Handbook For Legislation On Violence Against Women

ST/ESA/329
Department of Economic and Social Affairs

Division for the Advancement of Women
Handbook for Legislation

on Violence against Women
asdf
United Nations
New York, 2010
DAW/DESA
The Division for the Advancement of Women in the Department of Economic and Social
Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat supports the work of the Commission on the
Status of Women, the Economic and Social Council and the General Assembly of the
United Nations on gender equality and the empowerment of women. For more information,
see www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/.
ST/ESA/329
United Nations publication
Sales No. E.10.IV.2
ISBN 978-92-1-130290-5
Copyright © United Nations, 2009
All rights reserved
iii
Foreword
Across the world—in rich and poor countries alike—women are being beaten, trafficked,
raped and killed. These human rights abuses not only inflict great harm and suffering on
individuals—they tear at the fabric of entire societies.
The world is responding. We see a growing global momentum to stop violence against
women. In 2008, the Secretary-General launched a multi-year global campaign called
UNiTE to End Violence against Women. He is appealing to all partners to join forces to
eliminate this scourge. The Campaign recognizes the power of the law: one of its five key
goals is for all countries to adopt and enforce, by 2015, national laws that address and punish
all forms of such violence, in line with international human rights standards.
This Handbook for Legislation on Violence against Women, prepared by the Department
of Economic and Social Affairs/Division for the Advancement of Women (DESA/DAW), is
intended to assist States and other stakeholders to enhance existing, or develop new laws to
protect women. I highly recommend the contents of this Handbook, and I am thankful to
the members of the Expert Group Meeting for their valuable work in producing the report
upon which this Handbook is based.
The recommendations it provides in the model framework for legislation on violence
against women serve as a useful tool in supporting efforts to provide justice, support, pro-
tection and remedies to victims and to hold perpetrators accountable. The commentaries
which accompany the recommendations highlight promising examples from laws worldwide.
Over the past two decades, many States have adopted or improved legislation to pre-
vent and respond to violence against women. Laws increasingly criminalize such violence,
ensure the prosecution and punishment of perpetrators, empower and support victims, and
strengthen prevention. Victims are also benefiting from civil remedies.
But significant gaps in legal frameworks remain. States throughout the world are still
failing to live up to their international obligations and commitments to prevent and address
violence against women. Too many perpetrators are not held accountable. Impunity persists.
Women continue to be re-victimized through the legal process.
Comprehensive legislation provides the foundation for a holistic and effective response.
Such legislation must be consistently enforced and monitored, and adequate resources must
be allocated to address the problem. Personnel and officials working in the field must have
the skills, capacity and sensitivity to apply the spirit and letter of the law. Laws must inform a
concerted effort that includes education, awareness raising and community mobilization. They
must also contribute to tackling discriminatory stereotypes and attitudes, and they must man-
date the research and knowledge-building that are necessary to support policy development.
I truly hope that this informative Handbook for Legislation on Violence against Women
will greatly contribute to fully realizing the goals of the Secretary-General’s campaign
UNiTE to End Violence against Women, and I commend it to interested policymakers and
concerned individuals everywhere.
Asha-Rose Migiro
Deputy Secretary-General
United Nations
July 2009
Acknowledgements
This Handbook is based on the results of an expert group meeting on good practices in
legislation to address violence against women, convened by the United Nations Division for
the Advancement of Women, in cooperation with the United Nations Office on Drugs and
Crime, in May 2008. The meeting reviewed and analysed experiences, approaches and good
practices in legislation on violence against women from around the world, and developed a
model framework for legislation on violence against women.
The Division for the Advancement of Women acknowledges with appreciation the work
of the participants of the expert group meeting of May 2008, namely: Carmen de la Fuente
Mendez (Spain), Sally F. Goldfarb (United States of America), Rowena V. Guanzon (Philip-
pines), Claudia Herrmannsdorfer (Honduras), Pinar Ilkkaracan (Turkey), P. Imrana Jalal
(Fiji), Olufunmilayo (Funmi) Johnson (United Kingdom), Naina Kapur (India), Rosa Logar
(Austria), Flor de María Meza Tananta (Peru), Njoki Ndungu (Kenya), Theodora Obiageli
Nwankwo (Nigeria), Renée Römkens (Netherlands), Karen Stefiszyn (Canada/South Africa),
and Cheryl A. Thomas (United States of America).The following representatives of United
Nations entities, intergovernmental organizations, and non-governmental organizations also
participated in the meeting: Gloria Carrera Massana (Office of the High Commissioner
for Human Rights, OHCHR), Dina Deligiorgis (United Nations Development Fund for
Women, UNIFEM), Tanja Dedovic (International Organization for Migration, IOM),
Kareen Jabre (Inter-Parliamentary Union, IPU), Dubravka Šimonović (Chairperson, Com-
mittee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women), Richard Pearshouse (Cana-
dian HIV/AIDS Legal Network), and Nisha Varia (Human Rights Watch).
For further information regarding the expert group meeting, including expert papers,
please visit the following website: http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/egm/vaw_legislation
_2008/vaw_legislation_2008.htm.
v
Contents
Page
1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2. International and regional legal and policy framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2.1. International legal and policy instruments and jurisprudence . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.1. International human rights treaties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.2. Other international treaties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1.3. International policy instruments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2. Regional legal and policy instruments and jurisprudence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3. Model laws and strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3. Model framework for legislation on violence against women. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

3.1. Human rights-based and comprehensive approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.1.1. Violence against women as a form of gender-based discrimination. . . 13
3.1.2. Comprehensive legislative approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.1.3. Equal application of legislation to all women and measures to
address multiple discrimination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.1.4. Gender-sensitive legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.1.5. Relationship between customary and/or religious law
and the formal justice system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.1.6. Amendment and/or removal of conflicting legal provisions. . . . . . . . 16
3.2. Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.2.1. National action plan or strategy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.2.2. Budget. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.2.3. Training and capacity-building for public officials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.2.4. Specialized police and prosecutorial units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.2.5. Specialized courts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.2.6. Protocols, guidelines, standards and regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.2.7. Time limit on activating legislative provisions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2.8. Penalties for non-compliance by relevant authorities. . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.3. Monitoring and evaluation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.3.1. Specific institutional mechanism to monitor implementation. . . . . . 21
3.3.2. Collection of statistical data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.4. Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.4.1. Defining forms of violence against women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.4.2. Defining domestic violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.4.2.1. Comprehensive definition of types of domestic violence. . . . . . . 24
3.4.2.2. Scope of persons protected by the law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
vi Handbook for Legislation on Violence against Women
Page
3.4.3. Defining sexual violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

3.4.3.1. Defining a broad offence of sexual assault incorporating
rape, including marital rape. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.4.3.2. Defining sexual harassment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.5. Prevention. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.5.1. Incorporation of provisions on prevention of violence
against women. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.5.2. Awareness-raising. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.5.3. Educational curricula. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.5.4. Sensitization of the media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.6. Protection, support, and assistance to complainants/survivors. . . . . . . . . . 31
3.6.1. Comprehensive and integrated support services. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.6.2. Rape crisis centres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.6.3. Support for the survivor in her employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.6.4. Housing rights of the survivor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.6.5. Financial support for the survivor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.7. Rights of immigrant women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.7.1. Independent and favourable immigration status for survivors
of violence against women. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.7.2. Restrictions on international marriage brokers and ensuring
the rights of “mail-order brides”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.8. Investigation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.8.1. Duties of police officers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.8.2. Duties of prosecutors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.8.3. Pro-arrest and pro-prosecution policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.9. Legal proceedings and evidence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.9.1. Prohibition of mediation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.9.2. Encouraging timely and expedited proceedings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.9.3. Free legal aid, interpretation, and court support, including
independent legal counsel and intermediaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.9.4. Rights of the complainant/survivor during legal proceedings . . . . . . 40
3.9.5. Issues related to the collection and submission of evidence . . . . . . . . 41
3.9.6. No adverse inference from delay in reporting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.9.7. Removing discriminatory elements from legal proceedings
regarding sexual violence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.9.7.1. Removing the cautionary warning/corroboration rule . . . . . . . 43
3.9.7.2. Evidence of complainant/survivor’s sexual history
not to be introduced. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.9.8. No offence of “false accusation”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.10. Protection orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.10.1. Protection orders for all forms of violence against women. . . . . . . 44
3.10.2. Relationship between protection orders and other
legal proceedings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.10.3. Content and issuance of protection orders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.10.4. Emergency orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.10.5. Post-hearing orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
vii
Page
3.10.6. Standing in application for protection orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

3.10.7. Evidence of complainant/survivor sufficient for grant
of protection order. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.10.8. Issues specific to protection orders in cases of domestic violence. . 49
3.10.8.1. Mutual protection orders and citations for provocative
behaviour not to be included in legislation. . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.10.8.2. Addressing child custody in protection order
proceedings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.10.9. Criminal offence of violation of a protection order. . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.11. Sentencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.11.1. Consistency of sentencing with the gravity of the crime
committed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.11.2. Removal of exceptions and reductions in sentencing. . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.11.3. Enhanced sanctions for repeated/aggravated offence
of domestic violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.11.4. Considerations in imposition of fines in cases
of domestic violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.11.5. Restitution and compensation for survivors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.11.6. Intervention programmes for perpetrators
and alternative sentencing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.12. Civil lawsuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.12.1. Civil lawsuits against perpetrators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.12.2. Civil lawsuits against third parties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.13. Family law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.14. Asylum law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4. Checklist of steps to be taken when drafting legislation

on violence against women. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Step 1: Define the legislative goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Step 2: Consult with relevant stakeholders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Step 3: Adopt an evidence-based approach to legislative drafting . . . . . . . . . . . 58
1
1. Introduction
Comprehensive legislation is fundamental for an effective and coordinated response to vio-
lence against women. States have clear obligations under international law to enact, imple-
ment and monitor legislation addressing all forms of violence against women. Over the past
two decades, many States have adopted or revised legislation on violence against women.1
However, significant gaps remain.2 Many States still do not have in place legislative provisions
that specifically address violence against women and, even where legislation exists, it is often
limited in scope and coverage, or is not enforced.
The adoption and enforcement of national laws to address and punish all forms of
violence against women and girls, in line with international human rights standards, is one
of the five key outcomes which the Secretary-General’s campaign “UNiTE to End Violence
against Women” aims to achieve in all countries by 2015.3 This Handbook intends to provide
all stakeholders with detailed guidance to support the adoption and effective implementation
of legislation which prevents violence against women, punishes perpetrators, and ensures the
rights of survivors everywhere. It is specifically hoped that the Handbook will be of use to
government officials, parliamentarians, civil society, staff of United Nations entities and other
actors in their efforts at ensuring that a solid legal basis is in place for tackling the scourge of
violence against women.
The Handbook first outlines the international and regional legal and policy frame-
works which mandate States to enact and implement comprehensive and effective laws to
address violence against women. It then presents a model framework for legislation on vio-
lence against women, divided into 14 sections. Finally, the Handbook provides users with a
checklist of considerations to be kept in mind when drafting legislation on violence against
women. This list highlights the importance of identifying a clear legislative goal; undertaking
comprehensive and inclusive consultation with all relevant stakeholders, and in particular
victims/survivors; and adopting an evidence-based approach to legislative drafting.
The model framework for legislation on violence against women presents recommen-
dations on the content of legislation, accompanied by explanatory commentaries and good
practice examples. While many of the framework’s recommendations are applicable to all
forms of violence against women, some are specific to certain forms, such as domestic or
sexual violence.
The framework covers: (a) general aspects, implementation and evaluation (3.1-3.3);
(b) definitions of forms of violence (3.4); (c) prevention (3.5); (d) protection, support and
rights of survivors (3.6-3.7); (e) investigation, prosecution and sentencing (3.8-3.11); and
( f ) issues in relation to civil lawsuits (3.12); and to family (3.13) and asylum law (3.14).
The main issues covered are highlighted below.
1 For further information regarding legislation enacted, please visit the United Nations Secretary-General’s data-
base on violence against women available online at: http://www.un.org/esa/vawdatabase (last accessed 8 April
2009).
2 See United Nations (2006) Ending Violence against Women: from words to action, Study of the Secretary-General
(A/61/122/Add.1 and Corr.1). See, inter alia, pp. 96-97 setting out concerns of the international human rights
treaty bodies.
3 For further information regarding the Secretary-General’s campaign “UNiTE to End Violence against Women”
please visit the website at: http://endviolence.un.org/.
2 Handbook for Legislation on Violence against Women
3.1. Emphasizes the importance of adopting a comprehensive legislative approach,

encompassing not only the criminalization of all forms of violence against women and
the effective prosecution and punishment of perpetrators, but also the prevention of
violence, and the empowerment, support and protection of survivors. It recommends
that legislation explicitly recognize violence against women as a form of gender-based
discrimination and a violation of women’s human rights.
3.2. Recommends that legislation contain provisions for its effective implementation,
evaluation and monitoring. Legislation should provide an organic link to a compre-
hensive national action plan or strategy; mandate a budget for its implementation; pro-
vide for the elaboration of rules, regulations, and protocols necessary for the law’s full
and effective implementation; and require the training of all relevant officials. Section
3.2 also recommends that legislation mandate the creation of specialized institutions
and officials to implement legislation on violence against women.
3.3. Emphasizes the critical importance of monitoring the implementation of the law
and recommends that legislation establish institutional mechanisms, such as multi-sec-
toral task forces or committees, or national rapporteurs, to undertake this task. It also
recommends that legislation require the regular collection of statistical data and research
to ensure an adequate knowledge base for effective implementation and monitoring.
3.4. Calls for the enactment in legislation of broad definitions of all forms of vio-
lence against women in accordance with international human rights standards, and
provides specific recommendations as to how domestic violence and sexual violence
should be defined.
3.5. Recommends that the law prioritize prevention and provide for a range of meas-
ures to be undertaken to this end, including awareness-raising campaigns, sensitiza-
tion of the communications media, and inclusion of material on violence against
women and women’s human rights in educational curricula.
3.6. Focuses on the need for legislation to provide for the empowerment, support and
protection of the victim/survivor. It recommends the enactment of legislative provi-
sions that ensure survivors’ access to comprehensive and integrated support services
and assistance.
3.7. Recommends that specific legal provisions be enacted to guarantee the rights of
immigrant women who are victims/survivors of violence.
3.8. Emphasizes the importance of legislating specific duties of police and prosecu-
tors in cases of violence against women.
3.9. Provides detailed recommendations with the aim of preventing the secon-
dary victimization of the victim/survivor throughout the legal process. The section
addresses evidentiary rules, the collection of evidence, legal procedure, and the rights
of victims/survivors during legal proceedings.
3.10. Gives substantial guidance on how to legislate for protection orders in cases of
violence against women. It calls for the criminalization of any violation of such an order.
3.11. Calls for legislation to ensure that sentences in cases of violence against women
are consistent with the gravity of the crime committed. It recommends the elimination
of exemptions or reductions in sentencing granted to perpetrators of violence against
women in certain circumstances, such as when a rapist marries his victim or in cases
of so-called honour crimes.
3.12. Highlights the valuable role that civil lawsuits may play as a supplement or alter-
native to criminal prosecution, civil protection orders, and other available legal remedies.
3.13. Recommends that family law be examined and amended to ensure the sensi-
tive and appropriate consideration of violence against women in family law proceed-
Introduction 3
ings. It notes particular areas for attention, including issues of alimony and the right
to remain in the family dwelling.
3.14. Acknowledges that violence against women may constitute persecution and that
complainants/survivors of such violence should constitute “a particular social group”
for the purposes of asylum law.
A PowerPoint presentation on the model framework for legislation, a video dialogue
between two experts highlighting key recommendations of the model framework and com-
menting on their practical importance, and an electronic version of the Handbook, are avail-
able on the website of the Division for the Advancement of Women at the following location:
http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/vaw/v-handbook.htm. These resources are intended to
provide the user with further tools for understanding and utilizing the model framework for
legislation.
Users of this Handbook may also wish to refer to the Model Law Against Trafficking
in Persons developed by UNODC for specific legislative provisions on trafficking in persons.4
For further information, including resolutions on violence against women adopted by
United Nations intergovernmental bodies, as well as links to the work of United Nations
entities and other organizations on violence against women, please visit the Division for
the Advancement of Women’s web page on violence against women at: http://www.un.org/
womenwatch/daw/vaw.
4 Available online at: http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/human-trafficking.

