CHAPTER FIVE

Bracing, Diagrid, 3D Space Frame,

and Mega Frame Structural
Systems in Tall Buildings
Abstract
In this chapter, several different structural systems for tall buildings are introduced,
which include the bracing system, moment fame system, diagrid system, three-
dimensional (3D) space frame, and the mega-frame systems. Three case studies
were also made: Guangzhou International Finance Centre (the tallest diagrid structure
in the world), HSBC Tower in Hong Kong (a typical mega frame structure), and the
Shanghai Tower (the tallest mega frame structure in the world).
Keywords: Bracing, Diagrid, Moment frame, Mega frame, 3D space frame

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Bracing systems are widely used in tall building designs. Primarily,
they provide lateral stability for tall buildings. They are also part of the major
structural units for diagrid and mega frame structures. Therefore, in this
chapter the bracing system is introduced first. It is followed by a three-
dimensional (3D) space structure, diagrid structure, and mega frame struc-
tures. In addition, an introduction to moment frame structures will
also made.

5.2 BRACING SYSTEMS

As shown in Fig. 5.1, bracing system is used widely as lateral stability
system in multistory buildings. For aesthetic purposes, braced frames are
usually positioned in the cavity of the walls and in the lift-shaft core area.
However, with the changing aesthetic views of people’s, the bracing is
exposed to the public in most of the newly built buildings. Bracing is also
one of the major structural systems for providing stiffness and strength to
resist lateral load. It is a highly efficient and economical method for resisting

Design and Analysis of Tall and Complex Structures © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. 137
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-101018-1.00005-8 All rights reserved.
138 Design and Analysis of Tall and Complex Structures

Fig. 5.1 An example of a multistory building using bracing as the lateral stability system.
(Photo taken by the author, at Stratford, London, U.K.)

lateral forces. This is because the diagonal members work primarily in axial
stress, resulting in minimum member sizes in the structural system.
There are two major categories of bracings: concentric bracing and
eccentric bracing. The differences between them are: the typical concentric
bracing can only take axial loading in the braces. Eccentric bracing comprises
both axial loading members and bending loading members (the horizontal
members). They are heavily used in earthquake zones due to the high
ductility they provide. The features of these two types of bracing system
are explained in the following sections.

5.2.1 Concentric Bracing

Concentric bracing is oriented in such a way that all members (beams,
columns, and bracing) meet at a common point. They provide the lateral
resistance mainly through the axial force in the braces. The two major
categories of concentric bracing are diagonal bracing and K-bracing. In
addition, there is another type of bracing which is called cross bracing
(X-bracing). As shown in Fig. 5.2, this is a construction site, where
Bracing, Diagrid, 3D Space Frame, and Mega Frame Structural Systems in Tall Buildings 139

Fig. 5.2 Examples of typical concentric bracings. (Photo taken by the author in
London, U.K.)

two concentric bracings can be identified, as cross bracing and diagonal

bracing. It can be seen that all these bracings meet at a common point.
The vertical cross bracing provides the lateral resistance to lateral load
from both X and Y directions, mainly through the axial force in the struc-
tural members. Therefore, the diagonal member of this type of bracing is
easy to design. It is also easy to assemble in the construction site. The
detailing of the connections (Fig. 5.3) is simple when compared with
eccentric bracing members.
One of the disadvantages of concentric bracing is that the behavior of
such bracing under cyclical loading is unreliable. In addition, efficient
energy dissipation is difficult to achieve in concentrically braced frames.
Therefore, they are rarely used in the seismic zones.

5.2.2 Eccentric Bracing

As shown in Fig. 5.4, different from concentric bracing, in eccentric bracing,
the braces are offset from the columns or they do not intersect at the floor
beams. Therefore, it results in an eccentrically connected bracing. Examples
of several typical eccentrically connected bracings are shown in Fig. 5.4.
It can be seen that different from concentric bracing, it comprises both
axial loading members and bending loading members (the horizontal
140 Design and Analysis of Tall and Complex Structures

Fig. 5.3 Typical connection details of concentric bracings.

e e e

(A) (B) (C) (D)

Fig. 5.4 Typical eccentric bracing.
Bracing, Diagrid, 3D Space Frame, and Mega Frame Structural Systems in Tall Buildings 141

members). Eccentric bracing can offer the same advantages as concentric

bracing, while also providing significant ductility capacity and greater flex-
ibility with architectural openings. Eccentric bracing is designed in a way
that they do not buckle under extreme loading conditions. The axial forces
induced in the braces are transmitted either to a column or to another brace
largely through shear and bending in a segment of the beam called a link.
The length of the link is notified by the letter e in Fig. 5.4. In designing this
type of bracing, the designer needs to ensure that under severe loading con-
ditions the major inelastic activity takes place in the link. Therefore, the links
can work as fuses to prevent buckling of the braces [1].
As discussed in Chapter 2, in earthquake design, energy dissipation is one
of the key design measures to resist earthquake loads. Eccentric bracing
exhibits more ductile characteristic and greater energy dissipation capabili-
ties than a concentrically braced frame of the same material. Therefore, this
type of bracing is heavily used in earthquake zones due to the high ductility
they provided through the link elements. However, concentrically braced
frames can be used in moderate seismic regions.
The critical element for eccentric bracing is the link and therefore it has
been subject to intensive research. Several cyclic tests have been performed
in University of California, Berkley, to study the hysteretic behavior of this
type of bracing systems. Fig. 5.4A and B shows the most common eccentric
bracing used in the seismic design. In designing an eccentric bracing, the
length of the link e as shown in Fig. 5.4A and B is critical. Fig. 5.4 shows
the typical connection details of eccentric bracings. In Ref. [2], the author
studied the behavior of a building with different e lengths. In Ref. [3] cyclic
tests on eccentric brace were conducted with four link lengths (e ¼ 400, 500,
600, and 700 mm). Their test results show that the stiffener spacing at the
connection is important for their performance. Response of short links
was governed by web shear. Bolt failure by shank rupture would have caused
a more brittle response of long links. It is also stated in Ref. [1] that
When

