The Role of Rain Water Harvesting For Food Security in Ethiopia (A Review)

Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare www.iiste.
org
ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online)
Vol.6, No.13, 2016
The Role of Rain Water Harvesting for Food security in Ethiopia

(A Review)
Abayneh Wubetu
College of Post Graduate Studies, Debre Markos University, PO box 269, Debre Markos, Ethiopia
Lists of abbreviations
ADLI Agriculture development led industrialization
CSA Central Statistics Agency
EIAR Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research
ERDO Emergency Relief & Development Overseas
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FFW Food-for–Work
FDRE Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia
GDP Gross Domestic Production
ICID International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage
IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development
JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency
Kebele Smallest administrative unit in the Ethiopian structure
Mha. Million Hectares
MMt. Million Metric Tons
MoARD Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development
MOWR Ministry of water resources
NAPA Climate change national adaptation programme of action
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
OARI Oromia Agricultural Research Institute
OIDA Oromia Irrigation Development Authority
RWH Rainwater Harvesting
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNFCCC UN Framework Convention on Climate Change
Woreda Administrative boundary comprising various Kebeles
WUE Water Use Efficiency
Abstract
Ethiopia, a country with an area of 1.2 million km2 is located in the region that is known as the Horn of Africa.
Agriculture is the back bone of the country’s economy and mainly practiced under rain-fed conditions. The main
type of farming system was mixed farming that involves the production of crops and rearing of livestock mainly
for subsistence. Ethiopia is the second most populous country in Africa with a total population estimated at 90
million with a growth rate of 2.6 percent and the majority of the population lives in the rural areas and depends
on agriculture as their primary source of livelihood. Rain-fed agriculture in arid and semi-arid areas of Ethiopia
is suffering from moisture stress due to drought which is a major limiting factor for successful crop production
which intern results food insecurity. In Ethiopia recurrent drought, low productivity, population pressure,
flooding, Rural-urban migration, poor saving trends, Lack of infrastructure, Poor rural asset base, Low education
level were the factors for food insecurity. Surprisingly, Ethiopia is well-endowed with water resources. The total
annual runoff is estimated at 110 billion m3 however, much of which are carried away by trans-boundary Rivers.
Groundwater reserves are estimated at 2.6 billion m3. Even if these natural resource bases have a potential for
supporting a far greater number of people than the current population food shortages and high levels of
malnutrition continue to affect a large number of people in several parts of the country. Therefore, RWH is one
option to use runoff in a better way by capturing and storing when rainfall is abundant for periods when water is
scarce. So, different sources such as journals, proceedings, thesis works, symposium and annual reports have
been reviewed in this paper to emphasize the role of RWH for food security in Ethiopia.
Keywords: Rain water harvesting, Food Security, Poverty, Ethiopia
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background and Justification
Ethiopia, situated in the Horn of Africa, has a population of nearly 90 million and a surface area of 1.2 million
square kilometers, of which 65% is suitable for arable farming. Agriculture is the country's largest economic
sector, contributing about 43% of the country's GDP and employing more than 85% of the working population.
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Production systems are dominated by smallholder farming under rain-fed conditions with little mechanization.
Subsistence mixed farming with crop cultivation and livestock husbandry is practiced on most farms. Agriculture
is highly dependent on rainfall, and hence the onset, duration, amount and distribution of the rainfall determines
the performance of the agriculture sector and the economy of the country in general. More than 95% of the
country's agricultural output is generated by subsistence farmers who, on average, own less than 1 ha of
cultivated land with poor soil fertility as a result of continuous cropping and little input of nutrients to replace
removal with harvest (K. Tesfaye Fantaye, 2015).
Ethiopia is known for its ecological diversity that ranges from tropical to temperate conditions. Altitude
ranges from -126 meters below sea level in the Danakil Depression in the northeast to 4620 meters above sea
level in the Ras Dashen Mountains in the northwest. In central highland plateaus, where major cereal crops are
grown, elevation ranges from 1800 to 3000 meters above sea level with mean annual rainfall ranging from 950-
1500 mm and mean annual temperature from 11-21°C. Ecological and socio-cultural diversity creates favorable
conditions to support tremendous diversity of fauna and flora such that the country is a center of origin and
biodiversity for many cultivated crops and their wild relatives. According to global agro ecological zone
classification based on length of growing period (FAO, 2010), the major crop growing areas of the country are
found in the sub-humid, humid and moist-semiarid climatic zones. On the other hand, the Ministry of
Agriculture and Rural Development (MoARD, 2005) classified the country into 32 major agro-ecological zones
and categorized about 51% of the total land area of the country under arid, semi-arid and sub-moist zones and
the other half in moist to humid zones. From among 18 major soil types, Nitosols (23%), Cambisols (19%), and
Vertisols (18%) comprise more than half the arable land area in the different agro-ecologies of the country
(Paulos, 2001; K. Tesfaye Fantaye, 2015).
About 15% of the county's area is currently used for the production of major food crops. Major staple
crops include cereals, pulses, oilseeds, roots and tubers, vegetables, fruits and coffee. According to the recent
Ethiopian Central Statistical Agency report (CSA, 2013), grain crops (cereals, pulses and oil crops) are
cultivated on 13.9 Million Hectare (Mha.) with annual production of 25.1 million metric tons (MMt). According
to the same report, cereals, pulses and oil crops constituted 78, 15, and 7% of the cultivated area and 85, 12 and
3% the total grain production of the country, respectively in the main rainy season of 2012/2013. Cereals are the
most important field crops and the chief element in the diet of most Ethiopians (K. Tesfaye Fantaye, 2015).
Principal cereals are teff (an indigenous principal staple crop), wheat, barley, maize, sorghum and millet.
Wheat is grown mostly between 1,500 and 2,700 meters above sea level whereas maize, sorghum and millet are
cultivated at lower elevations in the warmer areas of the country. Sorghum and millet, which are drought
resistant, are grown in regions with low and uncertain rainfall. Maize is mainly grown between 1,500 and 2,200
meters above sea level and requires relatively higher seasonal rainfall to ensure good harvests. These major food
crops are produced in almost all regions of the country but with large variations in terms of volume of production
(K. Tesfaye Fantaye, 2015).
Ethiopia is one of the most famine-prone countries with a long history of famines and food shortages. In
Ethiopia, food insecurity among the population is widespread, and most devastatingly, there have been famines
that have cost the lives of about a million people. Ethiopia is one of the world’s poorest countries with indicators
suggesting low levels of development. Many Ethiopians live in conditions of chronic hunger with both a low
average daily energy supply (kcal/capita/day) of 1880 and a very high (44%) prevalence of undernourishment
(Adnew 2004; Anne van der Veen and Tagel Gebrehiwot, 2011). Frequent droughts are not the only factors
contributing to Ethiopia's food security problems. Low agricultural productivity, poverty, food insecurity, and
land degradation are pervasive and interconnected problems in the Ethiopian highlands (Holden and Shiferaw,
2004; Anne van der Veen and Tagel Gebrehiwot, 2011). Social factors such as population pressure, traditional
farming systems and practices, and economic limitations like poor infrastructural services, shortage of farm land
and other productive assets, are also factors responsible for households’ food insecurity (Anne van der Veen and
Tagel Gebrehiwot, 2011).
Food security is a concept that has evolved over time. According to Hoddinott (1999), there are
approximately 200 definitions and 450 indicators of food security. In the mid-1970s, definitions of food security
focused on aggregate food supplies at national and global levels, and analysts advocated production self-
sufficiency as a strategy for nations to achieve food security. In the 1980s, the focus of food security shifted from
global and national levels to household and individual levels. Definitions further underwent another round of
evolution after the 1996 World Food Summit (Anne van der Veen and Tagel Gebrehiwot, 2011).
According to the refined definition of United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) food
security “exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and
nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life”. Poverty
encompasses different dimensions of deprivation that relate to human capabilities and is thus closely intertwined
with food security (ICID, 2012).
National food security is when there is a satisfactory balance between food demand and food supply at
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reasonable prices. But this is subject to the influence of the different factors which affect agricultural production,
including for example natural phenomena, population increase and market volatility. For households to be
assessed as foods secure their food consumption should be greater than their needs as defined by the aggregate of
individual requirements. For an individual to be food secure, his or her food consumption should be greater than
their needs as defined by physiological requirements and also the earnings, assets and position in the household
(FAO, 2014).
Four dimensions of food security can be identified: physical availability of food, economic and physical
access to food, food utilization and stability of these other three dimensions over time.
1. Availability of sufficient quantities of food of appropriate qualities, supplied through domestic production or
imports (including food aid). Food availability addresses the supply side of food security and is determined by
the level of food production, food stock levels and net trade;
2. Accessibility of appropriate foods for a nutritious diet is strongly determined by the level of available
resources to acquire those foods. Concerns about insufficient food access have resulted in a greater policy focus
on incomes and expenditure in achieving food security. Accessibility brings food security closer to poverty
reduction;
3. Food security is also about meeting nutritional requirements. Though it was traditionally perceived as
consuming sufficient protein and energy (food quantity), the importance of micro-nutrients for a balanced and
nutritious diet (food quality) is now well appreciated. The converse of this is malnutrition, which is the condition
that results from taking an unbalanced diet in which certain nutrients are lacking, in excess (too high an intake),
or in the wrong proportions;
4. Stability dimension of food security is about maintaining all above conditions at all time and reducing the risk
of adverse effects of a shock (e.g. an economic crisis or climatic extreme event) or cyclical events (seasonal food
insecurity). Food insecurity appears whenever one of the above mentioned conditions is not met (ICID, 2012).
Drought and environmental degradation are important natural factors that make households vulnerable to food
shortage. If the agricultural sector is nearly totally dependent on rainfall and any weather fluctuation or rainfall
failure means loss of a major livelihood source that always accentuates food deficit. Von Braun (1991), for
example, reported that a 10% decline in rainfall below its long average results in a 4.4% reduction in national
food production (Anne van der Veen and Tagel Gebrehiwot, 2011).
Water needs are directly proportional to population growth. Agriculture still accounts for at least 70%of
the world’s total water usage. Whenever the demand for freshwater increases, a competition among municipal,
industrial, and agricultural sectors, often results in a decreased allocation to agriculture and threatens food
security. Water harvesting and water conservation techniques have been successful in improving food security in
some developing countries through an ecological approach that requires collective action at the local level, as
well as the participation of governmental and non-governmental organizations (Rosegrant and Cline, 2003;
Komariah and Masateru Senge, 2013). The importance of interdisciplinary and integrated approaches was
revealed through detailed impact assessment and economic evaluation of rainwater harvesting studies. It was
shown that these approaches have various functions, e.g., water supplementation, flood prevention, water table
recharge, and water erosion control (Ouessars et al., 2004; Komariah and Masateru Senge, 2013).
1.2. Statement of the problem