5
2. I nternational and regional

legal and policy framework
Over the past two decades, violence against women has come to be understood as a form of
discrimination and a violation of women’s human rights. Violence against women, and the
obligation to enact laws to address violence against women, is now the subject of a compre-
hensive legal and policy framework at the international and regional levels.
2.1. I nternational legal and policy instruments

and jurisprudence
2.1.1. International human rights treaties
Over time, the treaty bodies established to monitor implementation of the international
human rights treaties have increasingly taken up States parties’ obligations to address violence
against women. In its general recommendation No. 19 (1992) on violence against women, the
Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women confirmed that “[u]nder
general international law and specific human rights covenants, States may … be responsible
for private acts if they fail to act with due diligence to prevent violations of rights or to inves-
tigate and punish acts of violence, and for providing compensation.”5 In relation to national
legal frameworks, the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women
recommended that States parties:
• Ensure that laws against family violence and abuse, rape, sexual assault and other
gender-based violence give adequate protection to all women, and respect their integ-
rity and dignity;6 and
• Take all legal and other measures that are necessary to provide effective protection
of women against gender-based violence, including effective legal measures, includ-
ing penal sanctions, civil remedies and compensatory provisions to protect women
against all kinds of violence.7
The Committee also requested that States parties include information on legal meas-
ures that have been taken to overcome violence against women, and the effectiveness of
such measures, in their reports under the Convention.8 The Human Rights Committee has
similarly requested that States parties provide “information on national laws and practice
with regard to domestic and other types of violence against women, including rape” in their
5 Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 19 (1992) on
violence against women, para. 9.
6 Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women supra note 5 para. 24(b).
7 Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women supra note 5 para. 24(t).
8 Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women supra note 5 para. 24(v), see also Committee
on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women general recommendation No. 12 (1989) para. 1.
reports under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.9 Accordingly, it is
now the practice of States parties to provide relevant information on violence against women
to the human rights treaty bodies.
During their review of States parties’ reports, the treaty bodies have expressed concern
where the States parties’ legal systems lack specific legislation or legislative provisions to
criminalize violence against women and/or retain discriminatory laws that increase women’s
vulnerability to violence. They have also expressed concern about problems with existing
legislation, including scope and coverage, and the lack of effective implementation of such
legislation. Furthermore, in countries where customary law prevails alongside codified law,
treaty bodies have been concerned about the use of discriminatory customary law and prac-
tice, despite laws enacted to protect women from violence.
In light of these concerns, treaty bodies, and in particular the Committee on the
Elimination of Discrimination against Women, have called upon States parties to ensure that:
• Violence against women is prosecuted and punished;
• Women victims of violence have immediate means of redress and protection; and
• Public officials, especially law enforcement personnel, the judiciary, health-care pro-
viders, social workers and teachers, are fully familiar with applicable legal provisions
and sensitized to the social context of violence against women.
The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women has also
addressed the obligation of States parties to enact, implement and monitor legislation to
address violence against women in its work under the Optional Protocol to the Convention
on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women. In the case of A.T. v.
Hungary,10 the Committee found that the lack of specific legislation to combat domestic
violence and sexual harassment constituted a violation of human rights and fundamental
freedoms, particularly the right to security of person. In the cases of Sahide Goekce (deceased)
v. Austria,11 and Fatma Yildirim (deceased) v. Austria,12 the Committee recommended that
the State party “[s]trengthen implementation and monitoring of the Federal Act for the
Protection against Violence within the Family and related criminal law, by acting with due
diligence to prevent and respond to such violence against women and adequately providing
for sanctions for the failure to do so”.13 In its inquiry under article 8 of the Optional Pro-
tocol into the abduction, rape and murder of women in and around Ciudad Juárez, State
of Chihuahua, Mexico, the Committee recommended that Mexico “sensitize all state and
municipal authorities to the need for violence against women to be regarded as a violation of
fundamental rights, in order to conduct a substantial revision of laws from that standpoint”.14
2.1.2. Other international treaties

In addition to the international human rights treaties, other international instruments create
obligations for States parties to enact legislation addressing violence against women. These
9 Human Rights Committee general comment No. 28 (2000) on article 3 (equality of rights between women
and men).
10 A.T. v. Hungary, communication No. 2/2003, views adopted 26 January 2005. See http://www2.ohchr.org/
english/law/docs/Case2_2003.pdf.
11 Sahide Goekce (deceased) v. Austria, communication No. 5/2005, views adopted 6 August 2007. See http://
daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N07/495/43/PDF/N0749543.pdf?OpenElement.
12 Fatma Yildirim (deceased) v. Austria, communication No. 6/2005, views adopted 6 August 2007. See http://
daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N07/495/37/PDF/N0749537.pdf?OpenElement.
13 Sahide Goekce (deceased) v. Austria, supra note 8, para. 12.3(a) and Fatma Yildirim (deceased) v. Austria supra
note 9, para. 12.3(a).
14 Report on Mexico produced by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women under
article 8 of the Optional Protocol to the Convention, and reply from the Government of Mexico, CEDAW/C/
2005/OP.8/MEXICO, para. 286. See http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/cedaw32/CEDAW-C-
2005-OP.8-MEXICO-E.pdf.
International and regional
legal and policy framework 7
instruments include the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons,
Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against
Transnational Organized Crime (the Palermo Protocol), and the Rome Statute of the Inter-
national Criminal Court (the Rome Statute).
The Palermo Protocol requires States parties to:
• Adopt necessary legislative and other measures to establish trafficking in persons as
a criminal offence when committed intentionally (article 5);
• Ensure that their domestic legal or administrative system contains measures that
provide to victims information on court and administrative proceedings and assist-
ance to enable their views and concerns to be presented and considered during
criminal proceedings against offenders (article 6);
• Ensure that their domestic legal systems contain measures that offer victims the
possibility of obtaining compensation for damage suffered (article 6);
• Adopt or strengthen legislative or other measures to discourage the demand that
fosters all forms of exploitation of persons, especially women and children, that leads
to trafficking (article 9); and
• Consider adopting legislative or other measures that permit victims of traffick-
ing to remain in their territory, temporarily or permanently, in appropriate cases
(article 7).
The Rome Statute provides the broadest statutory recognition of gender-based violence as
a crime under international criminal law to date. In article 7(1)(g), the Rome Statute classifies
“rape, sexual slavery, enforced prostitution, forced pregnancy, enforced sterilization, or any
other form of sexual violence of comparable gravity” committed “as part of a widespread or
systematic attack directed against any civilian population” as crimes against humanity. These
same offences are classified in article 8(2)(b)(xxii) as serious violations of the laws and customs
applicable to international armed conflict and thereby classifiable as war crimes. Under the
principle of complementarity established by the Statute, States parties have primary responsi-
bility for bringing those responsible for genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes to
justice. The preamble of the Rome Statute recalls that “it is the duty of every State to exercise
its criminal jurisdiction over those responsible for international crimes”. It has therefore been
argued that it is “essential for all states parties, as well as other states, to amend existing legislation
or enact new national legislation defining the crimes in accordance with international law”.15
2.1.3. International policy instruments

The international conventions and protocols outlined above have been complemented by the
development of policy instruments at the international level that provide detailed guidance
on the steps to be taken by States and other stakeholders to strengthen the legal framework
for addressing all forms of violence against women. These instruments include declarations
and resolutions adopted by United Nations bodies, and documents emanating from United
Nations conferences and summit meetings. For example, article 4 of the 1993 Declaration
on the Elimination of Violence against Women,16 adopted by the General Assembly, requires
Member States to:
• Condemn violence against women and not invoke custom, tradition or religion to
avoid their obligations to eliminate such violence;
• Develop penal, civil, labour and administrative sanctions in domestic legislation to
punish and redress the wrongs caused to victims;
15 Amnesty International, International Criminal Court: Guidelines for Effective Implementation available online at:
http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/info/IOR40/013/2004/en/.
16 General Assembly resolution 48/104 of 19 December 1993.
• Provide access to the mechanisms of justice and, as provided for by national legisla-
tion, to just and effective remedies; and
• Ensure that the secondary victimization of women does not occur because of laws
insensitive to gender considerations, enforcement practices or other interventions.
Similarly, the Beijing Platform for Action, adopted at the Fourth World Conference on
Women in Beijing in 1995,17 calls on Governments to:
• Enact and reinforce penal, civil, labour and administrative sanctions in domestic
legislation to punish and redress the wrongs done to victims;
• Adopt, implement and review legislation to ensure its effectiveness in eliminating
violence against women, emphasizing the prevention of violence and the prosecution
of offenders; and
• Take measures to ensure the protection of women subjected to violence, access to just
and effective remedies, including compensation and indemnification and healing of
victims, and rehabilitation of perpetrators.
This call was reiterated during the five-year review of the Beijing Platform for Action
in 2000.18
In recent years, the United Nations General Assembly has addressed violence against
women in general, as well as specific forms and manifestations of such violence, including
trafficking in women and girls, traditional or customary practices affecting the health of
women and girls, crimes against women committed in the name of “honour”, and domestic
violence against women.19 In relevant resolutions, the General Assembly has routinely called
on Member States to strengthen their legal frameworks.20 For example, resolution 61/143
of 19 December 2006 on the intensification of efforts to eliminate all forms of violence
against women stresses the need to criminalize all forms of violence against women, and
urges States to revise or abolish all laws and regulations that discriminate against women or
have a discriminatory impact on women and ensure that provisions of multiple legal systems
comply with international human rights obligations. Resolution 63/155 of 18 December
2008 on the same topic urges States to use best practices to end impunity and a culture of
tolerance towards violence against women, including by evaluating and assessing the impact
of legislation, rules and procedures regarding violence against women; reinforcing criminal
law and procedure relating to all forms of violence against women; and incorporating into
law measures aimed at preventing violence against women.
2.2. R
egional legal and policy instruments
and jurisprudence
The international legal and policy framework outlined above has been accompanied by the
adoption of various legal and policy frameworks at the regional level. The Inter-American
Convention on the Prevention, Punishment and Eradication of Violence against Women, other-
wise known as the Convention of Belém do Pará, is the only Convention directed solely at
eliminating violence against women. It requires that States parties apply due diligence to
prevent, investigate and impose penalties for violence against women and contains detailed
17 Report of the Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing, China, 4-15 September 1995 (United Nations publica-
tion, Sales No. E.96.IV.13), para. 124.
18 See General Assembly resolution S-23/3, annex, para. 69.
19 The functional commissions of the Economic and Social Council, including the Commission on the Status of
Women, the Commission on Human Rights (replaced by the Human Rights Council) and the Commission on
Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice, have also regularly adopted resolutions on violence against women.
20 See, for example, General Assembly resolutions 63/155, 61/143, 59/166, 58/147 and 56/128.
International and regional
legal and policy framework 9
provisions regarding the obligations of States to enact legislation. Under article 7, States par-
ties are obligated to:
• Adopt legal measures to require the perpetrator to refrain from harassing, intimidat-
ing or threatening the woman;
• Take all appropriate measures, including legislative measures, to amend existing laws
or to modify legal or customary practices which sustain the persistence and tolerance
of violence against women;
• Establish fair and effective legal procedures for victims; and
• Establish the necessary legal and administrative mechanisms to ensure that victims
have effective access to just and effective remedies.
The Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women
in Africa addresses violence against women within many of its provisions, and establishes
obligations related to legal reform. Under the Protocol, States parties are required to:
• Enact and enforce laws to prohibit all forms of violence against women (article 4(2));
• Adopt legislative, administrative, social and economic measures to ensure the preven-
tion, punishment and eradication of all forms of violence against women (article 4(2));
• Take all necessary legislative and other measures to eliminate harmful practices
(article 5); and
• Enact national legislative measures to guarantee that no marriage shall take place
without the free and full consent of both parties and that the minimum age of mar-
riage for women is 18 years (article 6).
In South Asia, the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) has
adopted the Convention on Preventing and Combating the Trafficking in Women and Children
for Prostitution which obligates States parties, under article III, to take effective measures to
ensure that trafficking is an offence under their respective criminal laws and punishable by
appropriate penalties.
In February 2008, the Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in
Human Beings came into force. The Convention obligates State parties to criminalize traf-
ficking in human beings and related offences.21 Legislation must ensure that the offences are
punishable by “effective, proportionate, and dissuasive sanctions”.22 The Convention also
obligates States parties to adopt legislative or other measures to assist victims in their recovery,
and provide compensation for them.23
Action has also been mandated by the Council of Europe in its Recommendation
(2002)5 of the Committee of Ministers to member States on the protection of women against
violence. The recommendation urges member States to ensure that:
• All acts of violence are punishable;
• Swift and effective action is taken against perpetrators; and
• Redress, compensation and protection and support is provided for victims.
In addition to the development of legal and policy instruments at the regional level,
there is also an increasing body of jurisprudence on violence against women under the
regional human rights treaties. Cases heard by the European Court of Human Rights and
the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights have directed States to:
• Create appropriate criminal legislation;
• Review and revise existing laws and policies; and
• Monitor the manner in which legislation is enforced.
21 Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings, Articles 18-20.
22 Ibid., articles 23(1).
23 Ibid., articles 12(1) and 15.
In X and Y v. the Netherlands,24 the European Court of Human Rights found that the
Netherlands had breached its human rights responsibilities under the European Conven-
tion for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (article 8) by failing
to create appropriate criminal legislation applicable to the rape of a mentally handicapped
young woman. The need to review and revise existing laws and policy to eliminate dis-
crimination against women was addressed by the Inter-American Commission on Human
Rights in the case of Maria Mamerita Mestanza Chávez v. Peru25 which dealt with forced
sterilization. In M.C. v. Bulgaria26 the European Court of Human Rights highlighted the
importance of monitoring the manner in which legislation is enforced. The case found that
although the article prohibiting rape in Bulgaria’s penal code did not mention any require-
ment of physical resistance by the victim, physical resistance appeared to be required in
practice to pursue a charge of rape. The importance of appropriately enforcing legislation
was also emphasized by the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights in the case of
Maria da Penha v. Brazil27 in which the Commission found the Brazilian Government in
breach of its human rights obligations due to significant judicial delay and incompetence
in the investigation of domestic violence.
2.3. Model laws and strategies

As States’ obligations to address violence against women, including through legislation, have
been clarified, different stakeholders have developed model laws, strategies and measures to
facilitate and encourage action. In 1996, the United Nations Special Rapporteur on violence
against women, its causes and consequences, presented a framework for model legislation on
domestic violence.28 The framework urges States to adopt legislation which, inter alia:
• Contains the broadest possible definition of acts of domestic violence and relation-
ships within which domestic violence occurs;
• Includes complaints mechanisms and duties of police officers, including that the
police must respond to every request for assistance and protection in cases of domes-
tic violence and explain to the victims their legal rights;
• Provides for ex parte restraining orders and protection orders;
• Addresses both criminal and civil proceedings; and
• Provides for support services for victims, programmes for perpetrators and training
for police and judicial officials.
In 1997, the United Nations General Assembly adopted model strategies and practical
measures on the elimination of violence against women in the field of crime prevention and
criminal justice.29 Pertinent aspects of this model urge Member States to:
24 X and Y v. the Netherlands, European Court of Human Rights 8978/80, 1985. See http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/
tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=x%20%7C%20y%20%7C%20netherlands&
sessionid=21406792&skin=hudoc-en.
25 Maria Mamerita Mestanza Chavez v. Peru, Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Petition 12.191,
Report No. 71/03, 2003. See http://www.cidh.oas.org/annualrep/2003eng/Peru.12191.htm.
26 M.C. v. Bulgaria, European Court of Human Rights 39272/98, 4 December 2003. See http://cmiskp.echr.coe.
int/tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=Bevacqua%20%7C%20bulgaria&sessioni
d=21408082&skin=hudoc-en.
27 Maria da Penha v. Brazil, Case 12.051, Report No. 54/01,OEA/Ser.L/V/II.111 Doc. 20 rev. at 704 (2000). See
http://www.cidh.oas.org/women/Brazil12.051.htm.
28 Report of the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences (1996) “A framework
on model legislation” E/CN.4/1996/53/Add.2. See also Fifteen Years of the United Nations Special Rapporteur on
violence against women, its causes and consequences (1994-2009)—A Critical Review, United Nations Special Rap-
porteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences (2009), available online at: http://www2.ohchr.
org/english/issues/women/rapporteur/docs/15YearReviewofVAWMandate.pdf.
29 Annex to General Assembly resolution 52/86, Crime prevention and criminal justice measures to eliminate
violence against women.
Model framework for legislation
on violence against women 11
• Revise their laws to ensure that all acts of violence against women are prohibited
(para. 6);
• Revise their criminal procedure to ensure that the primary responsibility for initiat-
ing prosecution lies with prosecution authorities, that police can enter premises and
conduct arrests in cases of violence against women, that measures are available to
facilitate the testimony of victims, that evidence of prior acts of violence is considered
during court proceedings, and that courts have the authority to issue protection and
restraining orders (para. 7);
• Ensure that acts of violence are responded to and that police procedures take into
account the need for the safety of the victim (para. 8(c));
• Ensure that sentencing policies hold offenders accountable, take into account their
impact on victims and are comparable to those for other violent crimes (para. 9(a));
• Adopt measures to protect the safety of victims and witnesses before, during and
after criminal proceedings (para. 9(h));
• Provide for training of police and criminal justice officials (para. 12(b)).
Initiatives to develop model approaches in addressing violence against women have also
been undertaken by the Caribbean Community secretariat (CARICOM) in 1991;30 the Pan-
American Health Organization (PAHO), a regional office of the World Health Organization
(WHO), in coordination with the Inter-American Commission of Women (CIMI/OAS),
the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), the United Nations Development Fund for
Women (UNIFEM), and regional non-governmental organizations, in 2004;31 by various
States, such as Australia,32 and by other entities, such as the National Council of Juvenile and
Family Court Judges in the United States of America.33
30 Available online at: http://www.caricom.org/jsp/secretariat/legal_instruments/model_legislation_women_

issues.jsp.
31 Available online at: http://www.paho.org/Spanish/DPM/GPP/GH/LeyModelo.htm.
32 Partnership Against Domestic Violence (1999). Model Domestic Violence Laws Report, available online at: http://
www.ag.gov.au/www/agd/agd.nsf/Page/Publications_Modeldomesticviolencelaws-report-April1999.
33 Advisory Committee of the Conrad N. Hilton Foundation Model Code Project of the Family Violence Project
(1994). Model Code on Domestic and Family Violence, available online at:http://www.ncjfcj.org/images/stories/
dept/fvd/pdf/modecode_fin_printable.pdf.
13
3. M
odel framework
for legislation on violence
against women
3.1. Human rights-based and comprehensive approach

3.1.1. V
iolence against women as a form of
gender-based discrimination
Recommendation
Legislation should:
• Acknowledge that violence against women is a form of discrimination, a manifestation of
historically unequal power relations between men and women, and a violation of women’s
human rights;
• Define discrimination against women as any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on
the basis of sex which has the effect or purpose of impairing or nullifying the recognition,
enjoyment or exercise by women, irrespective of their marital status, on a basis of equality
of men and women, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic,
social, cultural, civil or any other field; and
• Provide that no custom, tradition or religious consideration may be invoked to justify vio-
lence against women.
Commentary
Over the past two decades, violence against women has come to be understood as a violation
of women’s human rights and a form of gender-based discrimination. Legislation on violence
against women should be in conformity with the United Nations General Assembly Declara-
tion on the Elimination of Violence against Women (resolution 48/104 of 1993), read together
with article 1 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against
Women, and general recommendations No. 12 (1989) and 19 (1992) of the Committee on
the Elimination of Discrimination against Women.
Various pieces of legislation have been developed which explicitly acknowledge violence
against women as a form of discrimination and a violation of human rights. Some refer spe-
cifically to international and regional human rights instruments. For example, article 1 of
the Costa Rican Criminalization of Violence against Women Law (2007) states: “This Act is
designed to protect the rights of victims of violence and to punish forms of physical, psycho-
logical, sexual and patrimonial violence against adult women, as discriminatory practices based
on gender, and specifically in a relationship of marriage, de facto union declared or not, in
compliance with the obligations undertaken by the State under the Convention on the Elimi-
nation of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, Law No. 6968 of 2 October 1984,
as well as the Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment and Eradication of