e=L > 0:5

where e is the length of the link and L is the length of the beam.
It is found that under this situation little benefit is gained from the bracing.
However, as the length of the link decreases, the elastic stiffness increases.
Fig. 5.5 is the typical connection details of eccentric bracings, which is
much more complicated than the connection details of concentric bracing.
142 Design and Analysis of Tall and Complex Structures

B.S.

Tube
Tube

Fig. 5.5 Typical connection details of eccentric bracings.

5.2.3 Project Examples

Fig. 5.6 shows Neo Bankside housing project design, a luxury apartment in
London. The structural engineering design is provided by my previous
employer Waterman Group Ltd. It is located on the south bank of the
Thames in London. The architect for this project is Rogers Stirk Harbor
+ Partners. It uses the exterior bracings in conjunction with a nondiagrid
primary structural system. This bracing system uses elliptical tube sections.
When designing this exterior bracing, the issues of corrosion protection,
differential thermal expansion, and connection back to the primary structure
was considered by the design team. It can be seen that these large exterior
bracings extend between three stories. This exterior bracing is easily
confused with the so-called diagrid system introduced in the latter section
of this chapter. The major difference is, this type of bracing system is only
designed to take the lateral load rather than any gravity load.
Fig. 5.7 is another example of a tall building using concentric cross
bracings as the major lateral stability system. Similar projects can be found
as in the Hancock Tower in Chicago.

5.3 3D SPACE TRUSS SYSTEM

It is widely known that the 3D space truss system is widely used for
long-span roof; this system has been further evolved by Leslie Robertson,
who further developed this system into tall buildings. One of the famous
examples is the Bank of China Tower Hong Kong.
Fig. 5.6 Typical concentric bracings of NEO Bankside Tower in central London, U.K.
(Photo taken by the author.)

Fig. 5.7 Typical concentric bracings of a tower near Liverpool Street, London, U.K.
(Photo taken by the author.)
144 Design and Analysis of Tall and Complex Structures

Fig. 5.8 HK Bank of China Tower (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:HK_Bank_

of_China_Tower_View.jpg, Free domain).

Fig. 5.8 shows the Bank of China Tower built in Hong Kong by the
famous Chinese-American architect I.M. Pei. The structural engineer is
Leslie Robertson. The height of the building is 315.0 m with two masts
reaching 367.4 m. This was the tallest building in Hong Kong and Asia
during 1990–92, and the first composite space frame high-rise building.
While its distinctive look makes it one of Hong Kong’s most controversial
landmarks today, it earned the nickname “One Knife” due to its peculiar
sharp shape.
It uses a 3D space truss system. The building is in composite steel and
reinforced concrete. It is the most unique work of the structural system.
Fig. 5.9 shows the typical floors along different heights of the building. It
is noticed that the building’s superstructure comprises four interlocking tri-
angular shafts, terminating at various heights. This is similar to the bundle
tube system used in Wills Tower discussed in Chapter 4. The only difference
is that one uses tube, whereas the other one uses triangular shafts. It is built of
composite metal tray and reinforced concrete floor system.
Bracing, Diagrid, 3D Space Frame, and Mega Frame Structural Systems in Tall Buildings 145

Fig. 5.9 Typical floors along different heights of the building.

The structural concept is also similar to the ‘mega fame’ structure system,
discussed in the latter part of this chapter. To a certain extent, it is also similar
to a diagrid structure, which is also dealt with in the latter part of this chapter.
However, as it is made up of a space truss, it acts to carry both vertical loads
and horizontal forces. The whole structure is supported by the four steel
columns at the corners of the building, with the triangular frameworks trans-
ferring the weight of the structure onto these four columns. It is covered
with glass curtain walls.
In Hong Kong, all buildings need to be designed against typhoon and
hence the structure is relatively light in resisting typhoon wind. As intro-
duced in Ref. [4] for this particular project, 127 permanent VSL rock
anchors were also installed to strengthen the building against extreme loads
including typhoon winds and earthquakes. Diaphragm walls were used in
the foundation. Caissons of 9-m diameter were used to support the four
main columns in the superstructure.

5.4 DIAGRID STRUCTURES

Among the different lateral stability of the tall buildings, diagrid struc-
ture is a unique structural system, which is increasingly popular in the design
of tall buildings from the past decades. The term “diagrid” is a combination
of words “diagonal” and “grid.” To a certain extent, a diagrid system is also
part of the bracing system, which originated from the conventional bracing
system. It consists of huge diagonal bracings sitting on the exterior of the
building, which is normally exposed to the public; therefore, it also becomes
one of the aesthetical components for architects to use.
It is originally explored by the Russian Engineer Vladimir Shukhov.
Norman Foster referred to his idea and applied in the Swiss Re Tower
(Fig. 5.10). This photo was taken by me when I first visited London in
2002. The reason I took this photo was that it was a new type of structure,
146 Design and Analysis of Tall and Complex Structures

Fig. 5.10 Swiss Re Tower, under Construction, London, U.K. (Photo taken by the author.)

which I have ever seen at that time. It shows the building was under
construction. It can be seen that there are large diagonal members sitting
on the façade.

