Reverse

 Colonization

Reverse  Colonization  as  a  Function  of  

Criminal  Atavism  in  Bram  Stoker's  Dracula  

Katey  Dager  

Abstract  

Victorian  Britain  had  a  great  fear  of  foreigners  from  their  colonies  overtaking  
Britain   and   degrading   the   lives   of   the   English.   At   the   time,   people   took  
pseudosciences   such   as   physiognomy   very   seriously.   Cesare   Lombroso  
invented  the  idea  of  Criminal  Anthropology,  which  insisted  that  all  criminals  
had   physical   indicators   not   only   of   their   inherent   criminality,   but   also   of  
which  kind  of  criminal  they  are.  This  essay  discusses  Bram  Stoker’s  Dracula  
in   relation   to   British   xenophobia   and   the   pseudosciences   of   the   time.   It  
focuses  speciIically  on  Criminal  Anthropology  and  how  it  relates  to  the  theory  
of   atavism,   which   is   the   idea   that   Darwin’s   theory   of   evolution   can   work   in  
reverse.  Dracula  perfectly  Iits  Lombroso’s  description  of  a  murderer,  and  Iills  
the   role   of   the   “foreign   other”   that   plagued   the   British   mind.   He   comes   into  
the   country,   kills   Englishmen,   and   spreads   his   bad   blood,   resulting   in   the  
reverse  colonization  that  the  English  so  strongly  feared.

 Reverse  Colonization

Reverse  Colonization  as  a  Function  of  Criminal  

Atavism  in  Bram  Stoker's  Dracula  

Katey  Dager  

The   Victorian   period   brought   new   fears   to   Britain.   With   imperialism   at   its  
peak,  the  British  began  to  fear  what  their  colonies  would  bring  to  them.  The  
“foreign   other”   was   portrayed   as   diseased,   criminal,   and   primitive.   As   the  
foreign   began   to   be   conIlated   with   the   criminal,   anthropometry,   “the  
classiIication   of   individuals   and   population   groups   through   physical  
measurements”  (Towheed  11),  was  used  to  describe  criminals  in  addition  to  
ethnic   groups.   “Criminal   Anthropology”   emerged   as   a   science,   relying   heavily  
on  the  concepts  of  atavism  and  degeneration.  Atavism,  a  tendency  to  revert  to  
ancestral   type,   and   degeneration,   a   progressive   deterioration   of   physical  
characteristics   or   reversion   to   a   simpler   form,   were   both   inspired   by  
Darwin's   theory   of   evolution.   Proponents   of   the   theories   believed   that   if  
humans   could   evolve,   they   could   also   do   the   opposite   by   becoming  
degenerate   or   atavistic.   Criminal   anthropologists   purported   that   criminals  
were   a   class   of   atavistic   human.   Critic   Stephen   Arata   points   out   that   "the  
study  of  degeneration  was.  .  .an  effective  means  of  "othering"  large  groups  of  
people   by   marking   them   as   deviant,   criminal,   psychotic,   defective,   simple,  
hysterical,   diseased,   primitive,   regressive,   or   just   dangerous”   (Arata   16).   It  
was   used,   for   example,   to   classify   epileptics   as   inherently   criminal,   and   to  
claim   that   certain   ethnic   groups   were   “less   evolved”   than   others   and  
therefore   more   inclined   to   crime.   But   while   the   science   of   Criminal  
Anthropology   did   not   “possess   anything   resembling   a   coherent   terminology  
or   rational   methodology"   (Arata   15),   it   strongly   inIluenced   the   literature   of  
the   time.   The   mark   of   theorists   such   as   Max   Nordau,   Havelock   Ellis,   and  
Cesare   Lombroso   can   be   seen   in   the   work   of   authors   such   as   Robert   Louis  
Stevenson,  H.G.  Wells,  and  Arthur  Conan  Doyle.  Bram  Stoker's  Dracula,  both  
the  novel  and  the  Count  himself,  is  clearly  inspired  by  contemporary  theories  
of   atavism   and   Criminal   Anthropology.   Count   Dracula   represents   one   of   the  
greatest   fears   of   Victorian   Britain—the   atavistic   criminal   who   is   also   the  
foreign  other,  and  substantiates  the  threat  of  reverse  colonization.    
 Reverse  Colonization