Poor distribution of rainfall due to dry spells together with low nutrient input during critical growth stages lead
to low yields or crop failure; hence there is a need for dry spell mitigation by improving water productivity in
sub-Saharan Africa (Komariah and Masateru Senge, 2013). As in other sub-Sahara African countries, Ethiopia is
one of the most famine-prone countries with a long history of famines and food shortages that can be traced back
to 250 BC (Webb and von Braun 1994; Fitsume Y. et al., 2014).
In Ethiopia, food insecurity among the population is widespread. Serious food shortages and high levels
of malnutrition continue to affect a large number of people in several parts of Ethiopia. On the other hand the
country is known as the Water-tower of North-Eastern Africa for its source of 12 big River Basins including the
Blue Nile. The country is currently economically unable to optimally utilize its large rivers for different
development purposes in line with national/regional/local interest. The only water resource available is rainfall
as a local source and this is why rain water harvesting is extremely necessary.
Even though the country has huge water resources; 12 river basins with an annual runoff volume of 122
billion cubic meter of water with an estimated 2.6 billion m3 of ground water potential, the effort made so far to
exploit these resources is extremely low (Awulachew et al., 2005; Fitsume Y. et al., 2014).
A decline in productivity, a scarcity of arable land, irrigation expansion limitations, erratic rainfall, and
frequent dry spells are the challenges faced by small-scale farmers in Ethiopia, hence there should be increased
adoption of new rainwater harvesting (RWH) technologies to enhance water productivity for the rain-fed
agriculture.
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1.3. Objective
The main objective of this work was therefore, to review the different efforts done, achievements obtained and
roles played by promotion of rain water harvesting technologies in sustaining agricultural production during the
previous decade and to its future roles on food security in Ethiopia.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

For the success of this term paper, different sources such as journals, proceedings, thesis works, Symposium and
annual reports related to rain water harvesting have been reviewed. The history, definition, classification,
components, benefits, roles, policy constraints, previous research results, success and achievements in rain water
harvesting have been properly presented. In addition, determinants, causes, status, demographic and socio-
economic aspects of food security will be rationally examined and documented.
3. LITERATURE REVIEW
3.1 History of Water Harvesting
Storage of water in small ponds, tanks or cisterns has been practiced widely throughout the world for millennia.
Water stored in ponds or tanks is used for a variety of purposes in North Africa since the Roman times. Some of
these are reported to be in operation in Tunisia and Egypt (Gharp, 2003; Fitsume Y. et al., 2014). In some of the
very earliest agriculture, in the Negev Desert of Israel, water-harvesting systems dating back 4000 years or more
have been discovered (Evanari et al., 1971; Fitsume Y. et al., 2014). A growing awareness about the potential of
rainwater harvesting for improved crop production was observed in Africa during the 1970s and 1980s when
there was a wide spread droughts that resulted in crop failures. A number of rainwater harvesting projects were
constructed in sub-Saharan Africa during the past three decades which costed considerable amount of money,
time, and efforts. Their objective was to combat the effects of droughts by improving plant production and
rehabilitating abandoned and degraded land (Critchley and Reij; 1989 Fitsume Y. et al., 2014).
Rainwater harvesting in Ethiopia has a long history with strong attachment to the ancient Orthodox
churches (Habtamu, 1999; Fitsume Y. et al., 2014). Getachew and Habtamu (1999) indicated that the history of
rainwater harvesting in Ethiopia date back to pre Axumit period (560 BC) (Fitsume Y. et al., 2014). During this
period rainwater was harvested and stored in ponds and tanks for agriculture and water supply purposes. The
remains of an ancient roof- water harvesting system is still visible in the oldest palaces in Axum. Other
evidences include the remains of one of the old castles in Gondar, constructed in the 15 and16th century and
Lalibela Rock hewn churches (over 800 years ago), including a pool that was used to store water used for
religious rituals. Rainwater harvesting systems in monasteries like Mahbre Selassie in Gondar and Debrekerbie
in Shoa can be mentioned as examples. In south of the country, the Konso people have had a long and well
established tradition of building level terraces to harvest rainwater that is used to produce sorghum successfully
under extremely harsh environment characterized by low, erratic and unreliable rainfall (Gharp,2003; Fitsume Y.
et al., 2014).
In the Ogaden (Eastern Ethiopia), Brikass are used to store rainwater. People in North Omo (Gatto
Valley), Eastern Hararghe, and other parts of the country have been practicing the art of conserving soil and
water (Habtamu, 1999; Fitsume Y. et al., 2014). The promotion and application of rainwater harvesting systems
as an alternative to address water scarcity were started in Ethiopia through government initiatives of soil and
water conservation programs in response to the 1971-74 droughts with the introduction of the Food-for–Work
(FFW) program. The initial rainwater harvesting activities included construction of ponds, micro dams, micro
basins, bunds, and terraces in most parts of the drought affected areas (Kebede, 1995; Fitsume Y. et al., 2014).
3.2 Definition and Classification of Water Harvesting

