a recycling company, used a portable waterjet cutter
eliminate the need for additional processing and fasteners. However, to cut construction panels of various sizes. Individual prototype parts
these joints depend on part thickness for a good fit. In contrast to the 1:6 were cut from these panels in a flatbed CNC-controlled machine. In the
scale models, made of standard 5 mm plywood, the recovered con flatbed machine, the water was collected and cutting residue filtered
struction panels exhibit variable thickness. This implies that the joints out.
have to be dimensioned for each individual combination of panels. The prototype was finished by chamfering off the edges of table top
Fasteners on the other hand allow tolerance on mated parts, which is an and seats under a 45◦ angle, using P80 sandpaper. The through-holes
advantage in this construction. These connections introduce additional were accurately positioned and these parts were bolted together
materials (stainless steel) to the product. But upon disassembly, fas directly. The slotted joints needed additional sanding to account for
teners are directly separated from the composite parts, facilitating local thickness variations and curvature of mated parts. Despite the high
further reprocessing. Adhesive bonds connect the table top and seats to processing accuracy, new approaches need to be employed to deal with
their respective support frames. These bonds avoid holes and thus water curvature variations induced by the initial design.
leaking into the sandwich material, especially on horizontal surfaces Waterjet cutting delivered high sectioning accuracy but inflicted
where (rain)water doesn’t run off immediately. As Balsa wood is likely minor damage to the core material. In general, the linear dimensions
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remained within 0.5 mm of the design specifications, and as such panel curvature and imperfections visible through the transparent GFRP
complied to tolerance class ISO 2768-m (NEN-ISO, 1990). However, composite, went initially unnoticed by most visitors. When questioned,
splinters broke away from the cutting edge due to the inhomogeneous these features were found to contribute to the narrative and perceived
nature of Balsa wood. Also, piercing points caused delamination of GFRP value. Frequently, visitors expressed their interest, asked for the selling
laminate faces, probably due to - brief- accumulation of water under price and suggested potential other application areas for the material.
high pressure within the sandwich material. This was prevented by Overall, visitors appreciated the reuse of wind turbine blades and
pre-drilling through-holes at cutting path starting points. Thus, waterjet perceived the structurally reused material and secondary application as
cutting delivered accurate sectioning lines, but needs improvement on valuable.
piercing and cutting-edge quality.
Cutting the blade into construction panels and subsequently into 5. Discussion
table parts exposed materials that were sealed from the environment
during first use (i.e. core materials and bare GFRP). Long term exposure Previous case studies demonstrated structural reuse as a viable and
to UV radiation is known to accelerate ageing of the matrix material, interesting recovery route for high end composite products. However,
which may lead to discolouring (epoxy turning yellow or brown) or these cases were all occasional and, in practice, resulted in end of pipe
release of fibres. Moisture absorption of core material will lead to solutions. This means that these demonstrators were developed coinci
deterioration as well. In particular natural materials, like Balsa, are dentally, based on available “waste” materials. In contrast, the current
prone to rot. Thus, when the construction panels are used for outdoor design study aimed to relate observations from structural reuse to the
applications, additional surface treatment is necessary. original design of a product and thus elicit how in the original of a
complicated composite product reuse can be facilitate through design
4.2. Design insights and expert opinion intent.
Notes were taken during the design, manufacturing and exhibition of 5.1. Design aspects
the prototype. The notes were coded using the design aspects defined in
the Circular Product Design framework for composites (Joustra et al., We established that construction elements of various size and shape
2019). This resulted in insights on how to design a blade for structural can be retrieved from a single blade. By using the Circular Product
reuse. In addition to the design aspects identified from the framework, Design framework for composites for analysis of the design documen
two additional design aspects emerged: Embedded markers and design for tation (Joustra et al., 2019), we identified opportunities for purposeful
multiple use cycles. The identified design aspects were annotated to a segmentation and reuse. The insights obtained in this design case study
blade drawing (Fig. 7), which served to trigger discussion with experts. largely match the design aspects connected to structural reuse in the
The design insights were evaluated with experts from the field of framework. This provides grounding in design practice for the frame
wind turbine blade manufacturing. Table 1 lists the observations from work. In addition, we identified two previously not mentioned relevant
the design case study and expert evaluation per identified design aspect. design aspects. Below we will discuss a number of aspects that are
The insights are further reflected upon in the discussion section. specifically relevant when taking design for multiple lifecycles into ac
To evaluate acceptance and perceived value of the structurally count in the initial product design.
reused materials, the prototype was placed at a design exhibition. The Documentation: While often considered confidential, the long lifespan
exhibition attracted about 25.000 visitors. Blade specific features, like of the blade may make design details less sensitive. Experts expected
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Table 1
Observations and expert opinion on design aspects that facilitate Structural Reuse of wind turbine blades.
