Emerson

Process Management

Cover Story

Pick the
Right Valve
Know the pros and cons of each valve type
FIGURE 1. The single-port globe
valve shown above features a
cage-guided plug, which
makes it suitable for
a wide variety of
service applications.
to help select the right one for the job The globe valve at
the left has been
fitted for auto-
mated control
Trinath Sahoo, Indian Oil Corporation Ltd. Samson AG

alves are used in pipeline sys- fully closed there is good sealing come by using a flexible gate,

V tems to control the flowrate,

the pressure, or the flow direc-
tion of a fluid. They can turn
on, turn off, regulate, modu-
late or isolate the fluid.
Selecting the right valve to perform
the desired task requires that you
against pressure. With the proper
mating of a disk to the seat ring, very
little or no leakage occurs across the
disk when the gate valve is closed.
However, some leakage may occur
under very low (at 5 psi) back pres-
sures. Another positive feature
whose design allows the gate
to flex as the valve seat com-
presses it. For this reason,
gate valves used in steam sys-
tems have a flexible wedge to
prevent binding of the
gate within the valve
understand the characteristics of all of gate valves is that they usu- when closed.
the different types of valves avail- ally open or close slowly, Split wedges are
able; knowing the advantages and which prevents fluid hammer self adjusting and self
limitations of the valve types will en- and subsequent damage to aligning to both seat-
sure that you pick the right one for a the piping system. ing surfaces. This type
given application. The main limitation of gate of wedge is suitable for han-
This article examines the advan- valves is that they are not suitable for dling non-condensing gases and
tages and disadvantages of different throttling applications. When gate liquids at normal temperature, partic-
types of valves and provide some guid- valves are used in throttling applica- ularly corrosive fluids. Freedom of
ance of when to use, or not use, a given tions, the flow tends to have high movement of the disk in the carrier
type. Additional pointers are also pro- speeds near the gate seat, which leads prevents binding, even though the
vided for the followup process of se- to erosion. Also, in the partially open valve may have been closed when hot
lecting the right size, materials of con- state, the valve is prone to vibrate, and later contracted due to cooling.
struction and other factors. which can lead to damage. In general, Seats for gate valves are either an
gate valves are more subject to seat integral part of the valve body or are
VALVE TYPES and disk wear than globe valves (dis- provided as a seat-ring type of con-
Valves can be divided into three dif- cussed below), and repairs, such as struction. A seat-ring construction en-
ferent categories: linear motion (or lapping and grinding, are more diffi- ables seats to either be threaded into
multiturn), rotary (quarter turn) and cult to accomplish. position or pressed into position and
self activated. Among linear valves Gate valves are usually classified by seal welded to the valve body. Seal
are gate, globe, pinch and diaphragm the type of disk used, and a variety of welding is required for high tempera-
valve types. Rotary valves include disks are available, such as solid ture service.
plug, ball and butterfly types. Check wedge, split wedge or parallel disk. A Integral seats have the same ma-
and pressure relief valve types belong solid wedge is used, for example, terial of construction as the valve
to the self activated category. where there is a chance of turbulent body whereas the pressed-in or
flow. A solid gate fits snugly between threaded-in seats permit variation.
Gate valves the seat of a valve when the system is Rings with hard facing may be sup-
Gate valves are designed to operate cold, but when the system is heated plied for the application if they are
fully open or fully closed; When fully and pipes elongates, the seats will required. Small forged steel gate
opened, there is very little pressure compress against the gate and clamp valves may have hard faced seats
drop across a gate valve, and when the valve shut. This problem is over- pressed into the body.

34 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM AUGUST 2004

 Red Valve
A
B The only wetted C The automated
part of the man- pinch valve shown
ual pinch valve on the right (C)
shown here (B) has the advantage
is the sleeve. that there is no
This particular packing to main-
design has the tain or seats to
same face-to- wear. Also, the
face geometry elastomer sleeves
as a gate valve eliminates the
FIGURE 2. Pinch valves have the ability need for expen-
to close, even when solids are en- sive alloy bodies
trapped, as shown by this design (A), Red Valve Red Valve
which was first introduced in 1953