The  science  of  Criminal  Anthropology,  though  now  thoroughly  disproven,  had  
a   marked   inIluence   on   the   Victorian   period   and   beyond.   Its   foundational  
concept   of   degeneration   was   “considered   a   form   of   'common   sense'”   (Arata  
16).   Victorians   took   for   granted   that   such   concepts   were   true,   and   thus   the  
concepts,  and  the  so-­‐called  sciences  that  they  led  to,  inIluenced  every  aspect  
of  Victorian  life,  particularly  literature.    

One  of  the  primary  means  by  which  the  criminal  was  identiIied  was  physical  
description.   Physiognomy,   the   art   of   determining   personal   characteristics  
from  the  features  of  the  body,  particularly  the  face,  was  the  basis  of  criminal  
classiIication.   Cesare   Lombroso   published   his   book,   L'uomo   delinquente,   or  
The  Criminal  Man,  in  1878,  which  “would  have  been  available  to  Stoker  in  the  
French   translation”   (Byron   468).   Lombroso   originated   the   idea   of   Criminal  
Anthropology,   which   created   through   extensive   measurements   and  
examinations  of  the  skulls,  faces,  and  bodies  of  criminals.  He  decided  on  a  set  
of  physical  characteristics  that  were  common  to  criminals  and  indicative  of  a  
criminal   type.   These   anomalies   include   "voluminous   jaws",   "extraordinary  
development   of   the   canines",   and   "high   cheek-­‐bones"   (Lombroso   23,   114,  
118).  Lombroso  also  notes  that  perpetrators  of  different  types  of  crime  may  
have  different  identifying  features.  He  gives  this  description  of  an  archetypal  
murderer:   "The   eyes   of   murderers   are   cold,   glassy,   immovable,   and  
bloodshot,   the   nose   aquiline,   and   always   voluminous,   the   hair   curly,  
abundant,  and  black.  Strong  jaws,  long  ears,  broad  cheek-­‐bones,  scanty  beard,  
strongly   developed   canines,   thin   lips.   .   .which   bare   the   canines   in   a   kind   of  
menacing  grin"  (Lombroso  119).  When  compared  to  Jonathan  Harker's  Iirst  
impression  of  Dracula,  there  seems  to  be  a  direct  inspiration:    
His  face  was  a  strong—a  very  strong—aquiline—with  high  bridge  of  
the  thin  nose.  .  .The    mouth,   so   far   as   I   could   see   it   under   the   heavy  
moustache,  was  Iixed  and  rather  cruel-­‐     looking,   with   the   peculiarly  
sharp  white  teeth;  these  protruded  over  the  lips.  .  .  For  the     rest,   his  
ears   were   pale   and   at   the   tops   extremely   pointed;   the   chin   was   broad  
and  strong,     and  the  cheeks  Iirm  though  thin.  The  general  effect  was  
one  of  extraordinary  pallor”     (Stoker  48)  
Dracula  and  the  archetypal  murderer  share  aquiline  noses,  long  or  distinctive  
ears,   and   sharp   teeth.   Dracula's   “broad   and   strong”   chin   correlates   to   the  
“voluminous   jaw”   that   Lombroso   described.   Dracula's   close   resemblance   to  
the  “murderer”  type  is  appropriate  since,  while  the  victims  he  kills  come  back  
to  some  form  of  life,  it  is  not  as  themselves,  and  it  is  in  such  a  way  that  they  
are,  barring  outside  interference,  forbidden  from  reaching  the  next  life.  To  a  
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Victorian,   this   would   have   been   even   worse   than   a   normal   murder   because  
most  British  people  in  that  time  period  would  have  believed  in  a  redemptive  
afterlife   of   which   the   Count   robbed   his   victims.   Two   of   the   other   vampires  
that   Jonathan   encounters   in   the   castle   are   described   similarly   to   Dracula,  
having   “high   aquiline   noses,   like   the   Count,   and   great   dark,   piercing   eyes”.  
They  also  have  an  additional  feature  of  murderers  as  identiIied  by  Lombroso.  
"The   lips   of.   .   .   murderers   are   Ileshy,   swollen   and   protruding"   (Lombroso   24).  
The   two   dark   vampire   women   are   said   to   have   “voluptuous   lips”   (Stoker   69).  
The   word   voluptuous   says   that   they   are   large   and   full,   but   also   implies   a  
sense   of   sexuality   that   is   present   in   these   vampires   that   is   distinct   from  
human  women.  The  other  female  vampire  is  fair  and  it  seems  that,  like  Lucy,  
she   is   a   victim   of   the   Count's   inIluence   rather   than   an   instinctive   criminal  
type  like  the  Count  himself.  Lombroso  wrote  that  the  hair  of  the  criminal  was  
generally   dark,   “especially   in   murderers”   (Lombroso   25).   When   Jonathan  
meets   Dracula,   the   Count's   hair   is   white.   As   the   novel   progresses   and   the  
Count   gains   strength,   his   hair   turns   black.   Lombroso   writes   that   murderers  
have  dark  hair,  and  Dracula's  hair  becomes  darker  as  his  murders  increased.  
As  he  embodies  the  murderer  character  more  in  action,  he  embodies  it  more  
in   appearance   as   well.   Dracula's   eyebrows   are   also   described,   as   “very  
massive,   almost   meeting   over   the   nose”   (Stoker   48).   This   almost   exactly  
matches   Lombroso's   description   of   a   criminal's   eyebrows   as   “bushy   and  
tend[ing]   to   meet   across   the   nose"   (Lombroso   25).   Physically,   Dracula   clearly  
matches  Lombroso's  criminal  archetype.    

