The Origin of Coal

M.Sc. Geology (Sem IV) E-Content

Paper -- MGELEC-1(Fuel) Prof. R. Shukla
Dept. of Geology,PU

Accumulated, compacted and altered plants form a

sedimentary rock called coal.

Coal is a brown to black naturally occurring combustible organic

rock that originated by accumulation and subsequent physical and
chemical alteration of plant material over long period of time.
Vegetal (from plants) Origin of Coal

We know that Coal is Organic in nature although it also has

certain amounts of Inorganic material in the form of impurities
(Mineral Matter or Ash).

Also, it has been accepted since 1825 that Coal has a vegetal
origin i.e. Coal originated from plant material mainly.

COAL = Plant Matter + Animal Matter + Mineral Matter

Mother Substance of Coal

Plant or Vegetal Matter mainly consists of the following primary

constituents, all of which have different properties &
decomposition rates :--

Cellulose -- Decomposed very fast

Lignin -- Acidic & Resistant
Waxes & Resins -- Resistant (converted to Bitumen)
 Protein & Mineral Salts – Provide Energy
Earlier, scientists were of the belief that because Plant matter was
predominantly made up of Cellulose, which was present in double
the amount of Lignin, Cellulose should be the Mother substance
of coals.

Later on, when it was discovered through more scientific studies,

that under bacterial degradation in Peat swamps, Cellulose
decomposed very fast to Carbon dioxide, Methane & Aliphatic
acids. Thus, it was proposed that Lignin was the Mother substance
of Coals (Lignin Theory).

Evolution of Humic Matter

Waxes & Resins : are the constituents in plant matter which are
most resistant to decay and decomposition and are thus fossilized
with no change during coal formation process.

Rest of the constituents of Plant Matter like Lignin, Cellulose &

Proteins are converted into 2 parts mainly :--

• Humic Substance (Jelly-like mass), which sometimes

contain embedded / preserved Spores & Cuticles also
• Inert Carbonaceous matter

ORGANIC LIQUID
MATTER SOLID COLLOIDAL OR
D L GASEOUS

That is, in coal formation, remnants of Organic Matter in Coal

Swamps which are initially in Solid state are gradually converted
into Colloidal material and finally a Liquid or Gaseous state.
Order of Decomposition of Plant Constituents

To understand the entire process of formation of Coal in nature it is

vital to realise that as the decomposition of plant material
progresses => there is a gradual selective and preferential
removal of Hydrogen first and foremost, followed by selective
removal of Nitrogen then in quantities over Carbon i.e. Carbon
is most stable compared to Hydrogen and Nitrogen and so in the
entire decomposition process the end result is the enrichment in
organic CARBON.
Organic HYDROGEN >>Organic NITROGEN >> Organic CARBON

In conclusion Biochemical Decomposition of Vegetal Matter

ultimately leads to Carbon enrichment

Mode of deposition of coal :--

▪ Coal is formed largely from terrestrial plant material growing
on dry land and not in swamps or bogs.
▪ The original plant debris was transported by water and
deposited under water in lakes or in the sea.
▪ The sediments, inorganic and organic, settled down in
regular succession.
▪ The process of sedimentation of the organic and inorganic
materials continues till these deposits are covered by
mineral matters, sand, etc. and results in coal seams.
▪ The coal properties vary widely due to the varied types of
vegetation deposited.
Plant debris accumulated in Fluviatile conditions & buried
under sediments --The plant debris accumulated in various wet
environments & fluviatile conditions in which trees, ferns and the
like are deposited, and buried by sand, silt and mud.
• As a result of temperature and pressure effects, metamorphosis
of the woody material occurs to produce the various types of
coal.
• The initial transformation of vegetable materials probably
includes various types of degradation and decay due to some
fungal and bacterial action. Slow atmospheric oxidation may
also take place.

The accumulating spongy, water-saturated, plant-derived organic

material, known as peat, is called the precursor of coal. This is
primary transformation (Peatification).

The secondary transformation which is rather a slower process

of aging of Peat deposits under substantially anaerobic
condition, higher pressures and elevated temperature.
(Coalification). This progressive transformation of peat to higher
coals is called Coalification process.

• Increasingly deeper burial under hundreds to thousands of feet

of younger sediment is required to advance coalification to the
bituminous and anthracite stages.
• The pressure exerted by the weight of the overlying sediments
and the heat that increases with depth, as well as the length of
exposure to them, determines the degree of coalification, as
well as the Rank of coal.

Factors that determine the composition of coal :--

▪ Mode of accumulation and burial of the plant debris forming
the deposits.
▪ Age of the deposits and the geographical distribution.
▪ Structure of the coal forming plants, particularly details of
structure that affect chemical composition or resistance to
decay.
▪ Chemical composition of the coal forming debris and its
resistance to decay.
 ▪ Nature and intensity of the peat decaying agencies.
▪ Subsequent geological history of the residual products of
decay of the plant debris forming the deposits.
.