Design aspect Implementation, based on observations Expert evaluation
Identification Markers, labels or tags, enable tracing back the blade Blades are labelled and listed in the manufacturer’s
to its original design documentation. database. In addition, blades are traceable through
their (type) certification.
Documentation Specifications like dimensions and layup enable Design specifications could probably be made
setting out segmentation patterns and thus optimal available for older models. Especially directly visible
recovery of construction elements. However, or measurable properties like shape, thickness and
availability is often uncertain due to confidentiality. start of main laminate and balsa core.
Also in this study we were unable to retrieve the blade
specifications.
Monitoring To extend original design specifications into actual Operating conditions are usually logged at nearby
product state, its operational conditions should be weather stations. Fully integrated blade
known, e.g. from structural health monitoring measurements with corresponding logging and
systems, as well as damage and maintenance history. analysis are generally considered too costly.
Structural design The blade structure makes for useful construction Gradual shape transitions are employed in blade
material. Using the right tools, it can be machined design to avoid stress concentrations and provide
with good accuracy. good aerodynamics. Local changes to the structure
The GFRP laminate acts as a protective layer for the likely introduce undesirable stress concentrations
softer core material. and complicate manufacturing.
The blade could be prepared for structural reuse by Expert 1 suggested spacing the core material in the
designing curvature and laminate layup in line with a cutting paths, so that the water jet will pierce solid
prospective segmentation pattern. matrix, rather than core material.
Function Integration of aerodynamic shape and structural The integration of aerodynamics and structure is
integration design complicates segmentation into construction optimised for the initial use case, and blade
elements. Although difference in scale between the performance will remain a leading design objective.
original blade and table limits curvature over a single
part.
Standardisation Standardisation of curvature, dimensions, laminate Curvature will remain subject to aerodynamic design
layups and tolerances, construction materials will requirements.
make construction elements less dependant on the Sandwich material thickness on the other hand is
original blade shape and size. almost standardised, as core materials usually come
in multiples of 5 mm.
Modularity Modularity could facilitate disassembly and Load concentration on joints, especially close to the
processing the blade. root of the blade, challenge the feasibility. But for the
tip section it is possible and has been applied.
Material Both reinforcements and cores could be adapted to Glass fibre and carbon fibre composites are
selection facilitate cutting, for example by locally applying notoriously hard to cut once cured.
monolithic laminates and/or homogeneous and water For the core materials, polymer foams (i.e. PET) are
resistant core materials. Release of fibres and matrix used and continue to be developed for use in wind
deterioration needs to be prevented. turbine blades.
Surface Precautions need to be taken to protect resins and If the underlying (core) material is visually less
treatments core materials that are sensitive to environmental attractive, the blade could be produced with a coating
degradation, including edges exposed by segmenting. that can easily be touched up or restored for the
Balsa core material, clearly visible through the extended lifetime.
transparent GFRP, was found aesthetically pleasing. Expert 1 proposed that the original coating can be
removed and replaced by a transparent coating to
reveal the underlying core material, to achieve an
appearance similar to the material in this design case
study.
Embedded Integrating information within the product Marks, like small indents and lines, are already made in the
markers itself supports reprocessing in a later stage. mould to assist material placement during production.
These marking points remain in the product as an imprint
and are used for finishing work (e.g. drilling holes) and
aligning connections. In the reuse stage, these markings can
indicate the position of materials (e.g. start of main
laminate) and segmentation patterns
Design for Taking a lifecycle perspective on new product Such planning is expected to be feasible in industry, and
multiple use development, anticipating recovery and reuse adopted if motivated by a business case or legislation.
cycles actions However, the longevity of composite blades creates
uncertainty about future recovery scenarios. This
uncertainty complicates decision making on which
recovery scenario to design for. Changes in e.g. technology
and policy can affect the business case and reprocessing
options.
that basic specifications could be made available at the time of properties. We expect that more detailed information will enable more
decommissioning. Finally, type certification, obligatory for all opera optimised reuse cases, more effectively reusing the material’s mechan
tional blades, may be used to retrieve specifications (DNV-GL, 2015), ical performance.
