Journal of Applied Psychology

1973, Vol. 58, No. 3, 375-377

CROSS-CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN TWO-FACTOR

MOTIVATION THEORY

GEORGE H. HIKES *
Victoria University oj Wellington, New Zealand

Herzberg's two-factor motivation theory was tested in New Zealand using

ratings of 12 job factors and overall job satisfaction obtained from 218 middle
managers and 196 salaried employees. Contrary to dichotomous motivator-
hygiene predictions, results revealed supervision and interpersonal relationships
to be ranked highly by those with high job satisfaction and strong agreement
between satisfied managers and salaried employees in the relative importance
of job factors. Findings were interpreted in terms of social and employment
conditions in New Zealand.

Among the most internationally accepted theo- The overwhelming majority of investigations
ries of work motivation in recent years has been of the theory have been conducted in North
Herzberg's (Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman, America and Europe, where the work environ-
19S9) motivator-hygiene mode, which holds that ment differs from New Zealand conditions in
job satisfaction is a function of challenging work several important ways. Three factors—full em-
activities (motivator factors), while job dissatis- ployment, relatively small companies, and an
faction is a function of extrinsic variables like egalitarian ethos—influence the motivation to
salary, working conditions, and supervision (hy- work in that New Zealanders have high job secu-
giene factors). Despite the influence of this for- rity, interpersonal relationships tend to be more
mulation, numerous studies have failed to pro- frequent, and the employer-employee contact is
vide unequivocal support. Some researchers have reputedly more personal, relaxed, and friendly. As
found situations in which hygiene factors were a consequence, it seems logical to expect that
associated with job satisfaction (e.g., Ewen, the factors which influence job satisfaction in
1964; Wernimont, 1966), while others (e.g., New Zealand might differ from those in countries
Armstrong, 1971) report that job factor impor- with dissimilar work environments. In accord-
tance is linked with occupational level. Dunnette, ance with Armstrong (1971), different motiva-
Campbell, and Hakel (1967) believe this theory tional factors should also be more salient for
to be grossly oversimplified; they conclude that managers than for nonsupervisory staff. This
satisfaction or dissatisfaction can reside in the study was designed to test the Herzberg theory
job content, or job context, or both jointly. in New Zealand through a comparison of job
Some studies in New Zealand have expressed' factor ratings and overall job satisfaction of satis-
reservations about the universal applicability of fied and dissatisfied middle managers and salaried
the Herzberg model. Thus Cant and Woods employees.
identified a "man-management" factor and con-
tended that the human relations aspects of the METHOD
job were slightly more important than technical A questionnaire was developed to measure 12
elements. Griew and Philipp (1969) reported that job satisfaction factors as well as overall job
job factor ratings of New Zealanders were "very satisfaction. Respondents were asked to rate vari-
different from those of workers overseas [p. 61]." ous aspects of their current job using a 7-point
While Mosley (1969) found supervision to be a graphic rating scale adapted from Halpern
critical factor causing dissatisfaction, Watson (1966). The initial sample consisted of 480
(1971) related supervision and interpersonal rela- middle managers and 327 salaried employees
tionships to job satisfaction and Hines (1972) from which groups of 144 satisfied and 74 dis-
indicated the importance of status as both a satisfied managers and 114 satisfied and 82
motivator and hygiene factor. None of the New dissatisfied salaried employees were drawn.
Zealand studies offered any detailed reconciliation
of the differences between their findings and the RESULTS
Herzberg theory. Table 1 presents the occupational level com-
1
Requests for reprints should be sent to George H. parison of job satisfaction scores. Three findings
Hines, Victoria University of Wellington, P.O. Box are readily evident: (a) satisfied managers and
196, Wellington, New Zealand. salaried employees both rate overall motivator
375
376 SHORT NOTES
TABLE 1
OCCUPATIONAL LEVEL COMPARISON or JOB SATISFACTION SCORES FOR SATISFIED AND
DISSATISFIED MANAGERS AND SALARIED EMPLOYEES

Managers Salaried employees

Factor
Satisfied Dissatisfied Difference Satisfied Dissatisfied Difference
(» = 144) (* = 74) (» = 144) (n = 84)

Recognition 6.52 4.35 2.17* 6.35 4.77 1.58*

Achievement 5.84 5,26 .58 5.32 4.98 .34
Responsibility 6.48 3.52 2.96* 5.88 4.23 1.65*
Work itself 6.29 5.66 .63 5.97 4.55 1.42*
Advancement 5.44 4.72 .72 4.83 4.59 .24
Growth 5.80 5.11 .69 4.86 4.09 .77
Motivator (%„) 6.06 4.11 1.29* 5.53 4,53 1.00*
Interpersonal relationships 5.92 4.00 1.92* 6.22 3,37 2.85*
Supervision 5.95 3.82 2.13* 6.01 2.95 3.06*
Work conditions 5.04 5.01 .03 4.23 4.20 .03
Company policy 4.69 4.12 .57 4.70 4.82 -.12
Status 5.23 4.98 .25 4.82 4.45 .37
Salary 5.49 5.20 .29 5.24 4.90 .34
Hygiene (.Sh) 5.39 4.52 .85 5.20 4.11 1.09*
Difference (JPm — Jf H) .67 .25 .42 .33 .42 -.09

