Stages of Development

Early Emergent Readers (Levels aa-C) Early Fluent Readers (Levels K-P)

Aspiring readers are just beginning to grasp the basic concepts of At this stage, reading is more automatic, with more energy devoted to
book and print. They are acquiring a command of the alphabet with comprehension than word attack. Readers are approaching
the ability to recognize and name upper- and lowercase letters. They independence in comprehending text.
are also developing many phonological awareness skills, such as
recognizing phonemes, syllables, and rhyme. These readers are experiencing a greater variety of text and are able
to recognize different styles and genres. Independence often varies
Early Emergent readers are beginning to learn sound/symbol with the type of text being read.
relationships--starting with consonants and short vowels--and are
able to read CVC (consonant-vowel-consonant) words, as well as a Books at this stage have:
number of high-frequency words.

 More pages
Books at this level have:
 Longer sentences
 More text per page
 Strong picture support  Richer vocabulary
 Carefully controlled text  Greater variation in sentence pattern
 Repetitive patterns  Less reliance on pictures
 Controlled, repeated vocabulary  More formal and descriptive language
 Natural language
 Large print
 Wide letter spacing
 Familiar concepts
 Limited text on a page
Fluent Readers (Levels Q-Z2)

Readers have successfully moved from “learning to read” to “reading

to learn.” Their reading is automatic and is done with expression and
proper pauses. Their energy is devoted to understanding, and they
Emergent Readers (Levels D-J) have good command and use of the various comprehension
strategies.
Readers at this stage have developed an understanding of the
alphabet, phonological awareness, and early phonics. They have These readers read a wide range of text types and do so
command of a significant number of high-frequency words. independently. They will continue to refine and develop their reading
skills as they encounter more difficult reading materials. But for the
most part, they are capable of improving their reading skills and
Emergent readers are developing a much better grasp of
selection of materials independently through increased practice.
comprehension strategies and word-attack skills. They can recognize
different types of text, particularly fiction and nonfiction, and
recognize that reading has a variety of purposes. Books at this stage have:

Books at this stage have:  More text

 Less familiar, more varied topics
 Increasingly more lines of print per page  Challenging vocabulary
 More complex sentence structure  More complex sentences
 Less dependency on repetitive pattern and pictures  Varied writing styles
 Familiar topics but greater depth  More description

Second and Foreign Language Teaching Methods

Free

This module provides a description of the basic principles and procedures of the most recognized and
commonly used approaches and methods for teaching a second or foreign language. Each approach or
method has an articulated theoretical orientation and a collection of strategies and learning activities
designed to reach the specified goals and achieve the learning outcomes of the teaching and learning
processes.