although these do not reveal design details or structural specifications. Monitoring: Various measurement techniques are used to monitor a
This study demonstrated basic reuse, based on limited information; blade’s structural health during operation. These logged data could be
the prototype was produced based on directly visible or measurable used to estimate end of life material quality, which might have suffered
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from fatigue and occasional damage. When not available or of insuffi into account in the original blade design. This is in line with Circular
cient detail, desired specifications could be revealed by testing or Economy principles, which emphasize the importance of systems
reverse engineering approaches (Sayer et al., 2009; Tasistro-Hart et al., thinking and designing for multiple use cycles (Ellen MacArthur Foun
2019). dation, 2013). Both have been identified as core competencies and
Modularity: Modularity was discussed as potential feature to facili major challenges for designers in a Circular Economy (Sumter et al.,
tate disassembly and segmenting the blade. The concept was proposed 2020). Unfortunately, experts and literature note that the full product
before as a solution for production and transport of increasingly large lifecycle is difficult to grasp for designers (Perry et al., 2014). Ongoing
blades (Peeters et al., 2017). A more radical approach would be to move developments change the context of manufacturing, use and decom
towards a modular design, where structural functions are integrated in missioning. This results in uncertainty about future scenarios, which
the aerodynamic shape, yet constructed in segments. Experts expressed complicates decision making in the design process. In this study, this has
their concerns regarding load concentration on joints. Thus, the imple been managed by not reusing the product as an entity, but by dividing
mentation and objectives need to be carefully weighed in the design the product in construction panels that allow for more versatile next life
process. cycles.
Embedded markers: Embedded markers can be an effective means to To establish recovery pathways for wind turbine blades in a Circular
transfer product information to the recovery stage. This could be small Economy, many stakeholders have to collaborate. Recovery can be
indents, lines or colour markers placed during production. These can organised in a closed system or an open system (Bakker et al., 2018). In a
indicate material positions, segmentation patterns or be used to align a closed system, the control over the product remains with the manufac
coordinate system. The latter could enable defining the cutting pattern turer. Being responsible and carrying the costs, the manufacturer
at the decommissioning stage. Embedded markings build on existing directly benefits from design adaptations that facilitate collection and
production techniques and require, according to the experts, little reprocessing. The open system is currently in effect for wind turbine
change to be implemented, but do require attention to recovery in the blades; recovery of products, components and materials is not
early stages of product design. pre-defined but left to the market. However, the incentive in the open
Design for multiple use cycles was recognised as prerequisite for system relies on direct profitability of the recovery process, which
successful incorporation of structural reuse in design. Structural reuse thusfar is questionable for composites. The manufacturer has little stake
opportunities are affected by shape, materials and structure of the in the end of life of the blades and thereby has little incentive to act.
original product. Thus, anticipating multiple use cycles is required in the Future policy regarding waste management is likely to change the
early design phase and will result in additional design criteria for the context for decommissioning of wind turbine blades. Regulations have
original product design. When regarding reuse from the perspective of already been put in place for the automotive and electronic industry;
construction elements instead of fully functional products, the need for composite materials, and wind turbine blades in particular, are expected
detailed product specifications is replaced with basic dimensions, to follow (Cherrington et al., 2012; WindEurope et al., 2020).
properties and tolerances for elements to be retrieved.
Some design aspects mentioned in the framework, notably selection
5.3. Future outlook
of connections, dis- and reassembly, and manufacturing were not
explicitly discussed by the experts. However, the experts addressed these
The structural reuse concept aims for the production of large series of
aspects implicitly when discussing modularity. The relation between
standardised construction panels and beams. The prototyped picnic
these design aspects and modularity is known for wind turbine blades as
table is just an example of the many product applications that can be
well as for other product types (Balkenende et al., 2017; Pahl and Beitz,
envisioned for structural reuse of composite plate materials. Other
2013; Peeters et al., 2017). Reusing recovered construction elements
possible applications can be found in architecture (e.g. façades, roofs),
as-is was one of the starting points of this design case study. As a result,
infrastructure (e.g. jetties or bridges) but also in transport (e.g. cargo-
the design aspect of adaptability was not addressed in this study, nor
loading floors in barges and trucks). The exploration of additional
discussed by the experts. In general, thermoset-based composites do not
product categories might lead to the identification of additional relevant
lend themselves for shape adaptation in the sense of re-moulding, but
material requirements and design aspects.
this could be an interesting option for thermoplastic composites (Mal
The annual volume of decommissioned blades calls for a systematic
lick, 2007).
