CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

A. Theoretical Review
1. General Concept of Media
Media is very important in teaching learning process to help
student to become active. “A medium is any person, material or event that
establishes condition, which enable learners or students to acquire
knowledge, skill that attitudes”.1 The media can be used to engage the
students on the topic discussed in the teaching learning process. Following
are the forms of media:
a. Visual media. It is media that can be seen and the function of visual
media is distributing the message from the sources to the receiver.
Some of the examples are: picture/ photographs, sketches, diagrams,
charts, graphs, cartoons, posters, maps, globes and flannel board.
b. Audio media. It is different from visual media, audio media is
connected with one of the five senses, that is ears that can hear
something produced by sound. What is meant by audio media here is
media that is useful because of its sound. The examples are radio, tape
recorder, language laboratory.
c. Audio-visual media. Audio-visual media are media that are useful
because of their sound and pictures. The example are TV and video,
which can be turned on to produce sound and picture as well.
From the ideas above, the writer may conclude that media is
everything in the form of audio, visual, or both audio-visual that establish
conditions which enable the learners to acquire knowledge, skills and
attitudes and engage the learners in a topic.
Media will be very useful if they are used carefully and creatively
prepared by teachers, and then they are used effectively to support the

1
Vernon S. Gerlach and D. P. Elly, Teaching and Media a Systematic Approach, (New
York: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1980), p. 241.

7
 8

presentation of the lesson during the teaching and learning process. This
leads to the conclusion that using chain pictures as a medium for
improving students writing skill of narrative text is useful for students of
SMP Negeri 1 Blora.
1.1. Definition of Chained Pictures
Chain is link for connecting.2 Picture is a painting, drawing, or
paragraph, especially as a work of art.3
From the definition above, the writer concludes that chain
pictures are a series of pictures which have connection between one
and the others to perform a meaningful story.
1.2. Advantage of Using Chained Pictures in Writing Narrative Text
Pictures are one recognized way of presenting a real situation.
For example, photographs are often used to remind us of real
experience. Food advertisements in magazine can make us hungry
because we can imagine how good that food would taste, especially if
it is food familiar to us, story books for children have attractive
illustration and often a child who cannot read yet tells or “reads” the
story by looking at the illustration.
Writing narrative text using chain pictures will help the eighth
grade students of Junior High School in catching and expressing their
ideas easily. By watching the chain pictures, the students will be able
to “read” the situation which is drawn in the pictures chronologically
based on their imagination. It will help the students in catching and
expressing the idea when they are writing a composition.
1.3. Contribution of chained picture in teaching writing
The ultimate aim of writing is to give the students the
opportunity to express their own ideas freely, using the language

2
A S Hornby, Oxford Advance Learner’s Dictionary, (New York: Oxford University
Press, 1995), p. 137.
3
Ibid., p. 310.
 9

pattern they have learned.4 Kreidler also said that the students need
this kind of opportunity in order to begin to use English in way that
enables them to express their ideas, interests, feeling and needs
clearly, correctly and confidently. This is undoubtedly their goal in
studying English and it is the teacher’s role to help them reaching it.
One of the ways to teach writing is by using chain pictures.
The use of chained picture in teaching writing is actually meant
to help students in catching and expressing their ideas easily. For
example when the students are asked to make a free writing of
narrative text based on their imagination, they will get difficulty in
writing sentences of paragraph because the students may need a very
long time to find out the idea to write a composition. They get
difficulties to think about the story, because they must write a story
chronologically. They spend some time to think but the idea has not
come up yet. After that, they must think harder to make the first
sentence, the second sentence, the third, etc. However by watching
the chained pictures, it will be easy for student of SMP Negeri 1
Blora to make a story based on the pictures. This will give the
students an opportunity to write in a connected way, using some
patterns they have learned. This is a small early step in the direction
of free expression of ideas.
Chained pictures can be used as a clue for retelling a story.
This kind of composition exercise will begin with the teacher telling
the story simply and slowly, perhaps two or three times, relating it to
the pictures and explaining anything in the pictures which may be
new to the students. Afterwards, the students will re-create the story
with their own words based on the pictures and perhaps a few words
written on the board to help them as well.