Theoretical Orientations to L2 Methods &

Approaches
There are four general orientations among The Grammar-Translation Approach
modern second-language methods and
approaches: This approach was historically used in teaching
Greek and Latin. The approach was generalized
1.  STRUCTURAL/LINGUISTIC:  Based on beliefs to teaching modern languages.
about the structure of language and descriptive
Classes are taught in the students' mother
or contrastive linguistics.  Involves isolation of
grammatical and syntactic elements of L2 tongue, with little active use of the target
language. Vocabulary is taught in the form of
taught either deductively or inductively in a
predetermined sequence. Often involves much isolated word lists. Elaborate explanations of
grammar are always provided. Grammar
meta-linguistic content or "learning about the
language" in order to learn the language. instruction provides the rules for putting words
together; instruction often focuses on the form
2.  COGNITIVE:  Based on theories of learning and inflection of words. Reading of difficult
applied specifically to second language texts is begun early in the course of study. Little
learning.  Focus is on the learning strategies attention is paid to the content of texts, which
that are compatible with the learners own style. are treated as exercises in grammatical
L2 content is selected according to concepts analysis. Often the only drills are exercises in
and techniques that facilitate generalizations translating disconnected sentences from the
about the language, memorization and target language into the mother tongue, and
"competence" leading to "performance". vice versa. Little or no attention is given to
pronunciation.
3. AFFECTIVE/INTERPERSONAL:  Focuses on the
psychological and affective pre-dispositions of The Direct Approach
the learner that enhance or inhibit learning. 
Emphasizes interaction among and between This approach was developed initially as a
reaction to the grammar-translation approach
teacher and students and the atmosphere of
the learning situation as well as students' in an attempt to integrate more use of the
target language in instruction.
motivation for learning.  Based on concepts
adapted from counseling and social psychology. Lessons begin with a dialogue using a modern
conversational style in the target
4.  FUNCTIONAL/COMMUNICATIVE:  Based on
theories of language acquisition, often referred language. Material is first presented orally with
actions or pictures. The mother tongue is
to as the "natural" approach, and on the use of
language for communication. Encompasses NEVER, NEVER used. There is no
translation. The preferred type of exercise is a
multiple aspects of the communicative act, with
language structures selected according to their series of questions in the target language based
on the dialogue or an anecdotal narrative.
utility in achieving a communicative purpose.
Instruction is concerned with the input students Questions are answered in the target
language. Grammar is taught inductively–rules
receive, comprehension of the "message" of
language and student involvement at the are generalized from the practice and
experience with the target language. Verbs are
students' level of competence.
used first and systematically conjugated only
much later after some oral mastery of the New material is presented in the form of a
target language. Advanced students read dialogue. Based on the principle that language
literature for comprehension and pleasure. learning is habit formation, the method fosters
Literary texts are not analyzed dependence on mimicry, memorization of set
grammatically. The culture associated with the phrases and over-learning. Structures are
target language is also taught inductively. sequenced and taught one at a time. Structural
Culture is considered an important aspect of patterns are taught using repetitive drills. Little
learning the language. or no grammatical explanations are provided;
grammar is taught inductively. Skills are
The Reading Approach sequenced: Listening, speaking, reading and
This approach is selected for practical and writing are developed in order.Vocabulary is
academic reasons. For specific uses of the strictly limited and learned in context. Teaching
language in graduate or scientific studies. The points are determined by contrastive analysis
approach is for people who do not travel between L1 and L2. There is abundant use of
abroad for whom reading is the one usable skill language laboratories, tapes and visual
in a foreign language.  aids. There is an extended pre-reading period at
the beginning of the course. Great importance
The priority in studying the target language is is given to precise native-like
first, reading ability and second, current and/or pronunciation. Use of the mother tongue by the
historical knowledge of the country where the teacher is permitted, but discouraged among
target language is spoken.Only the grammar and by the students. Successful responses are
necessary for reading comprehension and reinforced; great care is taken to prevent
fluency is taught. Minimal attention is paid to learner errors. There is a tendency to focus on
pronunciation or gaining conversational skills in manipulation of the target language and to
the target language. From the beginning, a disregard content and meaning.
great amount of reading is done in L2, both in
and out of class. The vocabulary of the early Hints for Using Audio-lingual Drills in L2
reading passages and texts is strictly controlled Teaching
for difficulty. Vocabulary is expanded as quickly 1. The teacher must be careful to insure that all
as possible, since the acquisition of vocabulary of the utterances which students will make are
is considered more important that grammatical actually within the practiced pattern. For
skill.Translation reappears in this approach as a example, the use of the AUX verb have should
respectable classroom procedure related to not suddenly switch to have as a main verb.
comprehension of the written text.
2. Drills should be conducted as rapidly as
The Audiolingual Method possibly so as to insure automaticity and to
This method is based on the principles of establish a system.
behavior psychology. It adapted many of the 3. Ignore all but gross errors of pronunciation
principles and procedures of the Direct Method, when drilling for grammar practice.
in part as a reaction to the lack of speaking
skills of the Reading Approach. 
4. Use of shortcuts to keep the pace o drills at a question is: How much internal organization or
maximum. Use hand motions, signal cards, decision making must the student do in order to
notes, etc. to cue response. You are a choir make a response in this drill. Thus: imitation
director. first, single-slot substitution next, then free
response last.
5. Use normal English stress, intonation, and
juncture patterns conscientiously. Community Language Learning

6. Drill material should always be meaningful. If Curran, C.A. (1976). Counseling-Learning in

the content words are not known, teach their Second Languages. Apple River, Illinois: Apple
meanings. River Press, 1976.