Violence Against Women, Act No. 7499, May 2, 1995.” The term patrimonial violence in the
Costa Rican legislation refers to the denial of property or heritage. Article 9 of the Guatemalan
Law against Femicide and other Forms of Violence against Women (2008) states that no custom,
tradition, culture or religion may be invoked to justify violence against women or to exculpate
any perpetrator of such violence.
3.1.2. Comprehensive legislative approach
Recommendation
Legislation should:
• Be comprehensive and multidisciplinary, criminalizing all forms of violence against women,
and encompassing issues of prevention, protection, survivor empowerment and support
(health, economic, social, psychological), as well as adequate punishment of perpetrators
and availability of remedies for survivors.
Commentary
To date, many laws on violence against women have focused primarily on criminalization.
It is important that legal frameworks move beyond this limited approach to make effective
use of a range of areas of the law, including civil, criminal, administrative and constitu-
tional law, and address prevention of violence, and protection and support of survivors. For
example, the Spanish Organic Act on Integrated Protection Measures against Gender Violence
(2004) incorporates provisions on sensitization, prevention and detection and the rights of
survivors of violence; creates specific institutional mechanisms to address violence against
women; introduces regulations under criminal law; and establishes judicial protection for
survivors. It is also important that legislation incorporate a multidisciplinary approach to
addressing violence against women. Reforms to the Swedish Penal Code regarding violence
against women, introduced by the “Kvinnofrid” package in 1998, emphasize the importance
of collaboration between the police, social services and health-care providers.
3.1.3. E qual application of legislation to all women

and measures to address multiple discrimination
Recommendation
Legislation should:
• Protect all women without discrimination as to race, colour, language, religion, political or
other opinion, national or social origin, property, marital status, sexual orientation, HIV/AIDS
status, migrant or refugee status, age or disability; and
• Recognize that women’s experience of violence is shaped by factors such as their race, col-
our, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, marital status,
sexual orientation, HIV/AIDS status, migrant or refugee status, age, or disability, and include
targeted measures for particular groups of women, where appropriate.
Commentary
Legislation on violence against women has sometimes contained provisions, and/or been
applied by the justice system in a manner, which discriminates between different groups of
women. The reform of the Turkish Penal Code in 2004 removed provisions that imposed
lesser, or no, penalties in cases of violence against unmarried or non-virgin women and now
ensures that the legislation protects all women equally.
Women’s experience of violence, and of the justice system, are further shaped by their
race, colour, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, marital
status, sexual orientation, HIV/AIDS status, migrant or refugee status, age, or disability. In
many societies, women belonging to particular ethnic or racial groups experience gender-
based violence as well as violence based on their ethnic or racial identity. It is important
that legislation, or subsidiary legislation, where necessary, make specific provision for the
appropriate and sensitive treatment of women complainants/survivors of violence who suffer
from multiple forms of discrimination. Title VI of the United States of America Tribal Law
and Order Bill (2008), if passed, would enact specific provisions regarding the prosecution
and prevention of domestic violence and sexual assault against Native American women.
3.1.4. Gender-sensitive legislation
Recommendation
Legislation should:
• Be gender-sensitive, not gender-blind.
Commentary
Gender-sensitivity recognizes the inequalities between women and men, as well as the spe-
cific needs of women and men. A gender-sensitive approach to legislation on violence against
women acknowledges that women’s and men’s experiences of violence differ and that vio-
lence against women is a manifestation of historically unequal power relations between men
and women and discrimination against women.
There has been a long-standing debate as to the best way to ensure gender-sensitivity in
legislation on violence. Gender-specific legislation has been deemed important, particularly
in Latin America, as it acknowledges violence against women as a form of gender-based dis-
crimination and addresses the particular needs of women complainants/survivors. However,
gender-specific legislation on violence against women does not allow for the prosecution of
violence against men and boys and may be challenged as unconstitutional in some countries.
A number of countries have adopted gender-neutral legislation, applicable to both women
and men. However, such legislation may be subject to manipulation by violent offenders. For
example, in some countries, women survivors of violence themselves have been prosecuted
for the inability to protect their children from violence. Gender-neutral legislation has also
tended to prioritize the stability of the family over the rights of the (predominantly female)
complainant/survivor because it does not specifically reflect or address women’s experience
of violence perpetrated against them.
Some legislation combines gender-neutral and gender-specific provisions to reflect the
specific experiences and needs of female complainants/survivors of violence, while allowing
the prosecution of violence against men and boys. For example, chapter 4, section 4a of the
Swedish Penal Code, as reformed by the “Kvinnofrid” package in 1998, contains a neutral
offence of “gross violation of integrity” which is constituted when a perpetrator commits
repeated violations, such as physical or sexual abuse, against a person with whom they have,
or have had, a close relationship, as well as the gender-specific offence of “gross violation of
a woman’s integrity” which is constituted by the same elements, when committed by a man
against a woman. The Austrian Code of Criminal Procedure, since 2006, provides specific
procedures and rights for women complainants/survivors of violence in the criminal justice
process in order to avoid their secondary victimization.
3.1.5. R elationship between customary and/or religious law

and the formal justice system
Recommendation
Legislation should state that:
• where there are conflicts between customary and/or religious law and the formal justice
system, the matter should be resolved with respect for the human rights of the survivor and
in accordance with gender equality standards; and
• the processing of a case under customary and/or religious law does not preclude it from
being brought before the formal justice system.
Commentary
In many countries, cases of violence against women continue to be dealt with through custom-
ary and/or religious law procedures and measures, such as the provision of “compensation” to
the family or community of the survivor, and customary reconciliation practices of ceremonies
of forgiveness. The application of such laws has proven to be problematic as they do not focus on
healing of, and providing redress to, the survivor. In addition, in many instances, the use of cus-
tomary and/or religious law has been seen to preclude the survivor from seeking redress within
the formal justice system. On the other hand, there is some evidence of the benefits of certain
informal justice mechanisms, such as “women’s courts”, which are often more accessible to
women survivors of violence than the official court system, both in terms of their geographical
location, and in relation to the language and manner in which court proceedings are conducted.
It is therefore important to clarify the relationship between customary and/or religious
law and the formal justice system, and to codify the survivor’s right to be treated in accordance
with human rights and gender equality standards under both processes. An interesting example
of integration of customary law into the formal justice system is the Criminal Law (Compensa-
tion) Act 1991 of Papua New Guinea, which allows survivors of crimes, including sexual violence
and domestic violence, to claim compensation from the perpetrator. Claiming compensation for
wrongdoing is a common feature of customary law in Papua New Guinea, and the enactment
of legislation on compensation was intended to reduce the occurrence of “payback” crimes.
3.1.6. Amendment and/or removal of conflicting legal provisions
Recommendation
Legislation should:
• provide for the amendment and/or removal of provisions contained in other areas of law,
such as family and divorce law, property law, housing rules and regulations, social security
law, and employment law that contradict the legislation adopted, so as to ensure a consist-
ent legal framework that promotes women’s human rights and gender equality, and the
elimination of violence against women.
Commentary
In order to be fully effective, the adoption of new legislation on violence against women
should be accompanied by a review and amendment, where necessary, of all other relevant
laws to ensure that women’s human rights and the elimination of violence against women
are consistently incorporated. For example, in conjunction with the Organic Act on Integrated
Protection Measures against Gender Violence (2004) in Spain, a number of other laws were
amended in order to ensure consistency, such as the Worker’s Statute, Social Offences and
Sanctions Act, General Social Security Act, additional provisions of the National Budget
Act, Civil Code, Criminal Code, Code of Civil Procedure, Code of Criminal Procedure,
Act on Free Legal Aid, Organic Act regulating the Right of Education, General Adver-
tising Act. In the United States, the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Recon-
ciliation Act (1996) created a Family Violence Option, which permits survivors of domestic
violence to be exempted from certain employment restrictions related to receiving public
assistance payments. The United States Department of Health and Human Services issued
regulations regarding the implementation of the Family Violence Option in April 1999.
3.2. Implementation
3.2.1. National action plan or strategy
Recommendation
Legislation should:
• where a current national action plan or strategy on violence against women does not
already exist, mandate the formulation of a plan, which should contain a set of activities
with benchmarks and indicators, to ensure a framework exists for a comprehensive and
coordinated approach to the implementation of the legislation; or
• where a current national action plan or strategy exists, reference the plan as the framework
for the comprehensive and coordinated implementation of the legislation.
Commentary
Legislation is most likely to be implemented effectively when accompanied by a compre-
hensive policy framework which includes a national action plan or strategy. The Uruguayan
Law for the Prevention, Early Detection, Attention to, and Eradication of Domestic Violence
(2002) mandates the design of a national plan against domestic violence. Article 46 of the
Kenyan Sexual Offences Act (2006) requires that the relevant Minister prepare a national
policy framework to guide the implementation and administration of the Act, and review
the policy framework at least once every five years. The Mexican Law on Access of Women
to a Life Free of Violence (2007) prioritizes the inclusion of measures and policies to address
violence against women in the National Development Plan and obliges the Government to
formulate and implement a national policy to prevent, address, sanction and eradicate vio-
lence against women.
3.2.2. Budget
Recommendation
Legislation should:
• mandate the allocation of a budget for its implementation by:
creating a general obligation on Government to provide an adequate budget for the
implementation of the relevant activities; and/or
requesting the allocation of funding for a specific activity, for example, the creation of a
specialized prosecutor’s office; and/or
allocating a specific budget to non-governmental organizations for a specified range of
activities related to its implementation.
Commentary
Without adequate funding, legislation cannot be implemented effectively. As a result, legisla-
tion on violence against women increasingly contains provisions requiring budgetary alloca-
tion for its implementation. For example, the Mexican Law on Access of Women to a Life Free of
Violence (2007) establishes obligations for the State and municipalities to take budgetary and
administrative measures to ensure the rights of women to a life free of violence. In the United
States, the Violence Against Women Act (1994), and its reauthorizations, provides a significant
source of funding for non-governmental organizations working on violence against women.
It is important that any budgetary allocation be based on a full analysis of funding required
to implement all measures contained in the legislation.
3.2.3. Training and capacity-building for public officials
Recommendation
Legislation should mandate:
• regular and institutionalized gender-sensitivity training and capacity-building on violence
against women for public officials;
• specific training and capacity-building for relevant public officials when new legislation is
enacted, to ensure that they are aware of and competent to use their new duties; and
• that such training and capacity-building be developed and carried out in close consultation
with non-governmental organizations and service providers for complainants/survivors of
violence against women
Commentary
It is critical to ensure that those mandated to implement legislation regarding violence
against women, including police, prosecutors and judges, have an in-depth understand-
ing of such legislation and are able to implement it in an appropriate and gender-sensitive
manner. When public officials involved in the implementation of the law are not compre-
hensively trained regarding its content, there is a risk that the law will not be implemented
effectively or uniformly. There have been many and varied efforts to train public officials,
and/or to include capacity-building on violence against women in the official curricula for
these professions. Such trainings and capacity-building efforts have been found to be most
effective, and implemented rigorously, when they are mandated in law and developed in
close collaboration with non-governmental organizations.
Article 47 of the Spanish Organic Act on Integrated Protection Measures against Gender Vio-
lence (2004) requires the Government and the General Council of the Judiciary to ensure that
training courses for judges and magistrates, prosecutors, court clerks, national law enforcement
and security agents and coroners include specific training on sexual equality, non-discrimination
for reasons of sex, and issues of violence against women. Under article 7 of the Albanian Law on
Measures against Violence in Family Relations (2006) the Ministry of the Interior is charged with
training police to handle domestic violence cases, and the Ministry of Justice is responsible for
training medico-legal experts on domestic violence and child abuse and training bailiffs on
service of protection orders. Section 42 of the Philippine Anti-Violence against Women and their
Children Act (2004) requires all agencies responding to violence against women and their chil-
dren to undergo education and training on (a) the nature and causes of violence against women
and their children; (b) legal rights and remedies of complainants/survivors; (c) services available;
(d) legal duties of police officers to make arrests and offer protection and assistance; and (e) tech-
niques for handling incidents of violence against women and their children. Draft legislation on
protection orders in the Netherlands, if passed, will mandate a training programme for police.
3.2.4. Specialized police and prosecutorial units
Recommendation
Legislation/subsidiary legislation should ensure:
• the designation or strengthening of specialized police units and specialized prosecutor
units on violence against women, and provide adequate funding for their work and special-
ized training of their staff; and
• that complainants/survivors should have the option of communicating with female police
officers or prosecutors.
Commentary
Police authorities and prosecutors are of central importance to ensuring that perpetrators of
violence are punished, especially with regard to investigating acts of violence against women,
preserving evidence, and issuing indictments. The quality of police and prosecutor work is
crucial in determining whether court proceedings are instituted or a person is convicted.
However, it has been the experience in many countries that acts of violence against women
are not investigated thoroughly or documented precisely, and that domestic violence contin-
ues to be regarded as a private matter and not a criminal offence, while complaints of sexual
violence continue to be treated with scepticism.
There is evidence that specialized units are more responsive and effective in dealing
with violence against women. Experience has shown that the establishment of such units
may facilitate the development of expertise in this area and may result in an increase in
the number of cases investigated and a better quality and more efficient process for the
complainant/survivor. However, in some countries, experience indicates that establish-
ment of such units may result in the marginalization of women’s issues. It is therefore
crucial that establishment of specialized units be accompanied by adequate funding and
training of staff.
Special investigation services have been organized in many police stations in Italy to
respond more adequately to women who report sexual violence. In Jamaica, a sex crimes
unit has been established within the police force, with the objective of creating an environ-
ment that encourages women complainants/survivors to report incidents of sexual assault
and child abuse; effectively investigating complaints of abuse; and offering counselling and
therapy services. The National Guidelines for Prosecutors in Sexual Offence Cases (1998) of
the Department of Justice in South Africa state that “a specialist prosecutor is the ideal per-
son for this type of case”. Draft legislation on family violence in Lebanon, if passed, would
require the creation of a special unit in charge of family violence at the Directorate General
of the Internal Security Forces to receive and investigate complaints.
3.2.5. Specialized courts
Recommendation
Legislation should:
• provide for the creation of specialized courts or special court proceedings guaranteeing
timely and efficient handling of cases of violence against women; and
• ensure that officers assigned to specialized courts receive specialized training and that
measures are in place to minimize stress and fatigue of such officers.
Commentary
Experiences of complainants/survivors with court personnel in regular courts suggests that
such personnel frequently do not have the necessary gender-sensitivity or comprehensive
understanding of the various laws that apply to violence against women cases; may not be
sensitive to women’s human rights; and may be overburdened with other cases, resulting in
delays and increased costs to the complainant/survivor. Specialized courts exist in a number
of countries, including Brazil, Spain, Uruguay, Venezuela, the United Kingdom, and a
number of states in the United States. Such courts have been effective in many instances
as they provide a stronger possibility that court and judicial officials will be specialized
and gender-sensitive regarding violence against women, and often include procedures to
expedite cases of violence against women.
The specialized integrated courts established by Title V of the Organic Act on Inte-
grated Protection Measures against Gender Violence (2004) in Spain and article 14 of the
Maria da Penha Law (2006) in Brazil deal with all legal aspects of cases regarding domestic
violence, including divorce and child custody proceedings and criminal proceedings. By
streamlining and centralizing court processes, such integrated courts eliminate contradic-
tory orders, improve complainant/survivor safety, and reduce the need for complainants/
survivors to testify repeatedly. However, it is important to ensure that the complainant/
survivor retains control over the proceedings and does not feel forced to take actions,
such as divorce or separation, when she is not ready. The Spanish experience suggests
that proceedings in specialized courts sometimes progress too rapidly for complainants/
survivors and, as a result, some complainants/survivors withdraw from the process. It is
also important to ensure that all relevant professionals are available in specialized courts.
Sexual Offences Courts established as part of the anti-rape strategy in South Africa are
staffed by a cadre of prosecutors, social workers, investigating officers, magistrates, health
professionals and police.
3.2.6. Protocols, guidelines, standards and regulations
Recommendation
Legislation should:
• require that the relevant Minister(s), in collaboration with police, prosecutors, judges, the
health sector and the education sector, develop regulations, protocols, guidelines, instruc-
tions, directives and standards, including standardized forms, for the comprehensive and
timely implementation of the legislation; and
• provide that such regulations, protocols, guidelines and standards be developed within a
limited number of months following the entry into force of the legislation.
Commentary
Without the promulgation of regulations, protocols, guidelines and standards, legislation
will not be implemented comprehensively and the training of officials will not produce
effective results. Sections 66 and 67 of the South African Criminal Law (Sexual Offences
and Related Matters) Amendment Act (2007) provide detailed procedures for the devel-
opment of national directives, instructions and regulations. Section 47 of the Kenyan
Sexual Offences Act (2006) provides for the promulgation of regulations. Article 21(3) of
Georgia’s Law on Elimination of Domestic Violence, Protection of and Support to its Victims
(2006) directs the Ministry of Internal Affairs to develop and approve, within one month
of publication of the law, a standardized form for the emergency protection order issued
by police. The Bulgarian Law on Protection against Domestic Violence (2005) requires the
Ministers of Interior, Justice, Health and others to develop domestic violence preven-
tion and protection programmes within six months from the entry into force of the law.
3.2.7. Time limit on activating legislative provisions
Recommendation
Legislation should:
• provide a deadline regarding the length of time that may pass between its adoption and
entry into force.
Commentary
Experience has shown that there may be significant delays between the adoption of legislation
and its entry into force. In order to address this, some countries have included a legislative
provision which specifies the date on which the relevant legislation, and all of its provisions,
will come into force. For example, section 72 of the South African Criminal Law (Sexual
Offences and Related Matters) Amendment Act (2007) provides that the majority of the Act is
to take effect on 16 December 2007 and specifies that chapters 5 and 6 of the Act is to take
effect on 21 March 2008 and 16 June 2008, respectively.
3.2.8. Penalties for non-compliance by relevant authorities
Recommendation
Legislation should:
• provide for effective sanctions against relevant authorities who do not comply with its
provisions.
Commentary
In order to ensure that officials charged with implementing legislation on violence against
women fully adhere to their responsibilities, there is a need for legislation to provide for
penalties for non-compliance. Article 5 of the Costa Rican Criminalization of Violence
against Women Law (2007) states that public officials who deal with violence against
women “must act swiftly and effectively, while respecting procedures and the human rights
of women affected” or risk being charged with the crime of dereliction of duty. Articles
22, 23 and 24 of the Venezuelan Law About Violence Against Women and the Family (1998)
provide penalties for authorities in centres of employment, education and other activities,
health professionals, and justice system officials who do not undertake relevant actions
within the required time frame.
3.3. Monitoring and evaluation