There are a dozen different terminologies of WH and classifications of WH techniques used at the regional and
international levels that have not yet been standardized. The commonly used are listed below:-
ü Water harvesting is “The collection and management of floodwater or rainwater runoff to increase
water availability for domestic and agricultural use as well as ecosystem sustenance” (IFAD, 2013). It is
the collection of runoff and its use for irrigation of crops, pastures and trees, and for livestock
consumption (Finkel and Finkel, 1986; IFAD, 2013).
ü Rainwater harvesting is the collection and concentration of rainfall to make it available for domestic or
agricultural uses in dry areas where moisture deficit is the primary limiting factor (Liniger et al., 2011;
IFAD, 2013).
ü In-situ rain water harvesting is collecting of the rainfall on the surface where it falls (Lakew Desta,
2006).
ü Ex-situ rain water harvesting is collecting of runoff originating from rainfall over a surface elsewhere
(Lakew Desta, 2006).
ü Water can be collected from catchments, rooftops, courtyards and similar compacted or treated surfaces.
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Therefore, based on the water source RWH can be classified in to:-

A. Flood water harvesting can be defined as the collection and storage of ephemeral channel flow
for irrigation of crops, fodder and trees, and for groundwater recharge (IFAD, 2013).
B. Macro/Micro-catchment RWH is a method of harvesting runoff water from a large/small
natural catchment such as the slope of a mountain or hill (IFAD, 2013).
C. Roof top RWH: Harvesting of rainwater can be from roofs of private, public or commercial
buildings using different over ground storage structures (IFAD, 2013).
D. Courtyard RWH: Rainwater is collected from compacted, paved surfaces or where plastic
sheeting has been laid out ground surfaces using over ground or underground storage
structures (IFAD, 2013).
3.3. Components and benefits of rain water harvesting

The important components of the physical design elements for water harvesting are precipitation, soil type, soil
characteristics, runoff area ratio, runoff efficiency, and vegetation type (Komariah and Masateru Senge, 2013).
The development and selection of a water harvesting technique should consider all available water sources and
options for collection, storage, treatment and use, and should take into account the availability of local materials
and equipment’s. The best choice will also take into account socio-cultural, political, legal, environmental,
economic, management and organizational aspects (NWP, 2007; Komariah and Masateru Senge, 2013).
All WH systems must have the following components:-
1. Catchment area/run-off area, varying from a few square meters (micro-catchment) to as large as several
square kilo-meters (macro-catchment): the part of the land where a portion or all of the precipitation
which falls on it runs off its boundaries. It can be agricultural, rocky or marginal land, or even a rooftop
or a paved road.
2. Storage facility: the place where the run-off water is held from the time it occurs until it is utilized by
crops, animals, human beings and/or other uses. Storage can be: (i) above the soil surface as in surface
reservoirs or ponds; (ii) in the soil profile as soil moisture; and/or (iii) underground in cisterns or as
groundwater in aquifers.
3. Target or use: the beneficiary of the stored water. In agricultural production, the target is the plant or
the animal, whereas in domestic use, it refers to human beings and their needs (T. Oweis and A.
Hachum, 2009).
Water, is probably the strategic entry point, for reducing risk of crop failure due to water scarcity.
Improved rain water harvesting may result in improved crop yields, food security and better livelihood among
households (Nyamadzawo et al., 2013; Komariah and Masateru Senge, 2013). Water harvesting is a promising
technique that is widely accepted throughout the world and is used to cope with water scarcity problems in
agricultural production. Micro- and macro-water harvesting techniques are implemented in arid, semi-arid, and
tropical regions depending on the purpose and the circumstances. The implementation of a water harvesting
system has been shown to have a positive impact on agricultural production by providing irrigation water during
critical growing stage of crops, hence increasing the yields. A water harvesting system also helps to reduce
runoff velocity and soil erosion, and thus, contributes to groundwater recharge (Komariah and Masateru Senge,
2013).
Besides the increase in agricultural productivity, RWH technologies were also found to bring benefits in
enhancing household food security and rising incomes (Mutekwa and Kusangaya, 2006). Specifically, Vohland
and Barry (2009) concluded that in-situ rainwater harvesting practices improved hydrological indicators such as
infiltration and groundwater recharge, soil nutrients were enriched, biomass production increased, and soil
temperatures improved (Li et al., 2000; Komariah and Masateru Senge, 2013).
Rainwater harvesting practices are known to enhance floral diversity, modify the spatial structure of the
ecosystem, and increase the animal biodiversity as more biomass becomes available for food and shelter
(Rockström et al., 2004; Komariah and Masateru Senge, 2013).
The implementation of RWH increases the irrigation area, which changes more “blue” water into
“green” water. This has a positive impact on groundwater recharge but decreases stream flow downstream,
therefore increasing the resilience and sustainability of the groundwater system (Glendenning and Vervoort,
2011; Komariah and Masateru Senge, 2013). Water harvesting can be attractive to farmers because it reduces the
risk of crop loss from spatial or temporal drought, provides more options by extending the growing season,
supplies more “ rainfall ” to offer a wider selection of crops to grow, and allows “abandoned” land to be
cultivated (Tabor, 1995; Komariah and Masateru Senge, 2013).
3.4. Factors for Rain Water Harvesting site selection

Proper implementation including area selection and design could improve the performance of RWH and improve
the livelihoods of many poor. The identification of potential areas suitable for RWH is therefore the key for a
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successful RWH intervention. One of the main reasons for failure of RWH structures is the lack of scientifically
verified information which could be used to identify areas where RWH can be applied and for which type of
RWH techniques. The potential of areas for RWH depends on a multitude of parameters, either physical factors
like rainfall, land use, soil and topography and/or the combination of the physical factors and socio-economic
factors (Girma Moges, 2009).
FAO (2003) lists six key factors to be considered when identifying RWH sites: climate (rainfall),
hydrology (rainfall–runoff relationship and intermittent watercourses), topography (slope), agronomy (crop
characteristics), soils (texture, structure and depth) and socio-economic (population density, work force, people’s
priority, experience with RWH, land tenure, water laws, accessibility and related costs) aspects. For relatively
small areas, the critical factors can be assessed by field surveys. However, for larger areas the application of GIS
can be helpful for a first suitability screening with less time, cost and labor (Girma Moges, 2009).
3.5. Determinants and causes of Food Security