Globe valves seal around trapped solids, so pinch cal compatibility are important. The
The basic principle of globe valve op- valves are suitable for handling slur- diaphragm valve is considered the
eration is the perpendicular move- ries and solids, which would clog in “cleanest” valve, or the valve least
ment of the disk toward, or away from, the obstructed flow passages of other likely to cause contamination. For this
the seat. This causes the annular type valves. They are also used for the reason, the diaphragm valve is popu-
space between the disk and seat ring sanitary handling of foodstuffs and lar in the pharmaceutical and biopro-
to gradually close as the valve is pharmaceuticals because the media cessing industries, and in high-purity
closed. It is this characteristic that are isolated from the working parts. water systems.
gives the globe valve good throttling Standard face-to-face dimension are They are available in two general
ability. Globe valves, such as those complaint with ASME standard designs, weir and straightway. The
shown in Figure 1, are easily auto- B.16.10, enabling the pinch valve to be weir-style diaphragm valve is utilized
mated for precise throttling service. easily interchanged with ASME-com- for higher-pressure applications. Here
When the valve is closed, there is no pliant ball and plug valves. the flow passage is designed to reduce
blocked-in volume, as occurs in a gate Pinch valves are suitable for on/off flexing of the diaphragm to a mini-
valve, so a globe valve has much less and throttling services. However, they mum. The short stroke of these valves
leakage around the seat. Also, the offer little flow control between the permit the use of PTFE as diaphragm
disk to seat-ring contact is more at fully open and 50% pinched position material. The straightway diaphragm
right angles, so the force of closing because of the negligible pressure valve, having no flow path obstruc-
tightly seats the disk. drop at these valve positions. But fur- tions, is well suited for higher flow
Other advantages of a globe valve ther closing of the valve gives good and slurry applications. The straight-
are that it can be made fire and blow- flow control. Flow control near the way valve require a more flexible di-
out resistant. closed-valve position must be avoided aphragm than does the weir type. For
The most evident shortcoming of a when the fluid is highly erosive, to this reason, the construction material
simple globe valve is its relatively low prevent grooving of the valve body. for straight-through diaphragm
coefficient of flow, Cv, which causes a The valve body is made up of an valves is generally an elastomer.
high pressure drop across the valve. elastomer, PTFE or a similar mater- A key advantage of the diaphragm
This can lead to increased pump and ial. Natural rubber is a good choice of valve is the wide variety of wetted
system wear. The low Cv value or high material for the valve body because it materials available, which enables an
head loss is caused by two or more is resistant to cracking from flexing. economical, chemically compatible so-
right-angle turns the fluid has to fol- Natural rubber also shown excellent lution for almost any service. The di-
low as it flows through the valve. In a resistance against abrasive wear and aphragm is the only wetted part, and
large, high-pressure line, the fluid dy- corrosion from many corrosive fluids. it is typically available in multiple
namic effect causes pulsations and Pinch valves can also have molded elastomer materials as well as PTFE.
pressure drops across the valve that bodies reinforced with fabric. This enables chemically compatible
can damage trim, stem packing and One drawback of this type of valve is materials to be selected for almost
actuators. Globe valves typically that the materials of construction are any process fluid without the expense
weigh more than other types of valves relatively limited. Also pinch valves of upgrading the valve working parts.
with the same flow rating. have limited shutoff capabilities, typi- In addition, leakage to the atmos-
cally require more time for mainte- phere (fugitive emissions) is mini-
Pinch valves nance, and accommodates a relatively mized with the use of a diaphragm
As the name implies, this valve con- low maximum operating pressure. valve. Diaphragm valves may also be
sists of a flexible tube that is mechan- effectively used as control valves in
ically pinched from the outside of the Diaphragm valves full vacuum applications. As a result,
valve body. The principal advantage As with pinch valves, the flow passage diaphragm valves are a frequent
of this type of valve is that the flow in diaphragm valves is free of crevices choice for the chemical, water-treat-
passage is straight without any and is unobstructed by moving parts. ment, power, mining, and pulp and
crevices and there are no internal This makes diaphragm valves suit- paper industries.
moving parts. As shown in Figure 2, able for applications where cleanli- A disadvantage of the diaphragm
the soft valve body has the ability to ness, bubble-tight shutoff, and chemi- valve is that there are no industry-

