ADAB AL-RAFIDAYN, VOL.

(57) 1431/2010
The Victorian Poetry and Rubaiyat of Omar
Al-Khayyam: A Comparative Study
Hussein Hama Ali Raheem*
4229/02/42 :‫تاريخ القبول‬ 4229/9/42 :‫تاريخ التقديم‬

Introduction
The literature of the Victorian Age has certain
characteristics and writers. This period reflected the social,
political, economic and religious as well as intellectual
controversaries of the time. It also reflected the impact of the
Industrial Revolution on the Victorian people in general and
the working class in particular. The period also witnessed
conflict between science and religion with the appearance of
the theories of Charles Darwin and his book: The Origin of
Species. In addition to this the appearance of biology and
astronomy affected man's mind.
As a result of these changes, many intellectual issues
appeared in the life of the people. Issues like the mystery of
life, and afterlife became a wound which demands a balsam.
So it was natural to find that much of the literature of this
period is characterized by melancholy and pessimism. Similar
pessimistic idea also appears in Rubaiyat Al-Khayam.
When the Rubaiyat of Omar Al- Khayam appeared,
English readers in general, and English poets considered them
as a resort from their suffering from the conflict between
science and religion. Edward Fitzgerald translated the
Rubaiyat and published it in 1859. His translation was a free

Dept. of English/ College of Arts/ University of Mosul.
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The Victorian Poetry and Rubaiyat of Omar Al-Khayyam (A Comparative
Study) Hussein Hama Ali Raheem
one. He transmitted them as he understood them. He expressed
the thoughts of Omar on love and wine, life and death. The
Rubaiyat then gained fame in England because they became a
balsam to the Victorian wound resulting from the conflict
between science and religion.

The Victorian Period (1837–1901):(1)

The Victorian period was a period of intense and
prolific activity in literature, namely by poets and novelists,
essayists and philosophers. Much of the writing was concerned
with problems resulting from the industrial revolution, the
influence of the theory of evolution, movements of the
political and social reform(2). Hence, during this period,
namely at the second half of it, there was a conflict between
science and religion. Science was developing fast while
religion was not. Since it was a time of rapid industrial growth,
social unrest and scientific discovering of new ideas and
theories emerged, challenging accepted and received believes.
Accordingly, the Victorian poetry marked by religious doubts,
personal despair and general uncertainty about life and the
human condition(3).
The Victorian poetry shows a greater awareness of the
complexity of life and its lack of cohesion(4). Issues like these
appeared in the poetry of the Pre-Raphaelites(5), Elizabeth
Barret Browning (1806–61), Robert Browning (1812–89), and
Lord Tennyson (1809–92)(6).
The poetry of this period is that of escape and the
individual moment. In their attempt to transcend the doubt of
the age, the Victorian poets used imagination as a means of
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escape. This is achieved by using symbols as a means of
expressing personal and private world moving from the
limitation of reality into an ideal dream vision. For instance,
love and art for Robert Browning are potentially transcendent,
allowing the individual to rise above physical circumstances.
The escape can only ever be momentary and most of his
poems end in a sense of failure.
Lord Tennyson also escapes from reality by retreating
into a dream world trying to convoy to the readers just what
was it would be like to escape from realities of the Victorian
age(7). For example, in the following poem: Akbar's Dream:
Hymn", by Tennyson, written in 1892 we see it is based on a
dream. The Oriental elements in it support its imaginative
aspects:
"Once again thou flamest heavenward, once
again we see the rise
Every morning is thy birthday gladdening
human hearts and eyes
Every morning here we greet it, bowing
lowly down before thee,
Thee the Godlike, the cheangeless in thine
ever-changing skies…"(8)

In the upper lines, the speaker is reciting a hymn in

which he is glorifying the sun. Akbar was the great Mogul
ruler of India from 1556 to 1605. He used a new way of
worshipping. In the poem he relates a dream about building a
temple where all people of all creeds might worship(9). In the
same way there is another poem by Tennyson "The Vision of

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Study) Hussein Hama Ali Raheem
Sin" in which appears mythological elements, great palace,
and horse with wings:
"I had a vision when the night was late;
A youth came riding toward a palace gate.
He rode a horse with wings, that would have flown,
But that his heavy rider kept him down" (10). p.51.