4
Carol J. Kreidler, Visual Aids: for Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages,
(Washington DC: Center for Applied linguistics, 1965), p. 41.
 10

1.4. Applying Chained Pictures in Teaching Writing

The main function of the materials is to guide the students to
use their capacity of foreign language to express their ideas and
opinion. Chained pictures, which are one of the visual materials, can
help the students to write a story based on the pictures
chronologically.
In this paper, the writer tries to find out an appropriate method
to teach writing for the students of Junior High School. The writer
uses chained pictures as the media. Through the media of chained
pictures, the teacher can improve the students’ achievement in
learning writing narrative text more enjoyable and interesting. They
will get new atmosphere in learning writing. It also can make the
students feel eager to write because chained pictures give clear
illustrations and students will be able to write composition easily.
The writer concludes that teaching writing using chained
pictures can use the following steps:
a. Select a set of pictures which are appropriate for the age of
students.
b. Give explanation about what they will do later.
c. Present the chain pictures.
d. Oral discussion.
e. Give a worksheet.
f. Ask the students to make a composition based on the pictures.

2. Teaching Writing
An important element in the process of education is the teacher
working with individuals in a classroom, within time limitations, the
degree of mental development of the learners, and the particular goals of
education. Teacher working (teaching) is many things. Teaching
sometimes means instructing, explaining, or telling; however, very little
 11

can be “taught” in this way. Teaching is waiting, yet there is also time for
action.5
Teaching is an art that requires a balance of many factors in actual
performance: knowledge, skill, and qualities of personality.6
In learning English, there are four skills that should be mastered by
both teacher and students. They are: reading, writing, listening, and
speaking. Writing is a skill which needs to be taught. Because in the
context of education, the most examination, either they are testing foreign
language abilities or other skills, often relay on the students’ writing
proficiency in order to measure their knowledge.7 Therefore, writing needs
to be taught.
a. Writing
1) Definition of Writing
“Writing is functional communication, making learners
possible to create imagined worlds of their own design.”8 It means
that, through writing, learners can express thought, feeling, ideas,
experiences, etc to convey a specific purpose. The purpose of
writing is to give some information.
Meyers said that writing is an action.9 This means that
when we first write something down, we have already been
thinking about what we are going to say and we are going to say it.
Then after you have finished writing, we read over what we have
written and make changes and corrections.
2) Writing Process
Writing is a never one-step action. And there are many
steps of writing process, those are;

5
Earl V. Pullias and James D. Young, A Teacher is Many Things, (America: Faucet,
2000), p.14
6
Ibid, p.18.
7
Jeremy Harmer, How to Teach Writing, ( New York: Longman, 2004), p.3.
8
Richard Kern, Literacy and Language Teaching, (New York: Oxford University Press,
2000), p. 172.
9
Alan Meyers, Gateways to Academic Writing: Effective Sentences, Paragraphs, and
Essays, (New York: Pearson Education, Inc, 2005), p. 2.
 12

a. Prewriting
“Prewriting is the thinking, talking, reading and writing
you do about your topic before you write a first draft.
Prewriting is a way of warming up your brain before you write,
just as you warm up your body before you exercise”.10
In prewriting step, you gather ideas to write about.
Taking notes in one of way to gather ideas. There are several
ways to warm up before you write.
1. Brainstorming
• Brainstorming is a prewriting activity in which you
come up with a list of idea about a topic on your own or
in small groups with your classmates. You write down
quickly a list of ideas that come to your mind as you are
thinking about general subject or a specific topic.
2. Clustering
Clustering is another prewriting technique. It is a
visual way of showing how your ideas are connected using
circles and lines. The steps are;
• Write your topic in the center of a blank piece of paper
and draw a circle around it.
• Write any ideas that come into your mind about the
topic in circles around the main circle.
• Connect those ideas to the center word with a line.
• Think about each of your new ideas, and then connect
them.
• Repeat this process until you run out of ideas.11

10
Karen Blanchard and Christine Root, Ready to Write, (New York: Pearson Education,
Inc, 2003), 3rd Ed., p. 41.
11
Karen Blanchard and Christine Root, op.cit., p. 42.
 13

b. Writing
After you have finished in prewriting, you can continue
to the next step (writing). As you write, the first draft on your
paragraph, use the ideas you generated from prewriting as a
guide. As you write, remember to:
1. Begin with a topic sentence that states the main ideas,
include several sentences that support the main idea.
2. Stick the topic does not include information that does not
directly support the main idea.
3. Arrange the sentences so that the other ideas make sense.
4. Use signal words to help the reader understand how the
ideas in your paragraph are connected.12
c. Revising
It is almost impossible to write a perfect paragraph on
the first try, so it needs to be revised. The steps are:
1. Add new ideas to support the topic.
2. Cross out sentences that do not support the topic.
3. Change the order of the sentences.
4. Using the following checklist to revise your paragraph.

