5

Advanced Refrigeration
Cycles and Systems

5.1 Introduction
Refrigeration cycles covered in Chapter 4 are simple and extensively used in most of the refrig-
eration needs encountered in practice. Household refrigerators, small coolers, and air-conditioning
systems are some examples. For other refrigeration applications, the simple vapor-compression cycle
may not be suitable and more advanced and innovative refrigeration systems may have to be used.
Other motivations include the search for improved performance and efficiency as well as require-
ments to achieve very low temperatures. In this chapter, we cover some advanced refrigeration
systems as well as special systems used in certain applications.

5.2 Multistage Refrigeration Cycles

Multistage refrigeration systems are widely used where ultralow temperatures are required, but
cannot be obtained economically through the use of a single-stage system. This is due to the fact that
the compression ratios are too large to attain the temperatures required to evaporate and condense the
vapor. There are two general types of such systems: cascade and multistage. The multistage system
uses two or more compressors connected in series in the same refrigeration system. The refrigerant
becomes a denser vapor while it passes through each compressor. Note that a two-stage system
(Figure 5.1) can attain a temperature of approximately −65 ◦ C and a three-stage one about −100 ◦ C.
Single-stage vapor-compression refrigerators are used by cold storage facilities with a range of
+10 to −30 ◦ C. In this system, the evaporator installed within the refrigeration system and the
ice-making unit, as the source of low temperature, absorbs heat. Heat is released by the condenser
at the high-pressure side.
In cases where large temperature and pressure differences exist between the evaporator and the
condenser, multistage vapor-compression systems are employed accordingly. For example, if
the desired temperature of a refrigerator (i.e., freezer) is below −30 ◦ C, a several-stage compression
system is required in order to prevent the occurrence of high compression ratios. The following
are some of the disadvantages of a high compression ratio:

• decrease in the compression efficiency,

• increase in the temperature of the refrigerant vapor from the compressor, and
• increase in energy consumption per unit of refrigeration production.

Refrigeration Systems and Applications İbrahim Dinçer and Mehmet Kanoǧlu

 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd
220 Refrigeration Systems and Applications

5 4 4
Condenser Log P (kPa)
T
Expansion
High-pressure 5
valve
6 compressor 2
9 5 4
Flash 7 9
intercooler 3 6 3 6 3
7 2
2
7 Low-pressure 1
Expansion compressor 8 1
valve 8
8 Evaporator 1
4
s h (kJ/kg)
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5.1 (a) A two-stage vapor-compression refrigeration system, (b) its T −s diagram, and (c) its log P −h
diagram.

Figure 5.1 shows a schematic diagram of a two-stage vapor-compression refrigeration unit that
can provide temperatures below −30 ◦ C (approximately to −50 ◦ C), and its T −s diagram. This
system also uses an intercooler with air.
As an example, three-stage refrigeration systems can provide an evaporator temperature of
−100 ◦ C. In the two-stage unit shown, the refrigerant is compressed in the first stage and, after
being de-superheated by an intercooler, is further compressed in the second stage. An intercooler is
used in between the two compression stages for reducing the compression work. In other words, a
booster (first-stage) compressor and a gas–liquid intercooler are attached to the single-stage cycle.
The intercooler subcools the refrigerant liquid supplied to the evaporator by vaporizing a portion
of the refrigerant after the first throttling stage. The flash gas returns at an intermediate point in
the compression process in order to improve the compression efficiency by cooling the superheated
gas. Not only a single compressor but a set of compressors is also required to be used in each stage,
depending on the capacity and temperature. In large systems with a number of evaporators and
large compression (temperature) ratios, the number of intercoolers and compression stages yields
increased system efficiency and hence increased coefficient of performance (COP).