Another   aspect   of   the   criminal's   physicality   described   by   Lombroso   was   his  

vitality.   Lombroso   believed   that   criminals   generally   had   a   “greater  
insensibility  to  pain”  and  were  “generally  agile  and  preserve  this  quality  even  
at  an  advanced  age”  (Lombroso  29).  Dracula  is  of  a  supernaturally  advanced  
age—he   is   likely   centuries   old—and   yet   he   is   faster   than   any   of   the   men   in  
the   novel   and,   according   to   Van   Helsing,   possesses   the   strength   of   “twenty  
men”   (Stoker   276).   Vampires   are   shown   as   stronger   than   and   more  
aggressive   than   humans.   Arata   notes   the   “robust   health”   of   the   vampires   in  
the  novel  and  contrasts  it  to  the  British  since  “the  undead  are,  paradoxically,  
healthier   and   more   fertile   than   the   living”   (Arata   117).   This   fertility   is   of   a  
different   sort   than   that   of   the   living,   since   vampires   reproduce   by   turning  
existing   humans   into   vampires,   but   it   is   much   more   present   in   the   novel   than  
any   living   reproduction.   The   birth   of   Mina   and   Jonathan's   son   at   the   end   is  
contrasted   to   all   of   the   death   that   constituted   vampire   fertility.   Dracula's  
health   and   strength   at   his   impossibly   advanced   age,   as   determined   by   his  
accounts   of   centuries   of   wars   in   which   he   was   directly   involved,   not   only  
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marks   him   as   a   criminal   but   highlights   the   fear   of   the   foreign   other  
overtaking  the  British.  Jonathan  is  weak  compared  to  Dracula  and  almost  falls  
prey   to   him   in   his   castle.   He   is   only   able   to   defeat   him   later   on   while   working  
in  a  group.    