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM AUGUST 2004 35

 Emerson Process Management

Cover Story

standard face-to-face dimensions, so FIGURE 3. Butterfly valves are

in general these valves can not be so named because of their wing-
easily retrofitted or used to replace like operation. In general, they
other valve types. Other drawbacks are used for throttling service
and other applications that re-
for diaphragm valves are the multi-
quiring frequent operation
turn operation and the relatively
lower pressure and temperature lim- will perish if the valve is ex-
itations when compared with most posed to fire for a long pe-
other valve types. riod. So when flammable
liquids are used with a ball
Ball valves valve, the valve must be de- cate the valve, and also pro-
This rotational-motion valve uses a signed so that it continues to vides a hydraulic-jack force to
ball-shaped disk with a hole bored seal in the event of a fire. A sec- lift the plug within the body,
through to to stop or start fluid flow. ondary metal seat in close proximity thereby reducing force required for ro-
When the valve handle is turned to the to the ball is typically used in such tary operation. The sealing fluid is in-
open position, the ball is rotated so cases. With this design, the ball can troduced to the seating through the
that the hole lines up with the valve float against the metal seat if the soft shank of the plug by an injection gun.
body’s inlet and outlet. When the ball seat is consumed by the fire. Another Non-lubricated plug valves are ei-
is rotated so the hole is perpendicular factor to consider is that the poly- ther sleeved or fully lined to elimi-
to the flow, the valve is closed. Because meric seats and packings used in ball nate the need for lubrication. In a
the ball move across the seats with a valves can electrically insulate the sleeved plug valve, the plug is sur-
wiping motion, ball valves can handle ball and stem from the valve body. rounded by a conically shaped sleeve
fluids with suspended solids. However, Therefore, the ball valve should be of PTFE, which is a low-friction seal-
abrasive solids will damage the seat equipped with an antistatic device ing material. The sleeve is first fitted
and ball surfaces. Recently, ball valves when used for flammable fluids. into the body and acts as a seat for
have been used as control valves. closure once the plug is installed. The
Ball valves are available in venturi, Plug valves plug is continually under pressure
reduced and full-port patterns. The Plug valves have a cylindrical or ta- from the bonnet assembly to main-
full-port pattern has a ball with a pered plug with a hole bored through. tain sleeve and plug contact. So even
bore equal to the inside diameter of As with ball valves, fluid flows when in very low pressure applications, the
pipe. To economize the valve con- the hole in the plug is aligned with the operating torque of a plug valve re-
struction, most ball valves instead pipe, and a quarter turn of the plug mains high. Fully lined valves use
have a reduced bore with a venturi stops the flow. The plugs can be de- PTFE to cover inexpensive ductile
shaped flow passage of about three signed for multiport configurations. iron for the body and plug. This en-
quarters the nominal valve size. The Plug valves often have fluorocarbon ables the valve to resist aggressive
pressure drop across reduced-port seating materials and in some cases fluids without having to use more-ex-
valves is so small that cost of a full are fully lined with fluorocarbons, pensive alloys for the body.
bore valve is not normally justified which provides excellent protection for Eccentric plug valves are essentially
unless it is required for special opera- corrosive applications that require plug valves with the plug cut in half.
tions, like pigging of pipelines. bubble-tight shutoff. Plug valves are The advantage of this design is that a
Advantages of ball valves are ease normally not used for throttling. If the higher seating force is achieved with
of operation, high flow capacity, and a fluid handled by the valve is flamma- minimal friction when turning from
high pressure and temperature toler- ble, the valve must have antistatic pro- open to closed position. The design
ance. In addition, they have the abil- tection to ensure electrical contact be- uses a resilient, coated plug segment
ity to provide fire-safe protection, and tween the plug, stem and body of the that rotates 90 degrees from open to
they can handle severe service chemi- valve. Plug valves have the drawback close into a raised eccentric metal body
cals. Ball valves typically have lower that a high torque is often required for seat. Eccentric plug valves are avail-
cost and weight, and provide tight operation. Also, the cavity of the plug able with variety of plug facings to pro-
shutoff and low stem leakage. They can lead to contamination by en- vide tight shutoff without the need for
can be adapted to for use in multiple trapped solids. There are several dif- sealing lubricants. As the plug closes,
port configurations. ferent types of plug valves commonly it moves towards the seat without
The most important seat material used in the CPI, including lubricated, scraping the seat or body walls.
for ball valves is PTFE, which is inert nonlubricated and eccentric types. Eccentric plug valves are used for
to almost all chemicals. It has a low co- Lubricated plug valves provide shutoff and throttling of raw sewage,
efficient of friction and excellent seal- tight shutoff for process fluids and slurries, air, water, gases and all
ing properties. For services unsuitable have been found to be suitable for types of sludge. They are used exten-
for soft seating, metal seating is used. abrasive fluids. The plug of such sively in water and wastewater treat-
The soft material commonly used valves has grooves, which retain a lu- ment because they offer straight-
for the seat and stem of ball valves bricant that serves to seal and lubri- through flow and high capacity.

