ASSIGNMENT

SUBMITTED TO: Ma’am QUDSIA

SUBMITTED BY: NIMRA MUSHTAQUE (BEF2000068)

MUNEEZA JAMIL (BEF2000076)

What is data?

Data is a collection of facts, such as numbers, words, measurements,

observations or just descriptions of things.

Data can be qualitative or quantitative.

 Qualitative data is descriptive information

(it describes something)
 Quantitative data is numerical information (numbers)

Source of data:

Data can be obtained from two major sources;

 Primary data:

Represents the information gathered by the researcher through the use

of questionnaire or personal interview or observation method.

 Secondary data:

The researcher collects information that has already been obtained and
processed by government departments or various agencies before it is
made available for other interested users. These are published and
unpublished sources e.g. journals, textbooks, newspapers, magazines,
fliers, annual reports, bulletins, periodicals etc. As a result, the kind of
data to be collected, the method of collection to be used, and the scoring
of the data must be considered when undertaken any research activity.

Researchers can collect the following types of data from respondents:

Demographic information or data e.g. age, sex, gender, educational
background, ethnicity, religion, etc. Test scores Events Responses to
researcher’s questions in an interview or written replies to a survey
question Grade point averages obtainable from school records Essay
written by students e.g. projects, theses and dissertations. Anecdotal
records kept by teachers or counselors or researchers. In fact, the list of
data to be collected is not limited to the one listed above. For this reason,
it is important for every researcher to decide on what kind(s) of data he
intends to collect and by what method to collect it.

Instrumentation:

Instrumentation refers to the tools or means by which investigators

attempt to measure variables or items of interest in the data-collection
process.

What is a Research Instrument?

A Research Instrument is a tool used to collect, measure, and analyze

data related to your research interests. These tools are most commonly
used in health sciences, social sciences, and education to assess patients,
clients, students, teachers, staff, etc.

There are different types of measurement instruments that can be used

by researchers for their studies; it depends on the nature of research that
is to be carried out. In this write up, we shall discuss various
measurement instruments that can be used alongside with studies that
are suitable for them. However, the collection of data is an important part
of any research activity. This is because; the conclusions of the study are
based on what the data reveals. Hence, no researcher is greater than his
data.

Characteristics of a Good Research Instrument:

● must gather data suitable for and relevant to the research topic.
● Able to test hypothesis and/or answer proposed research questions
under investigation.
● Free of bias and appropriate for the context, culture, and diversity of the
study site.
● contains clear and definite instructions to use the instrument.
Types of Research Instruments:

1. Interview
Interviews or the interaction where verbal questions are posed by an
interviewer to elicit verbal responses from an interviewee.
 Structured Interview: A formal set of questions posed to each
interest and wording of questions.
 Non-Directive Interview: An unguided interview, including open-
ended questions and use of spontaneous engagement.
 Viewed and recorded using a standardized procedure.
 Unstructured Interview: A less formal set of questions; the
interviewer modifies the sequence
 Focus Interview: An emphasis on the interviewee’s subjective
and personal responses where the interviewer engages to elicit
more information.
 Focus Group Interview: A group of selected participants are
asked about their opinion or perceptions concerning a particular
topic. Interviews or the interaction where verbal questions are
posed by an interviewer to elicit verbal responses from an
interviewee.

Interviews are a tool mainly for the collection of qualitative data and are p
opular as a data-collection tool because of their flexibility.

When planning and considering an interview, the following factors are take
n into consideration:

 Completeness

 Tact

 Precision

 Accuracy

 Confidentiality
Interviews require specialised skills from the interviewer, who will need to
negotiate a good partnership with the respondent to ensure a highly detail
ed and valid set of qualitative data is collected and transcribed effectively.
There are different types of interview:

 Individual, face-to-face verbal interchange

 Face-to-face group interviews (focus groups)

 Telephone surveys

Interviews can be:

 Conducted as a one-time occurrence

 Conducted as multiple, longer sessions

 Structured, semi-structured, unstructured

2. Observation

Observation is a systematic data-collecting technique that involves watchi

ng individuals in their natural environment or in a naturally occurring situa
tion.
The processes under observation are normal and not contrived. They can r
ange from individual cases, through to groups and whole communities. Th
ey provide highly detailed information about natural processes. The data c
ollection is laborious and time-consuming and may have to be repeated to
ensure reliability. However, observation schedules based on a set of expec
tations can make data collection easier.
The level of observer participation can vary from wholly participant to no
n-participant. The non-participant observer has limited interaction with th
e people being observed.
Observers can collect data through field notes, video or audio recording, w
hich can be analysed using qualitative analytical tools. If you code your ob
servations to exact numerical data, it can be analysed using a quantitative
approach.
One of the main benefits of using a wholly or partial participant observatio
n is that the level of immersion and prolonged involvement with participan
ts can lead to a good rapport, thereby encouraging participants to speak u
p freely. This helps with the rich details of the collected data.

Observation (watching what people do) is a type of correlational (non-

experimental) method where researchers observe ongoing behavior.

 Structured Observations:
 Research conducted at a specific place, time, where participants are
observed in a standardized procedure. Rather than writing a
detailed description of all behaviors observed, researchers code
observed behaviors according to a previously agreed upon scale.
 Naturalistic Observation:
 The study the spontaneous behavior of participants in natural
surroundings. The researcher simply records what they see in
whatever way they see it.
 Participant Observation:
A variation on natural observations where the researcher joins in and
becomes part of the group they are studying to get a deeper insight into
their lives.