Factors that affect household food security in various developing countries especially in Africa have been
documented in some literature and these factors or determinants are most often than not location-specific (i.e.
different study areas were found to have variant attributes as food security determinants with some attributes
recurring). According to the studies conducted in Ethiopia, ownership of livestock, farmland size, family labor,
off farm income, market access, use of improved technology, education, health, amount of rainfall and
distribution, crop diseases, number of livestock and family size are identified as major determinants of household
food security. Household size and age of the household head have positive and significant effect on household
food insecurity; whereas, educational status of the household head, asset possession, credit access and access to
employment have negative effect (Birara Endalew, et al. 2015).
The other study conducted in Ethiopia, identified different factors that cause food insecurity. These are:
deterioration of food production capacity (due to drought and land degradation), population pressure and
instability and armed conflict. Poor soil fertility, land shortage, frost attack, chronic shortage of cash income,
poor farming technologies, weak extension services, high labor wastage and poor social and infrastructural
situation have caused the problem of food insecurity. Hence, a combination of factors has resulted in serious and
growing problem of food insecurity in Ethiopia. These will have cumulative effects on household level food
security status (Birara Endalew, et al. 2015).
3.6. Coping and Adaptive Strategies Practiced in Ethiopia

Household’s response to food insecurity is classified into two: coping strategies and adaptive strategies. Coping
strategies are responses made by households to improve the declining situation of households food security while
adaptive strategies involve, a permanent change in the mix of ways in which food is required, irrespective of the
year in question and it refer to long term adjustment. The most commonly practiced coping strategies during
abnormal season include short term dietary change, changing intra household food distribution like skipping
adults to feed children, limiting size and frequency of food, borrowing and gifts from relative and friends, mutual
support mechanism, selling of livestock and fire wood, cash for work and relief assistance, etc. while the
commonly used adaptive strategies include risk minimization, food and income diversification mechanism,
planting damage resistance crop, cultivating marginal soils, etc.…(Birara Endalew, et al. 2015).
Figure 1: Conceptual framework of yield-limiting variables (Daniel Kassahun, 2006).
3.7. Policy Constraints of RWH in Ethiopia

According to the study conducted by Daniel Kassahun (2006) in Central Ethiopia, the following policy issues
were found critical to affect the success of RWH :-
3.7.1. Poor Targeting: While RWH was primarily targeted to address the poorest of the poor, but the findings of
the research was quite the opposite. It was those who are better informed and those who have better resources
who grabbed the advantages of RWH.
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3.7.2. Biases in Approaches: Most RWH practices in Ethiopia have biased towards semi-arid areas. This is due
to the misconception that RWH could turn arid and semi-arid into agricultural lands. However, humid areas,
which receive “adequate” annual rainfall, suffer significantly from crop failure due to the erratic nature of
rainfall. The other RWH bias is the higher propensity to utilize RWH for horticultural than cereal crops.
3.7.3. Disoriented Subsidy Policy: Currently, the Ethiopian government has decided to withdraw its financial
and material support for the expansion of RWH ponds. On the contrary, soil and water conservation activities are
still heavily subsidized, which might be due to the long term economic and environmental return. During the
group discussion at Bati district, several farmers challenged the decision of the government, through the question
“which comes first: rehabilitation of degraded land or ensuring food production through expansion of ponds”?
Farmers argue that the government should continue to support RWH making.
3.7.4. Poor Linkages: RWH is a crosscutting issue and various forms of linkages, i.e., institutional, professional,
and the like are mandatory. It stipulates the active engagement of professionals such as civil engineers,
agronomist’s, health practitioners, crop protectionists, economists, environmentalists, etc. Likewise, the strong
linkage within sectors of the government (e.g., Agriculture, Water Resources, Health, etc.) and cooperation with
NGOs and research institutions is imperative. However, those linkages were absent in the survey areas.
Currently, RWH is new to many farmers of the survey areas where the available micro-credit services have not
been tuned to the expansion of RWH. Hune (2004), too, noted that the availability of credit facilities for RWH in
Ethiopia has been limited (Daniel, 2006).
3.7.5. Inadequate Knowledge Base: Before the launching of RWH, prior experiment was conducted in the
Nazareth area, which is characterized by erratic rainfall, sandy soil, deep water table, etc. The technology
generated from this area was diffused to the rest of the country. The approach followed was “one size fits all”.
There have been two practical limitations. First, the area selected for experimentation was not representative
enough for the diversified nature of the whole country including the study area. The second limitation was that
the generated knowledge was mainly engineering (mainly structural) and cost-benefit analysis. Information on
water lifting, irrigation scheduling, irrigation amount, crop protection, storage systems of crops, the maintenance
of ponds, etc., were not addressed.
3.8. State of Food Insecurity in the World

The Worlds' population is expected to grow from 7 billion in 2012 to 9 billion by 2050. This growth is especially
expected in the urban areas of the emerging and least developed countries, while no growth is expected anymore
in the developed countries. In addition the standard of living in the emerging countries (almost 75% of the
Worlds' population) is rapidly rising, among others resulting in changes in diet, with more animal products.
Graph1. Population and population growth in the least developed, emerging and developed countries
(data UNDP Population Reference Bureau, 2015).
The World population growth combined with the expected rise of living standards will require a
substantial increase of cereal production to ensure sustainable food security. Various organizations estimate that
a 70 - 100% increase in cereal production is required over the next 25 - 30 years. At present 55% of the food
comes from areas with a form of water management and 45% from the areas without any (only rain-fed) water
management system. At the cultivated area of about 1,500 million hectares most of the cultivation takes place
under rain-fed conditions without any water management system (i.e. 1,100 million ha) (ICID, 2012)
The global food challenge is huge and it will be a challenge to feed the additional 3 billion people by
2050(Conway 1997). About 95% of this population growth will occur in developing countries and this is a
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developmental challenge as most of their economies are agricultural based. The majority or two thirds of the
poorest people in the world are found among the 1.1 billion farmers who make their living from agriculture
(Rockström 2002; G. Nyamadzawo et al., 2013). For reference, the Food and Agriculture Organization has
estimated that in 2006, the number of people undernourished globally was 820 million. In order to feed the larger,
more urban and partially richer population, it is estimated that in the forthcoming 25 - 30 years food production
(net of food used for bio-fuels) would have to increase by 70 - 110% at global level and at least double in the
emerging and least developed countries (ICID, 2012).
Agricultural production is sensitive to a range of influencing factors. Among these factors are
developments in the sector, introduction of innovations in practice, market fluctuations, production conditions,
flooding and in case of rain-fed agriculture inter-annual variability of climate, especially the occurrence of
drought and environmental degradation. Given the wide range in the projections of changes in climate and a
possible increase in climate variability, increases in the frequency, severity, or duration of extreme climatic
events and environmental shifts may have significant impacts on the production of rain-fed food crops (ICID,
2012).
Droughts have been occurring more frequently because of global warming and they are expected to
become more frequent and intense in Africa, southern Europe, the Middle East, most of the Americas, Australia,
and Southeast Asia. Their impacts are aggravated because of increased water demand, population growth, urban
expansion, and environmental protection efforts in many areas. Droughts result in crop failures and the loss of
pasture grazing land for livestock (Ding Y. et al., 2011)
For instance, Evan Fraser has conducted a number of studies which show that the socio-economic
context of farming may play a huge role in determining whether a drought has a major, or an insignificant impact
on crop production. In some cases, it seems that even minor droughts have big impacts on food security such as
what happened in Ethiopia in the early 1980s where a minor drought triggered a massive famine (Fraser, E. et al.,
2008).
Rainfall does not infiltrate properly due to a combination of human-induced land degradation and high-
intensity rainfall events. In addition, most of the rainfall received in semi-arid regions is lost as runoff, and very
little water is harvested for plant growth or future use. In general, water harvesting has its largest potential in
semi-arid to dry sub-humid regions where crop water requirement is higher than supply due to low annual
rainfall, high evapotranspiration, uneven seasonal distribution and/or rainfall variability. In these regions, the
result of rainfall scarcity and/or high spatial and temporal variability is a high risk for annual droughts and inter-
seasonal dry spells. In sub-Sahara Africa, it has been estimated that 44% of the land surface is subject to high
risk of meteorological drought (SIWI, 2001).
Currently, of the 1.5 billion hectares of cropland worldwide, more than 80 percent depend on rainfall
alone, contributing to at least two-thirds of global food production (FAOSTAT, 2005). While the coverage of
rain-fed agriculture varies regionally, in developing regions including Latin America and Sub-Saharan Africa
more than 90 percent of cropland is rain-fed. But recent global precipitation patterns have been changed due to
climate change and will likely continue to do so, and rainwater harvesting systems have been regarded as an
important measure in climate change adaptation strategies (Komariah and Masateru Senge, 2013).
Table1. Approximate percent of cropland that is rain-fed (FAOSTAT, 2005)
Region %
Latin America 90
Middle East and North Africa 75
East Asia 65
South Asia 60
Sub-Saharan Africa 95
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Graph 2.Net crop production worldwide and in selected tropical countries.