36 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM AUGUST 2004

 Flowserve

FIGURE 4. This control valve because they will erode the disc. ploying gate valves and for lines hav-
has been designed specifically Butterfly valves can be wafer ing low-velocity flow. Swing check
for high-pressure-drop applica- type or lug type. The wafer type is valves should not be used on lines
tions where entrained solids are
a problem, such as for system
clamped between two pipeline with pulsating flow because the con-
startup and boiler-feedwater re- flanges. This construction has the tinuous flapping or pounding will de-
circulation. The valve features a advantage that the bolts pulling stroy the seating element.
linear multistage plug design for the mating flanges together Lift check valves are commonly used
high rangeability and accurate carry all the tensile stress in- in piping systems in which globe
throttling. Cavitation is pre-
vented by the design of the mul- duced by the line strains and valves are being used for flow control.
tistage trim and a venturi outlet put the wafer in compression. It They can be installed in both horizon-
nozzle protects the trim and is a fact that all metals handle tal or vertical lines. They can be used
seat from high velocity, cavi- compressive loads of up to for high fluid velocities. In lift check
tation and flashing
twice their limit for tensile valves, the closing member moves
loads. Hence, a wafer type along a guide to ensure that the seat-
valve can be made using thin- ing mate on closing. However if dirt
ner materials. enters the guide, it can hang up the
A lug-type butterfly valve closure member, and viscous fluid will
has a flanged body or a cause lazy valve operation, so lift
lugged-wafer body in which check valves must be used for low-vis-
Butterfly valves lugs are threaded at each end cosity fluid only.
Butterfly valves get their to receive screws from the ad- Tilting-disk check valves keep the
name from the winglike jacent flanges. The lug type is fluid resistance and turbulence low
action of the flow-control- used when the pipeline down- because of their straight-through de-
ling disk that opens and stream of the valve needs to be sign. The disk check valves can be in-
closes at right angles to the disconnected while equipment stalled in horizontal lines or in verti-
flow path, as shown in Figure upstream of the valve must re- cal lines having upwards flow. The
3. Butterfly valves were intro- main under pressure. airfoil design of the disk allows it to
duced to counteract the prob- High-performance butterfly float on the flow. As flow decreases,
lems associated with linear-valve de- valves feature a stem which is offset the disk starts closing and seals be-
signs (especially gate valves), such as from the center line of the pipe. This fore reverse flow occurs. These valves
the relatively large size and weight, offset design generates a camming ac- are available with a soft seat ring or
the high operating force required, and tion, which allows for different types metal seat ring.
the tendency to leak. Instead of a long of sealing technologies, when com-
stroke, the butterfly valve requires a pared to resilient seated valves. These Safety valves
quarter turn to cycle from full open to valves have high pressure and tem- The safety valves are used to prevent
full closed position. perature ratings and can offer differ- damage to equipment and piping by re-
Butterfly valves can be used for ent disk seating technology with pre- lieving accidental overpressurization of
both on/off and throttling applica- mium materials. the fluid system. The main difference
tions. They have a relatively high Cv between a relief valve and a safety
value and thus present a low pressure Check valves valve is the extent of opening at the
drop. They have minimum-wear sur- The purpose of a check (or non-return) pressure set point. A relief valve gradu-
faces, which also reduces the torque valve is to allow fluid flow in one pre- ally opens as the inlet pressure in-
requirement for operation. Other ad- ferred direction and to prevent back creases above the set point. A relief
vantages of butterfly valves are that flow or flow in the opposite direction. valve opens only as necessary to relieve
they generally work well with flow Ideally, a check valve will begin to close the over pressure condition.
from either direction, they can be as the pressure drops in a pipeline and A safety valve rapidly pops fully open
made fire and blow-out resistant, they the fluid momentum slows. When the as soon as the pressure setting is
have no blocked-in volume when flow direction reverses, the check valve reached. A safety valve will stay fully
closed and usually do not leak through should close completely. Check valves open until the pressure drops below a
the seat, and they require minimum can be of the following types: swing, lift reset pressure. The reset pressure is al-
space for mounting. and tilting disk. ways lower than actuating pressure set
The primary drawback of a butterfly Swing check valves allow full unob- point. The difference between the actu-
valve is that the disc and shaft are lo- structed flow and automatically close ating pressure set point and the pres-
cated in the flow path of the fluid. as pressure decreases. The valve be- sure at which the safety valve resets is
Therefore, butterfly valves are inap- comes fully closed when the flow called blowdown.
propriate when full flow is required, or reaches zero. Turbulence and pres- Relief valves are used for incompress-
when pigging is required for cleaning sure drop within the valve are very ible fluids such as water or oil, safety
the lines. Highly abrasive media also low. A swing check valve is normally valves are used for compressible fluids
present a problem for butterfly valves recommended for use in systems em- such as steam or gases.