This is an instrument that is employed by a researcher in which an

individual behavior or situation is observed and recorded. There are two
types of observation: participant observation and non-participant
observation. In participant observation, the researcher is a member of the
group to be observed. Here, accurate and timely result would be obtained
by the researcher but it has the problem of biasness. Non-participant
observation on the other hand, the researcher is not a member of the
group to be observed. Here, the result will be viable as it is free from
being biased but it has the problem of inaccuracy and delayed result. Both
observation methods enhance firsthand information, flexible and cheaper
to carryout, demand less active cooperation of the observed and their
results are reliable for research activity. However, Akinade & Owolabi
(2009) assert that observation method is popular tool in research
especially in behavioral and social sciences; the authors argue that it
requires special skills to make and assess behavioral observation in
research. In carrying out behavioral observation, first thing to do is to
develop behavioral categories (coding scheme). This involves identifying
specific attributes that will give clues to the problem at hand. The authors
further reiterated that researchers may observe the following guidelines
when developing observation method: “Clearly define the goal of the
instrument; Carry out preliminary observations of your subjects under the
conditions that will prevail in the course of the study with the aim of
identifying behaviors exhibited by the subjects; and Construct a complete
list of the identified behavior. Also, behavioral categories can also be
developed through literature search. These will provide opportunity to
determine whether a similar study had previously been conducted. The
result of such similar study may be adopted or adapted in the present
study” (Akinade & Owolabi, 2009:97). This data collection instrument
refers to a process whereby researchers obtain data from large group of
people at the same time.

3. Questionnaire:
The questionnaire consists of a set of structured and unstructured
questions designed by researchers to obtain data from the respondents.
No research is better than its questionnaire and a faulty questionnaire
means faulty research. Hence, a questionnaire designed must be valid,
reliable and must not be bogus so that the data collected can validate the
research. Questionnaire has many advantages which include anonymity of
the respondents is guaranteed; it facilitates the collection of large
amounts of data in a relatively short period and it is cheap to administer.
The major demerit of the method is that some confusing and misleading
questions cannot be clarified as the researcher may not be there to
explain the questions, and also, sometimes, the questions may not be
easily comprehensible to individuals who are illiterate, thus, the method is
restricted only to educated respondents. Moreover, the characteristics of a
good questionnaire according to Popoola (2011) consist of: Questions
should not be ambiguous. This implies that it must be capable of only one
interpretation. Questions must be easily understood. Questions should be
capable of having a precise answer. Questions must not contain words of
vague meaning. Questions should not require rigorous calculations.
Questions should not require the respondent to decide upon classification.
Questions must not be in such a form that the answers will be biased. The
questionnaire should not be too long. It should not be too wordy. The
questionnaire should cover the exact object of the inquiry.

4. Test:

A test can be considered an observation or experiment that determines

one or more characteristics of a given sample, product, process, or
service. The purpose of testing involves a prior determination of expected
observation and a comparison of that expectation to what one actually
observes.

 Achievement test
An achievement test is a test of developed skill or knowledge. The most
common type of achievement test is a standardized test developed to
measure skills and knowledge learned in a given grade level, usually
through planned instruction, such as training or classroom instruction.
Achievement test measures present proficiency, mastery and
understanding of general and specific areas of knowledge. Achievement
tests attempt to measure what and how individual has learnt, viz. his
present standard of performance. Scores of achievement test indicate the
academic status of the individual learner in different subjects as a whole
or individually.

Achievement test example

Standardized tests, administered to groups of students, intended to
measure how well they have learned information in various academic
subjects. Spelling tests, timed arithmetic tests, and map quizzes are
all examples of achievement tests.

 Aptitude test
An aptitude test is an exam used to determine an individual's skill or
propensity to succeed in a given activity. Aptitude tests assume that
individuals have inherent strengths and weaknesses, and have a natural
inclination toward success or failure in specific areas based on their innate
characteristics

Some examples of aptitudes include the following: * Verbal or non-

verbal communications - written or spoken words or actions that
communicate ideas, emotions, or information. Giving a speech in class,
writing a letter, acting in a school play, and hugging a friend are all
methods of communication.

 Performance Testing 

Performance testing is a testing measure that evaluates the speed,

responsiveness and stability of a computer, network, software program or
device under a workload. ... As an example, an organization can measure
the response time of a program when a user requests an action; the same
can be done at scale.

MCQS

Instruments used to measuring sample of behavior is

 Test
 Measurement
 Assessment
 Evaluation
A sum of questions is
 Measurement
 Test
 Questionnaire
 Observation
Test involving the construction of certain patterns are called
 Intelligence test
 Performance test
 Aptitude test
 Achievement test
An advantage of open ended questions are
 They can also be used in topic guides
 Coding is a challenge
 Respondents can express themselves freely
 Potential is high for interviewer bias

A researcher is interested in studying the prospects of a particular

political party in an urban area. So, what tool should he prefer for the
study?

 Rating Scale
 Interview
 Questionnaire
 Schedule

An interview in which questions to be asked from the interviewee are

determined in advance is called?
 Open ended
 Closed ended
 Structured
 unstructured