5.4.1 Difference Between Exterior Braced Frame Structure

and Diagrid Structure
It is easy to get confused between the conventional exterior braced frame
structure and diagrid structure. Fig. 5.6 shows a typical exterior braced frame
structure. Fig. 5.10 shows the diagrid structure Swiss Re Tower under con-
struction. The major difference between them is that in a diagrid structure,
vertical columns can be eliminated. This is because in diagrid structures,
diagrid bracings can also take the gravity load in addition to the lateral load
due to their triangulated configuration. However, the diagonals in the
conventional bracing system could not take any gravity load.

5.4.2 Structural System of a Diagrid Structure

As most diagrid structures will still have core as partial lateral stability, the
diagrid structure is an extension of the tube-in-tube structure; however,
the outer tube is made by the diagrids. Normally, the diagonal members
in the diagrids extend through several storys, they are normally not sufficient
to achieve the stability alone without the help of the core in buildings taller
than 200 m, due to combined lateral and gravity loads. As buckling may
occur in the diagonal member, the horizontal ring beams are also used at
Bracing, Diagrid, 3D Space Frame, and Mega Frame Structural Systems in Tall Buildings 147

the perimeter of the floor edge. They can tie the diagonal members and
restrain them.

5.4.3 Diagrid Structure in the World

The first diagrid structure may be accredited to the IBM Building in
Pittsburgh, which is built in the 1960s. The other project examples
are Swiss Re London, the Hearst Tower in New York and the latest
built Guangzhou International Finance Centre, Poly International
Plaza.

5.4.3.1 Gherkin, Swiss Re, 30 St Mary Ax

The most famous project using diagrid structure is Swiss Re Tower, known
as 30 St Mary Ax or the Gherkin (Fig. 5.10). It was completed in 2003,
which is located in the heart of Central London with a height of 180 m.
It is designed by the architects at Foster + Partners. The structural designer
is Arup and the contractor is Skanska.
The building is built with a circular floor plan, which widens in
profile as it rises and then tapers toward the top, giving it the distinctive
‘gherkin’ shape. However, despite the building’s curved shape, the only
piece of curved glass is the cap at the very top. Except for the aesthetic
reason, this shape also minimized the effect of the wind to the building,
reducing the need to stiffen the structure, and resist wind loads. Due to
the diagonal braces at the perimeter, the building is free from columns.
There is an internal steel core in the center which is connected at the
perimeter diagrid system, to make a similar tube-in-tube-type lateral
resistance system.
The Gherkin is well recognized as a milestone for the diagrid structure, as
it perfectly satisfies both architectural and structural design requirements for
a tall building; therefore, it is considered an iconic building for diagrid
structures.

5.4.3.2 Hearst Tower

Hearst tower (Fig. 5.11) was completed in 2006, which is also designed by
Foster + Partners. It is situated in Manhattan New York. The structural
design was of my previous employer WSP Group. The contractor is Turner
Construction. It is 46 stories tall, standing 182 m with 80,000 m2 of office
space. The structural steel of the diagrid system was reportedly about 20%
less than a conventional steel frame. The whole diagrid system is sitting
148 Design and Analysis of Tall and Complex Structures

Fig. 5.11 Hearst Tower. (https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/

b1/Hearstowernyc.JPG/352px-Hearstowernyc.JPG, public domain.)

on 14 huge mega columns. There are also internal concrete cores inside the
bundling which are connected to the diagrid systems through the concrete
floor.

5.4.3.3 Guangzhou International Finance Centre

Guangzhou International Finance Centre (IFC) is a 103-story, 438.6-m-tall
building completed in 2010 in Guangzhou, Guangdong Province China
(Fig. 5.12). It is currently the tallest diagrid tower in the world. The
designers for this project is a consortium of local Chinese design firms
together with international design companies, such as Architect Wilkinson
Eyre and structural engineer Arup. In the center, it has an internal reinforced
concrete (RC) core (from the ground floor to the 69th floor) with an inte-
rior diagrid structure all over it. This diagrid structure consists on diagrid
members of steel tubes filled with concrete. In addition, the reinforced
Bracing, Diagrid, 3D Space Frame, and Mega Frame Structural Systems in Tall Buildings 149

Fig. 5.12 Guangzhou International Finance Centre. (This file is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license, free to use, https://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Guangzhou_International_Finance_Center.)

concrete (RC) core is connected to the diagrid through beams. In addition,

aerodynamic optimization of the shape of the building is made based on the
wind tunnel test, therefore, minimizing the effect from the wind.

5.4.3.4 CCTV Building

The CCTV headquarters is a 234-m tall 44-story skyscraper located in the
Beijing Central Business District (CBD). The tower serves as the headquar-
ters for China Central Television (CCTV). The headquarters was comp-
leted in May 2012. The architect of this project is the Office for
Metropolitan Architecture and the structural engineer is from Ove Arup &
Partners. As shown in Fig. 5.13, the structural system of this building is also
using the diagrid framing system. It is composed of two L-shaped towers.
150 Design and Analysis of Tall and Complex Structures

Fig. 5.13 Central China Television headquarters under construction. (This file is licensed
under the Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic license, https://commons.wikimedia.
org/wiki/File:CCTV_Beijing_April_2008.jpg.)