Raw data from the United Nations (Wikipedia, 2015)
3.9. Status of Food security in Ethiopia

Ethiopia is generally characterized by extreme poverty, a high population growth rate, severe environmental
degradation and recurrent drought. As a result, agriculture, from which 85% of the country’s population derives
its livelihood, has performed so poorly over the last few decades that the country cannot adequately feed its
population from domestic production alone. This has manifested in both chronic and transitory food insecurity,
which have almost become a structural phenomenon and the way of life for a significant percentage of the
population (Messay Mulugeta, 2009).
In the last three decades food production in Ethiopia has been insufficient to render the population food
secure. For example, the food gap rose from 0.75 million tons in 1979/80 to 5 million tons in 1993/94, falling to
2.6 million tons in 1995/96 despite a record harvest. This clearly shows that over the last 20 years this cycle of
food insecurity has repeated itself, and each time the number of people affected gets larger, and the resulting
amount of human suffering and disease increases. (Mihret Jember and Tesfahun Asmamaw, 2014)
Drought and famine have become an everyday reality in Ethiopia. The country has faced three major
famines and numerous famine-like situations in the past three decades. The recurrent of famine in 1970s, 80s and
90s has affected significantly the country’s food production. During the period between 1958 and 1977 over 25
million people were directly affected by famine and drought. The number of death was estimated between three
and five million people. The 1984/85 famine alone had taken the lives of 300,000 people. It was estimated that
close to 58 million were affected by famine between 1973 and 1986 (Berhanu Gutema, 2001).
The percentage of people in rural areas who are unable to attain a minimum nutritional requirement is
estimated at 52%, and the prevalence of child malnutrition is very high. Perhaps the greatest challenge that the
country faces is that of ensuring food security. Serious food shortages and high levels of malnutrition continue to
affect a large number of people in several parts of Ethiopia. Many Ethiopians live in conditions of chronic
hunger, with a low average daily energy supply and a very high prevalence of malnutrition, estimated at about
44% of the total population (Mihret Jember and Tesfahun Asmamaw, 2014).
Majority of the Ethiopian rural population has been chronically suffering from mass poverty in more
severe situations than the urban dwellers. Under-nourishment and malnutrition are common in rural Ethiopia and
very large proportion of the peasants lives under absolute poverty. Moreover, landlessness, lack of means of
production, and large family size (majority of which are dependent) are the major characteristics of the Ethiopian
peasants at present (Messay Mulugeta, 2009)
Patterns of food consumption and dietary level in Ethiopia vary from place to place. Cereals such as
maize, teff (only grown in Ethiopia), barley, sorghum, wheat and millet are the main food source in most part of
the country. Nevertheless, the per capita consumption of cereals has shown a down ward trend since 1960s, for
instance in 1966 the per capita consumption was estimated to be 138.4 kg., whereas in 1984 the figure had fallen
to 94.5 kg. This figure is 50 percent less than the normal consumption ratio. The consumption level of a large
segment of the population is less than the average estimates and this depicts the prevalence of hunger among
many millions of people (Berhanu Gutema, 2001).
The Government of Ethiopia/UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) NAPA
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process identified arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas of the country as being most vulnerable to drought.
Agriculture was identified as the most vulnerable sector and, in terms of livelihoods, small-scale rain-fed
subsistence farmers and pastoralist were identified as the most affected. The NAPA process has identified and
prioritized 11project areas that address the immediate climate change adaptation needs in the country, focusing
on: human and institutional capacity building; improving natural resource management; enhancing irrigation
agriculture and water harvesting; strengthening early warning systems and awareness raising (Eva Ludi, 2009).
Food insecurity is a structural problem in many parts of rural Ethiopia. 32% of Ethiopians suffered from
malnutrition in 2015; and as late as 2014 Ethiopians' daily food calorie intake stood at 2,100, below the standard
2,200 required to sustain life, according to FAO statistics. The root cause of the problem cannot, therefore, be
addressed by short term crisis response measures. It requires moving beyond the immediate triggers such as
extreme weather events (drought and erratic rainfall) into the underlying causal factors (Urgessa Tura, 2015).
Experts, who extensively studied Ethiopia's food policy, observed that 'Ethiopia is the world's most
food aid dependent country', and since the 1980s it had annually received between 200,000 to 1.2 million metric
tons. In 2016 alone, it is estimated that Ethiopia needs two million metric tons of food aid to feed its starving
people. Thus, maximizing food aid has become a standard policy response for food emergency situation in the
country. However, this is a very dangerous approach as it distracts the government from addressing structural
problems that perpetuate this vicious cycle of food insecurity in the first place (Urgessa Tura, 2015).
These days, early warning systems alert the government when famine threatens, and in 2015, these
kicked into action after the spring and summer rains failed, leaving herders trapped in desert pastures and
farmers with extensive crop failures across the north and east of the country (USGS, 2016).
A climate disaster linked to a major “El Nino” weather pattern is moving across much of Africa.
Ethiopia is the hardest hit with an estimated 10.2 million people needing food because of crop failure. The World
Health Organization estimates “400,000 Ethiopian children will face severe malnutrition in 2016”. The typical
summer rains were severely affected this year, which has resulted in the worst drought the country has seen in
decades. This came immediately after failed spring rains, which has resulted in mass food insecurity and
malnutrition in impacted regions across the country. In addition to the wide-spread food crisis, water wells are
drying up and schools are starting to close in the worst-affected areas. Children are missing out on education,
and mothers are forced to walk for hours to find water (ERDO, 2016).
At first, some in the Ethiopian government claimed the country could handle the drought itself. But as
the numbers of needy increases skyrocketed, authorities issued an appeal. In December, they said about 10.2
million people were in need of $1.4 billion in aid, with 400,000 children severely malnourished. This is in
addition to 8 million people supported by the government safety net even before the drought. To date, 46 percent
of the appeal has been met, and the worst could be yet to come (USGS, 2016).
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1. Previous Research Results
Analysts have used several techniques to evaluate the economics of water harvesting. The simplest approach is
to compare the yields of a particular crop obtained using water harvesting and traditional cultivation practices
under the same set of experimental conditions typically applying the same type and quantity of fertilizer to
similar soil conditions. Tabor (1994) conducted one such study for millet and sorghum. In this study yields for
both millet and sorghum under water harvesting increased as compared to traditional cultivation, but the increase
in yield depended on whether it is a dry or wet year (Rodney B.W. Smith et al., 2011).
Several studies improved upon this analysis and compared the yields of a given crop under four
different scenarios: traditional practices, water harvesting only, fertilizer use only, and a combination of water
harvesting and fertilizer use. These studies examined maize (Barron and Okwach, 2005; Rodney B.W. Smith et
al., 2011) and sorghum (Fox and Röckstrom, 2003; Rodney B.W. Smith et al., 2011) production under the above
scenarios. The general finding was that water harvesting alone can boost yields, but the greatest increase in
yields occurs when water harvesting is combined with fertilizer use. As with Tabor (1994), these increases
depend on the total rainfall realized during the growing season. The exception to these results is Carsky et al
(1995), who find that water harvesting alone boosts yields more than when combined with fertilizer use. Finally,
Zougmoré et al (2004) compared sorghum yields from two separate water harvesting techniques under three
scenarios: water harvesting without fertilizer use, fertilizer use without water harvesting, and the combinations of
water harvesting and fertilizer use. They concluded the combination of water harvesting and fertilizer use
increases water use efficiency and increases yield (Rodney B.W. Smith et al., 2011).
The research conducted to estimates a quadratic production technology for millet and white sorghum
mono-crops, and a directional output distance function for joint production of white sorghum and cowpea, with
water harvesting use as an input in Burkina Faso indicates that in millet mono-cropping and white sorghum
mono-cropping, water harvesting typically increases yields by at least forty percent. Water harvesting also has a
positive effect on sorghum and cowpea multi-cropping. These results provide useful insight on the economic
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benefits of water harvesting, and on the potential of water harvesting as a poverty reduction strategy throughout
sub-Saharan Africa (Rodney B.W. Smith et al., 2011).
Macro and micro-catchment rainwater harvesting systems have shown a variable but positive impact on
soil moisture regimes and crop yields (Walker et al., 2005; Mupangwa et al., 2006; Komariah and Masateru
Senge, 2013). Li and Gong (2002) and Tian et al. (2003) found that micro-water harvesting of ridges and furrows
with plastic mulch increased the tuber yield of potatoes by 158 -175% for two years (Wang et al., 2008), and the
corn yield by 1.9 times (Li et al., 2000) because of the higher water use efficiency (WUE) (Li et al, 2004;
Komariah and Masateru Senge, 2013).
Aftab et al. (2012) concluded that rainwater harvesting systems were shown to be a relatively low-cost
option for temporal access to a water source. RWH minimizes some of the problems associated with irrigation,
such as the competition for water between various uses and users, low water use efficiency, and environmental
degradation. RWH is a simple, cheap, and environmentally friendly technology that can easily be managed with
limited technical skill (Ngigi, 2003; Komariah and Masateru Senge, 2013). Supplemental irrigation during dry
spells with micro-catchment rainwater harvesting could improve the soil water content of the rooting zone by up
to 30% (Biazin et al., 2012; Komariah and Masateru Senge, 2013). Harvested water from a small pond increased
sorghum harvests by 41%, and when combined with added fertilization, by 180% (Fox and Rockström, 2000;
Komariah and Masateru Senge, 2013).
Experimental plots by Abu-Zreig and Tamimi (2011) of in-situ rain water harvesting with a sand-ditch
proved that runoff and sediment loss were significantly reduced, by 46% and 60%, respectively, and infiltration
and soil moisture were increased. Rainwater harvesting techniques such as jessr or jessour in Tunisia and the
Middle East decreased the amount and velocity of the runoff and consequently reduced soil erosion, and
ameliorated the soil water storage capacity and soil fertility (Schiettecatte et al., 2005; Komariah and Masateru
Senge, 2013).
The study conducted in urban and rural areas of Amhara regional state of Ethiopia by Mesfin
Welderufael (2014) showed that about 48 % of the households were not able to meet the daily recommended
caloric requirement and the percentage of food consumption needed to bring the entire food insecure population
to the food poverty line is 18percent while 8.7% sample households were most food insecurity households
groups in the study area. Further, the descriptive statistics shows that there was evidence of location and rural
households were likely to suffer more insecurity than urban households (Mesfin Welderufael, 2014).
4.2. Water Harvesting Achievements in Ethiopia