Facial  expressions  were  thought  to  reveal  similarities  to  non-­‐human  animals  
and  thus,  through  the  theory  of  criminal  atavism,  might  indicate  criminality.  
In   Charles   Darwin's   1872   book   The   Expression   of   the   Emotions   in   Man   and  
Animals,   he   devotes   a   chapter   to   hatred   and   anger.   Darwin   writes   that   “the  
Iirst   symptom   of   an   approaching   passion   was   the   rushing   of   the   blood   into  
his   bare   scalp”   and   conversely   that   “the   action   of   the   heart   is   sometimes   so  
much   impeded   by   great   rage   that   the   countenance   becomes   pallid   or  
livid”   (Darwin).   Both   of   these   effects   are   consistent   with   Dracula's  
appearance  when  he  expresses  his  “hate  and.  .  .hellish  rage”  to  the  men  who  
are  tracking  him  down  (Stoker  347).  Seward  describes    “the  red  scar  on  the  
forehead.  .  .on  the  pallid  skin  like  a  palpitating  wound”  (Stoker  347).  Though  
generally  pale,  Dracula  looks  particularly  pallid  in  his  rage,  and  the  the  scar  
on   his   forehead   is   more   noticeably   red   and   inIlamed,   consistent   with   the  
blood  rushing  to  the  scalp  that  Darwin  described.  Darwin  also  writes  about  
the  importance  of  the  teeth  in  expressing  rage.  Teeth  are  mentioned  often  in  
Dracula.   The   Count's   teeth   are   one   of   his   most   distinctive   and   dangerous  
features.   Darwin   writes   “the   appearance   is   as   if   the   teeth   were   uncovered,  
ready   for   seizing   or   tearing   an   enemy”   (Darwin).   Darwin   goes   on   to   note   that  
the   majority   of   people   rarely   use   their   teeth   as   weapons.   Dracula,   however,   is  
an   exception—his   teeth   are   his   primary   weapon.   Darwin   writes   of   a   doctor,  
who   works   with   “the   insane   whose   passions   are   unbridled”   and   has  
conIirmed   that   biting   is   more   common   among   these   mentally   ill   criminals  
(Darwin).   Dracula   would   likely   be   classiIied   as   such,   and   he   acts   out   his  
crimes   through   biting.   This   would   have   been   considered   a   primitive   trait,  
since   according   to   Darwin,   “our   male   semi-­‐human   progenitors   possessed  
great  canine  teeth”  (Darwin).  Since  large  canine  teeth  and  biting  would  have  
been  more  common  in  early  human  ancestors,  they  are  atavistic  traits.  

Lombroso  and  his  contemporaries  described  the  criminal  mindset  in  almost  
as  much  detail  as  the  physical  description.  The  main  problem  in  a  criminal's  
mind,  as  described  by  Lombroso,  is  that  “the  ability  to  discriminate  between  
right   and   wrong,   which   is   the   highest   attribute   of   civilized   humanity,   is  
notably  lacking"  (Lombroso  30).  It  is  through  the  narrating  characters'  sense  
of   right   and   wrong   that   the   reader   views   Dracula,   and   with   this   sense   in  
mind,   it   is   clear   that   the   count   is,   as   Van   Helsing   describes,   “devil   in  
 Reverse  Colonization

callous”   (Stoker   276).   This   is   also   consistent   with   Lombroso's   descriptions   of  

criminal  “cruelty”  and  “indifferen[ce]  to  the  sufferings  of  others”  (Lombroso  
35).  Dracula  chooses  his  victims  based  on  a  general  sense  of  revenge  rather  
than  any  personal  reason.  The  choice  of  Lucy,  for  example,  seems  random  at  
Iirst  to  her  friends  since  she  had  never  met  Dracula,  nor  personally  wronged  
him   or   his   people.   She   seems   to   be   a   complete   innocent,   and   therefore  
Dracula's   targeting   of   her   is   a   mark   of   cruelty.   Another   quality   found   in   the  
criminal  mind  is,  as  Van  Helsing  describes,  that  “the  criminal  always  work  at  
one   crime”   (Stoker   382).   The   criminal   is   determined,   but   single-­‐minded.    
After  calling  the  Count  “a  criminal  and  of  criminal  type”,  according  to  “Nordau  
and   Lombroso”,   Mina   says   of   Dracula:   “he   conIines   himself   to   one   purpose.  
The   purpose   is   remorseless”   (Stoker   383).   Dracula   does   not   give   up   on   his  
goals.  Van  Helsing  notes  how  tireless  he  is  with  “he  be  beaten  back,  but  did  he  
stay?   No!   He   come   again,   and   again,   and   again.   Look   at   his   persistence   and  
endurance”  (Stoker  361).  It  is  obvious  to  Van  Helsing  that  the  Count  has  been  
Iighting   this   particular   battle   for   hundreds   of   years   even   if   he   hasn't   been  
speciIically  Iighting  it  against  them  the  whole  time.  He  doesn't  care  that  they  
are   not   his   original   enemy.   They   are   representative   of   his   original   enemy   and  
that   is   enough,   which   speaks   to   his   indifference   to   individual   suffering   and  
his  persistence.    