The two towers lean at 60-degree angle and kink at the right angles at the
top, which made a cantilever overhang start after 36 floors and is 13 floors
high. The length of the overhang is 75 m outwards. Due to this special
shape, the diagrid system becomes definitely one of the only possible
options, as it needs to tackle the large overhang, as well as the lateral stability
of the whole building. Since Beijing is located in the high seismic activity
zones, most of the buildings are required to resist eight magnitude
earthquakes.
It is worth noting that to accommodate the sophisticate diagrid connec-
tions, the CCTV tower is used as an innovative butterfly plate connections
to assist smooth load transfer [5]. This connection will be discussed further in
Section 5.4.4.

5.4.3.5 Poly International Plaza

The Poly International Plaza was built in Beijing (Fig. 5.14). It is designed by
the joint design consortium of SOM and by my previous employer, Beijing
Institute of Architectural Design (Group) Co., Ltd. (BIAD). I was a
Bracing, Diagrid, 3D Space Frame, and Mega Frame Structural Systems in Tall Buildings 151

Fig. 5.14 Poly International Plaza. (Photo taken by the author in Beijing, China.)

structural engineer at BIAD, when I was in China. Its structural system is also
a combination of internal concrete shear core with a perimeter diagrid. As
introduced in Ref. [6], the diagrid perimeter has four modules with an 18-m
span between the diagrid nodes, it is designed to resist gravity and lateral
loads axially, with only minor bending effects due to rigid welded nodal
connections. Every alternative floor is connected to the joints. The diagrid
members are using the concrete-filled steel tube (CFT) to resist high com-
pression loads. Due to the importance of the node, when designing the dia-
grid node, a special finite element modeling has been performed, as well as
the full-scale test of the typical node under cyclic loading. The nodes are
loaded monotonically until failure occurred (Fig. 5.14).

5.4.4 Structural Design Consideration of a Diagrid Structure

In this section, the structural feature and the design consideration of the dia-
grid structure will be discussed.

5.4.4.1 Structural Features

Diagrids use diagonal bracing members to resist both compression and ten-
sion. Therefore, an isotropic material such as steel was used by most diagrids.
As shown in Fig. 5.15, conventionally, the external diagonal bracings
are working together with interior core which provides extra stiffness; there-
fore, the whole structure can achieve greater heights. Such systems retain
greater structural effectiveness in comparison with the traditional diagonal
bracing located within the cavity of central cores or in the façade. The tri-
angular geometry of diagrid structures can effectively prevent structural
152 Design and Analysis of Tall and Complex Structures

Fig. 5.15 A diagrid structure under construction in Beijing, China. (Photo taken by the
author.)

failure as a result of both lateral and gravity loads. Due to this unique feature,
when compared with conventional bracing, it considerably minimizes the
use of columns especially less requirement of corner columns.
It can be seen that the lateral stability of diagrid structures is similar to the
conventional framed tube structure introduced in Chapter 4; however, it is
more efficient, as it can resist shear distortion through the axial action
of diagonal members. In addition, less rigid core can be used in diagrid
structures as the shear forces resulting from the wind or earthquake can
be partially carried by the large diagonal members located on the perimeter.
It helps to reduce the number of columns, especially the corner columns,
thereby, allowing flexibility in the floor plan.
Diagrid systems can replace the conventional outrigger system in the
design of tall buildings. This is because the most efficient way to resist
lateral loads is to provide the resisting elements with maximum stiffness
at the building exterior. Thereby eliminating the need for other systems
such as outriggers. The stiff lateral and gravity load resisting diagonal
Bracing, Diagrid, 3D Space Frame, and Mega Frame Structural Systems in Tall Buildings 153

members help to increase the lateral and torsional stiffness of the tower.
The study from Rupa Garai [6] shows that the exterior frame takes sig-
nificant proportion of the overturning moment on the structure, thereby,
reducing the amount of the core wall.
The main advantages of using diagrid structures can be summarized as
follows:
• The combination of gravity and lateral stability system provide efficiency
in the design, therefore, reducing the steel usage.
• Triangulated configuration enhances the stability, through maximum
resistance against torsion and overturning moment. Therefore, reduce
the size of the core.
• Reducing the weight of the structure, therefore saving the cost of the
foundation.
• Structures are more robust due to the redundancy of the diagonal mem-
bers, as it can easily transfer the load from the failed portion to other parts
of the structure.
• The reduction on the requirement of the columns results a more flexible
design of space for the client.
The disadvantages of the diagrid structure are the following:
• As all the diagonal members intersect into nodes, the design of the nodes
becomes especially essential for this type of structures.
• Due to its triangular shape, the design of the façade becomes challenging.
• The member of the diagrid should be designed to not buckle in the rare
wind and seismic events, therefore, they are designed to perform elastically
rather than plastically; as a result, it has less energy dissipation capacities.
• For buildings over 70 stories this system becomes uneconomical, mainly
due to its complicated joints and complications that occur during
construction increases the overall cost

5.4.4.2 Diagonal Member Design

As it has been explained, the member of the diagrid should be designed to not
buckle in the rare wind events, in most of the projects, such as the Poly Inter-
national Plaza Tower and The Guangzhou International Financial Center the
concrete filled diagonal members are used due to their better resistance to
buckling. In addition to this, they are also excellent in fire resistance.

