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CHAPTER 28
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WIND LOADS ON BUILDINGS: MAIN WIND FORCE RESISTING SYSTEM
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(ENVELOPE PROCEDURE)
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28.1 SCOPE
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28.1.1 Building Types
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This chapter applies to the determination of main wind force resisting system (MWFRS) wind
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loads, using the Envelope Procedure, on low-rise buildings as defined in Section 26.2.
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28.1.2 Conditions
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The design wind loads determined in accordance with this section shall apply to buildings
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complying with all the following conditions:
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1.
Building is a regular-shaped building as defined in Section 26.2.
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2.
Building does not have response characteristics that make it subject to across-wind
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loading, vortex shedding, or instability caused by galloping or flutter, nor does it have a
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site location for which channeling effects or buffeting in the wake of upwind obstructions
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warrant special consideration.
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3.
Building does not have an arched, barrel, or unusually shaped roof.
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28.1.3 Limitations
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The provisions of this chapter take into consideration mean and fluctuating loads caused by
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winds acting on rigid buildings. Buildings that do not meet the conditions of Section 28.1.2 shall
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be designed using appropriate procedures in Chapter 27, recognized literature documenting such
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wind load effects, or the Wind Tunnel Procedure specified in Chapter 31.
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28.1.4 Shielding
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There shall be no reductions in velocity pressure caused by apparent shielding afforded by
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buildings and other structures or terrain features.
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User Note:
Use Chapter 28 to determine the wind pressure on the MWFRS of
low‐rise buildings
that 3 have a flat, gable, or hip roof. These provisions use the Envelope Procedure by calculating wind 4 pressures from the
specific equation
applicable to each building surface. For building shapes and heights 5 for which these provisions are applicable, this method generally yields the lowest wind pressure of all 6 the analytical methods specified in this standard. 7
28.2 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
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The steps required for the determination of MWFRS wind loads on low-rise buildings are shown
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in Table 28.2-1.
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Table 28.2-1 Steps to Determine Wind Loads on MWFRS Low-Rise Buildings.
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Step 1.
Determine the risk category of building; see Table 1.5-1.
Step 2.
Determine the basic wind speed,
V
, for applicable risk category; see Figure 26.5-1.
Step 3.
Determine wind load parameters:
Wind directionality factor,
d
K
; see Section 26.6 and Table 26.6-1.
Exposure Category (B, C, or D); see Section 26.7.
Topographic factor,
zt
K
; see Section 26.8 and Figure 26.8-1.
Ground elevation factor,
e
K
; see Section 26.9 and Table 26.9-1.
Enclosure classification; see Section 26.12.
Internal pressure coefficient, (
pi
GC
); see Section 26.13 and Table 26.13-1.
Step 4.
Determine velocity pressure exposure coefficient,
z
K
or
h
K
; see Table 26.10-1.
Step 5.
Determine velocity pressure,
z
q
or
h
q
, from
Equation (26.10-1).
Step 6.
Determine external pressure coefficient, (
GC
pf
), for each load case using Section 28.3.2 for flat and gable roofs.
User Note:
See Commentary Figure C28.3‐2 for guidance on hip roofs.
Step 7.
Calculate wind pressure,
p
, from Equation (28.3-1).
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28.2.1 Wind Load Parameters Specified in Chapter 26
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The following wind load parameters shall be determined in accordance with Chapter 26:
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Basic wind speed,
V
(Section 26.5).
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Wind directionality factor,
d
K
(Section 26.6).
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Exposure category (Section 26.7).
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Topographic factor,
zt
K
(Section 26.8).
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Ground elevation factor,
e
K
(Section 26.9).
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Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficient,
z
K
or
h
K
(Section 26.10).
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Enclosure classification (Section 26.12).
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Internal pressure coefficient, (
pi
GC
) (Section 26.13).
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28.3 WIND LOADS: MAIN WIND FORCE RESISTING SYSTEM
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28.3.1 Design Wind Pressure for Low-Rise Buildings
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Design wind pressures for the MWFRS of low-rise buildings shall be determined by the
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following equation:
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(lb/ft
2
) (28.3-1)
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(N/m
2
) (28.3-1.SI)
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where
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h
q
= Velocity pressure evaluated at mean roof height
h
, as defined in Section 26.3;
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K
d
= Wind directionality factor, see Section 26.6;
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(
pf
GC
) = External pressure coefficient from Section 28.3.2; and
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(
pi
GC
) = Internal pressure coefficient from Table 26.13-1.
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28.3.1.1 External Pressure Coefficients, (
pf
GC
)
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The combined gust-effect factor and external pressure coefficients used in this chapter, (
pf
GC
),
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are not permitted to be separated.
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28.3.2 Load Cases
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Buildings shall be evaluated using each of the basic load cases and the torsional load cases acting
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independently in accordance with this section.
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EXCEPTION: Design for the torsional cases is not required for
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1. One-story buildings with
h
less than or equal to 30 ft (9.1 m),
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2. One-story and two-story light-frame buildings, or
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3. One-story and two-story buildings with flexible diaphragms.
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28.3.2.1 Basic Load Cases
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The external pressure coefficient, (
GC
pf,
),for basic load cases shall be determined in accordance
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with Figure 28.3-1. The building shall be evaluated with each corner taken as the windward
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corner, with loading patterns applied as shown, and with all zones being loaded simultaneously.
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Each corner shall be evaluated separately for the two load cases. In each load case, Zones 2E and
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3E shall be located along the roof edge perpendicular to the ridge that is nearest the corner being
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evaluated. Combinations of external and internal pressures (see Table 26.13-1) shall be evaluated
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as required to obtain the most severe loadings.
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For flat roofs, the roof angle, θ, shall be taken as 0, with the Zone 2/3 and Zone 2E/3E
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boundary located at the mid-width of the building.
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The roof pressure coefficient (
pf
GC
), when negative in Zones 2 and 2E, shall be applied
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in Zone 2/2E for a distance from the edge of roof equal to 0.5 times the horizontal dimension of
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