7. Intersperse short periods of drill (about 10 This methodology created by Charles Curran is
minutes) with very brief alternative activities to not based on the usual methods by which
avoid fatigue and boredom. languages are taught. Rather the approach is
patterned upon counseling techniques and
8. Introduce the drill in this way: adapted to the peculiar anxiety and threat as
a. Focus (by writing on the board, for example) well as the personal and language problems a
person encounters in the learning of foreign
b. Exemplify (by speaking model sentences) languages. Consequently, the learner is not
thought of as a student but as a client. The
c. Explain (if a simple grammatical explanation is
native instructors of the language are not
needed)
considered teachers but, rather are trained in
d. Drill counseling skills adapted to their roles as
language counselors.
9. Don’t stand in one place; move about the
room standing next to as many different The language-counseling relationship begins
students as possible to spot check their with the client's linguistic confusion and
production. Thus you will know who to give conflict. The aim of the language counselor's
more practice to during individual drilling. skill is first to communicate an empathy for the
client's threatened inadequate state and to aid
10. Use the "backward buildup" technique for him linguistically. Then slowly the teacher-
long and/or difficult patterns. counselor strives to enable him to arrive at his
own increasingly independent language
–tomorrow
adequacy. This process is furthered by the
–in the cafeteria tomorrow language counselor's ability to establish a
warm, understanding, and accepting
–will be eating in the cafeteria tomorrow relationship, thus becoming an "other-language
self" for the client. The process involves five
–Those boys will be eating in the cafeteria
stages of adaptation:
tomorrow.
STAGE 1
11. Arrange to present drills in the order of
increasing complexity of student response. The
The client is completely dependent on the 1. The client is now speaking freely and
language counselor. complexly in the foreign language. Presumes
group's understanding.
1. First, he expresses only to the counselor
and in English what he wishes to say to the 2. The counselor directly intervenes in
group. Each group member overhears this grammatical error, mispronunciation, or where
English exchange but no other members of the aid in complex expression is needed. The client
group are involved in the interaction. is sufficiently secure to take correction.

2. The counselor then reflects these ideas back STAGE 5

to the client in the foreign language in a warm,
1. Same as stage 4.
accepting tone, in simple language in phrases of
five or six words. 2. The counselor intervenes not only to offer
3. The client turns to the group and presents his correction but to add idioms and more elegant
ideas in the foreign language. He has the constructions.
counselor's aid if he mispronounces or hesitates 3. At this stage the client can become counselor
on a word or phrase. This is the client's to the group in stages 1, 2, and 3.
maximum security stage.
The Silent Way
STAGE 2
Gattegno, C. (1972).Teaching Foreign
1. Same as above. Languages in Schools: The Silent Way. New
2. The client turns and begins to speak York City: Educational Solutions.
the foreign language directly to the group. Procedures
3. The counselor aids only as the client hesitates This method created by Caleb Gattegno begins
or turns for help. These small independent by using a set of colored rods and verbal
steps are signs of positive confidence and hope. commands in order to achieve the following:
STAGE 3 To avoid the use of the vernacular. To create
1. The client speaks directly to the group in the simple linguistic situations that remain under
the complete control of the teacher To pass on
foreign language. This presumes that the group
has now acquired the ability to understand his to the learners the responsibility for the
utterances of the descriptions of the objects
simple phrases.
shown or the actions performed. To let the
2. Same as 3 above. This presumes the client's teacher concentrate on what the students say
greater confidence, independence, and and how they are saying it, drawing their
proportionate insight into the relationship of attention to the differences in pronunciation
phrases, grammar, and ideas. Translation is and the flow of words. To generate a serious
given only when a group member desires it. game-like situation in which the rules are
implicitly agreed upon by giving meaning to the
STAGE 4 gestures of the teacher and his mime. To permit
almost from the start a switch from the lone  Communicative competence involves
voice of the teacher using the foreign language the negotiation of meaning between
to a number of voices using it. This introduces meaning between two or more persons
components of pitch, timbre and intensity that sharing the same symbolic system.
will constantly reduce the impact of one voice
 Communicative competence applies to
and hence reduce imitation and encourage
personal production of one's own brand of the both spoken and written language.
sounds.  Communicative competence is context
To provide the support of perception and action specific based on the situation, the role
of the participants and the appropriate
to the intellectual guess of what the
noises mean, thus bring in the arsenal of the choices of register and style.  For
example:  The variation of language
usual criteria of experience already developed
and automatic in one's use of the mother used by persons in different jobs or
professions can be either formal or
tongue. To provide a duration of spontaneous
speech upon which the teacher and the informal.  The use of jargon or slang
may or may not be appropriate.
students can work to obtain a similarity of
melody to the one heard, thus providing  Communicative competence represents
melodic integrative schemata from the start. a shift in focus from the grammatical to
Materials the communicative properties of the
language; i.e. the functions of language
The complete set of materials utilized as the and the process of discourse.
language learning progresses include:
 Communicative competence requires
A set of colored wooden rods A set of wall the mastery of the production and
charts containing words of a "functional" comprehension of communicative acts
vocabulary and some additional ones; a pointer or speech acts that are relevant to the
for use with the charts in Visual Dictation A needs of the L2 learner.
color coded phonic chart(s) Tapes or discs, as
required; films Drawings and pictures, and a set Characteristics of the Communicative
Classroom  
of accompanying worksheets Transparencies,
three texts, a Book of Stories, worksheets.  The classroom is devoted primarily to
activities that foster acquisition of L2. 
The Communicative Approach
Learning activities involving practice
What is communicative competence? and drill are assigned as homework. 