The ministry of water resources (MOWR, 2002) reported that about 67% of the country’s landmass was
categorized as arid and semi-arid which are characterized by acute water shortage because of erratic rainfall
distribution and resulting in recurrent drought and famine. Excluding the purely pastoralist areas, more than 90
Districts/woredas with a total of more than 2 million households in the country are drought prone and regularly
hit by severe water shortages. This seriously threatens the lives of more than 12 million people (Hugo, 2003;
Fitsume Y. et al., 2014). The major factors contributing to the current food insecurity include widening gap
between the level of food production and the rapid population growth, degradation of natural resource base and
dominance of cereal based farming system which is exclusively dependent on the erratic and unreliable rain fall
(Fitsume Y. et al., 2014).
Rain water harvesting during the surplus periods for use during the critical periods has become a
feasible strategy in different parts of the world. This is to bridge dry spells through supplemental irrigation of
rain fed crops in smallholder farming systems to improve the lives of rural people at low cost and with minimal
outside inputs. This could be achieved with water harvesting system, which involves collecting runoff in small
storage structures. Water harvesting can reduce the risk of crop failure by facilitating early planting which allows
the maximum use of the rainfall, thereby insuring the crop against rainfall irregularities. Efficient collection and
storage of rainwater is critical in food insecure areas with increasing pressure on land. Capturing of more runoff
from rainfall and the efficient storage and use of the water has become the component of the national strategy in
combating drought and famine (OFS, 2002; Fitsume Y. et al, 2014).
Intensive and high amount of rainfall during the wet season in the highlands is the major cause of
degradation particularly soil erosion. The rain/runoff washes down the nutrient rich soil, seed and applied
fertilizer. Big gullies are acting as permanent drainage ditches thus depleting soil moisture regime. During the
dry season water is a major constraint in many parts of the country and women, children and livestock have to
travel distant places to get it. In this respect it is like that a blessing is changed into curse. Peak hydrograph
during wet season and absence of any flow over dry seasons, high rainfall variability of unreliability that results
in significant runoff variability, erosion and sedimentation problem jeopardizes availability of water. This needs
to be changed through effective watershed treatment and various RWH interventions (Lakew Desta, 2006).
In the country's Agriculture development led industrialization (ADLI) policy and food security
programs water is considered as one of the three pillars (land, labor and water) for development. Although the
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total surface and groundwater potential of the country is estimated at more than 120 billion cubic meter, there is
a serious problem in terms of access. Out of the total 4.25million hectare irrigation potential it is only 247,500ha
(5.8%) that is developed in small, medium and large-scale irrigation programs. Of this developed 55% is
traditional. Oromiya region comprises the highest irrigation potential, which is 32% of the country. To harness
the available potential effectively financial, physical and human capitals are not adequately available. Obviously
there are a number of physical, technical and socio-economic problems (Lakew Desta, 2006).
The government of Ethiopia has recently formulated the Water Policy of the country. Basin wide
integrated master plan studies which envisage development activities over the coming 30 to 50 years have been
undertaken for most of the major rivers. Other option to increase water productivity at production system was
also proposed as a main pillar in the national food security strategy (FDRE, 2012; Fitsume Y. et al., 2014).
At the national level, the planned target in the water sector particularly through household level water
harvesting, micro and small irrigation is 400,000 ha in each of the short term (2002-2006), medium term (2007-
2012) and long term (2013- 2016) planning phases (EIAR, OARI, OIDA and JICA, 2006).
In Amhara region (North western part of the country) from the total completed water harvesting
structures, reaching 242,000 in number, over 42,000 have started production. And as a result 21,194 ha of land is
under irrigation and 148, 244 farm households are benefiting. Of these 14% (21,194) are women headed
households. Irrigated area in the region is primarily aggregated from shallow well, river diversion and spring
development. (Lakew Desta, 2006)
Total irrigated land with water harvesting in Oromiya region (central eastern and western part of the
country) is 65,508ha, when the plan was 68,565ha (95.5% achievement). By this 343,953 (92%) households
have become beneficiaries. Again 379 hectares traditional irrigation through river diversion is under
establishment on top of 31,311ha that already exists. Of the total planned 216,290 pond 75% is in food insecure
Districts and the remaining 25% is in non-food insecure Districts. The stored water apart from drinking and crop
production farmers have used it by selling, making mud for house construction, making soil blocks and raising
seedlings at the nursery(Lakew Desta, 2006).
Table 2: Summary of achievements of four regions in 2003/2004 physical year (Lakew Desta)
No Type of technologies Achievements Beneficiary Estimated area of
Households land
1 Shallow wells (hand dug wells) 308,338 308,338 18,500
construction
2 Shallow wells improvement 850 850 51
3 HH trapezoidal surface ponds 205,787 205,787 6,173.61
4 Cisterns/tanks 5,632 5,632 168.96
5 Cisterns improvement 877 877 26.31
6 Community ponds 49,311 - -
7 Spring development 32,727 - -
8 River diversion in ha2 37,020 148,080 37,020
9 Runoff diversion in ha 31,386 62,772 31,386
Total 732,336 93,326
So far within the country 732,336 schemes reaching 93,236 households means 3.7 million people will
benefit assuming 5 members per household. Therefore, this is believed to contribute to household food security.
Along with the storage facilities low cost water lifting and family drip equipment’s/systems have been and are
being promoted. This includes treadle pumps, watering cans, family drip kits and tie-ridges. However, the
amount required with respect to the number of schemes is far below the requirement. Hand lifting and watering
using cans to the root of each plant is time and labor consuming too many farmers (Lakew Desta, 2006).
Historically Haffir dam in Somali region was introduced from Sudan through UNHCR in the refugee
camps of Aware. As of its original design it was meant to collect water only for human consumption. However,
Hope for the Horn a local NGO closely working with pastoralists had been continuing to modify the technology
by accommodating some of the feedbacks of the pastoralists. The Haffir dams made by machinery were to serve
both livestock and human beings. The main dam and the silt trap were supplemented with outlet canal attached
to two shallow wells where water is pumped to the elevated distribution cistern and further through gravity
distributed to the livestock troughs and human collection points (Yohannes G/M., 2015).
The cost of constructing an average Haffir dam with a capacity of 60,000 cubic meters of water
accounts about 1.4 million Ethiopian Birr (one dollar is about 8.5 Birr). It is assume such volume of water is
sufficient to supply up to 20,000 people and their animals for four or three months. As a system, the Haffir dam
is integrated with environmental rehabilitation where the command area is closed, afforested and complemented
by site specific soil and water conservation techniques like micro basins, soil bunds and check dams were
applied (Yohannes G/M., 2015).
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Therefore, the biological and physical measures were facilitating as a silt trap and fodder banking. The
check dams were made from the locally available materials of dead branches and living trees. The nurseries were
also producing dominantly indigenous multi-purpose trees (fodder, fruit and medicinal values) and few fast
growing exotic pants were also introduced to the system. The water and environmental committees which
consists elders, women and youth are established on the onset of the Dam construction (Yohannes G/M., 2015).
Currently there are a total of 17 Haffir dams constructed across the 400 kms, with an average distance
of 60 kms from each other. These dams which serve as a blue (water) and green (fodder) belts cover the five
districts of Gashamo (5 Haffir dams), Aware (5 Haffir dams), Harshen (3 Haffir dams), Kebrebehyah (3 Haffir
dams) and Jigiga (1 Haffir dam). The spatial distribution of the blue and green belts is based on the consideration
of different factors, such as the distribution of other sources of water (natural, traditional and Birkas), clan and
sub-clan distribution, mobility patterns and reciprocity among the clans with territorial fluidity (Yohannes G/M.,
2015).
The water harvesting system is only economically viable if it is combined with improved soil fertility
management (Fox et al., 2005). The combination of micro-catchment with agroforestry, known as the run-off
agroforestry system, provided sufficient water to grow both woody and herbaceous plants for the supply of
fodder in Ethiopia (Abdelkadir and Schultz, 2005; Komariah and Masateru Senge, 2013).
4.3. Constraints encountered during rain water harvesting