The  criminal  was  considered  similar  to  both  “primitive”  races  and  to  “lower”  
animals.     Lombroso   framed   this   as   a   kind   of   revelation.   When   he   was  
examining  the  skull  of  a  criminal,  he    “seemed  to  see  all  of  a  sudden,  lighted  
up   as   a   vast   plain   under   a   Ilaming   sky,   the   problem   of   the   nature   of   the  
criminal-­‐-­‐an   atavistic   being   who   reproduces   in   his   person   the   ferocious  
instincts  of  primitive  humanity  and  the  inferior  animals”  (Lombroso  15).  This  
is   based   on   atavism,   which   was   seen   as   the   opposite   of   Darwin's   theory   of  
evolution.  Darwin's  theory  “was  unsettling  to  Victorians  because  it  dissolved  
the   boundary   between   human   and   the   animal”   (Danahay   19).   This   view  
betrayed   a   fundamental   misunderstanding   of   evolution.   The   Victorians  
thought   that   existing   lower   animals   had   evolved   directly   into   humans,   and  
that  the  process  could  be  reversed.  This  misunderstanding  could  be  partially  
attributed  to  the  inIluence  of  the  great  chain  of  being,  a  medieval  concept  that  
ranked   all   beings.   It   began   with   god   and   other   supernatural   Iigures,   then  
humans,   ranked   by   class   and   race,   then   the   other   animals,   ranked  
approximately   according   to   their   similarity   to   humans.   This   chain   was  
confused   with   evolution,   giving   many   people   the   idea   that   evolution   was   a  
straight   line   connecting   all   animals   and   “leading   to   the   conclusion   that   if  
something—individual   or   nation—could   evolve,   it   could   also   devolve   or  
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degenerate”   (Byron   20).   Lombroso   was   among   those   who   believed   this.   He  
compares   criminals   to   “apes.   .   .birds   of   prey.   .   .snakes"   and   writes   that   "all  
these   characteristics   pointed   to   one   conclusion,   the   atavistic   origin   of   the  
criminal   who   reproduces.   .   .qualities   of   remote   ancestors"   (Lombroso   21).  
The   more   a   criminal   resembles   an   animal,   and   the   lower   that   animal   in   the  
great  chain  of  being,  the  further  he  is  from  civilized  humanity.  This  distance  is  
one   of   the   main   things   that   Lombroso   emphasizes   throughout   his   writings,  
asserting  that  the  criminal  is  uncivilized  because  of  his  atavistic  tendencies.  
Dracula  himself  is  compared  to  “the  rat,  and  the  owl,  and  the  bat.  .  .  the  fox,  
and   the   wolf”   (Stoker   276).   These   are   animals   associated   with   particular  
traits.  The  fox,  the  wolf,  and  the  owl  are  all  thought  of  as  intelligent,  though  
the   fox   in   particular   generally   has   emphasized   its   cunning,   which   is   has  
negative  implications.  The  rat  and  the  bat  are  both  common  disease  carriers.  
This   is   signiIicant   since   Dracula   “infects”   his   victims   with   vampirism.  
Dracula's  physical  description  also  points  to  a  similarity  to  lower  animals.  His  
nose   is   described   as   aquiline—like   an   eagle's   beak.   Birds   of   prey   are   one   of  
Lombroso's  examples  of  animals  that  criminals  might  resemble.  The  count  is  
also   unusually   hirsute.   He   has   his   thick   hair,   bushy   eyebrows,   and,   as  
Jonathan   notices   “hairs   in   the   center   of   the   palm”   (Stoker   48).   This  
resemblance  to  lower  animals  is  another  indication  of  criminality.    