b. The Orientation to the teaching of writing

Good writing in any languages involves knowledge the
convention of written discourse in culture as well as the ability to
choose the precise words that conveys one’s meaning. To write an
interesting text and good paragraph, we should know what a paragraph
is .A paragraph is a group of sentences which contain relevant
information about one main or central idea.13
A good paragraph normally focuses on only one idea that is
expressed in the topic sentence. Topic sentence is important for have a

12
Karen Blanchard and Christine Root, op.cit., p. 43.
13
Barli Bram, Write Well Improving Writing Skills, (Yogyakarta: Kanisius, 1995), p. 13.
 14

clear idea. The idea functions to control the content paragraph. A

paragraph basically consists of three parts: introduction, body and
conclusion.
In writing a good paragraph, we should concern to three things.
They are unity, coherence, meaning and grammar.
1. Unity
Basically, a paragraph is united by mutually supported
sentences. Unity is all the sentences within the paragraph are
related to the main point. Barli Bram said, “The unity is
synonymous with oneness”. This unity means oneness to express
the ideas in one paragraph. All sentences in paragraph should on
the one thing expressed in topic sentences: all of the sentences
stick together.
2. Coherence
Coherence also plays an important role in writing. It plays
crucial role in making a paragraph read well. Every coherent
paragraph contains of smoothly-connected ideas. Each sentences
move naturally. To achieve coherence, the writer needs to use the
transition, such as however, although, finally, and nevertheless.
3. Meaning and grammar
Although English is a foreign language (for us, Indonesian),
we have responsibility to express our ideas semantically and
grammatically. A piece of writing or sentence, or even a phrase,
must be semantically acceptable; it must be meaningful.14

3. Genre
1. Definition of genre
Genre is a type of discourse that occurs in a particular setting,
that has distinctive and recognizable patterns and norms of
organization and structure, and that has particular and distinctive

14
Ibid, p.20-21.
 15

communicative functions. For example: business reports, news

broadcasts, speeches, letters, advertisements, etc.
In constructing texts, the writer must employ certain features
conventionally associated with texts from the genre in which he or she
is writing. In reading, a text the reader similarly anticipates certain
features of the text based on genre expectations.15
Genre is a type of writing which members of discourse
community would instantly recognize for what it was. Genre has
important role in teaching-learning process, because it can produce the
goal of communication based on the function of language in social
interaction.
2. Kinds of genre
Methods and suggestion about teaching writing are based on a
theory known as ‘genre theory’. One of it main concerns to discover
and describe the major characteristic of kinds of writing, important for
participation in both formal schooling and the wider society.16
There are many kinds of genre which are taught to the students.
It can be seen as follows:17
a. Story genres
It is called as literary texts, which are constructed to appeal
our emotions and imagination.18 It involves:
1) Narrative
2) News Story
3) Anecdote.
4) Recount

15
Jack C. Richard and Richard Schmidt, Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and
Applied Linguistics, (London: Pearson Education Limited, 2002), p.224.
16
Literacy and Education Network, A Genre-Based Approach to Teaching Writing,
(Australia: Common Ground, 1991), p.6.
17
Ibid, p.15.
18
Mark and Kathy Anderson, Text Types In Teaching, (Australia: Macmillan Education
Australia, 1997), p.1.
 16

b. Factual genres
The texts present information or ideas and aim to show and
tell or persuade the audience.19 It involves:
1) Procedure
2) Explanation
3) Report
4) Exposition, it has two kinds:
a) Analytic exposition, it is to persuade the reader or listener
that something is the case
b) Hortatory exposition, It is to persuade the reader or listener
that something should or shouldn’t be the case
5) Discussion
Different genres deploy the resources for meaning,
making through the grammar in different ways. For example,
recounts that retells an event, tends to use simple past tense.
Whereas, report that tells about what the phenomenon under
discussion is like in term of part, qualities, habits or behaviors,
tends to use simple present tense.
It should be noted that systematic linguists did not
invent genres, their stages and characteristic lexicogrammatical
features. The genre were described already out there in school
and non-school environments. These genres arouse in social
interaction to fulfill humans’ social. All genres are equally
valuable. However, they are not all equally, valued, especially
in schools. When genre theory suggests that all students are
taught the genres in school, they are not suggesting that genre
the only genres around, nor more valuable than others genre
used in the community.
There are several genres that are taught in the junior
high school, they are as follows:20