* p < .05, two-tailed test.

and hygiene factors significantly higher (p < .05) appears to have validity across occupational lev-
than do their dissatisfied counterparts; (&) over- els. In view of the unique features of New Zea-
all motivator factors (Xm) are not rated signifi- land industry, the shared perception of job factor
ficantly higher than overall hygiene factors (X^) importance by managers and salaried employees
in any of the four groups; and (c) four job should not be unexpected. The significance of
factors (recognition, responsibility, interpersonal interpersonal relationships and supervision in
relationships, and supervision) are rated signifi- New Zealand is strongly emphasized by the re-
cantly higher by satisfied managers than by dis- sults. This finding is consistent with the Cant
satisfied managers. These four factors plus the and Woods (1968), Griew and Philipp (1969),
work itself are rated significantly higher by satis- and Mosley (1969) research and highlights the
fied salaried employees than by dissatisfied need for supervisors trained in human relations
salaried employees. and organizational behavior as well as an organi-
A Spearman rank-order correlation coefficient zational climate that maximizes good interper-
(rho) test indicated that for managers as well as sonal associations.
salaried employees there was no statistically sig- There are a number of important implications
nificant difference between the motivator and hy- of this research for New Zealand organizations.
giene factors for either satisfied or dissatisfied Herzberg two-factor motivation theory is widely
personnel. Thus for the groups sampled, moti- taught by the universities, management consult-
vator factors made no greater contribution to job ants, and company training officers, most of
satisfaction than did hygiene factors. The high which appear to have accepted the motivator-
correspondence between satisfied managers and hygiene dichotomy without reservation. From the
salaried employees (p = .92) and dissatisfied numerous conferences in New Zealand which have
managers and salaried employees (p = .54) indi- adopted resolutions stating that the training of
cates that New Zealanders tend to perceive the supervisors is currently inadequate and must be
sources of their job satisfaction in highly similar improved, it seems likely that there has been an
fashion, regardless of occupational level. overconcentration on Herzberg-defined motivator
factors to the exclusion of the equally relevant
DISCUSSION elements of supervision and interpersonal rela-
tionships. The present research would seem to
The results of this study show that, contrary to indicate that efforts at job enrichment often ad-
some other overseas findings, the Herzberg model vocated by Herzberg should be devoted to recog-
 SHORT NOTES 377
nition and responsibility but with simultaneous A study of the generality of Herzberg's theory.
stress on the improvement of the climate for good Journal of Applied Psychology, 1964, 4«, 161-163.
interpersonal relationships and the upgrading of GRIEW, S., & PHILLIPS, E. Workers' attitudes and
supervisory skills. The study also illustrates the the acceptability of shift-work in New Zealand
manufacturing industry, (Research Paper No. 12)
role of cultural influence on the Herzberg theory
Wellington: New Zealand Institute of Economic
and the need to take cross-cultural differences Research, 1969.
into account in transplanting a motivation model HALPERN, G. Relative contributions of motivator
internationally. and hygiene factors to overall job satisfaction.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 1966, 50, 198-200.
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ARMSTRONG, T. B. Job content and context factors 1959.
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57-65. MOSELY, D. C. What motivates New Zealanders?
CANT, R. G., & WOODS, M. J. An analysis of factors Management, 1969, 15(6), 37-41.
which cause job satisfaction or dissatisfaction WATSON, W. J. A research study on the contribu-
among farm workers in New Zealand. (Agricul- tions of motivators and hygienes to overall job
tural Economics Research Unit Technical Paper satisfaction in a New Zealand firm. Unpublished
No. 2) Christchurch, New Zealand: University of honours report, Department of Business Adminis-
Canterbury, Lincoln College, 1968. tration, Victoria University of Wellington, New
DtTNNETTE, M., CAMPBELL, J., & HAKEL, M. Factors
Zealand, 1971.
contributing to job satisfaction and job dissatisfac- WERNIMONT, P. F. Intrinsic and extrinsic factors in
job satisfaction. Journal of Applied Psychology,
tion in six occupational groups. Organizational Be- 1966, 50, 41-50.
havior and Human Performance, 1967, 2, 143-174.
EWEN, R. B. Some determinants of job satisfaction: (Received July 11, 1972)