 Communicative competence is the  The instructor does not correct speech

progressive acquisition of the ability to errors directly.
use a language to achieve one's
 Students are allowed to respond in the
communicative purpose.
target language, their native language,
or a mixture of the two.
  The focus of all learning and speaking         b. Content activities
activities is on the interchange of a
message that the acquirer understands         c. Humanistic-affective activities
and wishes to transmit, i.e. meaningful         d. Information-problem-solving activities
communication.
Functional-Notional Approach
 The students receive comprehensible
input in a low-anxiety environment and Finocchiaro, M. & Brumfit, C. (1983). The
are personally involved in class Functional-Notional Approach. New York, NY:
activities. Comprehensible input has the Oxford University Press.
following major components:
This method of language teaching is
            a. a context categorized along with others under the rubric
of a communicative approach. The method
            b. gestures and other body language cues stresses a means of organizing a language
            c. a message to be comprehended syllabus. The emphasis is on breaking down the
global concept of language into units of analysis
            d. a knowledge of the meaning of key in terms of communicative situations in which
lexical items in the utterance they are used.

Stages of language acquisition in the Notions are meaning elements that may be

communicative approach expressed through nouns, pronouns, verbs,
prepositions, conjunctions, adjectives or
1. Comprehension or pre-production adverbs. The use of particular notions depends
        a. Total physical response on three major factors: a. the functions b. the
elements in the situation, and c. the topic being
        b. Answer with names–objects, students, discussed.
pictures
A situation may affect variations of
2. Early speech production language such as the use of dialects,
the formality or informality of the language and
        a. Yes-no questions
the mode of expression. Situation includes the
        b. Either-or questions following elements:

        c. Single/two-word answers A. The persons taking part in the speech act

        d. Open-ended questions B. The place where the conversation occurs

        e. Open dialogs C. The time the speech act is taking place

        f. Interviews D. The topic or activity that is being discussed

3. Speech emerges Exponents are the language utterances or

statements that stem from the function, the
        a. Games and recreational activities situation and the topic.
Code is the shared language of a community of  refusing invitations politely or making
speakers. alternative arrangements

Code-switching is a change or switch in code  making appointments for meetings

during the speech act, which many theorists
 breaking appointments politely and
believe is purposeful behavior to convey
arranging another mutually convenient
bonding, language prestige or other elements of
interpersonal relations between the speakers. time

 apologizing
Functional Categories of Language
 excusing oneself and accepting excuses
Mary Finocchiaro (1983, p. 65-66) has placed
for not meeting commitments
the functional categories under five headings as
noted below: personal, interpersonal, directive,  indicating agreement or disagreement
referential, andimaginative.
 interrupting another speaker politely
Personal = Clarifying or arranging one’s ideas;
expressing one’s thoughts or feelings: love, joy,  changing an embarrassing subject
pleasure, happiness, surprise, likes, satisfaction,
 receiving visitors and paying visits to
dislikes, disappointment, distress, pain, anger,
others
anguish, fear, anxiety, sorrow, frustration,
annoyance at missed opportunities, moral,  offering food or drinks and accepting or
intellectual and social concerns; and the declining politely
everyday feelings of hunger, thirst, fatigue,
sleepiness, cold, or warmth  sharing wishes, hopes, desires,
problems
Interpersonal = Enabling us to establish and
maintain desirable social and working  making promises and committing
relationships: Enabling us to establish and oneself to some action
maintain desirable social and working
 complimenting someone
relationships:
 making excuses
 greetings and leave takings
 expressing and acknowledging gratitude
 introducing people to others
Directive = Attempting to influence the actions
 identifying oneself to others
of others; accepting or refusing direction:
 expressing joy at another’s success
 making suggestions in which the
 expressing concern for other people’s speaker is included
welfare
 making requests; making suggestions
 extending and accepting invitations
 refusing to accept a suggestion or a
request but offering an alternative
  persuading someone to change his  comparing or contrasting things
point of view
 discussing possibilities, probabilities, or
 requesting and granting permission capabilities of doing something

 asking for help and responding to a plea  requesting or reporting facts about
for help events or actions

 forbidding someone to do something;  evaluating the results of an action or

issuing a command event

 giving and responding to instructions Imaginative = Discussions involving elements of

creativity and artistic expression
 warning someone
 discussing a poem, a story, a piece of
 discouraging someone from pursuing a music, a play, a painting, a film, a TV
course of action program, etc.
 establishing guidelines and deadlines  expanding ideas suggested by other or
for the completion of actions by a piece of literature or reading
 asking for directions or instructions material