19
Ibid, p.2.
 17

a. Spoof
To retell an event with humorous twist.
b. Recount
To retell events for the purpose of informing or entertaining
c. Report
To describe the way things are, with reference to arrange of
natural, man-made and social phenomena in our
environment
d. Analytical exposition
To persuade the reader or listener that something is the case
e. News item
To inform readers, listeners or viewers about events of the
day which are considered newsworthy or important.
f. Anecdote
To share with other an account of unusual or amusing
incident.
g. Narrative
To amuse entertain and to deal with actual or vicarious
experiences in different ways. It deals with problematic
events that lead to crisis or retiring point of some kinds,
which in turn to find resolution
h. Procedure
To describe how is something accomplished through a
sequence of actions of steps
i. Description
To describe a particular person, place or thing
j. Hortatory exposition
To persuade the reader or listener that something should not
be the case

20
Ibid, p.2.
 18

k. Explanation
To explain the process involved in the formation or
working of natural or socio-cultural phenomena
l. Discussion
To present (at least) two points of view about an issue.
m. Review
It is to critic an artwork or event for a public audience
(film, performance, books and etc)
Every genre has characteristics such as objective, structure of the
text and linguistic characteristic. By the study kinds of genre the students
are expected to be able to communicate whether their spoken or written
after they graduate from the junior high school.

4. General Concept of Narrative Text

1.1 Narrative
Narrative is telling a story.21 It sets out to entertain and amuse
listeners and readers. Thus, the purpose of narration is story telling. It
means that in writing a narrative paragraph, the writer writes the
action or the events that happened in chronological order which has a
definite beginning and a definite ending.
Charles et al as quoted by Puspitasari states that most
narratives have the characteristics the following:22
a. It tells story of an event or events.
b. The events are usually arranged in a chronological order, in the
order in which they occurred in time.
Narration is telling a story. Then to be interesting, a good
story must have interesting content. It should tell about an event our
audience would find engaging. We might even think of our narrative

21
R. K. Sadler and T. A. S. Hayllar, Text In Action I, an English Workbook, (Australia:
Macmillan, 2000), p. 12.
22
R. A. M. Puspitasari, The Use of Animation Movies for Developing Students’ Writing
Skill of Narrative Text, (Semarang: Unpublished S1 Final Project, 2007), p. 19.
 19

as a movie in which readers see people in action and hear them

speak. Therefore, it should be detailed and clear, with events
engaged in the order in which they happened or in some other
effective way. In writing a narration, the text should achieve the
following goals:
a. It is unified, with all the action developing a central idea.
b. It is interesting: it draws the readers into the action and makes
them feel as if they’re observing and listening to the events.
c. It introduces the four Ws of a setting-who, what, where and
when-within the context of the action.
d. It is coherent; transitions indicate changes in time, location and
characters.
e. It begins at the beginning and ends at the end. That is, the
narrative follows a chronological order-with events happening in
a time sequence.
f. It builds toward a climax. This is the moment of most tension or
surprise-a time when the ending is revealed or the importance of
events become clear. 23
1.2 Text
In general, text is an article we often read. We know that
human beings are different from other creatures. We live in a world
of words. When these words are put together to communicate a
meaning, a piece of text is created. They will think to express their
expression. We can say that human need to express their own in
many ways that can be understood by others. Human can use a text
as one of the ways to express their own.
“A text is any stretch of language which is held together
cohesively through meaning”.24 It means that when we use language

23
Alan Meyers, Gateways to Academic Writing: Effective Sentences, Paragraph and
Essays, (New York: Longman, Inc., 2005), p. 52.
24
Susan Feez and Helen Joyce, Text-Based Syllabus Design, (Sydney: Macquarie
University, 2002), p. 4.
 20

to write, we are creating and constructing a text. When we read, we

are interpreting texts. Moreover, when we talk and listen, we are also
creating and interpreting texts.
Halliday and Hasan said that a text is a social exchange of
meanings.25 The meaning of the sentence may has different meaning
according to the context. For example, I am buying a drink for every
body here, and the mean of that sentence is one drink for all or one
drink for each. Therefore, if we are a teacher, we must be able to
develop students’ abilities to exchange the meanings in different
points of sentence.
a. Types of Text
There are two main categories of text. They are literary
and factual. Within these are various text types. Each text type
has a common way of using language.
1) Literary text
Literary text is a text that appeals to our emotions and
imaginations. Literary text can make laugh or cry, think about
our own life or consider our beliefs. Literary text includes
aboriginal dreaming stories, movie scripts, limericks, fairy
tales, plays, novels, song lyrics, mimes and soap operas.
Media text such as films, videos, television shows and CDs
can fall in this category.
There are three main text types in this category:
narrative, poetic and dramatic.26
2) Factual text
Factual text is a text that presents information or ideas
and aim to show, tell or persuade the audience. This text
includes advertisement, announcement, internet website,