5.4.4.3 Node Design

In diagrid structures, the nodes (also called joints) connecting the structural
members of the diagrid is the critical components in a diagrid system. As each
154 Design and Analysis of Tall and Complex Structures

node at least needs to accommodate four incoming large diagonal members,

as well as the horizontal beams, a clear distribution of the load needs to be
provided by the nodes to enable them to accommodate these huge horizon-
tal and diagonal forces, sometimes also vertical forces. Therefore, some
special modification or adaption may be necessary. If the concrete-filled tube
is used, the nodes also need to be designed as hollow and allow for a full fill
when the concrete is pumped [7]. There are primarily two types of nodes:
welding nodes and bolted nodes. Therefore, the sufficient weld design and
bolt design are also required.
On the basis of the above considerations, in almost all the diagrid struc-
ture projects such as Gherkin and Poly International Plaza, the nodes are all
designed based on the full-scale testing as well as the finite element model-
ing, to make sure that the nodes can perform effectively under different
loading conditions.
As an example, in the CCTV building, the designer Arup use staggered
splices in some joints to reduce concentration of weld stress [5]. They fab-
ricated the so-called butterfly joint. It is a light and flexible connection,
which allows the member to move. This minimized disruption to the stress
in the column, the braces and edge beam was connected with the flanges of
the steel column; with large butterfly plates no connection is made to the
web of the column to simplify the details and concrete construction around
the steel section (Fig. 5.16).

Fig. 5.16 Nodes using butterfly plates in the CCTV building [5].
Bracing, Diagrid, 3D Space Frame, and Mega Frame Structural Systems in Tall Buildings 155

5.4.4.4 Optimal Angle of Diagonal Members for Maximum Shear

Rigidity
The angle of the diagonal member is an importance design consideration, as
it will determine the stiffness of the structure and the usage of the material.
The optimal angle is 69 degrees as recommended by Moon [8]. However, it
depends on the requirement from the client and the architect. As shown in
Ref. [9], when designing the Poly International Plaza, the architect wanted
to design the exterior facade of the building resembling a Chinese paper
lantern (as shown in Fig. 5.14), and therefore, the angle is very shallow.
Federal Emergency Management Agency [10] provided the way for
optimization of the angle of the diagonal members in the diagrid structure
to maximize shear rigidity (Fig. 5.17).
Considering only shear rigidity, the optimal angle for diagonal members
can be estimated using.
V ¼ 2Fd cosθ
where V is the cross-sectional shear force shown in Fig. 5.17; Fd is the diag-
onal member forces by assuming that the members carry only axial forces.

Fd ¼ Ad σ d ¼ Ad Ed εd

M
V

Fc Fd Fd Fc

u
Δh +b
Δv
Δb
h

q q

B B

Fig. 5.17 Diagrid angle optimization [9].

156 Design and Analysis of Tall and Complex Structures

where εd is the axial strain.

ed Δh cos θ Δh cos θ sinθ

εd ¼ ¼ ¼
Ld h= sinθ h

If the shear strain is approximately as follows:

Δh
γ
h
γ sin 2θ
εd ¼ γ cosθ sin θ 
2
So the shear force.
V ¼ γAd Ed sin2θ cos θ
So by plotting the sin2θ cos θ, one can calculate the optimal angle for
maximum shear rigidity of the system.

5.4.4.5 Design of the Internal Core in Diagrid Buildings

The use of the diagrid system can diminish the dependency on the core to
provide the overall lateral stiffness of the buildings. However, it is rare to
purely rely on the perimeter tube to resist all the lateral loads. It is common
to share the loads with a reinforced core or a steel core. In particular, if a
building is located in a seismic zone, a core is essential for stability in the seis-
mic design. Most of seismic codes have the design requirement which relies
on the core to resist the seismic load. The perimeter diagrid structure that is
assuming all of the lateral loadings is functioning as a bearing wall-type system
and is therefore not addressed in the current seismic codes and practices.

5.4.5 Case study of Guangzhou International Finance Centre

As discussed in the previous section, the building has 103 floors with 432 m
of height. In the center, it has a reinforced concrete core (from the ground
floor to the 69th floor, as shown in Fig. 5.21), a transition area (from floors
69 to 72), and then steel columns (from floor 72 to the roof ). These columns
create a hole in the center (as shown in Fig. 5.22). The whole project was
designed based on the Chinese code.
As shown in Fig. 5.18, the diagrid structure consists of diagonal mem-
bers of steel tubes filled with concrete. In addition, as in Fig. 5.21, the
reinforced concrete core is connected to the diagrid by tie beams. At
the perimeter of the slab, there are also ring beams. These beams not
only connect the RC core with the diagrid, but also support the slabs.
Bracing, Diagrid, 3D Space Frame, and Mega Frame Structural Systems in Tall Buildings 157

Fig. 5.18 Guangzhou International Finance Centre under construction. (This file is lice-
nsed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International, 3.0 Unported,
2.5 Generic, 2.0 Generic and 1.0 Generic license. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/thumb/1/18/IFC_Guangzhou.jpg/682px-IFC_Guangzhou.jpg.)

The unbalanced force between the core and the diagrid can be resisted by
the ring beam and the tie beams. The roof of the center of the building is
made of steel.
In addition, the overall exterior shape of the building has been aerody-
namically optimized to minimize the wind effect.

5.4.5.1 3D ETABS Model

The building is a model in the ETABS as shown in Fig. 5.19. The model is
set up based on the literatures and drawings found on the web. Due to the
limited access to real design documents, the dimensions were estimated
based on the available documents and pictures found online. It cannot rep-
resent 100% the original design; however, it is accurate enough for a case
study purpose.
158 Design and Analysis of Tall and Complex Structures

Fig. 5.19 Model of the Guangdong Tower in ETABS. (ETABS screenshot reprinted with
permission of Computer and Structures.)