Lombroso  and  those  who  built  on  his  research  classiIied  criminals  according  
to   different   types.   The   type   that   he   called   “most   important”   were   “born  
criminals.   .   .because   the   crimes   committed   by   them   are   of   a   peculiarly  
monstrous   character”   (Lombroso   21).   Count   Dracula   is   a   vampire,   quite  
literally   a   monster.   While   this   is   probably   not   what   Lombroso   had   in   mind  
with   the   word   “monstrous”,   his   crimes   of   murder   and   mutilation   would  
certainly   have   fallen   under   this   category.   RenIield,   Dr.   Seward's   insane  
patient,  represents  another  classiIication  of  criminal.  Lombroso  writes  of  “the  
idiot”,  who  “is  prompted  to  paroxysms  of  rage  to  commit  murderous  acts  on  
his   fellow-­‐creatures"   and   "the   imbecile,   or   weak-­‐minded   individual”   who  
“yields   to   his   Iirst   impulse,   or,   dominated   by   the   inIluence   of   others,   becomes  
an  accomplice  in  the  hope  of  some  trivial  reward"  (Lombroso  49).  What  Dr.  
Seward  terms  RenIield's  “zoophagy”  is  the  extent  of  his  murderous  acts  that  
are   described   in   the   novel,   but   the   latter   classiIication   points   toward   his  
devotion   to   Dracula   and   hope   that   the   Count   will   come   to   him   with  
instructions   or   assistance.   Havelock   Ellis,   who   expanded   on   Lombroso's  
theories,   writes   of     “the   insane   criminal"   (Ellis   3).   Dr.   Seward   seems   to  
classify   RenIield   as   this   himself,   referring   to   him   as   “my   own   pet  
lunatic”   (Stoker   272).   RenIield   is   clearly   a   psychological   curiosity,   and   his  
 Reverse  Colonization

criminal  tendencies  are  linked  to  his  mental  illness  or,  as  it  would  have  been  
called,   insanity.   The   Iinal   representation   of   criminals   in   Dracula   comes   with  
Lucy  and  the  other  female  vampires.    

Lucy's   condition   is   similar   to   the   then-­‐popular   diagnosis   of   hysteria,   which  

Lombroso  attributed  to  criminality  in  women.  Women  were  often  diagnosed  
as   hysterical   when   experiencing   psychological   difIiculties   or   even   just  
because   they   did   not   adhere   to   the   strict   ideals   of   femininity   expected   of  
them   by   their   family   and   society.   Lombroso   writes   that   hysterical   women  
have   a   particular   “Susceptibility   to   suggestion.   Of   still   greater   importance   for  
the  criminologist  is  the  facility  with  which  hysterical  women  are  dominated  
by   hypnotic   suggestion.   Their   wills   become   entirely   subordinated   to   that   of  
the   hypnotizer"   (Lombroso   57).     Dracula   seems   to   target   women   for   this  
reason.  He  is  able  to  hypnotize  them  into  carrying  out  his  will,  and  thus  they  
are   particularly   useful   to   him.   The   symptoms   of   hysteria   were  
"hallucinations,   sudden   change   of   character.   .   .   .loss   of   strength,  
trembling"   (Lombroso   57).   Lucy's   loss   of   strength   is   one   of   the   Iirst  
symptoms   of   her   attack   by   Dracula.   After   her   death   and   subsequent  
transformation,   the   change   of   character   becomes   apparent.   When   the   men  
see   her   as   a   vampire,   they   see   “Lucy   Westenra,   but   yet   how   changed.   The  
sweetness   was   turned   to   adamantine,   heartless   cruelty,   and   the   purity   to  
voluptuous  wantonness”  (Stoker  249).  That  word  “cruelty”,  as  used  so  often  
when   applied   to   criminals,   is   now   applied   to   Lucy.   The   “voluptuous  
wantonness”   in   the   latter   half   of   the   sentence   is   also   important,   since  
Lombroso  states  that  hysteria  can  cause  “erotomania”  (Lombroso  58).  Lucy  is  
more   sexual   after   her   transformation.   The   other   female   vampires   are   also  
sexually  aggressive,  which    undermines  conventionally  passive  femininity  and    
shows   “the   breakdown   of   traditional   gender   roles,   the   confusion   of   the  
masculine  and  feminine.  .  .one  indication  of  cultural  decay”  (Byron  20).  The  
aggression   and   sexuality   that   the   female   vampires   show   would   have   been  
more  often  attributed  to  males,  so  the  female  vampires  confused  this  border  
between   masculine   and   feminine.   Border-­‐crossing   was   one   of   the   greatest  
driving  forces  behind  what  the  Victorians  believed  was  cultural  decay.  