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM AUGUST 2004 37

 A B
Red Valve

Cover Story

Control valves
Among the valve types described
above, check and safety valves are all FIGURE 5. Check valves permit flow in only one direction.
self actuated. The other types can all This all-elastomer design opens with positive pressure (a) and
be used as control valves. Three differ- reverse pressure seals the "bill" to prevent backflow
ent flow characteristics are used for
selecting a control valve: threaded or a flanged end connec- the quantity of water (in gallons per
Quick opening. A valve with a quick- tion. As a rule of thumb, threaded minute) that flows through the
opening throttle plug generates a valve joints should be used for a pipe valve at 60°F and a pressure differ-
curve that has a steep slope for the size of up to 40 mm (1.5 in.) NB and ential of 1 psi.
first quarter of its lift and a gradual for temperatures up to 200°C. Oth- A first approximation for sizing a
slope thereafter. Quick opening valves erwise a flanged end should be used. valve is the relation
are generally used for frequent on-off 3. Type of medium. Is the medium a
Cv = Q(G/DP)1/2
service and when a large flow is gas, liquid, or slurry? Is it corrosive?
needed immediately. They are also The first question has been ad- where Q is the required fluid flow
used in processes where a small per- dressed above for each type of valve. (in gallons per minute), G is the spe-
centage of the total pressure drop is If the fluid is corrosive, the wetted cific gravity of the fluid, and DP the
permitted by the valve. Gate, globe parts must be selected to be compat- pressure drop in psi.
and plug valves are quick opening. ible, such as PTFE (for details on 6. Pressure drop. The full-open pres-
Linear. In this case, the valve travel is materials of construction for valves, sure drop across the valve must be
directly proportional to the valve see CE, May 2001, pp.69–71). high enough to allow the valve to
stroke. These types are used in liquid- 4. Temperature and pressure. The exercise control over the hydraulic
level and flow loops. They are also used temperature and pressure of the system, but must not exceed the
in systems where pressure drop across medium being controlled should not valve rating for normal life. Closed
the valve is expected to remain con- exceed the maximum temperature pressure drop must not exceed the
stant. Globe, ball, plug and butterfly and pressure rating of the valve. rating of the valve and actuator.
valves offer linear behavior. Normally the tensile strength and 7. Shutoff requirement. Is tight
Equal percentage. A valve with an the life of metallic materials de- shutoff necessary? Single-seated
equal percentage throttling plug gener- grade as the temperature increases. valves must provide tight shutoff,
ates a curve such that a fixed step At the other extreme, metallic ma- whereas double-seated valves do
change in valve lift provides an equal terials loose ductility at low (cryo- not. Double seated valves are ac-
percentage step change in flow over the genic) temperatures and brittle ceptable for use in pressure-bypass
previous step. This behavior provides a fractures can occur. or inline-throttling application. If
small flow changes for the first half of The pressure and temperature two machined metallic surfaces join
the valve lift and large flow changes rating for flanged and butt-welded together to seal the leakage in a
over the last half. These are used in valves are given in ANSI B 16.34, a valve, the roughness consist of very
processes where a large change in pres- standard for piping system design. small irregularities superimposed
sure drop are expected, as well as in 5. Proper sizing. Selecting the proper on each other to get the result. If the
temperature and pressure control port size of the valve is one of the material has a high yield strain, the
loops. Globe and butterfly valves can be most important factor for control- leakage passage formed by surface
used for equal-percentage opening. ling the system. A valve that is too irregularities can be closed by elas-
small will not provide the desired tic deformation alone. Rubber,
SELECTION OF VALVES capacity during peak-load condi- which has a yield strain of approxi-
The following points provide a guide tions, whereas a valve that is too mately 1,000 times that of mild
to correct valve selection. large will overshoot the control steel, provides a fluid-tight seal
1. Function of valves: What function point and operate with the valve without being stressed above the
will the valve perform: on-off only, disc or plug too close to the seat, re- elastic limit. If both the surfaces are
control, fail safe, other? What type sulting in undue wear. metallic, a very high load is re-
of valve best suits your needs: gate, In almost all cases, the valve quired to cause plastic deformation
globe, ball, butterfly, check or should have a smaller size than the of underlying material. So the con-
pinch? This point has been dis- pipeline in which it will be installed. tact between the two faces need to
cussed above. However, the valve should never be extend along a continuous line to
2. Piping arrangement. What is the smaller than half the pipeline size, produce a fluid-tight seal.
piping arrangement and size? The because this will impose extreme 8. Valve components.
piping arrangement indicates mechanical stress on the pipeline. a. Body and bonnet. The main
whether a two- or three-way mixing To calculate an appropriate port considerations in selecting materi-
or diverting valve is needed. The size, one requires a value for the als for the pressurized body are
piping size also give an indication flow coefficient, Cv. A vendor cata- temperature, pressure, and resis-
whether the valve requires a log will give a valve’s Cv valve as tance to corrosion and erosion.