Fig. 5.20 shows the lateral stability system of the building, which is core +
diagrid. Figs. 5.21 and 5.22 show the typical plan layout of the building.

5.4.5.2 Modeling Result

Fig. 5.23 shows the axial force distribution of the diagrid under wind load-
ing case. It can be seen that the structural members in the diagrid are in
compression in the leeward side, but in tension in the windward side,
which effectively resist the wind-induced overturning moment and
shear force.
Fig. 5.24 shows the axial force distribution of the diagrid under dead
load. It can be seen that the structural members in the diagrid are primarily
in compression due to gravity load, this is different from the normal bracing
system introduced in Section 5.2, which are primarily taking the lateral load
rather than gravity load. As explained in the previous sections, this is one of
Bracing, Diagrid, 3D Space Frame, and Mega Frame Structural Systems in Tall Buildings 159

Fig. 5.20 Diagrid and core wall for the Guangdong Tower in ETABS. (ETABS screenshot
reprinted with permission of Computer and Structures.)
160 Design and Analysis of Tall and Complex Structures

Fig. 5.21 Structural plan of grand floor of the Guad Dong Tower in ETABS. (ETABS screen-
shot reprinted with permission of Computer and Structures.)

Fig. 5.22 Structural plan of level 100 of the Guangdong Tower in ETABS. (ETABS screen-
shot reprinted with permission of Computer and Structures.)

Fig. 5.23 Axial force distribution under wind loading in a diagrid. (ETABS screenshot
reprinted with permission of Computer and Structures.)
Bracing, Diagrid, 3D Space Frame, and Mega Frame Structural Systems in Tall Buildings 161

Fig. 5.24 Axial force distribution under dead load in a diagrid. (ETABS screenshot
reprinted with permission of Computer and Structures.)

the great advantages of the diagrid system over the conventional bracing
systems.
Figs. 5.25 and 5.26 show shear and axial force distributions of the core
under wind load condition. It can be seen that the core wall is in compres-
sion in the leeward side but in tension in the windward side.

Fig. 5.25 Shear force distribution under wind loading. (ETABS screenshot reprinted with
permission of Computer and Structures.)
162 Design and Analysis of Tall and Complex Structures

Fig. 5.26 Axial force distribution under wind loading. (ETABS screenshot reprinted with
permission of Computer and Structures.)

5.5 MOMENT RESISTING FRAMES

The moment resisting frame (MRF) system using the moment-
connected frame as the major lateral stability system provides lateral resis-
tance. It is also called a rigid frame. MRF can be of steel or concrete
frames. Both the columns and beams must be designed to give strong
resistance to bending. The beam-to-column connections are also needed
to be detailed specially to accommodate the bending moment caused by
the lateral load.
The disadvantage of the MRF system is that the rigid frame requires
expensive detailing when assembling the connections. In addition, lateral
drift due to the P-Delta effect is hard to control, which will increase the sway
of the building, it will also produce additional bending of the beams and
columns. Therefore, it is not used as a sole lateral resistance structure in tall
buildings. In practice, this system has been frequently used together with
core wall or bracing as a combined lateral resisting system in most tall buil-
dings as shown in Figs. 5.27 and 5.28. This coupled system is called the shear
Bracing, Diagrid, 3D Space Frame, and Mega Frame Structural Systems in Tall Buildings 163

Moment frame

Shear wall

Fig. 5.27 Coupled shear wall and moment frame.

Moment frame

Bracing

Fig. 5.28 Coupled bracing and moment frame.

frame interaction system [11]. Each system controls the lateral stability of
the building at different locations which provide exceptional lateral rigidity
for tall structures. A famous project example is One World Trade Center in
New York. It comprises a high-strength concrete core surrounded by a
perimeter steel moment frame which is introduced in Chapter 4.
164 Design and Analysis of Tall and Complex Structures

There are two primary types of moment frames, ordinary and special.
The special MRFs are detailed to ensure ductile behavior of the beam-to-
column joints and are normally used in zones of higher seismicity. It
should be detailed to make sure that the ductility of the connections
allows for sufficient resistance of excessive movement and swaying of
the structure.
It is worth noting that the steel moment-frame buildings damaged in the
1994 Northridge earthquake are a special type, known as welded steel
moment frames (WSMF). This is because the beams and columns in these
structures are connected with welded joints. Generally, WSMF buildings
constructed in the period 1964–94 should be considered vulnerable to this
damage [10].

5.6 MEGA FRAME STRUCTURES (SUPERFRAME

STRUCTURES)
5.6.1 Introduction
Mega frame structure (also known as superframe structure) is an ideal struc-
tural system for supertall buildings, as it can provide efficient rigidity against
the lateral loads with minimum amount of structural materials [11]. It con-
sists of mega columns and mega girders. They are rigid connected together at
approximately every 10–25 stories to build large moment-resisting frames,
which are primary lateral resisting structural systems for this type of structure.
This large frame also supports the secondary structures (or substructures).
Therefore, this kind of structure consists of large number of members.
One of the famous examples is the Shanghai Tower shown in Fig. 5.34.
The other famous example is the HSBC headquarters in Hong Kong.