Additionally, the Victorian poets deal with the past in a

different way. They look beyond the spirit of passing time to
something more lasting. The Pre- Raphaelite poets used the
past as an analogue for the present. Robert Browning in his
poem "Love among the Ruins" uses the past and present
together to explore physical and psychological difference. He
develops a sequence of antithetical images. The open land
which now is grazed by sheep was the site once of a city great
and gay (11). (lines 1–12):
"Where the quiet-coloured and of evening smiles
Miles and miles
On the solitary pastures where our sheep
Half-a sheep
Tinkle home word thro' the twilight, stray or stop
As they crop-
Was the site once of a city great and gay,
(So they say)
Of our country's very capital, its prince
Ageas since

Held his court in, gathered councils, wielding far

As you see" (12)

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In (part 2, lines 57 – 8) the young lovers meet in the:
"Turrent whence the charioteers caught soul
For the soul"

In the same part (lines 59 – 60) the poet tells us the king
looked where the girls:
"Looks now, breathless, dumb,
Till I come"

Then sound of the past intensifies the meaning of the

lovers' meeting in the present(13). The ancient city described
here is supposed to be Nineveh or Babylon(14).
Accordingly, the Victorian period was the period of
external and internal struggle between the poet and the
environment he lives in. the internal struggle or conflict occurs
inside the mind of the poet. All these conditions whether they
are religious, social, economic, or political participated in
creating atmosphere that paved the way for the Rubaiyat to be
received by the English language reader.
The Rubaiyat of Omar Al-Khayyam (1048 – 1122) was
introduced into England by Edward Fitzgerald who translated
it and published it in 1859. Fitzgerald who was not a so
famous Victorian poet, tried his luck in translating a Persian
literary work. He had introduced a poet who was minor in his
time because of notoriety of the thoughts which he expressed
in his poetry. Then, the Rubaiyat gained fame and became
much more popular than before(15).
A close reading of the authentic verses reveals Omar as
a man of deep thought, troubled by the questions of the nature
of reality and the eternal, the impermanence and uncertainty of

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Study) Hussein Hama Ali Raheem
life, and man's relationship to God. Omar doubts the existence
of divine providence and the afterlife, derides religious
certainty and its disturbance by man's frailty and ignorance.
Finding no acceptable answers to his perplexities, he chooses
to put his faith instead in a joyful appreciation of the fleeting
and sensuous beauties of the material world. The idyllic nature
of the modest pleasures he celebrates. However, cannot dispel
his honest and straightforward brooding over fundamental
metaphysical question(16). These matters dealt by Omar Al-
Kayyam reflect his personality as an experienced man and a
man of knowledge as well.
Omar Al-Khayyam (Abu Al-Fath Omar bin Ibrahim Al-
Khayyam, Annisaburi, was born in May 18, 1048 A.D., died
in Dec. 4 1122 Nisabur(17). As a man of high learning, he was
mathematician of his time. He was an authority in astronomy,
philosophy, physics and medicine. Above all a man of science,
he was very knowledgeable in music and Islamic religion as
well(18), renowned in his own country and time for his
scientific achievements but known to English speaking readers
for his Rubaiyyat published in 1895 by Edward Fitzgerald.
Rubaiyyat or quatrain is a piece of verse complete in four
rhymed lines. Although in Omar's Rubaiyyat the third line
usually does not rhyme (19).
Most of the themes and thoughts of Al-Khayyam's
Rubaiyyat appealed to the English readers and gained fame
during the second half of the Victorian period. These themes
and thoughts made his fame outside his country. The first
reason of his fame is that Al-Khayyam was not a poet of love,
mysticism or a poet of the myths of the ancient people.

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Instead, his Rubaiyyat deals with issues that concern every
man such as meaninglessness of life, life itself and afterlife
which every man wants to realize whether it is a fact or not.
Man usually seeks entertainment when he feels tired
from the troubles of life. He does so to escape these troubles.
Here, Omar Al-Khayyam escapes the troubles of life to wine.
He wrote many Rubaiyat dealing with wine, drinking it with
beautiful ladies just to relieve himself. The Rubaiyyat also
deals with the issue of youth stage. With the power of passing
time this stage will decay and fade. Man in general, whether
he is from the East or West will face this issue and his mind
will be worried about it whether he is optimist or pessimist.
The second reason of his fame during the second half of
the Victorian period, is that his thoughts and themes are
revolutionary. The Rubaiyyat contains revolution against what
is conventional or familiar in society as well as provocating1
clergy men and their theories. This matter is similar to what
occurred in Europe during Renaissance when poets or writers,
such as Voltaire, started campaigns against the church. These
matters are desired by the readers and they accept them
anywhere(14). Furthermore, pessimism is one of them features
of his Rubaiyyat. Pessimism appears clearly in Rubaiyyat
which deals with death through which the poet expresses his
attitude toward this world.
The following selected poems will be samples of his
poetry that deal with issues appealed to the reader in general,
namely the English one during the Victorian period (20).