3.3.1. Specific institutional mechanism to monitor implementation
Recommendation
Legislation should:
• provide for the creation of a specific, multisectoral mechanism to oversee implementation

of the legislation and report back to Parliament on a regular basis. The functions of such a
mechanism should include:
information gathering and analysis;
interviews with complainants/survivors, advocates, attorneys, police, prosecutors,
judges, probation officers and service providers regarding complainants/survivors’
access to the legal system and the effectiveness of remedies, including obstacles faced
by particular groups of women; and
the proposal of amendments to legislation if necessary; and
• mandate adequate funding for the mechanism.
Commentary
Careful and regular monitoring is critical to ensure that legislation is implemented effectively
and does not have any adverse unanticipated effects. Monitoring of the implementation of
legislation may reveal gaps in the scope and effectiveness of the law, the need for training of
legal professionals and other stakeholders, lack of a coordinated response, and unanticipated
consequences of the law for complainants/survivors, thereby identifying areas in need of legal
reform. Monitoring is most effective when conducted by the Government in collaboration
with non-governmental organizations, and with the involvement of complainants/survivors
of violence and service providers, in order to ensure that evaluations are reflective of how the
law is experienced on the ground.
A Special Inter-institutional Commission for Monitoring the Implementation of the Law
against Domestic Violence, composed of members from Government and civil society, was
formed following the enactment of the Law on Domestic Violence (1997) in Honduras. In 2004,
the Commission proposed amendments to the law, including expansion of provisions regarding
protection orders and criminalization of cases of repeated domestic violence. These amend-
ments were approved by Congress and have been in effect since 2006. The Spanish Organic
Act on Integrated Protection Measures against Gender Violence (2004) provides for the creation of
two institutions. The Special Government Delegation on Violence against Women is charged
with developing policies to address gender-based violence, promoting public awareness through
national plans and campaigns, coordinating the efforts of different stakeholders, gathering data
and conducting studies. The head of the Special Government Delegation is able to intervene in
court proceedings to defend the rights of women. A second institution, the State Observatory
on Violence against Women is charged with providing an annual report and ongoing advice
to the Government. In addition, the Government, in collaboration with the different regions,
is to prepare a report evaluating the effectiveness of the Act three years after its entry into force
and present it to the Parliament. Section 39 of the Philippine Anti-Violence against Women and
their Children Act (2004) provides for the creation of an Inter-Agency Council on Violence
Against Women and Their Children to monitor the effectiveness of initiatives to address vio-
lence against women and develop programmes and projects to eliminate such violence.
The Uruguayan Law for the Prevention, Early Detection, Attention to, and Eradication
of Domestic Violence (2002) provides for the creation of a National and Consultative Council
in the Fight against Domestic Violence which is to promote a holistic approach to addressing
the needs of complainants/survivors of violence. In Indonesia, Presidential Decree Number
181/1998 established the National Commission on Violence Against Women (Komnas Perem-
puan) which is an independent body tasked with promoting the enforcement of women’s
human rights and eliminating violence against women in Indonesia. The Nigerian Violence
Prohibition Bill, if enacted, would create a National Commission on Violence Against Women
fully funded by the Government to, amongst other things, monitor and supervise the imple-
mentation of the provisions of the Act.
3.3.2. Collection of statistical data
Recommendation
Legislation should:
• require that statistical data be gathered at regular intervals on the causes, consequences
and frequency of all forms of violence against women, and on the effectiveness of meas-
ures to prevent, punish and eradicate violence against women and protect and support
complainants/survivors; and
• require that such statistical data be disaggregated by sex, race, age, ethnicity and other
relevant characteristics.
Commentary
The collection of data, including statistical data, is fundamental for monitoring the efficacy
of legislation. This research should include compiling data on whether and when an abuser
re-offends and whether such offences involve the same or a different victim. Despite progress
in recent years, there remains an urgent need to strengthen the knowledge base on all forms
of violence against women to inform legal development. Where possible, it is important to
engage the national statistical office in the collection of statistical data.
Some countries have responded to the need for further data collection by mandating
such activities in legislation. Italy’s Financial Law (2007) created a National Observatory
on Violence against Women and allocated €3 million per year for the next three years to
the Observatory. The Guatemalan Law against Femicide and other Forms of Violence against
Women (2008) obliges the national statistical office to compile data and develop indicators on
violence against women. The Albanian Law on Measures against Violence in Family Relations
(2006) obliges the Ministry of Labour, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities to maintain
statistical data on domestic violence levels. Articles 7 and 8 of the Polish Law on Domestic
Violence (2005) require the Minister of Social Affairs to direct and fund research and analyses
on domestic violence. The Law on Access of Women to a Life Free of Violence (2007) in Mexico
mandates the creation of a national databank on cases of violence against women, including
protection orders and the people subject to them. Draft legislation on domestic violence in
Armenia, if passed, would require the Government to collect statistics, conduct research,
monitor and fund counselling centres and shelters.
3.4. Definitions
3.4.1. Defining forms of violence against women
Recommendation
Legislation should:
• apply to all forms of violence against women, including but not limited to:
domestic violence;
sexual violence, including sexual assault and sexual harassment;
harmful practices, including early marriage, forced marriage, female genital mutilation,
female infanticide, prenatal sex-selection, virginity testing, HIV/AIDS cleansing, so-called
honour crimes, acid attacks, crimes committed in relation to bride-price and dowry, mal-
treatment of widows, forced pregnancy, and trying women for sorcery/witchcraft;
femicide/feminicide;
trafficking; and
sexual slavery; and
• recognize violence against women perpetrated by specific actors, and in specific contexts,
including:
violence against women in the family;
violence against women in the community;
violence against women in conflict situations; and
violence against women condoned by the State, including violence in police custody and
violence committed by security forces.
Commentary
Forms and manifestations of violence against women vary depending on the specific social,
economic, cultural and political context. However, legislation regarding violence against
women has predominantly addressed intimate partner violence. A number of countries have
passed specific legislation addressing other forms of violence, such as the Acid Crime Preven-
tion Act (2002) and the Acid Control Act (2002) of Bangladesh, section 304B of the Indian
Penal Code which criminalizes “dowry deaths”, and the Law on the Repression of the Practice
of Female Genital Mutilation (No. 3 of 2003) in the Republic of Benin. Other countries have
passed legislation that addresses several forms of violence. For example, the Mexican Law
on Access of Women to a Life Free of Violence (2007) addresses forms of violence in the family,
in the workplace and educational institutions, in the community, in State institutions, and
femicide. Femicide is an extreme form of violence that culminates in the murder of women
and may include torture, mutilation, cruelty, and sexual violence.
Regardless of whether forms of violence are addressed in separate legislation or in
one piece of legislation, a comprehensive legal framework must be applicable to each form,
including measures for the prevention of violence, protection and support of the complainant/
survivor, punishment of the perpetrator, and measures to ensure the thorough implementa-
tion and evaluation of the law.
3.4.2. Defining domestic violence

3.4.2.1. Comprehensive definition of types of domestic violence
Recommendation
Legislation should:
• include a comprehensive definition of domestic violence, including physical, sexual, psy-
chological and economic violence.
Commentary
Legislation regarding domestic violence has tended to address physical violence only. How-
ever, as a more nuanced understanding of the nature of domestic violence has emerged, a
number of countries have enacted and/or amended legislation to adopt definitions which
include some or all of the following types of violence: physical, sexual, emotional and/or
psychological, and patrimonial, property, and/or economic violence. For example, chapter
II of the Indian Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act (2005) includes physical,
sexual, verbal, emotional and economic abuse, and article 5 of the Brazilian Maria da Penha
Law (2006) states that “domestic and family violence against women is defined as any action
or omission based on gender that causes the woman’s death, injury, physical, sexual or psy-
chological suffering and moral or patrimonial damage.” Draft legislation on family violence
in Lebanon, if passed, would provide that family violence includes every act of violence
based on gender, perpetrated by a family member, the consequences of which cause or may
cause harm or suffering to the woman, whether physical, psychological, sexual or economic.
In practice, however, definitions of domestic violence that include psychological and eco-
nomic violence may be problematic. Experience has shown that violent offenders may attempt
to take advantage of such provisions by applying for protection orders claiming that their part-
ner psychologically abuses them. Further, many women may not expect a strong justice system
response to so-called acts of psychological or economic violence against them. In addition,
psychological violence is very difficult to prove. It is therefore essential that any definition of
domestic violence that includes psychological and/or economic violence is enforced in a gender-
sensitive and appropriate manner. The expertise of relevant professionals, including psycholo-
gists and counsellors, advocates and service providers for complainants/survivors of violence,
and academics should be utilized to determine whether behaviour constitutes violence.
3.4.2.2. Scope of persons protected by the law
Recommendation
Legislation should apply at a minimum to:
• individuals who are or have been in an intimate relationship, including marital, non-marital,
same sex and non-cohabiting relationships; individuals with family relationships to one
another; and members of the same household.
Commentary
Laws on domestic violence have often applied only to persons in intimate relationships and,
in particular, to married couples. Over time, there has been an expansion of legislation to
include other complainants/survivors of domestic violence, such as intimate partners who are
not married or in a cohabiting relationship, persons in family relationships and members of the
same household, including domestic workers. The Spanish Organic Act on Integrated Protection
Measures against Gender Violence (2004) defines domestic relationships broadly to include rela-
tionships with a spouse or former spouse, non-marital relationships, non-cohabiting relation-
ships, romantic and sexual relationships, as well as relationships between family or household
members, such as ascendants, descendents, persons related by blood, persons residing together
and minors or disabled individuals under guardianship or custody. Article 5 of the Brazilian
Maria da Penha Law (2006) includes violence committed in the “domestic unit”, defined as
the permanent space shared by people, with or without family ties; in the “family”, defined as
the community formed by individuals that are or consider themselves related, joined by natural
ties, by affinity or by express will; and in any intimate relationship. The Nigerian Violence Pro-
hibition Bill, if enacted, would define a domestic relationship broadly, so as to include spouses,
former spouses, persons in an engagement, dating or customary relationship, parents of a child,
members of the family, or residents of the same household. The Indonesian Law Regarding the
Elimination of Violence in the Household (Law No. 23 of 2004) extends to domestic workers.
In Austria, the requirement that complainants/survivors prove their relationship with
the perpetrator in order to be protected under the law has sometimes resulted in the secondary
victimization of the complainant/survivor. Perpetrators have denied the existence of a rela-
tionship in order to avoid being the subject of a protection order. In response, complainants/
survivors have been requested to prove that a relationship existed, which has led to questions
regarding what constitutes a “relationship”, including whether the complainant/survivor must
prove she had sex with the perpetrator in order to qualify for protection.
3.4.3. Defining sexual violence