Water in an agricultural production system can be lost due to evaporation from the soil surface, surface runoff
(which simultaneously causes erosion) and through deep percolation / drainage, which sometimes can be later
recovered for irrigation elsewhere (IFAD, 2013)
The micro-water harvesting system requires a large area to collect water, and thus, its construction
requires more labor. The plastic used to mulch the ridges also poses environmental problems; therefore
biodegradable plastic film should be used (Wang et al., 2008; Komariah and Masateru Senge, 2013). Ngigi
(2003) stated that the impacts of a RWH system in Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda were still marginal
because the adoption rate is low in spite of the success of a number of RWH systems (Rockström et al., 2001;
Glendening and Vervoort, 2010; Komariah and Masateru Senge, 2013).
With some variation among regions, soil storage and watershed treatment aspects of RWH are missing
primarily due to capacity reasons. Hand lifting and watering by cans is time and labor consuming resulting in
wastage of stored water. High seepage and evaporation losses (estimate of 24 and 6liters/day.m2, respectively),
high sediment in the ponds, losing productive land to surface ponds, cost versus benefit for cisterns being of
excessive payback period, technical capacity limitation at the grass-root level during implementation and
insufficient extension follow up on already established schemes, concern on malaria and inadequate local market
in view of the targeted high value horticultural crops are to be mentioned (Lakew Desta, 2006).
4.4. The role of rain water harvesting for food security in Ethiopia
With more than 90 million people, Ethiopia is the second most populous country in sub-Saharan Africa and has
one of the fastest-growing economies in the world. The foundation of its economic growth is agriculture, which
employs 80 percent of the population. Ethiopia could potentially reach middle-income status by 2025 with an
emphasis on boosting domestic saving rates, private sector development and improving the trade logistics,
according to the World Bank. In recent years, Ethiopia has made development strides despite the regular cycle of
droughts in parts of the country. The number of emergency beneficiaries has dropped from 15 million in 2003 to
5.6 million due to the support of international donors and the government of Ethiopia’s national food safety net.
Emergency preparedness and response have improved substantially with the assistance of USAID (Care USA,
2014).
According to UN officials, Ethiopia is among the nine countries of Africa which possess great potential
for RWH. It is estimated that the country could meet the needs of six to seven times its current population, that is,
equivalent to 520 million people (Daniel, 2007). The application of water harvesting technique however,
although potentially high, is still low in Ethiopia (Aziz Shikur and Tesfaye Beshah, 2013).
In Ethiopia, there are four major categories of productive use of water in agriculture:-
(1)For ‘rain-fed agriculture’,
(2) For ‘supplementary irrigation’,
(3)For ‘irrigated agriculture’, and
(4) For ‘livestock production’; but rain-fed agriculture is relatively the major one.
In most sample households, the agricultural produce suffices for a maximum of nine month consumption. The
remaining months would fall short. This is the period in which most Ethiopian farmers adapt different coping
strategies, such as cutting trees for charcoal making, selling livestock, off farm activity in nearby urban centers,
etc. One of the great merits of RWH-based agriculture is therefore to fill the food gap in such critical periods,
especially through vegetables production (Daniel Kassahun, 2006).
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Research reports (Hussien and Hanjra, 2003) have confirmed that RWH directly boosts yields and gives
farmers the ‘water security’. This implies that RWH users could be engaged in enhancing productivity inputs
(Daniel Kassahun, 2006).
Also, according to agriculture sector review undertaken in Ethiopia to tackle the problem of food
insecurity and rural livelihoods it is recommended that investment need to be made on rainwater harvesting. To
insure food availability water centered development is required (Lakew Desta, 2006).
More than 214 Districts of the country are said to be food insecure. The major factors contributing to
the current food insecurity include widening gap between the level of food production and the rapid population
growth, degradation of natural resource base and dominance of cereal based farming system which is exclusively
dependent on the erratic and unreliable rain fall (Fitsume Y. et al, 2014).
On average to produce one kilogram of marketable crop (grain) 1000 - 3000 liter of water is required
(Isaya, V.S., 2001; Lakew Desta, 2006). Of course, rainwater harvesting should be promoted where irrigation is
not a viable option. For crop production rain water harvesting has two purposes in Ethiopia; first to raise
horticultural and short duration crops during the dry period and to provide water as supplementary irrigation
whenever there is a shortfall in wet seasons, especially to the time of maturity (Lakew Desta, 2006).
According to reports of UN officials, Ethiopia is among the nine countries of Africa which possesses
great potential for RWH. It is estimated that the country could feed 520 million people through RWH. Though
the technology dates back to the Axumite period (560 BC) (Fattovich 1990), it was only after 2003 that the
Ethiopian government recognized its importance and promoted it on on-farm rainwater ponds. From a total of
ten regional states of the country, close to one million RWH ponds were constructed in four major regional states.
Almost all RWH Users utilized their pond water for horticultural crops. However, multiple functions of RWH
were observed in the study areas, i.e., for domestic purposes, beef fattening ,tree nursery, selling domestic water,
cultivation of chat, and bee-hiving (Daniel Kassahun, 2006).
Daniel Kassahun (2006) stated that currently, a shift of land use type, from cereals to horticulture, is
taking place in the study area (Amhara and Oromia Regional States). One factor could be due to the fact that
cereal farms are located at far away distances from residential units and ponds. The other factor could be due to
the intensive labor requirement for cereal crop irrigation. Between 2003 and 2005, about 20,000 ha of land were
irrigated from RWH ponds. By resolving the biophysical, socioeconomic and policy constraints, it is safe to
conclude that the situation of millions of poor farmers could be improved through RWH, via the reduction of
vulnerability to crop failure, malnutrition and seasonal food deficits (Daniel Kassahun, 2006).
Yihun Taddele et al, (2013) based on their research results conclude that, there is evidence that water
harvesting practices can fulfill the criteria for sustainable intensification by
1) Improving water availability for dry spell and drought proofing,
(2) Improving agricultural yield for food security,
(3) Rehabilitating degraded lands to restore biodiversity,
(4) Minimizing use of external inputs that has adverse effects on the environment,
(5) Sequestering carbon in terrestrial landscape to mitigate climate change, and
(6) Reducing downstream riverine pollution from release of nutrients from upstream agricultural lands, and
thereby strengthens the specific resilience of the social–ecological system.
Water harvesting is a promising technique that is widely accepted throughout the world and is used to
cope with water scarcity problems in agricultural production. Micro- and macro water harvesting techniques are
implemented in arid, semiarid, and tropical regions depending on the purpose and the circumstances. The
implementation of a water harvesting system has been shown to have a positive impact on agricultural
production by providing irrigation water during critical growing stage of crops, hence increasing the yields. A
water harvesting system also helps to reduce runoff velocity and soil erosion, and thus, contributes to
groundwater recharge. However, poor design, poor management, and poor communication between designers,
the government, and farmers can lead to the failure of a water harvesting system. The potential of a rainwater
harvesting system to sustain agricultural production should be supported by other technologies, specifically
Information Technology (IT). Soil and nutrient management, as well as a consideration of the farmers' social and
economic condition during implementation, can be used to ascertain the success of the water harvesting system
in improving local agricultural production (Komariah and Masateru Senge, 2013).
Small irrigation systems with gravity or lift canals using rain water harvesting techniques result in
beneficial use of runoff. Micro schemes can be very small (lift or gravity type) feeding areas of less than 50-100
ha. Since runoff erratically occurs in semiarid and arid areas and for a limited period, storage becomes essential
in most cases. The structures have to be designed and constructed using sound engineering principles and
practices. It should, however, be emphasized that micro or small schemes should be designed within a drainage
basin approach and should form part of comprehensive watershed planning (Alemayehu Mengistie; 1997).
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5. Summary, Conclusion and Future Prospects