5.3 Cascade Refrigeration Systems

For some industrial applications that require moderately low temperatures (with a considerably
large temperature and pressure difference), single vapor-compression refrigeration cycles become
impractical. One of the solutions for such cases is to perform the refrigeration in two or more
stages (i.e., two or more cycles) which operate in series. These refrigeration cycles are called
cascade refrigeration cycles. Therefore, cascade systems are employed to obtain high-temperature
differentials between the heat source and heat sink and are applied for temperatures ranging from
−70 to 100 ◦ C. Application of a three-stage compression system for evaporating temperatures below
−70 ◦ C is limited, because of difficulties with refrigerants reaching their freezing temperatures.
Impropriety of multi-stage vapor-compression systems can be avoided by applying a cascade vapor-
compression refrigeration system.
Cascade refrigeration systems are commonly used in the liquefaction of natural gas and some
other gases. A large-capacity industrial cascade refrigeration system is shown in Figure 5.2.
The most important advantage of these cascade systems is that refrigerants can be chosen with
the appropriate properties, avoiding large dimensions for the system components. In these systems
multiple evaporators can be utilized in any one stage of compression. Refrigerants used in each
stage may be different and are selected for optimum performance at the given evaporator and
condenser temperatures.
Advanced Refrigeration Cycles and Systems 221

Figure 5.2 A cascade refrigeration system utilizing CO2 as low-pressure stage refrigerant and ammonia as
the high-pressure stage refrigerant (operating at about −50 ◦ C), skid for a 100 ton/day CO2 liquefaction plant
(Courtesy of Salof Refrigeration Co., Inc.).

Conventional single compressor, mechanical refrigeration system condensing units are capa-
ble of achieving temperatures of about −40 ◦ C. If lower temperatures are required then cascade
refrigeration systems must be used. A two-stage cascade system uses two refrigeration systems
connected in series to achieve temperatures of around −85 ◦ C. There are single compressor sys-
tems that can achieve temperatures colder than −100 ◦ C but they are not widely used. These systems
are sometimes referred to as autocascading systems. The main disadvantage of such systems is
that it requires the use of a proprietary blend of refrigerant. This characteristic results in three
service-related problems:

• A leak in the system can easily cause the loss of only some of the refrigerant making up the
blend (since the refrigerant blend is made up of different types of refrigerant with different
boiling points), resulting in an imbalance in the ratio of the remaining refrigerants. To return the
system to proper operation, all of the remaining refrigerant must be replaced with a new and
potentially costly charge to ensure a proper blend ratio.
• The blend is proprietary and may not be readily available from the traditional refrigerant supply
sources and therefore may be hard to obtain and costly.
• These types of cascade systems are not widely used; it is hard to find well-qualified field service
staff who are familiar with repair and maintenance procedures.

Of course, these and other issues can cause undesirable expense and downtime.

5.3.1 Two-Stage Cascade Systems

A two-stage cascade system employs two vapor-compression units working separately with different
refrigerants and interconnected in such a way that the evaporator of one system is used to serve as
condenser to a lower temperature system (i.e., the evaporator from the first unit cools the condenser
of the second unit). In practice, an alternative arrangement utilizes a common condenser with a
booster circuit to provide two separate evaporator temperatures.
In fact, the cascade arrangement allows one of the units to be operated at a lower temperature
and pressure than would otherwise be possible with the same type and size of single-stage system.
It also allows two different refrigerants to be used, and it can produce temperatures below −150 ◦ C.
Figure 5.3 shows a two-stage cascade refrigeration system, where condenser B of system 1 is being
cooled by evaporator C of system 2. This arrangement enables reaching ultralow temperatures in
evaporator A of the system.
222 Refrigeration Systems and Applications

Thermal expansion value

A
Evaporator
D
Condenser
B

Condenser TEV
Bypass valve
evaporator
Heat
exchanger

1 2

Low-stage compression Oil separator High-stage compression Oil separator

Figure 5.3 A practical two-stage cascade refrigeration system.