3.4.3.1. D
efining a broad offence of sexual assault
incorporating rape, including marital rape
Recommendation
Legislation should:
• define sexual assault as a violation of bodily integrity and sexual autonomy;
• replace existing offences of rape and “indecent” assault with a broad offence of sexual
assault graded based on harm;
• provide for aggravating circumstances including, but not limited to, the age of the survivor,
the relationship of the perpetrator and survivor, the use or threat of violence, the presence of
multiple perpetrators, and grave physical or mental consequences of the attack on the victim;
• remove any requirement that sexual assault be committed by force or violence, and any
requirement of proof of penetration, and minimize secondary victimization of the complain-
ant/survivor in proceedings by enacting a definition of sexual assault that either:
requires the existence of “unequivocal and voluntary agreement” and requiring proof
by the accused of steps taken to ascertain whether the complainant/survivor was con-
senting; or
requires that the act take place in “coercive circumstances” and includes a broad range
of coercive circumstances; and
• specifically criminalize sexual assault within a relationship (i.e., “marital rape”), either by:
providing that sexual assault provisions apply “irrespective of the nature of the relation-
ship” between the perpetrator and complainant; or
stating that “no marriage or other relationship shall constitute a defence to a charge of
sexual assault under the legislation.”
Commentary
Sexual violence has often been addressed in the problematic framework of morality, public
decency and honour, and as a crime against the family or society, rather than a violation of
an individual’s bodily integrity. Positive progress has been made in addressing this issue. A
number of Latin American countries, including Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil and Ecuador, have
revised their penal codes to reflect sexual violence as a violation of the complainant/survivor,
instead of as a threat to her “honour” and “morality”. The reform of the Turkish Penal Code
in 2004 defined sexual violations as “crimes against the individual” instead of “crimes against
moral customs and society” and eliminated all references to “morality”, “chastity” and “hon-
our”, as did the Kvinnofrid reforms to the Swedish Penal Code in 1998.
Rape has been the main “form” of sexual violence addressed by criminal law and defini-
tions of rape often focused on proof of penetration. These definitions do not account for the
full range of sexual violations experienced by women and the impact of such violations on the
complainant/survivor. For this reason, some countries have instead included in their criminal
law a broad definition of “sexual assault” which encompasses the offence formerly classified as
rape and is not dependent upon proof of penetration. For example, Canada’s Criminal Code
provides for the graded offences of sexual assault (section 271), sexual assault with a weapon,
threats to a third party, or causing bodily harm (section 272), and aggravated sexual assault,
wherein the perpetrator wounds, maims, disfigures or endangers the life of the complain-
ant (section 273). Article 102 of the Turkish Penal Code (2004) defines sexual assault as an
offence of violating the bodily integrity of another person by means of sexual conduct; rape
as the offence of violating the bodily integrity of another person, including marriage partner,
by means of inserting an organ or an another object into the body.
Definitions of rape and sexual assault have evolved over time, from requiring use of
force or violence, to requiring a lack of consent. For example, Canada’s Criminal Code
contains a positive consent standard which states: “consent” means, for the purposes of
this section, the voluntary agreement of the complainant to engage in the sexual activity in
question. The Sexual Offences Act (2004), in the United Kingdom, strengthened and mod-
ernized the law on sexual offences, improved preventative measures and the protection of
individuals from sexual offenders. Three key provisions from the Act are: a statutory defini-
tion of consent, a test of reasonable belief in consent and a set of evidential and conclusive
presumptions about consent and the defendant’s belief in consent. However, experience has
shown that definitions of sexual assault based on a lack of consent may, in practice, result
in the secondary victimization of the complainant/survivor by forcing the prosecution to
prove beyond reasonable doubt that the complainant/survivor did not consent. In an attempt
to avoid such secondary victimization, some countries have developed definitions of rape
which rely on the existence of certain circumstances, rather than demonstrating a lack of
consent. For example, the definition of rape under Namibia’s Combating of Rape Act (2000)
requires the existence of certain “coercive circumstances”, instead of proof of lack of con-
sent. A similar definition has been adopted in the Lesotho Sexual Offences Act (2003). In
instances where a definition based on “coercive circumstances” is adopted, it is important
to ensure that the circumstances listed are expansive, and do not revert to an emphasis on
use of force or violence.
Historically, rape and sexual assault were not criminalized when committed within
the context of an intimate relationship. While the concept of rape within intimate relation-
ships remains highly problematic in many countries, an increasing number of countries
are removing exemptions for rape/sexual assault within an intimate relationship from their
penal codes and/or enacting specific provisions to criminalize it. Lesotho, Namibia, South
Africa and Swaziland have all criminalized marital rape. The Namibian Combating of Rape
Act (2000) does so by stating: “No marriage or other relationship shall constitute a defence to
a charge of rape under this Act”. In 2002, the Supreme Court of Nepal in the case of Forum
for Women, Law and Development (FWLD) vs. His Majesty’s Government/Nepal (HMG/N)
found the marital rape exemption to be unconstitutional and contrary to the International
Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms
of Discrimination against Women. In 2003, the introduction of the Criminal Code (Sexual
Offences and Crimes against Children) Act 2002 in Papua New Guinea abolished marital
immunity in relation to rape.
3.4.3.2. Defining sexual harassment
Recommendation
Legislation should:
• criminalize sexual harassment;
• recognize sexual harassment as a form of discrimination and a violation of women’s human
rights with health and safety consequences;
• define sexual harassment as unwelcome sexually determined behaviour in both horizon-
tal and vertical relationships, including in employment (including the informal employ-
ment sector), education, receipt of goods and services, sporting activities, and property
transactions; and
• provide that unwelcome sexually determined behaviour includes (whether directly or by
implication) physical conduct and advances; a demand or request for sexual favours; sexu-
ally coloured remarks; displaying sexually explicit pictures, posters or graffiti; and any other
unwelcome physical, verbal or non-verbal conduct of a sexual nature.
Commentary
Sexual harassment has traditionally been associated solely with labour-related offences and defined
as occurring only in the context of unequal power relations (such as boss against employee). As a
result, sexual harassment has often been dealt with in countries’ labour codes and only applied to
those who experience such behaviour in the formal employment sector. Over time, countries have
acknowledged these limitations and begun to address sexual harassment in a more comprehensive
manner and in various areas of the law, such as anti-discrimination law, and criminal law. The
Anti-Discrimination Act (1977) of the State of New South Wales, Australia, provides that sexual
harassment is against the law when it takes place in employment; educational institutions; receipt
of goods or services; renting or attempting to rent accommodation; buying or selling land; and
sporting activities. In Turkey, one of the major reforms to the Penal Code in 2004 was the crimi-
nalization of sexual harassment. In Kenya, sexual harassment is covered in three laws: section 23
of the Sexual Offences Act (2006) (criminal offence for any person in a position of authority or
holding public office), section 6 of the Employment Act (2007) (harassment by employers or co-
workers), and section 21 of the Public Officer Ethics Act (2003) (harassment within public service
and provision of public services). In the case of Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan & Ors AIR 1997
S.C.3011, the Supreme Court of India applied articles 11, 22, and 23 of the Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, as well as general recommendation
No. 19 of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, and the relevant
sections of the Beijing Platform for Action (pertaining to promotion of health and safety in work),
in order to create a legally binding definition of sexual harassment, invoking a broad definition
of the “workplace”.
3.5. Prevention
3.5.1. Incorporation of provisions on prevention
of violence against women
Recommendation
Legislation should prioritize prevention of violence against women and should include provi-
sions, as elaborated below in subsections 3.5.2 to 3.5.4 of the framework, on the following
measures to prevent violence against women:
• awareness-raising activities regarding women’s human rights, gender equality and the right
of women to be free from violence;
• use of educational curricula to modify discriminatory social and cultural patterns of behav-
iour, as well as derogatory gender stereotypes; and
• sensitization of the media regarding violence against women.
Commentary
Early legislative responses to violence against women tended to focus solely on criminalization
and thus did not attempt to address the root causes of violence against women. Over time,
however, the importance of including preventive measures in legislation has been increas-
ingly emphasized. The recently adopted Law against Femicide and other Forms of Violence
against Women (2008) in Guatemala states that the Government is responsible for inter-
agency coordination, the promotion and monitoring of awareness-raising campaigns, gen-
erating dialogue and promoting public policies to prevent violence against women. Article
8 of the Brazilian Maria da Penha Law (2006) provides for integrated prevention measures,
including encouraging the communications media to avoid stereotyped roles that legitimize
or encourage domestic and family violence, public educational campaigns, and emphasis, in
educational curricula at all levels, on human rights and the problem of domestic and family
violence against women. Chapter II of the Venezuelan Law About Violence against Women and
the Family (1998) provides for policies on prevention of violence and assistance to survivors.
The Supreme Court of India, in the case of Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan & Ors AIR 1997
S.C.3011, required employers to ensure that appropriate conditions be established in respect
of work, leisure, health and hygiene in order to prevent sexual harassment within the work-
place. Italy’s draft bill on Measures of prevention and repression of the crimes against the person
within the family, sexual orientation, gender and every other cause of discrimination, if passed,
would emphasize policies of prevention.
3.5.2. Awareness-raising
Recommendation
Legislation should mandate government support and funding for public awareness-raising
campaigns on violence against women, including:
• general campaigns sensitizing the population about violence against women as a manifes-
tation of inequality and a violation of women’s human rights; and
• specific awareness-raising campaigns designed to heighten knowledge of laws enacted to
address violence against women and the remedies they contain.
Commentary
Public awareness-raising campaigns are critical to expose and convey the unacceptability
of violence against women. They should convey the message of zero tolerance for violence
against women, include the promotion of women’s human rights, emphasize societal con-
demnation of discriminatory attitudes which perpetuate violence against women, and address
attitudes that stigmatize complainants/survivors of violence. They are also an important tool
for informing women complainants/survivors about their rights and about existing laws and
the remedies they contain. In many countries, non-governmental organizations play a key
role in awareness-raising regarding the unacceptability of violence against women, especially
through broad coalition building and effective public and media outreach. Many govern-
ments have also undertaken awareness-raising campaigns, often in collaboration with non-
governmental organizations and international organizations.
Article 3 of the Spanish Organic Act on Integrated Protection Measures against Gender
Violence (2004) provides for the launch of a National Sensitization and Prevention Plan
regarding Violence against Women targeting both men and women in order to raise aware-
ness of values based on respect for human rights and the equality of men and women. The
Plan will be overseen by a Commission whose members will include survivors, members of
relevant institutions, professionals working to address violence against women, and experts
on the issue. Article 11 of the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act (2005) of India
directs the Central Government and every State Government to take measures to ensure that
the provisions of the Act are given wide publicity through public media, including television,
radio and print media, at regular intervals.
3.5.3. Educational curricula
Recommendation
Legislation should provide:
• for compulsory education at all levels of schooling, from kindergarten to the tertiary level,
on the human rights of women and girls, the promotion of gender equality and, in particular,
the right of women and girls to be free from violence;
• that such education be gender-sensitive and include appropriate information regarding
existing laws that promote women’s human rights and address violence against women;
and
• that relevant curricula be developed in consultation with civil society.
Commentary
One of the most effective entry points at which discriminatory attitudes regarding gender
equality and violence against women can be challenged is the educational system. Initia-
tives to prevent violence against women will be more effective when derogatory stereotypes
and discriminatory attitudes toward women are eliminated from educational curricula and
when content promoting women’s human rights and gender equality, and condemning
violence against women is incorporated at all levels of education. Chapter I of the Spanish
Organic Act on Integrated Protection Measures against Gender Violence (2004) focuses on the
promotion of gender equality and peaceful conflict resolution at different levels of education,
including through the training of educational professionals. Article 6 of the Act requires that
education authorities ensure that sexist and discriminatory stereotypes are removed from
all educational materials. As a result of this provision, many books included in educational
curricula have been revised. The Mexican Law on Access of Women to a Life Free of Violence
(2007) requires the development of educational programmes at all levels of schooling that
promote gender equality and a life free of violence for women. The Chilean Law on Intra-
family Violence (1994) states in article 3(a) that school curricula should include content
about intrafamily violence, including how to modify behaviours that enhance, encourage
or perpetuate such violence.
3.5.4. Sensitization of the media
Recommendation
Legislation should:
• encourage the sensitization of journalists and other media personnel regarding violence
against women.
Commentary
Media representations significantly influence societal perceptions of acceptable behaviour
and attitudes. Training journalists and other media personnel on women’s human rights
and the root causes of violence against women may influence the way in which the issue
is reported and thereby influence societal attitudes. The Spanish Organic Act on Integrated
Protection Measures against Gender Violence (2004) provides in article 14 that “[t]he com-
munications media shall work for the protection and safeguarding of sexual equality, avoid-
ing any discrimination between men and women” and that “[r]eports concerning violence
against women, within the requirements of journalistic objectivity, shall do the utmost to
defend human rights and the freedom and dignity of the female victims of gender violence
and their children”. Article 8 of the Brazilian Maria da Penha Law (2006) calls for the
communications media to avoid stereotyped roles that legitimize or encourage domestic
and family violence.
3.6. P
rotection, support, and assistance
to complainants/survivors
3.6.1. Comprehensive and integrated support services
Recommendation
Legislation should:
• oblige the State to provide funding for, and/or contribute to establishing, comprehensive
and integrated support services to assist survivors of violence;
• state that all services for women survivors of violence should also provide adequate support
to the women’s children;
• state that the location of such services should allow equitable access to the services, in
particular by urban and rural populations; and
• where possible, establish at least the following minimum standards of availability of support
services for complainants/survivors:
one national women’s phone hotline where all complainants/survivors of violence may
get assistance by phone around the clock and free of cost and from where they may be
referred to other service providers;
one shelter/refuge place for every 10, 000 inhabitants, providing safe emergency accom-
modation, qualified counselling and assistance in finding long-term accommodation;
one women’s advocacy and counselling centre for every 50, 000 women, which pro-
vides proactive support and crisis intervention for complainants/survivors, including
legal advice and support, as well as long-term support for complainants/survivors, and
specialized services for particular groups of women (such as specialized services for
immigrant survivors of violence, for survivors of trafficking in women or for women who
have suffered sexual harassment at the workplace), where appropriate;
one rape crisis centre for every 200,000 women; and
access to health care, including reproductive health care and HIV prophylaxis.
Commentary
Survivors of violence against women require timely access to health care and support services
to respond to short-term injuries, protect them from further violations, and address longer-
term needs. In many countries, such services have not been mandated by law. As a result,
they are often provided by non-governmental organizations with limited financial means and
with unpredictable funding from Government, resulting in limitations to availability. As a
consequence, many women who have experienced violence do not receive support services,
or receive services that are insufficient. However, while the State can play an important role
in establishing and funding services, it is often not the most appropriate body to run the
services. Where possible, services should be run by independent and experienced women’s
non-governmental organizations providing gender-specific, empowering and comprehensive
support to women survivors of violence, based on feminist principles.
To date, the majority of services have been targeted towards survivors of intimate part-
ner violence, while experience has shown that survivors of all forms of violence against women
require access to such services. For example, in Honduras, shelters run by non-governmental
organizations for survivors of domestic violence have also been approached by survivors of
sexual violence.
States are increasingly providing legislative mandates for the establishment of serv-
ices. Article 17 of the Guatemalan Law against Femicide and other Forms of Violence against
Women (2008) requires the Government to guarantee survivors of violence access to inte-
grated service centres, including by providing financial resources. The Mexican Law on
Access of Women to a Life Free of Violence (2007) requires the State to support the installation
and maintenance of shelters. In Turkey, the Local Administration Law requires the creation of
shelters in municipalities with more than 50,000 inhabitants. Under the Violence Protection
Act (1997) in Austria, all provinces must establish intervention centres where complainants/
survivors of domestic violence are proactively offered assistance after interventions by the
police. The intervention centres are run by women’s non-governmental organizations and
financed by the Ministry of the Interior and the Ministry of Women on the basis of five-
year contracts.
3.6.2. Rape crisis centres
Recommendation
Legislation should:
provide for immediate access to comprehensive and integrated services, including
pregnancy testing, emergency contraception, abortion services, treatment for sexually
transmitted diseases, treatment for injuries, post-exposure prophylaxis and psychosocial
counselling, for complainants/survivors of sexual violence at the expense of the State; and
state that access to such services should not be conditional upon the complainant/
survivor reporting the violation to the police.
Commentary
Survivors of sexual violence require immediate access to comprehensive and integrated serv-
ices. Examples of such services which have been developed over time by both governments
and non-governmental organizations include rape crisis centres in the United States and
Germany; one-stop centres in Malaysia; and women-friendly centres attached to hospitals in
India. In some countries, access to services remains conditional upon the survivor reporting
the relevant violation to the police. Such a requirement is problematic in that it may deter
women from seeking medical and psychological assistance. The Philippine Rape Victims
Assistance Act (1998) requires the establishment of a rape crisis centre in every province or
city. However, as it does not mandate the allocation of relevant funds, local governments
have found it difficult to establish such centres.
3.6.3. Support for the survivor in her employment
Recommendation
Legislation should:
protect the employment rights of survivors of violence against women, including by
prohibiting employers from discriminating against them or penalizing them for the con-
sequences of their abuse.
Commentary
Some survivors of violence against women have lost employment because they missed work
due to injuries and other consequences of the violence, including the need to find hous-
ing or go to court. Article 21 of the Spanish Organic Act on Integrated Protection Measures
against Gender Violence (2004) provides various employment and social security rights for
survivors of violence, including the right to reduce or reorganize working hours. Under
article 43 of the Philippine Anti-Violence against Women and their Children Act (2004),
survivors are entitled to take a paid leave of absence up to 10 days in addition to other
paid leaves. Following amendments to the Honduras Domestic Violence Act in 2006, both
public and private sector employers are required to grant permission to employees to attend
related programmes, including self-support groups for survivors and re-education sessions
for perpetrators.
3.6.4. Housing rights of the survivor
Recommendation
Legislation should:
• prohibit discrimination in housing against survivors of violence, including by prohibiting
landlords from evicting a tenant, or refusing to rent to a prospective tenant, because she is
a survivor of violence; and
• permit a survivor to break her lease without penalty in order to seek new housing.
Commentary
Violence against women directly affects survivors’ housing. In many instances, survivors of
violence have remained in situations where they are vulnerable to abuse due to an inability
to find appropriate accommodation. Survivors of violence who are tenants are often evicted
from housing and discriminated against in housing applications. The United States Vio-
lence Against Women and Department of Justice Reauthorization Act (2005) introduced new
provisions and programmes to provide survivors of violence further housing rights. The Act
amended various laws to ensure that survivors of domestic violence would not be evicted
from or denied public housing because they are survivors. It also provided funding for edu-
cating and training public housing agency staff, developing improved housing admissions
and occupancy policies and best practices, and improving collaboration between public
housing agencies and organizations working to assist survivors of violence. In Austria, the
City of Vienna assists women who have suffered violence and become homeless to rent
affordable flats. Since 2001, immigrants have also been eligible for such housing.
3.6.5. Financial support for the survivor
Recommendation
Legislation should:
• provide for efficient and timely provision of financial assistance to survivors in order to meet
their needs.
Commentary
Survivors of violence against women incur significant short-term and long-term financial
costs related to pain and suffering, reduced employment and productivity, and expenditure
on services. It is important that survivors of violence have access to financial assistance outside
of protection orders (referred to in section 3.10) family law (referred to in section 3.13) and
sentencing proceedings (referred to in section 3.11) due to the uncertainty regarding the dura-
tion of such proceedings and the financial assistance they may offer. Under sections 1061JA
and 1061JH of Australia’s Social Security Act, as amended in 2006, survivors of domestic
violence may qualify for a “crisis payment” from the federal welfare agency “Centrelink”,
where they have left the home because of violence, and/or where they remain in the home
following the departure of the perpetrator and are in severe financial hardship. Depending on
the legal context, such assistance could be made available through a trust fund for survivors of
violence to which both the State and other actors may contribute. Section 29 of the Ghana-
ian Domestic Violence Act (2007) establishes a Victims of Domestic Violence Support Fund.
The Fund receives voluntary contributions from individuals, organizations and the private
sector; money approved by Parliament; and money from any other source approved by the
Minister of Finance. The money from the Fund is used for a variety of purposes, including
the basic material support of victims of domestic violence; any matter connected with the
rescue, rehabilitation and reintegration of victims of domestic violence; the construction of
shelters for survivors of domestic violence; and training and capacity building for persons
connected with the provision of shelter, rehabilitation and reintegration. Draft legislation
on family violence in Lebanon, if passed, would provide for the establishment of a fund to
provide care and assistance to victims of domestic violence.
3.7. Rights of immigrant women

3.7.1. Independent and favourable immigration status
for survivors of violence against women
Recommendation
Legislation should:
• provide that survivors of violence against women should not be deported or subjected to
other punitive actions related to their immigration status when they report such violence
to police or other authorities; and
• allow immigrants who are survivors of violence to confidentially apply for legal immigration
status independently of the perpetrator.
Commentary
Women survivors of domestic violence or violence in the workplace whose immigration
status in a country is tied to their marital, family or employment status are often reluctant
to report such violence to the police. Over time, States have developed legislation and/
or subsidiary legislation which provides for the right of such survivors to apply for immi-
gration status independently of the perpetrator. For example, the United States Violence
Against Women Act (1994) and its reauthorizations, allows survivors of domestic violence
whose immigration status depends on that of a citizen/lawful permanent resident of the
United States to self-petition for their own immigration status under certain circumstances.
The Act also permits domestic violence survivors who meet certain requirements to obtain
suspension of deportation proceedings and become lawful permanent residents. The Cana-
dian Immigration and Refugee Protection Act (2002) allows survivors of domestic violence
to apply for permanent residence status irrespective of whether their spouse supports the
application, as does the Swedish Aliens Act (2005). In the Netherlands, proof of sexual or
other violence within a relationship constitutes separate grounds for granting residence
status for persons in possession of a dependent residence permit. The Netherlands Interim
Supplement to the Aliens Act Implementation Guidelines (TBV 2003/48) states that if a girl
is at risk of female genital mutilation, she and her family may be granted residence status
in the Netherlands. The Domestic Violence Concession Rules in the United Kingdom permit
a woman whose residency status is dependent on a perpetrator of violence to apply for leave
to remain in the United Kingdom indefinitely.
3.7.2. R estrictions on international marriage brokers

and ensuring the rights of “mail-order brides”
Recommendation
Legislation should include:
• measures to minimize the risks posed by international marriage brokers, including: impos-
ing restrictions on the operations of international marriage brokers, restricting abusive
men’s ability to use international marriage brokers, ensuring that women who are recruited
through international marriage brokers are above the age of majority and have given volun-
tary and informed consent, and providing every recruited woman with information about
her prospective spouse and her legal rights; and
• the right to divorce and to obtain independent immigration status for international brides
who are survivors of violence.
Commentary
The international marriage broker industry poses a number of dangers to women. By “mar-
keting” women from economically disadvantaged countries as brides for men in wealthy
countries, the women frequently find themselves in situations of isolation and powerlessness,
where they are dependent on a partner whom they barely know, and unaware of their legal
rights. Because of their profit motive and the fact that their fees are paid by men, interna-
tional marriage brokers often have an incentive to promote the satisfaction of men above the
well-being of women. These factors combine to create a serious risk of domestic violence for
women recruited through international marriage brokers.
Both sending and receiving countries of international brides have taken legislative
action to address this issue. The Philippine Act to Declare Unlawful the Practice of Matching
Filipino Women for Marriage to Foreign Nationals on a Mail-Order Basis and other Similar
Practices (1990), amongst other things, makes it unlawful for a person or company to establish
or carry on a business which has as its purpose the matching of Filipino women for marriage
to foreign nationals either on a mail-order basis or personal introduction; advertise, publish,
print or distribute or cause the advertisement, publication, printing or distribution of any bro-
chure, flier or any propaganda material calculated to promote the prohibited acts. The United
States International Marriage Broker Regulation Act (2005) requires that a foreign woman be
provided with information about her prospective spouse’s criminal and marital background
as well as information about the rights and resources available to domestic violence survivors
in the United States. It requires international marriage brokers to obtain a woman’s written
consent before distributing information about her and forbids the distribution of informa-
tion about anyone under the age of eighteen. It also restricts the ability of a petitioner in the
United States to seek visas for a series of fiancées.
3.8. Investigation
3.8.1. Duties of police officers
Recommendation
Legislation should provide that police officers should:
• respond promptly to every request for assistance and protection in cases of violence against
women, even when the person who reports such violence is not the complainant/survivor;
• assign the same priority to calls concerning cases of violence against women as to calls
concerning other acts of violence, and assign the same priority to calls concerning domestic
violence as to calls relating to any other form of violence against women; and
• upon receiving a complaint, conduct a coordinated risk assessment of the crime scene and
respond accordingly in a language understood by the complainant/survivor, including by:
interviewing the parties and witnesses, including children, in separate rooms to ensure
there is an opportunity to speak freely;
recording the complaint in detail;
advising the complainant/survivor of her rights;
filling out and filing an official report on the complaint;
providing or arranging transport for the complainant/survivor to the nearest hospital or
medical facility for treatment, if it is required or requested;
providing or arranging transport for the complainant/survivor and the complainant/
survivor’s children or dependents, if it is required or requested; and
providing protection to the reporter of the violence.
Commentary
Police play a crucial role in any coordinated response to violence against women. However,
survivors/complainants of violence against women often hesitate to call police because they fear
that they might not be taken seriously or be considered to be lying and may have little confi-
dence in the justice system. Laws increasingly include provisions on the duties of police officers
in cases of violence against women. Article 7 of Ghana’s Domestic Violence Act (2007) states
that police officers must “respond to a request by a person for assistance from domestic violence
and shall offer the protection that the circumstances of the case or the person who made the
report requires, even when the person reporting is not the victim of the domestic violence” and
article 8 goes on to elaborate upon the duties of the officer. Section 30 of the Philippine Anti-
Violence against Women and their Children Act (2004) imposes a fine against village officials
or law enforcers who fail to report an incident of violence. Draft legislation on family violence
in Lebanon, if passed, would provide that members of the judicial police shall not neglect any
complaint or notification submitted to them, otherwise, they will be held responsible.
3.8.2. Duties of prosecutors