Several factors were identified by different studies for the deteriorating situation of food security in Ethiopia.
These are population pressure, drought, shortage of farmland, soil erosion, deterioration of crop production
capacity, outbreak of plant and animal diseases, poor soil fertility, frost attack, poor farming technologies, weak
extension services, high labor wastage and poor social and infrastructural facility and pre and post-harvest crop
loss. To cope the problem, the households should respond to the problem of food insecurity through soil and
water conservation, agricultural employment, afforestation, small scale trading, institutional and societal saving
and credit systems, limiting family size and through rain water harvesting.
To improve food security situation in Ethiopia, the following action should be taken. The household
head and members of the household should engage in different income generating activities for means of living,
coping mechanism and to escape from hunger and under-nourishment; the government of Ethiopia should
incorporate different research outputs to design programs for food insecurity intervention; the farmers should
develop soil conservation measures to reduce soil erosion and the habit of using rain water harvesting to alleviate
problems caused by shortage of rain fall and irrigation scheme will be the crucial activities.
Rain water harvesting can have an important role in achieving the food security of Ethiopia. It helps as
a bridge at the dry times between the rainy season to the benefit of human and livestock consumption and for
crop production through irrigation. So aspects of catchment/watershed treatment, seepage and evaporation
control, soil and water conservation, conservation tillage, and integration of low cost water lifting techniques and
family drip systems are also should be applied for the success of efficient rain water harvesting.
The design, type of technology, inputs, size and cost are also factors contributing to success and failure
of rain water harvesting schemes. So the implementation of different types of technologies should consider the
geology and the geography of the target areas. The most important problem, seepage has to be resolved with low
cost and effective lining materials that convince the user’s economy and satisfy environmental requirements. In
addition the research system has to take part in further improvement of the rain water harvesting technologies. In
addition, there should be a follow up on already established rain water harvesting schemes and their maintenance
should be planned and targeted each year.
Since Ethiopia has huge water resources, i.e. 12 river basins with an annual run-off volume of 122
billion cubic meter of water with an estimated 2.6 billion m3 of ground water potential and ample human labor,
there will be better implementation and utilization of rain water harvesting in the future for the success of the
country’s food security.
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Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare www.iiste.

The Role of Rain Water Harvesting for Food security in Ethiopia

1.2. Statement of the problem

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.2 Definition and Classification of Water Harvesting

Therefore, based on the water source RWH can be classified in to:-

3.3. Components and benefits of rain water harvesting

3.4. Factors for Rain Water Harvesting site selection

3.5. Determinants and causes of Food Security

3.6. Coping and Adaptive Strategies Practiced in Ethiopia

3.7. Policy Constraints of RWH in Ethiopia

3.8. State of Food Insecurity in the World

Graph 2.Net crop production worldwide and in selected tropical countries.

3.9. Status of Food security in Ethiopia

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.2. Water Harvesting Achievements in Ethiopia

4.3. Constraints encountered during rain water harvesting

5. Summary, Conclusion and Future Prospects

constraints and opportunities. XI IRCSA conference – proceedings.

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