QH
Condenser Decrease in Log P (kPa)
7 6 T
Expansion Compressor compressor
I w2 work
valve
Heat exchanger QH
8 Evaporator 5
6 5 4
7
Heat
I 2
Condenser 2 8 6 3
3 3 7 2
w1 5
Expansion
II II
valve 8
Compressor 1 1
4 Q
Evaporator Increase in refrigeration capacity
4 1 s
QL h (kJ/kg)
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5.4 (a) Schematic of a two-stage (binary) cascade refrigeration system, (b) its T–s diagram, and (c) its
log P –h diagram. [Adapted from Cengel and Boles (2008).]

For a schematic system shown in Figure 5.4, the condenser of system I, called the first or high-
pressure stage, is usually fan cooled by the ambient air. In some cases a water supply may be used,
but air cooling is much more common. The evaporator of system I is used to cool the condenser of
system II called the second or low-pressure stage. The unit that makes up the evaporator of system I
and the condenser of system II is often referred to as the inter-stage or cascade condenser . As stated
earlier, cascade systems generally use two different refrigerants (i.e., one in each stage). One type
is used for the low stage and a different one for the high stage. The reason why two refrigeration
systems are used is that a single system cannot economically achieve the high compression ratios
Advanced Refrigeration Cycles and Systems 223

necessary to obtain the proper evaporating and condensing temperatures. It is clear from the T −s
diagram of the two-stage cascade refrigeration system, as shown in Figure 5.4, that the compressor
work decreases and the amount of refrigeration load (capacity) in the evaporator increases as a
result of cascading (Cengel and Boles, 2008). Therefore, cascading improves the COP.

Example 5.1
Consider a two-stage cascade refrigeration system operating between the pressure limits of 1.6 MPa
and 180 kPa with refrigerant-134a as the working fluid (Figure 5.5). Heat rejection from the lower
cycle to the upper cycle takes place in an adiabatic counter-flow heat exchanger where the pressure
in the upper and lower cycles are 0.4 and 0.5 MPa, respectively. In both cycles, the refrigerant
is a saturated liquid at the condenser exit and a saturated vapor at the compressor inlet, and the
isentropic efficiency of the compressor is 85%. If the mass flow rate of the refrigerant through the
lower cycle is 0.07 kg/s, (a) draw the temperature–entropy diagram of the cycle indicating pressures;
determine (b) the mass flow rate of the refrigerant through the upper cycle, (c) the rate of heat
removal from the refrigerated space, and (d) the COP of this refrigerator; and (e) determine the
rate of heat removal and the COP if this refrigerator operated on a single-stage cycle between the
same pressure limits with the same compressor efficiency. Also, take the mass flow rate of R-134a
through the cycle to be 0.07 kg/s.

QH

Condenser
7
6
W
Compressor

8 5
Evaporator

Condenser
3
2
W
Compressor

4 1
Evaporator

QL

Figure 5.5 Schematic of two-stage cascade refrigeration system considered in Example 5.1.
224 Refrigeration Systems and Applications

Solution
(a) Noting that compression processes are not isentropic, the temperature–entropy diagram of the
cycle can be drawn as shown in Figure 5.6.

T
1.6 MPa
· 6
QH
0.5 MPa
7 · 0.4 MPa
W
A 2
0.5 MPa
3 ·
W 0.18 MPa
8 B 5

1
4 ·
QL
s

Figure 5.6 T–s diagram of the system considered in Example 5.1.

(b) The properties are to be obtained from the refrigerant-134a tables (Tables B.3 through B.5):

h1 = hg@180 kPa = 242.86 kJ/kg

s1 = sg@180 kPa = 0.9397 kJ/kg · K

P2 = 500 kPa
h2s = 263.86 kJ/kg
s2 = s1
h2s − h1
ηC =
h2 − h1
263.86 − 242.86
0.85 = −→ h2 = 267.57 kJ/kg
h2 − 242.86
h3 = hf @500 kPa = 73.33 kJ/kg
h4 = h3 = 73.33 kJ/kg
h5 = hg@400 kPa = 255.55 kJ/kg
s5 = sg@400 kPa = 0.9269 kJ/kg · K