Recommendation
Legislation should:
• establish that responsibility for prosecuting violence against women lies with prosecution
authorities and not with complainants/survivors of violence, regardless of the level or type
of injury;
• require that complainants/survivors, at all relevant stages of the legal process, be promptly
and adequately informed, in a language they understand, of:
their rights;
the details of relevant legal proceedings;
available services, support mechanisms and protective measures;
opportunities for obtaining restitution and compensation through the legal system;
details of events in relation to their case, including specific places and times of hearings; and
release of the perpetrator from pre-trial detention or from jail; and
• require that any prosecutor who discontinues a case of violence against women explain to
the complainant/survivor why the case was dropped.
Commentary
Given the fear and intimidation to which complainants/survivors are subjected, it is important
that public prosecutors, or their equivalent, be assigned to cases of violence against women. Such
prosecutor involvement was one of the central elements of the original legal reform on domestic
violence in the United States. In Austria ex officio prosecution is exercised in cases regarding
all forms of violence, regardless of the level of injury. In some countries where cases of violence
against women must be pursued by the complainant/survivor by private prosecution, advocates
are seeking amendments to legislation in order to mandate increased prosecutor involvement.
Lack of information and/or misinformation regarding the legal process can be intimi-
dating for the complainant/survivor; preclude her from engaging fully and completely in
the case; deter her from continuing with the prosecution, particularly in cases of domestic
violence; and threaten her safety. If there is a change in the perpetrator’s bail and/or imprison-
ment status and the complainant/survivor is not informed, the complainant/survivor may not
be able to keep herself safe. If the complainant/survivor is not informed of relevant court dates
and proceedings, she may not understand what is happening and/or miss important dates.
Section 9 of Namibia’s Combating of Rape Act (2000) places duties on prosecutors to ensure
that the complainant/survivor receives all information pertaining to the case. Reforms to the
Code of Criminal Procedure in Austria in 2006 introduced the right of the complainant/sur-
vivor to be informed if the perpetrator is released from arrest. The Spanish Act Regulating the
Protection Order for Victims of Domestic Violence (2003) provides complainants/survivors with
the right to be constantly informed about their legal proceedings, including any change in
the process and the eventual release of the offender. Section 29 of the Philippine Anti-Violence
against Women and their Children Act (2004) requires prosecutors and court personnel to
inform the complainant/survivor of her rights and remedies.
Cases of violence against women are often dropped without any explanation to the com-
plainant/survivor. In order to address this issue, various countries have introduced provisions in
legislation, such as Instruction 8/2005 of the State’s General Prosecutor Office in Spain which
requires prosecutors to explain to complainants/survivors why their case has been dropped.
3.8.3. Pro-arrest and pro-prosecution policies
Recommendation
Legislation should:
• provide for the application of pro-arrest and pro-prosecution policies in cases of violence
against women where there is probable cause to believe that a crime has occurred.
Commentary
Despite education and training of police officers and prosecutors, many members of these pro-
fessions continue to believe that violence against women, and particularly domestic violence,
does not constitute a crime. Police officers often caution or reprimand perpetrators of violence
against women, rather than taking more serious action, such as arrest. In many instances, pros-
ecutors do not institute proceedings in cases of violence against women due to a perception that
complainants/survivors in such cases cannot be trusted and/or due to difficulties in gathering
evidence. Various policies have been adopted to address these issues, including mandatory arrest
and prosecution, pro-arrest and pro-prosecution, and absent-survivor prosecution policies.
Mandatory arrest policies require that a police officer arrest the perpetrator if their
assessment of a situation gives them probable cause to believe that a crime has occurred. If
such a policy is in place, police may not impose an alternative penalty and the case must be
prosecuted without any exception. Such policies exist in a number of countries, including
various countries in the Pacific Islands. Under the Sexual Offences Act (2006) in Kenya,
police must file each charge and only the Attorney General can withdraw the case. If passed,
the Nigerian Violence Prohibition Bill would provide that: “No prosecutor shall (a) refuse to
institute a prosecution; or (b) withdraw a charge, in respect of a contravention of section 18(1),
unless he or she has been authorised thereto, whether in general or in any specific case, by
the Director of Public Prosecutions.” While some have welcomed the vigour of such policies,
others are concerned by the removal of agency from the complainant/survivor, particularly
in cases of domestic violence.
An alternative approach is pro-arrest and pro-prosecution policies which are more
flexible than the mandatory approach and retain a level of agency of the complainant/
survivor, while ensuring that the issue is treated seriously by police and prosecutors. In
Spain, there is a pro-arrest and detention policy in cases where police deem there to be
severe risk to the complainant/survivor or when the police witness the offender commit-
ting the crime. In Honduras, a variation of this policy was introduced by amendments to
the Law on Domestic Violence in 2006: if a complainant/survivor wishes to drop a case, the
judge cannot close it without an investigation of the reasons for which the complainant/
survivor wishes to drop the case.
Mandatory and pro-arrest policies present the potential problem that victims may be
arrested at the scene of an assault if a police officer is unable to identify the primary aggres-
sor (the victim may have defended herself against assault causing injury to the offender). In
response to this problem, strategies to determine the primary aggressor and corresponding
police training modules have been developed in the United States.
3.9. Legal proceedings and evidence

3.9.1. Prohibition of mediation
Recommendation
Legislation should:
• explicitly prohibit mediation in all cases of violence against women, both before and during
legal proceedings.
Commentary
Mediation is promoted or offered as an alternative to criminal justice and family law pro-
cesses in several countries’ laws on violence against women. However, a number of prob-
lems arise when mediation is utilized in cases of violence against women. It removes cases
from judicial scrutiny, presumes that both parties have equal bargaining power, reflects
an assumption that both parties are equally at fault for violence, and reduces offender
accountability. An increasing number of countries are prohibiting mediation in cases of
violence against women. For example, the Spanish Organic Act on Integrated Protection
Measures against Gender Violence (2004) forbids mediation of any kind in cases of violence
against women.
3.9.2. Encouraging timely and expedited proceedings
Recommendation
Legislation should:
• provide for timely and expeditious legal proceedings and encourage fast-tracking of cases
of violence against women, where appropriate.
Commentary
Delays in the conduct of trials may increase the risk to the complainant of retaliation, particu-
larly if the perpetrator is not in police custody. In addition, delays often deter the complainant
from proceeding with prosecution. In India, the sexual harassment complaint committees
mandated by the Supreme Court in Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan AIR 1997 S.C.3011 to address
sexual harassment complaints are required to establish a time-bound process. In a number
of countries, including Spain, South Africa, the United Kingdom, and various states in the
United States, procedures have been introduced to expedite (i.e., “fast-track”) cases regarding
violence against women in the courts. The Spanish Organic Act on Important Reviews of the
Code of Criminal Procedure (2002) introduced fast trials for specific offences and enables cases
of domestic violence to be judged within 15 days of the offence. However, it is important to
ensure that the complainant/survivor retains control over the proceedings and does not feel
forced to take actions, such as divorce or separation, when she is not ready. The Spanish experi-
ence suggests that proceedings in specialized courts sometimes progress too rapidly for com-
plainants/survivors and, as a result, some complainants/survivors withdraw from the process.
It is also important to ensure that all relevant professionals are available in specialized courts.
3.9.3. F ree legal aid, interpretation, and court support,

including independent legal counsel and intermediaries
Recommendation
Legislation should ensure that complainants/survivors have the right to:
• free legal aid in all legal proceedings, especially criminal proceedings, in order to ensure
access to justice and avoid secondary victimization;
• free court support, including the right to be accompanied and represented in court by a
specialized complainants/survivors’ service and/or intermediary, free of charge, and without
prejudice to their case, and access to service centres in the courthouse to receive guidance
and assistance in navigating the legal system; and
• free access to a qualified and impartial interpreter and the translation of legal documents,
where requested or required.
Commentary
Legal aid, including independent legal advice, are critical components of complainants/
survivors’ access to, and understanding of, the legal system and the remedies to which they
are entitled. Legal representation has proven to increase the likelihood of a positive outcome
for the complainant/survivor in the legal process. For example, monitoring of Bulgaria’s Law
on Protection against Domestic Violence (2005) has shown that, while a survivor does not need
a lawyer to file for a protection order, her application is more likely to be successful with legal
representation. Language barriers are a primary obstacle to immigrant survivors of violence,
including migrant workers and survivors of domestic violence, when they are seeking safety
for themselves and their children, and the accountability of their abusers.
Many good practices have emerged in legislating for the provision of free legal aid and
the right of the complainant/survivor to independent legal counsel and support. For exam-
ple, the rape crisis centres established under the Philippine Rape Victims Assistance Act (1998)
provide free legal aid. Article 21 of the Guatemalan Law against Femicide and other Forms
of Violence against Women (2008) obliges the Government to provide free legal assistance to
survivors. In Armenia, draft legislation mandates Government funding for counselling cen-
tres and shelters to provide free psychological, medical, legal and social assistance to domestic
violence survivors. In various jurisdictions in the United States, Government-funded domestic
abuse service centres are located in court buildings to provide efficient and easy access to legal
advice and other services, in various languages, for domestic violence complainants/survivors.
In Spain, any woman complainant/survivor of violence has the right to specialized and imme-
diate legal assistance, including free legal aid to litigate in all administrative processes and
judicial procedures directly or indirectly associated with the violence suffered.
In Kenya, the Sexual Offences Act (2006) provides for a third party to bring a case where
the complainant/survivor is unable to go to the court by herself. The Criminal Procedure Code
(1999) of Honduras provides for the possibility of the complainant/survivor being represented
by a duly established organization, such as a women’s rights organization. For example, the
Center for Women’s Rights in Honduras has acted on behalf of women complainants/surviv-
ors, in coordination with the public prosecutor in sexual violence cases.
In the United Kingdom and the United States, the prosecution has the responsibility
to obtain and pay for an interpreter for complainants/survivors of domestic violence, once
the need for one is recognized.
3.9.4. Rights of the complainant/survivor during legal proceedings
Recommendation
Legislation should:
• guarantee, throughout the legal process, the complainant/survivor’s right to:
decide whether or not to appear in court or to submit evidence by alternative means,
including drafting a sworn statement/affidavit, requesting that the prosecutor present
relevant information on her behalf, and/or submitting taped testimony;
when appearing in court, give evidence in a manner that does not require the complain-
ant/survivor to confront the defendant, including through the use of in-camera proceed-
ings, witness protection boxes, closed circuit television, and video links;
protection within the court structure, including separate waiting areas for complainants
and defendants, separate entrances and exits, police escorts, and staggered arrival and
departure times;
testify only as many times as is necessary;
request closure of the courtroom during proceedings, where constitutionally possible; and
a gag on all publicity regarding individuals involved in the case, with applicable rem-
edies for non-compliance; and
• cross-reference witness protection legislation, where it exists.
Commentary
Legal proceedings often re-victimize complainants/survivors. It is therefore important to
ensure that legal proceedings are conducted in a manner that protects the safety of the com-
plainant/survivor and provides her with options for her participation in the process. Namibia’s
Combating of Rape Act (2000) stipulates that the complainant has the right to attend at court
personally, or to request that the prosecutor present the relevant information on her behalf
if the accused has applied for bail. Section 5 of the Rape Victim Assistance and Protection Act
(1998) in the Philippines provides for closed-door investigation, prosecution or trial and for
non-disclosure to the public of the name and personal circumstances of the offended party
and/or the accused, or any other information tending to establish their identities. The Domestic
Violence Act (2007) of Ghana notes in Section 13(2) that the presence of the respondent is
likely to have a serious adverse effect on the victim or a witness, and that the court may take the
steps it considers necessary to separate the respondent from the victim or the witness, without
sacrificing the integrity of the proceedings. The Supreme Court of India, in the case of Vishaka
v. State of Rajasthan & Ors AIR 1997 S.C.3011 mandated that, when dealing with complaints
of sexual harassment, workplaces and other institutions should ensure that neither complain-
ants nor witnesses are subjected to victimization or discrimination and that a complainant
should have a right to seek transfer of the perpetrator or their own transfer from the workplace.
Disallowing the public access to the courtroom and/or disallowing publication of
courtroom proceedings can protect the complainant/survivor from intimidation, embarrass-
ment and potentially harmful encounters when attending court and when giving testimony.
The Namibian Combating of Rape Act (2000) places strict restrictions on publishing the
identity of the complainant to ensure that her privacy is protected. The Sexual Offences Bill
under consideration in Mauritius would restrict dissemination of information about the
complainant/survivor, declaring it an offence to “publish, diffuse, reproduce, broadcast or
disclose, by any means, particulars which lead, or are likely to lead, members of the public
to identify the person against whom the offence is alleged to have been committed”. Under
the Kenyan Sexual Offences Act (2006), the gag on publications and process extends to the
identity of the family. The Supreme Court of India, in Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan AIR 1997
S.C.3011 provided for confidentiality in cases before the sexual harassment complaints com-
mittees mandated in workplaces and other institutions. With respect to the offence of rape,
the Indian Evidence Act was recently amended to prohibit the disclosure of the identity of a
complainant in any publication (s.228).
It is important to cross-reference existing witness protection legislation, as is the case in
the Kenyan Sexual Offences Act (2006), so as to ensure that complainants in violence against
women cases are fully aware of its existence and contents.
3.9.5. Issues related to the collection and submission of evidence
Recommendation
Legislation should:
• mandate proper collection and submission to court of medical and forensic evidence, where
possible;
• mandate the timely testing of collected medical and forensic evidence;
• allow a complainant to be treated and/or examined by a forensic doctor without requiring
the consent of any other person or party, such as a male relative;
• ensure that multiple collections of medical and forensic evidence are prevented so as to limit
secondary victimization of the complainant;
• state that medical and forensic evidence are not required in order to convict a perpetrator;
and
• provide the possibility of prosecution in the absence of the complainant/survivor in cases
of violence against women, where the complainant/survivor is not able or does not wish to
give evidence.
Commentary
The diligent collection of medical and forensic evidence is an important duty of public
authorities. Various countries are applying greater diligence in the collection of evidence in
cases of violence against women, and complainants are increasingly encouraged to access
services where they may safely and confidentially preserve medical and forensic evidence.
Under the United States Violence Against Women and Department of Justice Reauthorization
Act (2005), states must ensure that survivors have access to forensic examination free of
charge even if they choose not to report the crime to the police or otherwise cooperate with
the criminal justice system or law enforcement authorities. In Kenya, guidelines developed
under the Sexual Offences Act (2006) stipulate the protection of the dignity of the survivor in
the gathering of evidence and require that: evidence is gathered in the least intrusive manner
possible; there are a limited number of sessions; and the medical form is detailed and easily
understood by all parties, including the court.
However, forensic and medical evidence may not be available in court proceedings for
a variety of reasons, including complainants’ lack of knowledge regarding the importance of
such evidence; fear of medical examination; actions taken that may unintentionally compro-
mise evidence, such as washing after being sexually assaulted or time lapse in seeking services;
lack of available facilities, or personnel trained in the collection of evidence in cases of violence
against women in a manner sensitive to the complainant/survivor; and the nature of the
violence. It is therefore important that legislation also allow for the prosecution and convic-
tion of an offender based solely on the testimony of the complainant/survivor, as detailed in
subsection 3.10.7 of the framework in relation to protection orders, and subsection 3.9.7.1 on
removing the corroboration rule/cautionary warning.
There will be instances in which the complainant/survivor does not wish to provide
testimony and/or a written statement, due to fear caused by threats from the perpetrator,
shame, or other reasons. Given the importance of the complainant/survivor’s testimony to
prosecution evidence in cases of violence against women, some countries have chosen to adopt
a policy of mandatory complainant/survivor testimony. However, this practice may deter the
complainant/survivor from contacting the police. An alternative to mandatory complainant/
survivor testimony is the possibility of prosecution in the absence of the complainant/survivor.
Such a prosecution indicates that the crime is taken seriously by the justice system and can
also promote the safety of the complainant/survivor. In order to strengthen the agency of the
complainant/survivor, it is critical to ensure that she remains informed throughout all stages
of the proceedings in absent-complainant/survivor prosecutions.
3.9.6. No adverse inference from delay in reporting
Recommendation
Legislation should:
• prohibit courts from drawing any adverse inference from a delay of any length between the
alleged commission of violence and the reporting thereof;
• require that the presiding judicial officer in any case of violence against women inform the
jury, assessors or himself/herself that a delay in reporting should not be held against the
complainant.
Commentary
Complainants/survivors of violence often delay in reporting the violation to public authori-
ties. Such delays may be due to a number of reasons, including the complainant/survivor’s
fear of stigmatization, humiliation, not being believed, and retaliation; financial or emotional
dependence on the perpetrator; and distrust in, and lack of access to, responsible institutions,
resulting from geographically inaccessible courts and lack of specialized criminal justice per-
sonnel. Despite these legitimate concerns, delays in the reporting of violence against women
are often interpreted as demonstrating that the complainant/survivor is unreliable.
Many countries are now legislating to ensure that adverse inferences are not drawn
from any delay between an act of violence against women and the reporting of the violation
to authorities. Section 7 of the Namibia Combating of Rape Act (2000) provides that: “In
criminal proceedings at which an accused is charged with an offence of a sexual or indecent
nature, the court shall not draw any inference only from the length of the delay between the
commission of the sexual or indecent act and the laying of a complaint.” Section 59 of the
South Africa Criminal Law (Sexual Offences and Related Matters) Act (2007) contains similar
wording. Section 16 of the Philippine Anti-Violence against Women and their Children Act
(2004) states that the court shall not deny the issuance of a protection order due to lapse of
time between the act of violence and the filing of the application.
3.9.7. R emoving discriminatory elements