Referential = talking or reporting about things,  creating rhymes, poetry, stories or plays
actions, events, or people in the environment in  recombining familiar dialogs or
the past or in the future; talking about language passages creatively
(what is termed the metalinguistic function: =
talking or reporting about things, actions,  suggesting original beginnings or
events, or people in the environment in the endings to dialogs or stories
past or in the future; talking about language
 solving problems or mysteries
(what is termed the metalinguistic function:

 identifying items or people in the Total Physical Response

classroom, the school the home, the Asher, J.C.  (1979). Learning Another Language
community Through Actions. San Jose, California:
AccuPrint.
 asking for a description of someone or
something James J. Asher defines the Total Physical
Response (TPR) method as one that combines
 defining something or a language item
or asking for a definition information and skills through the use of the
kinesthetic sensory system. This combination of
 paraphrasing, summarizing, or skills allows the student to assimilate
translating (L1 to L2 or vice versa) information and skills at a rapid rate. As a
result, this success leads to a high degree of
 explaining or asking for explanations of motivation. The basic tenets are:
how something works
Understanding the spoken language before informal, implicit, subconscious learning.  The
developing the skills of speaking. Imperatives conscious, explicit, formal linguistic knowledge
are the main structures to transfer or of a language is a different, and often  non-
communicate information. The student is not essential process.
forced to speak, but is allowed an individual
2. The natural order of acquisition hypothesis
readiness period and allowed to spontaneously
begin to speak when the student feels L2 learners acquire forms in a predictable
comfortable and confident in understanding order.  This order very closely parallels the
and producing the utterances. acquisition of grammatical and syntactic
structures in the first language.
TECHNIQUE

Step I The teacher says the commands as he 3. The monitor hypothesis

himself performs the action. Fluency in L2 comes from the acquisition
Step 2 The teacher says the command as both process.  Learning produces a "monitoring" or
editor of performance. The application of the
the teacher and the students then perform the
action. monitor function requires time, focus on form
and knowledge of the rule.
Step 3 The teacher says the command but only
students perform the action 4. The input hypothesis

Language is acquired through comprehensible

Step 4 The teacher tells one student at a time to
do commands input.  If an L2 learner is at a certain stage in
language acquisition and he/she understands
Step 5 The roles of teacher and student are something that includes a structure at the next
reversed. Students give commands to teacher stage, this helps him/her to acquire that
and to other students. structure.  Thus, the i+1 concept, where i= the
stage of acquisition.
Step 6 The teacher and student allow for
command expansion or produces new 5. The affective hypothesis
sentences.
People with certain personalities and certain
The Natural Approach motivations perform better in L2 acquisition. 
Learners with high self-esteem and high levels
The Natural Approach and the Communicative of self-confidence acquire L2 faster. Also,
Approach share a common theoretical and certain low-anxiety pleasant situations are more
philosophical base.The Natural Approach to L2 conducive to L2 acquisition.
teaching is based on the following hypotheses:
6. The filter hypothesis
1. The acquisition-learning
distinction hypothesis There exists an affective filter or "mental block"
that can prevent input from "getting in." 
Adults can "get" a second language much as Pedagogically, the more that is done to lower
they learn their first language, through the filter, the more acquisition can take place. 
A low filter is achieved through low-anxiety,
relaxation, non-defensiveness.

7. The aptitude hypothesis

There is such a thing as a language learning

aptitude.  This aptitude can be measured and is
highly correlated with general learning
aptitude.  However, aptitude relates more
to learning while attitude relates more
to acquisition.

8.  The first language hypothesis

The L2 learner will naturally substitute

competence in L1 for competence in L2. 
Learners should not be forced to use the L1 to
generate L2 performance.  A silent period and
insertion of L1 into L2 utterances should be
expected and tolerated.

9. The textuality hypothesis

The event-structures of experience are textual

in nature and will be easier to produce,
understand, and recall to the extent that
discourse or text is motivated and structured
episodically.  Consequently, L2 teaching
materials are more successful when they
incorporate principles of good story writing
along with sound linguistic analysis.

10.  The expectancy hypothesis

Discourse has a type of "cognitive momentum." 

The activation of correct expectancies will
enhance the processing of textual structures. 
Consequently, L2 learners must be guided to
develop the sort of native-speaker "intuitions"
that make discourse predictable.