At   the   height   of   imperialism,   Victorians   feared   what   Arata   called     "the   late-­‐
Victorian   nightmare   of   reverse   colonization"   (Arata   115).   As   the   British  
expanded   their   empire,   they   also   experienced   an   inIlux   of   immigrants   from  
the   new   colonies.   Some   worried   about   the   effects   this   immigration   might  
have.  Lombroso  thought  that  "the  agglomeration  of  population  produced  by  
 Reverse  Colonization

immigration  is  a  strong  incentive  to  crime"  (Lombroso  80).  Many  Victorians  
agreed,  and  feared  the  natives  of  colonies  coming  to  Britain  would  inIluence  
British  culture,  in  what  they  felt  would  be  a  negative  and  regressive  manner.  
This   phenomenon   is   relevant   to   the   works   of   Lombroso   and   his  
contemporaries   because   "reverse   colonization   narratives   are   obsessed   with  
the   spectacle   of   the   primitive   and   the   atavistic"   (Arata   109).   Lombroso's  
criminal  as  a  Iigure  of  primitiveness  and  atavism  is  the  perfect  Iigure  to  enact  
the  revenge  that  the  Victorians  feared,  and  Dracula  Iits  that  archetype.    

Dracula   shows   a   warlike   nature   and   a   history   of   militaristic   aggression.  

Narratives   of   reverse   colonization   show   an   exaggerated   invasion,   and   the  
leader   of   such   an   invasion   is   appropriately   a   general.   Dracula's   home   of  
Transylvania  has  become  synonymous  with  vampires,  but  it  was  with  Stoker  
and  this  book  that  the  association  began.  Before  Dracula,  "Transylvania  was  
known   primarily   as   part   of   the   vexed   'Eastern   Question'   that   so   obsessed  
British  foreign  policy  in  the  1880s  and  90s.  The  region  was  Iirst  and  foremost  
the   site,   not   of   superstition   and   Gothic   romance,   but   of   political   turbulence  
and  racial  strife"  (Arata  113).  The  instability  of  this  region  meant  that  it  was  
the  site  of  many  political  disputes.  It  would  have  been  immediately  associated  
with   war,   and   Dracula   with   “the   numerous   warrior   races-­‐-­‐Berserker,   Hun,  
Turk,   Saxon,   Slovak,   Magyar,   Szekely-­‐-­‐inhabiting   the   area"   (Arata   114).    
Dracula,  as  vampire,  is  the  strongest  of  these  warrior  races.    The  count  shows  
pride  in  his  conquests  and  even  in  his  defeats.    
Was   it   not   this   Dracula,   indeed   who   inspired   that   other   of   his   race  
who   in   a   later   age   again   and   again   brought   his   forces   over   the   great  
river   into   Turkeyland;   who,   when   he   was   beaten   back,   came   again,  
and   again,   and   again,   though   he   had   to   come   alone   from   the   bloody  
Iield  where  his  troops  were  being  slaughtered,  since  he  knew  that  he  
alone  could  ultimately  triumph?  (Stoker  61)  
This   shows   his   persistence,   as   it   seems   he   has   fought   the   same   battle   many  
times.   When   he   tells   Jonathan   of   his   family   history,   his   greatest   glory   is   in   the  
“bloody   sword”   (Stoker   60)   and   he   laments   that   “the   warlike   days   are  
over”   (Stoker   61).   The   juxtaposition   of   words   like   “bloody”   and   “slaughter”  
with  “inspired”  and  “triumph”  suggest  that  the  count  takes  as  much  pride  in  
the   bloody   scenes   themselves   as   in   the   victories   they   signify.   This   afIinity  
toward   blood   is   because   of   his   nature   both   as   vampire   and   warrior.   Arata  
writes   that   “by   continually   blurring   the   lines   between   the   Count's   vampiric  
and   warrior   activities,   Stoker   forges   seemingly   "natural'   links   among   three   of  
his   principle   concerns:   racial   strife,   the   collapse   of   empire,   and  
vampirism"  (Arata  111).  Dracula’s  fondness  for  violence  also  emphasizes  his  
 Reverse  Colonization