from legal proceedings regarding sexual violence
3.9.7.1. Removing the cautionary warning/corroboration rule
Recommendation
Legislation should abolish the cautionary warning/corroboration rule in regard to complainants
in cases of sexual violence by either:
• stating that “it shall be unlawful to require corroboration of the complainant’s evidence”;
• creating an assumption of the complainant’s credibility in sexual violence cases;
• stating that “the credibility of a complainant in a sexual violence case is the same as the
credibility of a complainant in any other criminal proceeding”.
Commentary
The cautionary warning is a practice by which a court warns itself or the jury that it is danger-
ous to convict on the uncorroborated evidence of the complainant/survivor (otherwise known
as the “corroboration rule”). This practice is based on the belief that women lie about rape and
that their evidence should be independently corroborated. It continues to be implemented in a
number of countries, particularly in common law and “Sharia” jurisdictions. However, many
countries have removed the warning/rule from their legal systems. The Cook Islands Evidence
Amendment Act (1986-1987), based on New Zealand legislation, provides that, where law or
practice previously required that the evidence of a rape or sexual assault survivor be supported
by corroboration in order to gain a conviction, it is no longer required. Similarly, section 5 of
the Namibian Combating of Rape Act (2000) provides that: “No court shall treat the evidence
of any complainant in criminal proceedings at which an accused is charged with an offence of
a sexual or indecent nature with special caution because the accused is charged with any such
offence.” In sentencing a perpetrator for rape of a minor girl, a court in Honduras cited case
law of the Constitutional Court of Spain to support its own decision to give probative value
to testimony of the complainant/survivor when it was the only evidence available to the judge.
3.9.7.2. Evidence of complainant/survivor’s sexual history not to be introduced
Recommendation
Legislation:
• should prevent introduction of the complainant’s sexual history in both civil and criminal
proceedings.
Commentary
In many countries, complainant/survivor’s prior sexual history continues to be used to
deflect attention away from the accused onto the complainant. When the complainant/
survivor’s past consensual sexual experience is admitted into evidence, it can be used to
affect her credibility to the extent that she is not believed and the prosecution does not
succeed. Evidence related to the complainant/survivor’s past sexual history has been used
during sentencing of the perpetrator to reduce the severity of the sentence. Complainants/
survivors of sexual violence have often been “re-victimized” when questioned by defence
attorneys about details of their private sexual conduct.
Laws which prevent the introduction of evidence of a survivor’s sexual behaviour
that is unrelated to the acts that are the subject of the legal proceeding can help protect
women’s privacy and avoid introduction of evidence that could prejudice the judge, or
jury against the survivor. The United States Federal Rule of Evidence 412, as amended by
the Violence Against Women Act (1994), prohibits the introduction of unrelated evidence
regarding the complainant’s sexual history in both civil and criminal proceedings. Section
293(2) of the New South Wales, Australia, Criminal Procedure Act (1986) states: “Evidence
relating to the sexual reputation of the complainant is inadmissible.” The Indian Evidence
(Amendment) Act (2003) removed the section of the former Evidence Act which allowed
the impeachment of the credibility of a complainant/survivor to a rape/attempted rape. It
is important to ensure that such legislation is not weakened by loopholes or unfavourable
judicial interpretations.
3.9.8. No offence of “false accusation”
Recommendation
Legislation should:
• not include a provision criminalizing false accusations/allegations.
Commentary
Legislation on violence against women sometimes contains a provision that falsely accusing
someone under the legislation constitutes a criminal offence. Provisions of this kind may
dissuade complainants/survivors from filing cases due to fear of not being believed, and
there is a high risk that such provisions may be applied incorrectly and used by the defend-
ant/offender for purposes of retaliation. Intentionally misleading the court is commonly
dealt with in other areas of the law and should not be included in legislation on violence
against women. A number of more recent pieces of legislation on violence against women,
such as South Africa’s Criminal Law (Sexual Offences and Related Matters) Amendment Act
(2007), therefore do not include such a provision.
3.10. Protection orders

3.10.1. Protection orders for all forms of violence against women
Recommendation
Legislation should:
• make protection orders available to survivors of all forms of violence against women.
Commentary
Protection orders are among the most effective legal remedies available to complainants/
survivors of violence against women. They were first introduced in the United States in the
mid-1970s, offering an immediate remedy to complainants/survivors of domestic violence
by authorizing courts to order an offender out of the home. All states now provide for
protection orders. Such orders vary greatly in their specificity regarding the length of the
order, its enforceability, who may apply for and issue it, and whether financial support or
other relief may be ordered.
Experience has shown that complainants/survivors of forms of violence other than
domestic violence also seek protection orders and a number of recent legislative develop-
ments have extended the application of such orders accordingly. Chapter 6 of the Mexican
Law on Access of Women to a Life Free of Violence (2007) makes protection orders available
to survivors of any form of violence defined in the Act, including violence in the family,
violence in the workplace or educational settings, violence in the community, institutional
violence, and femicide. The Forced Marriage (Civil Protection) Act 2007 in the United King-
dom allows courts to issue an order for the purposes of protecting (a) a person from being
forced into a marriage or from any attempt to be forced into a marriage; or (b) a person
who has been forced into a marriage.
3.10.2. Relationship between protection orders

and other legal proceedings
Recommendation
Legislation should:
• make protection orders available to complainants/survivors without any requirement that
the complainant/survivor institute other legal proceedings, such as criminal or divorce pro-
ceedings, against the defendant/offender;
• state that protection orders are to be issued in addition to and not in lieu of any other legal
proceedings;
• allow the issuance of a protection order to be introduced as a material fact in subsequent
legal proceedings.
Commentary
The issuance of protection orders in some countries is dependent upon the complainant/
survivor taking further legal action, such as bringing criminal charges and/or filing for
divorce. This requirement may deter survivors from seeking protection orders and could
result in complainants/survivors being penalized if they fail to comply with this require-
ment. Under the Domestic Violence Act (2007) in Ghana, individuals may apply for pro-
tection orders independently of any other proceedings, and the institution of criminal or
civil proceedings does not affect the rights of an applicant to seek a protection order under
the Act. In Fiji, applications for protection orders under section 202 of the Family Law
Act (2003) may be made independently of other legal proceedings. Under the Philippine
Anti-Violence against Women and their Children Act (2004), the complainant may apply for
a protection order independently of a criminal action or other civil action.
3.10.3. Content and issuance of protection orders
Recommendation
Legislation should provide:
• that protection orders may contain the following measures:
order the defendant/perpetrator to stay a specified distance away from the complainant/
survivor and her children (and other people if appropriate) and the places that they frequent;
order the accused to provide financial assistance to the complainant/survivor, includ-
ing payment of medical bills, counselling fees or shelter fees, monetary compensation
and, in addition, in cases of domestic violence, mortgage, rent, insurance, alimony and
child support;
prohibit the defendant/perpetrator from contacting the complainant/survivor or arrang-
ing for a third party to do so;
restrain the defendant/perpetrator from causing further violence to the complainant/
survivor, her dependents, other relatives and relevant persons;
prohibit the defendant/perpetrator from purchasing, using or possessing a firearm or any
such weapon specified by the court;
require that the movements of the defendant/offender be electronically monitored;
instruct the defendant/perpetrator in cases of domestic violence to vacate the family
home, without in any way ruling on the ownership of such property and/or to hand
over the use of a means of transportation (such as an automobile) and/or other essential
personal effects to the complainant/survivor;
• for the issuance of protection orders in both criminal and civil proceedings; and
• that authorities may not remove a complainant/survivor from the home against her will.
Commentary
Over time, the range of measures included in protection orders has broadened. The Spanish
Act Regulating the Protection Order for Victims of Domestic Violence (2003) provides for a range
of remedies, such as forbidding the offender to approach the complainant/survivor directly
or through third persons; ordering the accused to keep a specified distance away from the
complainant/survivor, her children, her family, her residence, her place of work or any other
place she might visit or frequent, including the obligation to abandon the common residence;
temporary child custody; vacation determination; and payment for child support and basic
living expenses, including rent and insurance.
In some countries, including Albania, the Netherlands, and the United States, courts
may order the perpetrator to pay child support, as well as to make payments towards the
survivor’s rent, mortgage and insurance as a condition in the granting of a protection order.
Article 20 of the Indian Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act (2005) states that: “the
Magistrate may direct the respondent to pay monetary relief to meet the expenses incurred
and losses suffered by the aggrieved person and any child of the aggrieved person as a result
of the domestic violence”.
Article 10(1) of Albania’s Law on Measures against Violence in Family Relations (2006)
authorizes the courts to order the perpetrator to leave the shared dwelling, and/or to pay rent
for the permanent or temporary residence of the complainant/survivor. Under sections 33 to
41 of the Family Law Act (1996) in the United Kingdom, a complainant/survivor may apply
for an occupation order, in addition to a protection order, which would entitle her to remain
in the home and “bar” the offender from the premises or restrict him to a particular part of
the home. Similar orders are provided for in section 20 of the Ghanaian Domestic Violence Act
(2007), and section 19 of the Indian Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act (2005).
3.10.4. Emergency orders
Recommendation
Where there is an allegation of immediate danger of violence, legislation should:
• provide relevant officials with the authority to order a respondent out of the home and to
stay away from the survivor; and
• state that the procedure should occur on an ex parte basis without a hearing and should
prioritize survivor safety over property rights and other considerations.
Commentary
Legislation in an increasing number of countries provides for the issuance of emergency
protection orders in situations where there is immediate danger of an act of violence. The
procedural requirements for emergency protection orders differ from country to country.
In Austria, and some other European countries, including Germany, the Czech Republic,
the Netherlands and Slovenia, police may issue ex officio an order that expels a person who
endangers the life, health or freedom of another person from a shared dwelling for 10 days.
In Bulgaria under the Law on Protection against Domestic Violence (2005), complainants/
survivors may apply for an emergency protection order through either the court or the near-
est police department. Under section 14 of the Philippine Anti-Violence against Women and
their Children Act (2004), the Punong Barangay or Kagawad (elected village officials) may
issue ex parte protection orders of 15 days’ duration. In instances where legislation allows
traditional authorities to exercise quasi-judicial powers, it is important that the procedure is
transparent and prioritizes the rights of the complainant/survivor over other considerations,
such as the reconciliation of families or communities. Laws on domestic violence in many
Latin American countries, including Brazil, Chile, Paraguay, Uruguay and Venezuela, pro-
vide for similar orders which are called “urgency” or “protection” measures. In Fiji, a court
may grant an injunction under the Family Law Act (2003) following an ex parte application
by the complainant/survivor.
3.10.5. Post-hearing orders
Recommendation
Legislation should:
• grant courts the authority to issue long-term, final, or post-hearing orders after notice and
an opportunity for a full hearing based on allegations of violence.
Commentary
In order to promote complainant/survivor safety, some jurisdictions have introduced long-
term or final protection orders. By reducing the number of times that a complainant/survivor
must appear in court, such orders diminish the financial, emotional and psychological bur-
dens carried by complainants/survivors, as well as the number of times they are forced to
confront the perpetrator. For example, in the State of New Jersey, United States of America, a
final protection order may be issued following a full court hearing. The final protection order
stays in effect unless affirmatively dismissed by a court. Under section 14 of the Domestic
Violence Act (2007) of Ghana, an interim protection order (of no more than three months)
will become final if the respondent does not appear before the court to show cause why the
interim order should not be made final.
3.10.6. Standing in application for protection orders
Recommendation
Legislation should either:
• limit standing in application for protection orders to the complainant/survivor and, in cases
where the complainant/survivor is legally incompetent, a legal guardian; or
• allow other actors, such as State actors, family members, and relevant professionals to have
standing in such applications, while ensuring that the agency of the complainant/survivor
is respected.
Commentary
Different experiences exist regarding who should apply for protection orders. Some argue that
only the complainant/survivor should be able to apply, while others argue that police, social
workers, and other family members should be able to apply on behalf of the complainant/
survivor regardless of whether she consents. Under the Organic Act on Integrated Protection
Measures against Gender Violence (2004) in Spain, family members living in the same house
and public prosecutors are able to apply for criminal law protective orders, although the
complainant/survivor’s wishes must be taken into account in the full hearing by a court.
Under the Philippine Anti-Violence against Women and their Children Act (2004) an extensive
list of persons are able to apply for a protection order, including the complainant/survivor;
parents, guardians, ascendants, descendants and other relatives of the complainant/survivor;
social workers; police officers; village officials; and lawyers, counsellors and healthcare provid-
ers of the complainant/survivor.
Those who argue that only the complainant/survivor should be able to apply emphasize
that authorizing third parties to apply for protection orders, independent of the survivor’s
wishes, may compromise her interests and safety. One of the original purposes of the protec-
tion order remedy was to empower the complainant/survivor. Third parties whose motiva-
tions are not in the best interests of the survivor or her children may abuse the ability to apply
for a protection order. Further, survivors of violence are often the best judges of the danger
presented to them by a violent partner and allowing others to apply for such orders removes
control over the proceeding from them.
3.10.7. Evidence of complainant/survivor sufficient

for grant of protection order
Recommendation
Legislation should state:
• that live testimony or a sworn statement or affidavit of the complainant/survivor is sufficient
evidence for the issuance of a protection order; and
• no independent evidence—medical, police or otherwise—should be required for the
issuance of a protection order following live testimony or a sworn statement or affidavit
of the complainant/survivor.
Commentary
Legislation and/or legal practice sometimes require that evidence, in addition to the com-
plainant/survivor’s statement or affidavit, must be submitted in order for a protection order
to be granted. Such a requirement may compromise the complainant/survivor’s safety by
causing significant delays and rescheduling of hearings. Under the Law on Protection against
Domestic Violence (2005) in Bulgaria, courts may issue an emergency or regular protection
order based solely upon the complainant/survivor’s application and evidence.
3.10.8. Issues specific to protection orders in cases

of domestic violence
3.10.8.1. Mutual protection orders and citations for
provocative behaviour not to be included in legislation
Recommendation
Legislation should:
• not grant authority to State officials to cite survivors for “provocative behaviour”; and
• not authorize State officials to issue mutual orders for protection.
Commentary
Legislation in some countries allows police to issue a warning to a complainant/survivor of
violence if she has allegedly committed “provocative behaviour”. Experience has shown that
courts are unlikely to grant the complainant/survivor a protection order if she has been cited
for “provocative behaviour”. As a result, advocates in countries where such provisions exist,
including the Ukraine, are currently proposing amendments to such clauses.
In the United States, some judges presented with a complainant/survivor’s applica-
tion for a protection order have issued mutual protection orders that restrict the conduct
of both parties. These orders imply that both the complainant/survivor and the perpetrator
are equally at fault and liable for violations, and can create ongoing legal problems for the
complainant/survivor. While legislation discourages the granting of mutual protection orders,
some judges continue to grant them.
3.10.8.2. Addressing child custody in protection order proceedings
Recommendation
Legislation should include the following provisions regarding child custody and visitation in
protection order proceedings:
• presumption against award of custody to the perpetrator;
• presumption against unsupervised visitation by the perpetrator;
• requirement that, prior to supervised visitation being granted, the perpetrator must show
that at least three months has passed since the most recent act of violence, that he has
stopped using any form of violence, and that he is participating in a treatment programme
for perpetrators; and
• no visitation rights are to be granted against the will of the child.
Commentary
In many countries, violent offenders have used custody of children as a way to continue to abuse
and gain access to survivors. In Georgia, the Law on Elimination of Domestic Violence, Protec-
tion of and Support to its Victims (2006) authorizes courts to consider the safety of the child in
custody decisions in protection order proceedings. In Bulgaria, courts may temporarily relo-
cate “the residence of the child with the parent who is the victim or with the parent who has not
carried out the violent act at stake”. Section 28 of the Philippine Anti-Violence against Women
and their Children Act (2004) provides that “the woman victim of violence shall be entitled to
the custody and support of her child/children” and “in no case shall custody of minor children
be given to the perpetrator of a woman who is suffering from battered woman syndrome”.
Experience in some countries and cases suggests that custody decisions in protection
order proceedings should be temporary and permanent custody issues should be dealt with
only in divorce proceedings or family court. An alternative view is that courts deciding custody
matters in protection order cases have a better understanding of domestic violence than courts
deciding custody in the context of divorce or other family law matters, and should therefore be
granted power to make permanent custody orders. Further recommendations regarding how to
address child custody in family law proceedings are contained in section 3.10 of the framework.
3.10.9. Criminal offence of violation of a protection order
Recommendation
Legislation should:
• criminalize violations of protection orders.
Commentary
In countries where legislation does not criminalize the violation of a civil protection order,
prosecutors and police have expressed frustration about their inability to arrest the perpetra-
tor. In Spain, any violation of a protection order is criminalized and, when a protection order
is violated, the survivor is entitled to a full hearing on whether aspects of the protection order
should be amended, including the distance the perpetrator must keep away from the survivor,
the duration of the protection order, or the use of electronic devices to track the perpetrator.
In case of severe risk or great harm, the offender may be put in precautionary pretrial deten-
tion. Violation of a protection order is a criminal offence under section 17 of the South African
Domestic Violence Act (1998). When a court issues a protection order under that Act, it also issues
a warrant for the arrest of the respondent which is suspended subject to compliance with the
order. The Domestic Violence Crime and Victims Act (2004) of the United Kingdom specifically
criminalizes breach of a protection order, and in Turkey, a perpetrator who violates a protection
order may be sentenced to prison for three to six months. Under the Philippine Anti-Violence
against Women and their Children Act (2004), violation of a protection order is a criminal offence
punishable by a fine and/or six months’ imprisonment. Some countries, such as Bulgaria, are in
the process of considering amendments to existing legislation to criminalize violations. Draft
legislation on family violence in Lebanon, if passed, would provide that if the defendant vio-
lates the protection order, he may be sentenced to prison for three months and/or a fine, and if
the violation is coupled with the use of violence, he may be sentenced to prison for one year.
3.11. Sentencing
3.11.1. C
onsistency of sentencing with the gravity
of the crime committed
Recommendation
Legislation should provide that:
• sentences should be commensurate with the gravity of crimes of violence against women; and
• sentencing guidelines should be developed to ensure consistency in sentencing outcomes.
Commentary
Sentences imposed in cases of violence against women within countries have varied, been
inconsistent and often informed by discriminatory attitudes held by justice officials regard-
ing complainants/survivors of violence against women. Efforts have been undertaken to
reduce sentencing discrepancies and to ensure that sentences in cases of violence against
women are commensurate with the gravity of the crime committed. Experience shows that
the introduction of sentencing guidelines may contribute to the normalization of sentences
imposed in cases of violence against women. In the United Kingdom, the Sentencing Guide-
lines Council finalized Sentencing Guidelines on the Sexual Offences Act (2003) in 2007.
Mandatory minimum sentences have been implemented in a number of countries in an
attempt to reduce sentencing discrepancies. However, experience varies regarding their effi-
cacy and deterrent value.
3.11.2. Removal of exceptions and reductions in sentencing
Recommendation
Legislation should remove provisions which:
• provide reduced penalties and/or exculpate perpetrators in cases of so-called honour crimes;
• exculpate a perpetrator of violence if he subsequently marries the survivor; and
• provide for the imposition of lesser penalties in cases involving particular “types” of women,
such as sex workers or non-virgins.
Commentary
Legislation on violence against women in many countries continues to contain provisions
which absolve and/or provide lesser sentences for perpetrators of violence against women in
certain circumstances. For example, some penal codes contain provisions which state that
if a perpetrator marries the survivor of sexual violence, the perpetrator will not be liable for
the crime. Many penal codes contain provisions which provide for the imposition of lesser
penalties in cases of so-called honour crimes.
A number of countries have taken action to remove such provisions from their penal
codes. For example, in 2003, article 462 of the Penal Code of Turkey, which previously
granted sentence reductions to a person killing or wounding a family member who had
committed adultery, was deleted. In 1994, Brazil amended its Penal Code by Law 8.930 so
as to remove sections VII and VIII of article 107, and in 2006 Uruguay amended article 116
of its Penal Code, each of which had exculpated perpetrators who married the survivor of
sexual violence.
3.11.3. E nhanced sanctions for repeated/aggravated