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Study) Hussein Hama Ali Raheem
Quatrain 28
"With them the seed of wisdom did I saw,
And with my own hand labour'd it to grow
And this was all the harvest that I reap'd-
I came like water and like wind I go"

Pessimistic attitude toward life appears clearly here. Al-

khayyam He tells us that he has gained the knowledge of
wisdom, but he finally all the harvest he reaped; he found life
is too short: "I came like and like wind I go". Hence, the poet
is pessimist toward life as he found it very short and then it is
meaningless.
One of the features of the Victorian poetry is that it is
poetry of escape when the poet feels tired of the troubles of
life. He tries to forget them throughout escaping reality into a
world of dreams or imagination. Centuries before the
Victorians, Al-Khayyam did the same thing, when he feels
tired of the troubles of life, he escapes these troubles into
drinking. The following quatrain is a good example.
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"Yesterday this day's madness did prepare,
To-morrow's silence, Triumph, or Despair,
Drink! For you know not whence, n or why,
Drink! For you know not whence you came, nor why?
Drink! For you know not why you go, nor where".

The main idea of this quatrain is death, afterlife and the

meaning of life. The tone is pessimistic. Al-Khayyam, here,
deals with many important issues that man's mind cannot
ignore. Then it reflects one of the main aspects of his
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personality which was a magnificent reason for his fame that
is pessimism. In this quatrain the poet appears pessimist
because he cannot explain the mystery of existence or that of
life. The questions he asks in this quatrain are metaphysical.
He wants to know from where did he come to this world and
where will he go after death. Then the poet relieves himself
from these troubles by escaping for drinking wine. He
emphasizes drinking as he initiates the word 'drink' at the
beginning of the last three lines. This emphasis indicates that
he is impatient and he cannot bear those matters anymore. He
invites himself to drink wine because the mysteries of life
cannot be explained for himself.
In the quatrain (no. 37) the problem of passing time by
which we came to this world and then quickly we depart it.
The poet, again orders the waiter to fill the cup with wine
because, he explains that our repeated cries over this matter is
useless. so why we are worried about them 'if to-day is sweet'.
37
"Ah, fill the cup: what hoots is to repeat
How time is slipping underneath our feet
Unborn To-morrow, and dead yesterday,
Why fret about them it To-day is sweet!"

The poet tells us that since there is no escape from the

power of death or the power of time, we should live the day if
it is sweet. He advises us to live the happy day if it is available
and not to be fret about the passing time and death. The
tendency of escapism and pessimism is also found in this
quatrain.

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The Victorian Poetry and Rubaiyat of Omar Al-Khayyam (A Comparative
Study) Hussein Hama Ali Raheem
In quatrain (No. 70) the poet tells us that once he was
wondering in a market where he saw a potter in a dusk of a
day who was thumping his wet clay to prepare it for making a
jar or something like that. The poet hears the clay addressing
the potter to hit him gently because this clay came out from
the dead bodies:
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"For in the market-place one dusk of day,
I watch the potter thumping his wet clay
And with its all obliterated tongue
It murmured - "Gently, brother, gently, pray".

This quatrain is narrative, it contains setting, time,

place, as well as action. If we examine the setting carefully,
we will find that its elements are suggestive; The market-place
stands for the world we live in. The market-place is just like
the world- which everyone can visit for a limited time and then
leave it. The time when the poet was watching the potter was
dusk which declares the end of the day. Here dusk indicates
the approaching of death. Dusk declares the end of the day,
here we have the matter of day and night on one hand and the
matter of life and death on the others.
This quatrain reflects the pessimistic aspect of the poet.
He is pessimist because death is waiting for us and it becomes
meaningless since we cannot interpret the mystery of death.
The bodies will change into clay to be hit under the hands of
the potter.
Finally, Al-Khayyam was a man of deep thought. His
quatrains contain great philosophical ideas dealing with the

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meaninglessness of life and death. After publishing them in
1859, they became so popular because they reflected all the
problems resulted from the conflict between science and
religion during the Victorian period. However, the topics
which appear in the quatrains of Omar Al-Khayyam are
comprehensive. They don't belong to specific people or period.
This leads us to say that Al-Khayyam is a poet of humanism.