5.6.2 Case Study of the HSBC Headquarters in Hong Kong

As shown in Fig. 5.29 HK HSBC main building, the major structural system
of this building composed of eight structural steel masts carry all the struc-
tural loads, which allows the column-free floor area on each floor. Floor
slabs are suspended by pairs of trusses located at five different stories. The
trusses are supported by the structural steel masts, which transfer all vertical
forces to the foundation. It can be seen that one of the advantage of the mega
frame structure lies in that it maximizes the flexibility to adapt to different
spatial arrangements [12].
Bracing, Diagrid, 3D Space Frame, and Mega Frame Structural Systems in Tall Buildings 165

Fig. 5.29 HK HSBC Main Building. (This file is licensed under CC-BY 3.0, produced be
Wikipedia user -Wpcpey, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:HK_HSBC_Main_Build
ing_2008.jpg).

5.6.3 Case study of China Zun Tower (A Mega Frame Structure)

5.6.3.1 Introduction
As shown in Fig. 5.30, China Zun is a supertall skyscraper under construc-
tion in the Central Business District of Beijing, Capital of China. It has 108
stories with a height of 528 m, a gross floor area of 350,000m2. The struc-
tural engineer is a design consortium consists of my previous employer
Beijing Institute of Architectural Design (Group) Co., Ltd. and Arup.
The shape of the building resembles the ancient Chinese wine vessel. It is
currently the tallest building in the location, where the seismic fortification
intensity is 8 magnitudes.
166 Design and Analysis of Tall and Complex Structures

Fig. 5.30 China Zun Tower under construction. (Photo taken by the author’s father in
Beijing, China.)

As introduced by [13], the geometry of the mega frame system was built
in Rhinoceros shape, which is dealt with in Chapter 6. Parametric modeling
design was performed using Grasshopper.

5.6.3.2 The Structural System

Beijing has the highest seismic fortification requirement of China’s major
cities (PGA ¼ 0.20 g for a 475-year return period). The structural system
of a tall building with such a height must find a proper balance between
stiffness and ductility. Beijing is in a location where magnitude 8 seismic
fortification intensity is required by the Chinese code [14]; therefore, as
introduced by [15] for this particular tall building, the design consortium
introduced a highly efficient dual system for lateral force resistance.
As shown in Fig. 5.32, it is composed of a fully braced mega frame and a
concrete core. Composite steel-concrete floor system is used for the
floor system.
Bracing, Diagrid, 3D Space Frame, and Mega Frame Structural Systems in Tall Buildings 167

Fig. 5.31 Mega column, belt truss and core of China Zun Tower. (Photo taken by the
author’s father in Beijing, China.)

As shown in Fig. 5.33, the mega columns are concrete-filled steel boxes.
There are two mega columns at each corner, which merged into four huge
concrete columns, as shown in Figs. 5.31 and 5.32. It can also be seen that
the mega columns are connected through horizontal transfer truss as well as
huge braces, which extends to 10 stories (Figs. 5.30 and 5.31).
The Chinese code [14] requires that there be no shear failure during a
maximum credible earthquake event. Especially, as the shape of the
building resembles a Zun cup, the enlarged top zone encompasses extra
mass at the top of the tower. This will have adverse effects when the
building is subject to earthquake loading, which may generate extra
shear to the neck zone, so special measure need to be made. To tackle
this problem, as introduced by [13], steel plates with a thickness of
30–60 mm are embedded in the core at the low or top floors for further
strengthening of the core, which greatly enhances the shear resistance of
the core. The wall thickness is also reduced, because of the addition of
steel plates.
168 Design and Analysis of Tall and Complex Structures

Fig. 5.32 Structural system of China Zun Tower (the drawing is made based on the FE
model in Ref. [13]).
Bracing, Diagrid, 3D Space Frame, and Mega Frame Structural Systems in Tall Buildings 169

Fig. 5.33 Structural plan layout of China Zun Tower (the drawing is made based on the
architectural drawing of KPF/BIAD) [13].

5.6.4 Case Study of Shanghai Tower—Mega Frame Structure

The 632-m tall Shanghai Tower is the tallest building in China and the
world’s third tallest structure. The building has 128 stories with five under-
ground floors. The total floor area is 380,000 m2. The tower is design by
American architectural firm Gensler. The structural engineer for this tower
is Thornton Tomasetti. The Shanghai Tower also use tuned mass damper to
limit swaying at the top of the structure, it was the world’s largest at the time
of its installation (Fig. 5.34).

5.6.4.1 The Structural System of the Shanghai Tower

As shown in Fig. 5.35, the major structural system of this building is the
internal concrete core wall and outer mega frame system. Outside the main
structural system, there is another secondary cladding system to support the
curtain wall, which is directly connected to the mega frame. Shanghai
Tower has the tallest mega frame structure in the world and the largest
170 Design and Analysis of Tall and Complex Structures

Fig. 5.34 Shanghai Tower. (With the permission of “Baycrest”-Wikipedia user-CC-BY-

SA-2.5.)

and highest flexible curtain wall in the world. Strictly speaking, Shanghai
Tower and China Zun are not pure mega frame structures, as they have mas-
sive core wall works as part of the lateral stability system. This is different
from the HSBC headquarters in Hong Kong, which solely relies on the
mega frame to resist both lateral load and gravity load.
As shown in Fig. 5.36, to enable the case study, a 3D model of Shanghai
Tower was built in ETABS; it is based on images and drawings from the
internet including paper [15]. Due to the limited access of the designed files,
the model does not 100% represent the real design; however, it is accurate
enough for a case study purpose.
As shown in Fig. 5.36, the building is divided into nine separate zones
along its height, which are separated by eight zones strengthening the floors.
Each zone is about 80-m high. The core of the structure is approximately
Bracing, Diagrid, 3D Space Frame, and Mega Frame Structural Systems in Tall Buildings 171

Fig. 5.35 Shanghai Tower under construction. (This file is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license. https://commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:Baustelle_des_Shanghai_Towers_am_01.09.2012.JPG.)