approach that enables upscaling of the structural reuse process to an
In the case of wind turbine blades, the design constraints determined
industrial scale. Further research into structural reuse could include
by effectivity in the use phase leave little room for adaptations to
determining prospective reuse applications, evaluating (residual)
facilitate reuse. With the industry focus on lowering the cost of energy, it
properties and defining sectioning patterns. These topics are relevant for
is realistic to pursue design interventions that do not impede the primary
processing various blade types and sizes, as well as other complex
function of the product. However, availability of documentation and use
composite products. We expect that the same design aspects will apply,
of embedded markers, could facilitate reuse in a straightforward way.
but further research is necessary to verify this. The minimal mechanical
Adapting the materials position in the product to facilitate cutting of
quality of the blade material to warrant reuse needs to be defined and
predefined construction panels may seem straightforward, but might
related to the initial design. A smart segmentation pattern and evalua
have major effects on load paths and structural performance. Never
tion of the design specs can classify recovered segments into categories
theless, developing a smart segmentation pattern to deliver reusable
and types of reuse. Cutting patterns and mechanical performance of
construction elements from existing blade designs seems feasible.
resulting construction elements are further explored in a complementary
study (Joustra et al., 2020).
5.2. Circular economy perspective
6. Conclusion
The discussed insights indicate that Design for multiple use cycles is
an important step in designing for structural reuse and should be taken Insights on design for structural reuse of composite products have
8
J. Joustra et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 167 (2021) 105393
been obtained through a design case study investigating the relation Table 2
between structural reuse of segmented plates derived from a wind tur Aspects for design of composite products in a Circular Economy (Joustra et al.,
bine blade and its original design. Wind turbine blades were taken as 2019).
case product, as these represent a challenging and pressing recovery Design aspect Description
problem. Panels from a decommissioned wind turbine blade were reused Accessibility Ensuring (internal) parts can be reached for e.g.
in a next product lifecycle, in this case a picnic table, aimed to explore maintenance or repair operations.
Adaptability Enabling changes and adjustments to be made to the
design related opportunities and barriers regarding manufacturing, re
product during its life.
covery and user perception in segmented reuse. Dis- and reassembly Facilitating (manual or mechanical) disassembly and
Current design of wind turbine blades does not take structural reuse reassembly of the product.
into account, even though the potential of this recovery strategy is Fault isolation Facilitating fault finding for e.g. repair.
Identification Using labels, tags etc. to facilitate recognition of the
acknowledged and has been demonstrated in occasional applications.
product and/or its specifications
However, construction materials with valuable mechanical and Interchangeability Making parts or subassemblies of the product readily
aesthetic properties were retrieved with relatively little processing replaceable
effort. In fabricating the physical prototype, waterjet cutting delivered Keying Using product shape to facilitate alignment, e.g. holes and
high sectioning accuracy but the quality of the edges can be improved. pins
Malfunction Indicating (imminent) product failure
Despite the high accuracy, new segmentation approaches need to be
annunciation
employed to deal with curvature and thickness variations induced by the Material selection Selecting matrix, reinforcement, connections and other
original design. materials
The original shape and material composition affect the options for a Modularity Grouping features within the product to create separable
sub-assemblies
next use cycle. We derived design aspects that enable structural reuse by
Sacrificial elements Defining replaceable components to take up wear and
design. The presented design aspects build on and expand the Circular damage, thus protecting other parts
Product Design framework for composites. The design case study and Simplification Minimising the complexity of the product, by e.g.
evaluation with experts grounded these insights into design practice and appearance, assembly or materials
resulted in the identification of two additional design aspects: Embedded Standardisation Using standard components, processes, dimensions etc. in
the product design
markers and Design for multiple use cycles. The first aspect is builds on
Surface treatments Selecting coatings and other surface treatments
composite manufacturing practice, the second is necessary but chal appropriate for the use and recovery of the product.
lenged by uncertainty about future recovery options. Connection selection Selecting connections for the use and recovery actions
This study investigated structural reuse as recovery route for high- during product life
Documentation Providing information about the product to stakeholders in
end composite products from a design perspective. Overall, it is
the value chain
advised to take the next use cycle into account in the design stage. The Manufacturing Selecting and optimising the process to meet the material,
insights presented in this paper enable designers to contribute to shape and recovery criteria
establishing a Circular Economy for composite products. Monitoring Measuring (and storing) product properties while in use.
Structural design Optimising the shape to get the best structural quality.
Function integration Combining multiple functions and (sub)components into
CRediT authorship contribution statement one part.
Table. 2.
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J. Joustra et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 167 (2021) 105393
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