P6 = 1600 kPa
h6s = 284.22 kJ/kg
s6 = s5
h6s − h5
ηC =
h6 − h5
284.22 − 255.55
0.85 = −→ h6 = 289.28 kJ/kg
h6 − 255.55
h7 = hf @1600 kPa = 135.93 kJ/kg
h8 = h7 = 135.93 kJ/kg
Advanced Refrigeration Cycles and Systems 225

The mass flow rate of the refrigerant through the upper cycle is determined from an energy
balance on the heat exchanger.
ṁA (h5 − h8 ) = ṁB (h2 − h3 )
ṁA (255.55 − 135.93) kJ/kg = (0.07 kg/s)(267.57 − 73.33) kJ/kg −→ ṁA = 0.1137 kg/s
(c) The rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space is
Q̇L = ṁB (h1 − h4 ) = (0.07 kg/s)(242.86 − 73.33) kJ/kg = 11.87 kW
(d) The power input and the COP are
Ẇ = ṁA (h6 − h5 ) + ṁB (h2 − h1 )
= (0.1137 kg/s)(289.28−255.55) kJ/kg + (0.07 kg/s)(267.57−242.86) kJ/kg = 5.56 kW
Q̇L 11.87
COP = = = 2.13
Ẇ 5.56
(e) If this refrigerator operated on a single-stage cycle (Figure 5.7) between the same pressure
limits, we would have
h1 = hg@180 kPa = 242.86 kJ/kg
s1 = sg@180 kPa = 0.9397 kJ/kg · K

P2 = 1600 kPa
h2s = 288.52 kJ/kg
s2 = s1
h2s − h1
ηC =
h2 − h1
288.52 − 242.86
0.85 = −→ h2 = 296.58 kJ/kg
h2 − 242.86
h3 = hf @1600 kPa = 135.93 kJ/kg
h4 = h3 = 135.93 kJ/kg
Q̇L = ṁ(h1 − h4 ) = (0.07 kg/s)(242.86 − 135.93) kJ/kg = 7.49 kW
Ẇ = ṁ(h2 − h1 ) = (0.07 kg/s)(296.58 − 242.86) kJ/kg = 3.76 kW
Q̇L 7.49
COP = = = 1.99
Ẇ 3.76

T 2
2s
·
QH ·
W
1.6 MPa
3

0.18 MPa

· 1
4
QL

Figure 5.7 T–s diagram of the single-stage cycle considered in part (d) of Example 5.1.
226 Refrigeration Systems and Applications

Cooling
water
or air
Q4

Propane W3

Q′3 Natural gas from pipeline

Q3

Gas at
−37 °C W2
Ethane

Q ′2

Q2

Liquefied gas at
Methane W1 −82 °C

Q1

Liquefied storage at
−157 °C

Figure 5.8 A three-stage (ternary) cascade vapor-compression refrigeration system.

5.3.2 Three-Stage (Ternary) Cascade Refrigeration Systems

Cascade refrigeration cycles are commonly used in the liquefaction of natural gas, which consists
basically of hydrocarbons of the paraffin series, of which methane has the lowest boiling point at
atmospheric pressure. Refrigeration down to that temperature can be provided by a ternary cascade
refrigeration cycle using propane, ethane, and methane, whose boiling points at standard atmospheric
pressure are 231.1, 184.5, and 111.7 K, respectively (Haywood, 1980). A simplified basic diagram
for such a cascade cycle is shown in Figure 5.8. In the operation, the compressed methane vapor is
first cooled by heat exchange with the propane in the propane evaporator before being condensed by
heat exchange with the ethane in the ethane evaporator, thus reducing the degree of irreversibility
involved in the cooling and condensation of the methane. Also, because of the high temperature
after compression, the gas leaving each compressor passes first through a water-cooled intercooler.
In a large-scale plant of this type, the compressors become rotary turbomachines instead of the
reciprocating types.

5.4 Liquefaction of Gases

Cryogenics is associated with low temperatures, usually defined to be below −100 ◦ C (173 K).
The general scope of cryogenic engineering is the design, development, and improvement of