offence of domestic violence
Recommendation
Legislation should provide for:
• increasingly severe sanctions for repeated incidents of domestic violence, regardless of the
level of injury; and
• increased sanctions for multiple violations of protection orders.
Commentary
Repeated incidents of domestic violence are common and, when the same penalty is applied
for each assault, the deterrent effect is questionable. In the United States and some countries
in Europe, more severe penalties for repeated incidents have proven to be effective. The
Swedish “Kvinnofrid” reform package of 1998 introduced a new offence, “gross violation
of a woman’s integrity”, into the Criminal Code to address situations where a man repeat-
edly commits certain criminal acts against a woman with whom he is or has been married
or cohabiting. The offence is punishable by imprisonment of no less than six months and at
most six years. Section 215a of the Czech Republic Criminal Code provides for enhanced
penalties in cases of repeated domestic violence. New amendments to laws in the United
States provide that judges can grant protection orders that last for 50 years when a survivor
has had two previous protection orders against the abuser or when the abuser has violated a
protection order on two occasions.
3.11.4. C
onsiderations in imposition of fines
in cases of domestic violence
Recommendation
Legislation should state that:
• fines should not be imposed in cases of domestic violence if doing so would cause financial
hardship to the survivor and/or her children; and
• when fines are imposed, they should be combined with treatment and supervision of the
perpetrator through probation.
Commentary
In many cases of violence against women, the perpetrator may be sentenced, in criminal pro-
ceedings, or ordered, in civil proceedings, to pay a fine. A fine is an amount of money paid
by the perpetrator to the State for a breach of either criminal or civil law. The imposition of
fines on perpetrators of domestic violence has been noted to potentially burden the survivor
and therefore constitute an inappropriate form of punishment for the perpetrator. For this
reason, some countries, such as Spain, have excluded the imposition of fines for this kind of
offence. In addition, experience has suggested that fines are not a sufficient form of punish-
ment to change the behaviour of the perpetrator.
3.11.5. Restitution and compensation for survivors
Recommendation
Legislation should:
• provide that sentences in criminal cases may order the payment of compensation and res-
titution from the perpetrator to the survivor;
• state that while compensation may be an element in penalizing perpetrators of violence
against women, it should not substitute for other penalties, such as imprisonment; and
• make provision for the creation of a Government-sponsored compensation programme,
which entitles survivors of violence against women to apply and receive a fair amount of
compensation.
Commentary
An aspect of sentencing which has not been fully utilized is the possibility of requiring the
perpetrator to pay compensation to the survivor. However, an increasing number of countries
are enacting legislation that allows for the award of compensation in criminal cases, such as
article 11 of the Guatemalan Law against Femicide and other Forms of Violence against Women
(2008) which provides reparation proportional to the damage caused by the violence; and the
United Kingdom’s Criminal Injuries Compensation Act (1995). In Spain, a special fund for sur-
vivors of violent crimes and crimes against sexual freedom was established by the Act Concern-
ing Aid and Assistance to Victims of Violent Crimes and Crimes against Sexual Freedom (1995).
3.11.6. Intervention programmes for perpetrators

and alternative sentencing
Recommendation
Legislation should:
• provide that intervention programmes for perpetrators may be prescribed in sentencing
and mandate that the operators of such programmes work in close cooperation with
complainant/survivor service providers;
• clarify that the use of alternative sentencing, including sentences in which the perpetrator
is mandated to attend an intervention programme for perpetrators and no other penalty
is imposed, are to be approached with serious caution and only handed down in instances
where there will be continuous monitoring of the sentence by justice officials and women’s
non-governmental organizations to ensure the complainant/survivor’s safety and the effec-
tiveness of the sentence; and
• mandate careful review and monitoring of intervention programmes for perpetrators
and alternative sentencing involving women’s non-governmental organizations and
complainants/survivors.
Commentary
Alternative sentencing refers to all sentences and punishment other than prison incarceration,
including community service and/or the requirement that the perpetrator attend an interven-
tion programme for perpetrators. An increasing number of countries provide for the option
of a sentence mandating that a perpetrator attend an intervention programme for perpetra-
tors either in addition to, or in substitution for, other penalties. While there have been some
positive experiences with such programmes, service providers for survivors have emphasized
that, where limited funding is available, services for survivors should be prioritized over
programmes for perpetrators, and that such sentences should only be imposed following
an assessment to ensure that there will be no risk to the safety of the survivor. Articles 11
to 20 of the Costa Rican Criminalization of Violence against Women Law (2007) provide
detailed instructions on when alternative sentences may be imposed and the alternatives
available. In Spain, the Organic Act on Integrated Protection Measures against Gender Violence
(2004) provides the possibility of suspension or substitution of other penalties in cases of
violence against women, when the possible jail penalty would be less than two years. In cases
where the sentence is suspended, the perpetrator is obliged to participate in an interven-
tion programme. Experience has highlighted the importance of instituting well-developed
programmes in order to ensure that the survivor remains safe and the perpetrator benefits
from the programme. The United Kingdom has had positive experiences with the Integrated
Domestic Abuse Programme as an option in sentencing. The programme runs for 26 weeks
and is focused on getting perpetrators to accept responsibility for their behaviour and commit
to altering their behaviour and attitudes. Accredited programmes must be associated with
an organization supporting survivors, so that there is feedback from the survivor regarding
whether the violence is continuing.
3.12. Civil lawsuits

3.12.1. Civil lawsuits against perpetrators
Recommendation
Legislation should:
• permit complainants/survivors of violence against women to bring civil lawsuits against
perpetrators; and
• abolish requirements forbidding women to bring lawsuits against a husband or other fam-
ily member, or requiring the consent of a husband or other family member in order for a
woman to bring a lawsuit.
Commentary
Civil lawsuits are a valuable supplement or alternative to criminal prosecution, civil protection
orders, and other available legal remedies. Depending on the facts of the case and the law
of the jurisdiction, the forms of relief available to successful plaintiffs in civil lawsuits may
include compensatory damages, punitive damages, declaratory and injunctive relief, and a
court order requiring the defendant to pay the prevailing plaintiff’s attorney fees. In many
legal systems, civil actions have advantages over criminal actions. Civil cases are governed
by a lower burden of proof than criminal cases, complainants/survivors have control over
the action, and some complainants/survivors consider the types of relief granted in a suc-
cessful civil lawsuit more helpful than incarceration of the perpetrator. In the United States,
recent doctrinal changes have made it easier for domestic violence complainants/survivors to
bring civil suits against perpetrators. Some states have extended the statute of limitations for
domestic violence claims and the ancient common law doctrine of inter-spousal tort immu-
nity, which prohibited one spouse from suing the other, has been abandoned in most states.
3.12.2. Civil lawsuits against third parties
Recommendation
Legislation should allow:
• complainants/survivors of violence against women to bring lawsuits against governmental
or non-governmental individuals and entities that have not exercised due diligence to pre-
vent, investigate or punish the violence; and
• lawsuits on the basis of anti-discrimination and/or civil rights laws.
Commentary
Lawsuits against third parties provide an additional opportunity to hold government agen-
cies and other institutions accountable for violence against women, and may also present a
source of monetary compensation for the survivor. In the case of Chairman Railway Board v.
Chandrima Das (MANU/SC/0046/2000), the Indian Supreme Court affirmed the unprec-
edented award of 10,000,000 rupees to a Bangladeshi survivor of rape by railway officials in
West Bengal as compensation for the violation of the woman’s fundamental right to life and
equality under the Indian Constitution, irrespective of her foreign citizenship. In the case of
Thurman v. City of Torrington, (595 F. Supp. 1521 D. Conn. 1984) a plaintiff sued the city
of Torrington, Connecticut, in the United States of America, alleging that police officers
repeatedly ignored her complaints about violence by her estranged husband and even stood by
and watched as he brutally attacked her and was awarded US$ 2.3 million in damages by the
jury. Following the case, many police departments strengthened their policies on responding
to domestic violence.
A subset of civil lawsuits against perpetrators or third parties consists of lawsuits
brought under anti-discrimination or civil rights laws. Depending on the law of the jurisdic-
tion, anti-discrimination or civil rights laws may authorize criminal actions, civil actions, or
both. Such lawsuits place acts of violence against women in the larger context of systemic
gender inequality and make it clear that women have a right to equality as well as a right to
physical safety. Violence against women is recognized in the law as a form of discrimination in
several countries, including the South African Promotion of Equality and Prevention of Unfair
Discrimination Act, the New Zealand Human Rights Act (1993) defines sexual harassment as a
form of discrimination and a violation of women’s human rights. In the United States, some
states and localities permit complainants/survivors of gender-based violence to file a lawsuit
for the violation of their civil rights.
3.13. Family law

Recommendation
Legislation should guarantee the following and amend all relevant provisions in family law to
reflect this:
• divorce from a violent husband and adequate alimony to women and children;
• the survivor’s right to stay in the family dwelling after divorce;
• social insurance and pension rights of survivors who divorce the perpetrator;
• expedited distribution of property, and other relevant procedures;
• careful screening of all custody and visitation cases so as to determine whether there is a
history of violence;
• a statutory presumption against awarding child custody to a perpetrator;
• availability, in appropriate cases, of professionally run supervised visitation centres;
• a survivor of violence who has acted in self-defence, or fled in order to avoid further vio-
lence, should not be classified as a perpetrator, or have a negative inference drawn against
her, in custody and visitation decisions; and
• child abuse and neglect proceedings should target the perpetrators of violence and rec-
ognize that the protection of children is often best achieved by protecting their mothers.
Commentary
Protection from domestic violence and the right to a life free from violence should be a
principle not only in legislation on violence against women but also in all relevant areas of
family and divorce law. An award of child custody to a perpetrator of violence against women
poses a danger to both the adult survivor and the child. The need for ongoing contact after
separation to make custody and visitation arrangements is often used by the perpetrator to
continue abuse of the survivor.
In the United States, Congress unanimously passed a resolution in 1990 urging
every state to adopt a statutory presumption against awarding custody to a parent who has
committed domestic violence. Some countries require that a third party oversee the exchange
of children at the beginning and end of visitation by the perpetrator. However, a number of
issues with this approach are apparent. Even where supervised visitation centres are available,
as is the case in the United States, and in European countries, such as Spain and the United
Kingdom, they are expensive to establish and operate and the quality of such centres is incon-
sistent. Furthermore, supervised visitation does not eliminate the risk that the perpetrator will
use visitation as an opportunity to harm the survivor and/or her child.
In child abuse and neglect proceedings, adult survivors of violence are sometimes
blamed for exposing their children to domestic violence. In the United States, representa-
tives of domestic violence organizations and child protective services agencies collaborated on
writing a set of recommendations directed at courts, community organizations, and others in
order to protect the safety and well-being of both women and children. An evaluation showed
some improvements in awareness and practices concerning domestic violence at child welfare
agencies in communities that had received federal funding to implement the recommenda-
tions; however, institutional change was difficult to achieve and sustain.
3.14. Asylum law

Recommendation
Legislation should:
• provide that violence against women may constitute persecution and that complainants/
survivors of such violence should constitute “a particular social group” for the purposes of
asylum law.
Commentary
Survivors of violence should be eligible for asylum under appropriate circumstances. Positive
developments in jurisprudence have increasingly acknowledged that violence against women
is a basis for the granting of asylum. For example, in 1999 the English House of Lords made
a landmark decision in relation to a claim of asylum based on domestic violence. The case of
R. v. Immigration Appeal Tribunal; Ex Parte Shah [1999] 2 AC 629 dealt with the claims of
two married Pakistani women who were forced by their husbands to leave their homes and
were at risk of being falsely accused of adultery in Pakistan. The House of Lords granted the
two women asylum on the basis that they were a member of a particular social group which,
at its broadest, could be classified as Pakistani women who are discriminated against and as
a group unprotected by the State. In the Matter of Fauziya Kassinja, 21 I. & N. Dec. 357,
Interim Decision 3278, 1996 WL 379826 (Board of Immigration Appeals 1996), the United
States Department of Justice Board of Immigration Appeals granted asylum to a woman
who had fled from Togo to avoid being subjected to female genital mutilation. However, this
reasoning has not been consistently applied by the courts in the United States to all cases of
gender-based violence.
57
4. C
hecklist of steps to be taken
when drafting legislation
on violence against women
o Step 1: Define the legislative goal
At the beginning of any legislative process a clear legislative goal must be defined. The goal
of legislation on violence against women should be to prevent violence against women, to
ensure investigation, prosecution and punishment of perpetrators, and to provide protection
and support for complainants/survivors of violence.
o Step 2: Consult with relevant stakeholders

Inclusive consultation with all stakeholders who are either affected by or will implement
legislation is a key element of the preparatory process. It ensures that the realities of women
who experience violence are accurately portrayed and that the legislative response is appropri-
ate. It also enhances the potential for legislation to be implemented effectively. The following
non-exhaustive list of stakeholders provides a guide as to who should be consulted in the
development of legislation on violence against women:
o Complainants/survivors;
o non-governmental organizations that work on violence against women, includ-
ing those with experience on violence against particular groups of women, such as
indigenous, immigrant, disabled, or ethnic minority women;
o providers of services to complainants/survivors;
o government departments, including all national mechanisms for the advancement
of women;
o national human rights institutions;
o police and other law enforcement personnel;
o prosecutors;
o judges;
o lawyers/bar associations;
o health-care professionals;
o forensics personnel;
o social work/counselling providers;
o teachers and other personnel of education systems;
o national statistical offices;
o prison officials;
o religious and community leaders;
o media personnel.
o
Step 3: Adopt an evidence-based
approach to legislative drafting
An evidence-based approach ensures that the development and design of legislation is well-
informed, and can enhance the quality and potential future effectiveness of legislation. Leg-
islation should be prepared drawing on reliable evidence including data and research on the
scope, prevalence and incidence of all forms of violence against women, on the causes and
consequences of such violence, and on lessons learned and good practices from other countries
in preventing and addressing violence against women.

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Handbook for Legislation

2. International and regional legal and policy framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

3. Model framework for legislation on violence against women. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

3.4.3. Defining sexual violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

3.10.6. Standing in application for protection orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

4. Checklist of steps to be taken when drafting legislation

3.1. Emphasizes the importance of adopting a comprehensive legislative approach,

4 Available online at: http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/human-trafficking.

2. I nternational and regional

2.1. I nternational legal and policy instruments

2.1.2. Other international treaties

2.1.3. International policy instruments

2.3. Model laws and strategies

30 Available online at: http://www.caricom.org/jsp/secretariat/legal_instruments/model_legislation_women_

3.1. Human rights-based and comprehensive approach

as well as the Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment and Eradication of

3.1.2. Comprehensive legislative approach

3.1.3. E qual application of legislation to all women

3.1.4. Gender-sensitive legislation

3.1.5. R elationship between customary and/or religious law

3.1.6. Amendment and/or removal of conflicting legal provisions

3.2.3. Training and capacity-building for public officials

3.2.4. Specialized police and prosecutorial units

3.2.5. Specialized courts

3.2.6. Protocols, guidelines, standards and regulations

3.2.7. Time limit on activating legislative provisions

3.2.8. Penalties for non-compliance by relevant authorities

3.3. Monitoring and evaluation

• provide for the creation of a specific, multisectoral mechanism to oversee implementation

3.3.2. Collection of statistical data

3.4.2. Defining domestic violence

3.4.2.2. Scope of persons protected by the law

3.4.3. Defining sexual violence

3.4.3.2. Defining sexual harassment

3.5.3. Educational curricula

3.5.4. Sensitization of the media

3.6.2. Rape crisis centres

3.6.3. Support for the survivor in her employment

3.6.4. Housing rights of the survivor

3.6.5. Financial support for the survivor

3.7. Rights of immigrant women

3.7.2. R estrictions on international marriage brokers

3.8.2. Duties of prosecutors

3.8.3. Pro-arrest and pro-prosecution policies

3.9. Legal proceedings and evidence

3.9.2. Encouraging timely and expedited proceedings

3.9.3. F ree legal aid, interpretation, and court support,

3.9.4. Rights of the complainant/survivor during legal proceedings

3.9.5. Issues related to the collection and submission of evidence

3.9.6. No adverse inference from delay in reporting

3.9.7. R emoving discriminatory elements

3.9.7.2. Evidence of complainant/survivor’s sexual history not to be introduced

3.9.8. No offence of “false accusation”

3.10. Protection orders

3.10.2. Relationship between protection orders

3.10.3. Content and issuance of protection orders

3.10.4. Emergency orders

2. I nternational and regional

2.1. I nternational legal and policy instruments

3.1.3. E qual application of legislation to all women

3.1.5. R elationship between customary and/or religious law

3.2.3. Training and capacity-building for public officials

3.2.6. Protocols, guidelines, standards and regulations

3.2.8. Penalties for non-compliance by relevant authorities

3.7.2. R estrictions on international marriage brokers

3.9.3. F ree legal aid, interpretation, and court support,

3.9.7. R emoving discriminatory elements

3.10.2. Relationship between protection orders

3.10.7. Evidence of complainant/survivor sufficient

3.10.8. Issues specific to protection orders in cases

3.11.3. E nhanced sanctions for repeated/aggravated

3.11.6. Intervention programmes for perpetrators