30 m2. The mega frame is made up of supercolumns and diagonal columns

along with double belt truss at each zone.
As shown in Fig. 5.37 there are eight supercolumns along with four
corner columns with two-story high-belt truss to connect these columns.
The supercolumns are composite structures made up of steel sections
encased in concrete.
As shown in Fig. 5.37, the internal core and outer mega fame are also
connected by outriggers at six levels (at zones 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8).
As shown in Fig. 5.38, the floors are designed as composite metal deck
slabs. They are supported on the steel beams supported in between the inter-
nal core and ring beams, which are supported on the mega columns. The
inner layer of the glass curtain wall is attached along the periphery of the
floor slabs; the outer layer of the glass curtain wall is attached to the radial
trusses.
172 Design and Analysis of Tall and Complex Structures

Fig. 5.36 3D model of Shanghai Tower in ETABS. (ETABS screenshot reprinted with per-
mission of Computer and Structures.)

Fig. 5.37 Outrigger, central core, and mega frame at zone 2 level. (ETABS screenshot
reprinted with permission of Computer and Structures.)

5.6.4.2 Model Setup Methods

In this section, the way to set up this complicated model will be briefly dealt
with. The model is first built using the Revit structure provided by Auto-
desk. The model is set up based on the structural drawings obtained
Bracing, Diagrid, 3D Space Frame, and Mega Frame Structural Systems in Tall Buildings 173

Fig. 5.38 Typical floor plan of the Shanghai Tower, zones 1–4.

Fig. 5.39 Ground floor layout of the 3D Revit Model.

(Figs. 5.39 and 5.40). After the 3D model is set up (Fig. 5.41), the model can
be imported into ETABS, for further analysis. Using Revit, one can directly
define the member sizes. This is an advantage over AutoCAD or Rhino, as
these two draughting programs can only define the polylines, the user has to
define the member size in the analysis software.
174 Design and Analysis of Tall and Complex Structures

Fig. 5.40 Level 25 plan layout of the 3D Revit Model.

Fig. 5.41 3D Revit Model of the Shanghai Tower.

5.7 CONCLUSION
In this chapter, several different structural systems for tall buildings are
introduced, which include the bracing system, moment frame system, dia-
grid system, 3D space frame, and mega frame systems. It can be seen that
with the increase in structural height, the diagrid structure and the mega
Bracing, Diagrid, 3D Space Frame, and Mega Frame Structural Systems in Tall Buildings 175

frame structure are the most effective structural systems. Although a pure
diagrid or mega frame structure does not necessarily require the assistance
of the core to resist lateral loads (the project example can be the HSBC head-
quarters in Hong Kong, which is a pure mega frame structure), for supertall
buildings, both of them need to work together with the internal concrete
core to guarantee sufficient lateral resistance. It can also be seen that the core
and the diagrid or mega frame are normally connected through beams rather
than purely relying on the floor diaphragm, making it a better coupling
between the internal and external lateral systems. Similar design principles
can be found for the outrigger system discussed in Chapter 3. The dual
system composed of the core and mega frame or the diagrid frame is also
beneficial for gravity load resistance, as the internal and external systems
share the gravity loads that come from the floor, which gives the support
to the floor system.

REFERENCES
[1] E.P. Popov, K. Kasai, M.D. Engelhardt, Advances in design of eccentrically braced
frames, Presented at the Pacific Structural Steel Conference, Auckland, 1986.
[2] E. M. Hines, Eccentric Braced Frame Design for Moderate Seismic Regions.
[3] A. Stratan, D. Dubina, Bolted Links for Eccentrically Braced Steel Frames.
[4] Bank of China Tower, Hong Kong—China, http://www.vsl.com/.
[5] Exploring Exoskeleton in endoskeleton structure: CCTV Beijing as case study (TE2.3,
TE 2.5, CC3.4, C4 4.2), http://kweehow.blogspot.co.uk/2014/05/explored-natural-
structure-into-living.html.
[6] R. Garai, M. Sarkisian, N. Mathias, Three-dimensional exterior bracing system for tall
buildings, Conference Proceeding, Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat, 2015.
[7] T.M. Boake, The emergence of the diagrid—it is all about the node, Int. J. High-rise
Build. 5 (4) (2016) 293–304.
[8] K.S. Moon, Optimal grid geometry of diagrid structures for tall buildings, Arch. Sci.
Rev. 51 (3) (2008) 239–251.
[9] BIAD, Interview With BIAD Design Team, 2013.
[10] A Policy Guide to Steel Moment-Frame Construction, Federal Emergency Manage-
ment Agency FEMA 354, 2000.
[11] M.Q. Feng, A. Mita, Vibration control of tall buildings using mega subconfiguration,
J. Eng. Mech. 121 (10) (1995) 1082–1088.
[12] Design and Applied Technology Teaching Kit for Senior Secondary Curriculum, Visit:
Central Structure of Skyscrapers. The HongKong Institute of Architects and The
University of HongKong.
[13] CTBUH Journal, International Journal on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat, 2014,
Issue III, Case study:China Zun Tower, Beijing, A Finely-Craft Vessel in the New
CBD Core.
[14] Code for seismic design of buildings, GB 50011-2010, Ministry if Housing and
Urban-Rural Development of the People’s Republic of China, 2010.
[15] Shanghai Tower: A Case Study How Designers Meet the Challenges, www.
structureandtalents.com.