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Study) Hussein Hama Ali Raheem

NOTES
1. When Queen Victoria ruled Britain (1837–1901).
2. J. A. Cuddon, A Dictionary of Literary Terms. Middlesex:
Penguin Books, 1976, p.744.
3. Sara Thorne, Mastering Poetry. New York: Palgrave
MacMillan, 2006, p.217.
4. Thorne, p.217.
5. The Pre-Raphaelites: A Mid-19th c. self styled brotherhood
of London Artists, all young who united to resist current
artistic conventions. They influenced a group of poets who
hold the same name. For further details, see Cudden, p.
528.
6. Throne, p.222.
7. Throne, p.223.
8. See: Poetry of the Victorian Period, 3rd. ed., Illinois:
SCOTT, Foresman, 1965. p.176.
9. Poetry of the Victorian Period, p.958.
10. Poetry of the Victorian Period. p. 51.
11. Thorne p.221.
12. Quoted from: The Oxford Anthology of English Literature,
vol. II, Oxford, 1973, p.1293.
13. Thorne, p. 221.
14. See: The Oxford Anthology of English Literature, p.1293.
15. The New Encyclopedia Britannica, vol.8, Chicago, 1988.
p.945.
16. Ibid, vol.8. p.945.
17. Ibid, vol.8. p.945.

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18. Rubaiyyat Umar Al-Khayyam: Persian, Arabic, English,
French. Translated by Mohammed Salih Al-Karak, Beirut:
Dar Al-Manahil, 2008, p.7.
19. Britannica, vol.8. p.946.
20. Abdul-Hak Faddil, Thowrat Al-Khayyam, 2nd. Edn,
Beirut: Dar Al-Elim Lilmalyen 1968, p.81,84.
21. All the poems (Rubaiyyat) appear here are quoted from:
Edward Fitzgerald, Rubaiyyat of Omar Al-Khayyam,
London, Collins, 1947.

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Study) Hussein Hama Ali Raheem

BIBLIOGRAPHY
English References:
Crudden, J. A. A Dictionary of Literary Terms. Middlesex:
Penguin Books, 1976.
Fitzgerald. Edward, Rubaiyyat of Omar Al-Khayyam, London,
Collins, 1947.
Poetry of the Victorian Period, 3rd ed., Illinois, Scott,
Foresman, 1965.
Rubaiyyat Umar Al-Khayyam, Persian, Arabic, English,
French; translated by Mohammed Salih Al-Karak,
Beirut: Dar Al-Manahil, 2008.
The Oxford Anthology of English Literature, vol. II, Oxford,
1973.
Thorne, Sara, Mastering Poetry, New York: Palgrave
MacMillan, 2006.

Arabic Reference:
Faddil, Abdul-Hak, Thowarat Al-Kayyam, Beirut: Dar Al-
Elim Lilmalyaen, 1968.

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‫الشعر امللحمي ورباعيات عمر اخليام‪ :‬دراسة مقارنة‬

‫م‪.‬م‪ .‬حسني محه علي رحيم‪‬‬
‫املستخلص‬
‫أأج‬ ‫حأل ض حأل‬ ‫يتأأف ه اأأبح ح ن أأو يأأئ ي أ يئ ي أأييئ‪ .‬يعأأج ا ح ي أ‬
‫أ أ د م أأم م أ أأم ح أ أأع ح‬ ‫ح ت أأم عيأأأق مأأأئ ح تو أأمي ح ا أ أ جمم ح عديأ أأم يي أأج أأأج‬
‫يأأئ ح ح أ ‪ .‬يت أأج ض ح ي أ‬ ‫أ ض ح ع أ م ح ي أ ق تم أ ح أ‬ ‫حال عديأأت تأأم‬
‫أ م ي أدي (ميأ ح ييأأجي) كأجئ ييد أ يج يج أأيج‬ ‫أأجم‬ ‫ح أج م أأي ج مأأئ ياأي‬
‫نيأ أ ح تأ أأم‬ ‫ا أأج م م أأج ا يي أأأج ي ح أأي ح ل أأجت ح يأ أ ق ح ع أ أ م ح تمأ أ ح‬ ‫كتأ أ‬
‫ح عك أأق يي أأج ا أأج م ح أأع حال عدي أأتك ي أأم ح عاأ أ ح تيكتأ أ ك ح ييت أأم ي أأئ ح تتأ أ‬
‫‪.7091–7381‬‬

‫ي ح دل حإل كديتي ‪ /‬كدي حآلمح ‪ /‬عجيع ح ي اض‪.‬‬ ‫‪‬‬

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