25
M.A.K. Halliday, & Ruqaiya Hasan, Language, Context, and Text: Aspects of
Language in Social-Semiotic Perspective, (Hongkong: Oxford University Press, 1984) p. 11.
26
Mark Anderson and Kathy Anderson, Text Types in English, (South Yarra: Macmillan
Education Australia, 1997), p. 1.
 21

current affairs shows, debates, recipes, reports and

instructions. The main text types in this category are recount,
response, explanation, discussion, information report,
exposition and procedure.27

1.3 Generic Structure of a Narrative Text

Derewianka, states that the steps for constructing a narrative are: 28
1. Orientation
This is the beginning of the story in which the writer tells the
audience about who the characters in the story are, where the story
is taking place, and when the action happens (can be a paragraph, a
picture or opening chapter)
2. Complication
The story is pushed along by a series of event, during which we
usually expect some sort of complication or problem to arise. It just
would not be so interesting if something unexpected did not
happen. This complication will involve the main character(s).
Narrative mirror the complication we face in life and tend to
reassure us that they are resolvable.
3. Resolution
In a “satisfying” narrative, a resolution of complication is brought
about. The complication may be resolved for better or for worse,
but it is rarely left completely unresolved (although this of course
possible in certain types of narrative, which leave us wondering
how the end is).
To sum up, the generic structure of narrative text can be
shortened as: orientation, complication, and resolution.

27
Ibid., p. 3.
28
Beverly Derewianka, Exploring How Text Work, (Australia: Primary English Teaching
Association, 1990), p. 32.
 22

1.4 Language Feature of Narrative text

Anderson, states that the language feature usually found in
narrative are: 29
1. Specific characters;
2. Time words that connect to tell when they occur;
3. Verbs to show the actions that occur in the story;
4. Descriptive words to portray the characters and setting.
Meanwhile, Derewianka, states several common grammatical
patterns, they are: specific, often individual participants with defined
identities; major participants are human, or sometimes animal with
human characteristics; use of action verbs to refer to events; use of
past tense to locate events in relation to speakers’ or writers’ time;
use of conjunctions and time connectives to sequence of events; use
of adverbs and adverbial phrases to indicate place and time; use of
adjective to describe nouns.30

B. Previous Research
The researcher will describe some researches that are relevant to make
the thesis arrangement easier:
“The Ability to Use Noun Phrases in Writing Narrative Paragraphs of
The Eight Year Students of SMP Islam At-Tawazun Pemalang in The
Academic Year 2006/2007”, by Lili Qodariyah (03420162). English
Department of IKIP PGRI in the academic year 2006/2007. The study is
aimed to find out the profile of students ability using noun phrases in writing
narrative paragraphs, to find out the errors mostly made by the students in
writing narrative paragraphs and to suggest some possible solutions to solve
the problem. That a lot of students still have difficulties and make errors in
using noun phrases in writing a narrative text. The errors made by the students

29
Mark Anderson, Text Types in English, Vol. 2, (Australia: MacMillan, 1997), p. 8.
30
Beverly Derewianka, Loc.Cit.
 23

are: The content of the writing, the organization of the sentence, the grammar,
the vocabulary, and mechanics.
“The Ability to Write a Descriptive Text Based on Pictures of The
Sixth Year Students of MI Nurul Ittihad Babalan Demak in The Academic
Year 2008-2009”, by Musami’ah (04420513), Faculty of Languages and Art
Education, IKIP PGRI Semarang, 2008. She did that study because there
many students have difficulties in writing English text. Therefore, the result of
the study is students still feel difficulty in expressing their minds. It means that
the sixth year students fail to write descriptive text based on pictures.
“Picture in Narrative Text to Improve The Students Speaking Ability
in Second Grade Of Junior High at SMP Negeri 02 Brebes”, by Arzsa Laila
Ilfas (2201403013) of English Department Languages and Art Faculty of
Semarang State University that the implementing of pictures in narrative text
to improve English speaking mastery of junior high school students was
successful. It had been proved that the students were being sustained and
encourage in learning English speaking using picture in narrative text. The
teaching learning of English speaking was more successful by using a media
as its strategy. In the research that discussed about teaching learning process
of English speaking used picture as its media.
Most of researches deal with particular subject of English skill, such as
listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Based on the previous research, the
research used the picture to teach speaking and writing descriptive text. But in
this research will focus in teaching writing of narrative text using picture.

C. Action Hypothesis
The action hypothesis from this research is chain picture can improve
the students’ ability in writing of narrative text at the eight the grade students
of SMPN 1 Blora, because chain picture can help students to write the story of
narrative text.