Theories of Coal Formation

The natural agencies causing the observed chemical and physical
changes include the action of bacteria and fungi, oxidation,
reduction, hydrolysis and condensation - the effect of heat and
pressure in the presence of water.

There are two theories proposed for the mode of

accumulation of the plant materials to transform into coal.
1) In-situ theory- 2) Drift theory-

In-situ (Autochthonous) Theory of Coal Formation

The popular theory is that the plants which compose the coal were
accumulated in large freshwater swamps or peat bogs during many
thousands of years. This theory which supposes growth-in-place of
vegetable material is called the autochthonous theory.

According to this theory, the coal seams are observed where once
forest grew. As the land was sinking slowly, the accumulated
vegetation matters went under water slowly and did not
decompose and get destroyed.

In the course of time, the rate of sinking of land was increased

and coal forest was submerged under water. Again, land along
with the coal forest emerged out of water after sufficient time
and this cycle went on again and again, which is responsible of
formation of coal strata and seams.

Evidences :

• Relative purity & constancy in thickness and composition of

coal seams (i.e no major transport)
• Presence of erect & rooted fossil tree trunks with roots in the
Underclays
• Underclays below coalsare generally poor in alkalies, lime etc.
• Wide lateral extent of coal belts
Accumulations of vegetable matter and associated mineral matter,
generally clays and sands, are balanced by the subsidence, or
motion of the Earth’s surface, in the area on which these materials
are accumulating. Hence, coal formed like this has bands of coal
and inorganic sedimentary rocks arranged in a sequence.

Drift Theory (Allochthonous) of Coal formation

This theory suggests that coal strata accumulated from plants which
had been rapidly transported and deposited under flood conditions.
Because this theory assumes transportation of vegetable debris it is
called the allochthonous theory.

According to this theory, the plant material was transported with

the flowing water from one place to another, and finally got
deposited in a place of swamps, lakes, seas & estuaries having
suitable condition like supply of sediments. The coal seams of
India are of drift origin.

Evidence :

• High Ash-content of coals

• Scarcity of plant fossils in roof of coal seams
• Digitation / Splitting of coal seams
• Lateral transition of coal to carbonaceous shales
• Peat / Brown coals are presently forming in river deltas (eg.
Ganga, Mississippi etc.)
• Fish remains in coals suggest open waters (coastal / marine)
 STAGES OF COAL FORMATION

(1) BIOCHEMICAL (PEATIFICATION) STAGE –

• Involves changes brought about in the transformation of plant
debris through decay & decomposition of chemical contituents
(Lignin, Cellulose, Proteins etc.)
• Changes are due to action of Bacteria & other Micro-organisms
in bogs and swamps
• Favorable factors => Oxygen supply, Temperature &
Alkaline environment.
• Products of decay are => Humic Matter / Humus
• Result => Porous, friable, fibrous mass called Peat.

Since the process of most severe Biochemical alteration occurs in the

top layer (0.5 meters depth) of Peat surface (Peatigenic Layer) where
Aerobic Bacteria & Fungi lead to Microbial & Chemical changes
resulting in Peat formation it is called Peatification Stage.

Factors for Halt of Bacterial action or Peatification:

• Burial of Peat under layers of sediments

• Replacement of Aerobic bacteria by Anaerobic bacteria below
Peatigenic Layer i.e. at depths of < 10 meters
• Release of Acid Compounds from Bacterial action

(2) COALIFICATION STAGE –

Coalification : development from Peat through the stages of Lignite

(Brown coal), Sub-bituminous and Bituminous coals to Anthracite & Meta-
Anthracite.

It is a Unidirectional process with a series of changes which result in the

gradual increase in Carbon content and Calorific value in coals.

2 Types of changes in Coalification :

 1. Physico-chemical => due to a gradual increase in Overburden
Pressure with Depth.
a) Increase in Optical Anisotropy (parallel to bedding planes)
b) Increase in Porosity (estimated by Moisture content of coals).
2. Chemical or Optical Properties =>
a) Change in Chemical Parameters like Carbon, Hydrogen,
Oxygen, Volatile Matter etc.
b) Change in Optical Properties like Reflectivity of Vitrinite

Lignite Stage : Porosity decrease leads to Decrease in Moisture and

increase in Calorific Value is because of gradual rise in Carbon content.

Bituminous Stage :

I. Rapid decrease in Vol.Matter (by removal of Aliphatic groups)

II. Increase in Vitrinite Reflectivity (by rise of Aromatic groups)
III. Carbon content alters only slightly with increasing Depth

Anthracite Stage :

I. Rapid decrease in Hydrogen content

II. Rapid decrease in atomic H/C ratio
III. Strong increase in Reflectivity of Vitrinite