38 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM AUGUST 2004

 Corrosion resistance of the fluid service. A union bonnet is used enough to install the valve, or is
depends on composition of fluid, its when coupling and uncoupling of outside help is required?
concentration and the temperature. the valve body from the bonnet is • What will outside help cost?
Erosion resistance of material should frequently required. Male/female • Is there a dealer or distributor
have high yield point, high fatigue joints or tongue and groove joints nearby that can supply parts?
strength and a higher hardness. are recommended for high pressure, • How long will you have to wait
b. Trim. The internal elements that high temperature application. They for parts?
are in direct contact with the fluid also ensure alignment of bonnet to • If the wait for parts means your
are called trim. For a gate valve, for body. The pressure-seal bonnet is process is down, how much it will
example, the stem, body, seat ring, intended for high-pressure high- cost in lost product? n
seating surfaces, disc and backseat temperature services and also en- Edited by Gerald Ondrey
bushing are the trim. The factors for ables the valve to be easily assem-
selecting the trim material are fluid bled and disassembled.
Author
temperature, and corrosion, erosion, 10. Other factors. After selecting the Trinath Sahoo is the deputy
and wear resistance of the material. correct type of valve that meets manager of the engineering
services department at Indian
c. Body-to-bonnet connection. A your application, along with the Oil Corporation Ltd. (Haldia
valve’s body-to-bonnet connection proper size and compatible materi- Refinery, Dist. Midnapur,
West Bengal, India PIN-
depends upon the application, tem- als, some other factors to consider 721606; Phone: +91-3224-223-
perature, pressure and hazard re- are the following: 926; Fax: +91-3224-252-202;
Email: [email protected]).
sulting from possible leakage. • How critical is availability? He has more than 10 years ex-
The different type of body-to-bon- • Can the valve be automated? perience in design and engi-
neering of piping and pressure
net joints are, threaded, bolted, • How much should it cost? vessels for process plants. He has also been in-
volved in the design, engineering and execution of
seal-welded, pressure-seal, and • How much time does it take to in- projects at Indian Oil’s Haldia Refinery dealing
union bonnets. The threaded bonnet stall the valve? with microcrystalline wax and sulfur recovery He
has a mechanical engineering degree from the
is generally used for low-pressure • Are your employees skilled University College of Engineering (Orissa, India).

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CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM AUGUST 2004 39