criminality.  Lombroso  writes  of  criminals  having  “the  irresistible  craving  for  
evil  for  its  own  sake,  the  desire  not  only  to  extinguish  life  in  the  victim,  but  to  
mutilate   the   corpse,   tear   its   Ilesh,   and   drink   its   blood"   (Lombroso   15).   The  
count  is  a  Iigure  of  evil,  who  leaves  his  mark  on  the  people  he  attacks,  tearing  
the   Ilesh.   Blood   is   is   his   main   source   of   sustenance   and   the   source   of   his  
inIluence.  His  lust  for  blood  shows  him  as  vampire,  criminal,  and  warrior  at  
once.  Dracula  easily  crosses  borders  and  inhabits  all  spheres  of  transgression  
that  contributed  to  the  fear  of  reverse  colonization.    

A  transgression  of  class  barriers  was  one  of  the  main  fears  contributing  to  the  
idea   of   reverse   colonization.   Dracula   confuses   class   barriers   from   the  
beginning   of   the   novel.   Jonathan   is   surprised   to   not   “[see]   a   servant  
anywhere”   in   his   castle   (Stoker   50).   The   meals   are   prepared   and   placed  
entirely  out  of  Jonathan's  sight,  but  it  seems  that  the  only  person  who  could  
possibly  be  doing  it  is  the  Count.  This  is  strange  for  him,  as  a  noble,  to  act  as  a  
servant  in  his  own  home,  especially  to  a  foreigner  who  is  not  of  noble  birth.  
He   soon   reveals   his   feelings   about   traveling   to   England   to   Jonathan:   “Here   I  
am  noble;  I  am  boyar.  .  .but  a  stranger  in  a  strange  land,  he  is  no  one.  .  .I  am  
content   if   I   am   like   the   rest.   .   .I   have   been   so   long   master   that   I   would   be  
master  still—or  at  least  that  none  other  should  be  master  of  me”  (Stoker  51).  
The  Count  is  concerned  about  standing  out  as  a  foreigner  in  England,  because  
it   would   mark   him   as   lower   than   the   native   English,   while   he   is   used   to   being  
recognized   as   higher   than   those   around   him.   He   wants   to   blend   in   with   the  
English  to  make  it  easier  for  him  to  inIiltrate  them  from  the  inside.    

Dracula  also  transgressed  racial  and  cultural  barriers.  Lombroso  writes  that  
“There  exist  whole  tribes  and  races  more  or  less  given  to  crime”  (Lombroso  
77).   Among   other   ethnic   groups   he   asserted   were   more   likely   to   be   criminals  
were   some   Eastern   European   groups   with   which   the   English   might   have  
associated   Dracula.   That   may   have   been   part   of   the   reason   he   felt   the   need   to  
study   so   hard   to   blend   in   with   the   English.   He   wanted   to   avoid   appearing  
“criminal”   so   he   could   commit   his   crimes   unnoticed.   "To   impersonate   an  
Englishman,   and   do   it   convincingly,   is   the   goal   of   Dracula's   painstaking  
research  into  'English  life  and  customs  and  manners,'  a  goal  the  Count  himself  
freely,   if   rather   disingenuously,   acknowledges"   (Arata   124).   While   he   claims  
that   the   goal   is   simply   to   blend   in,   he   plans   to   use   that   ability   to   infect   people  
with  vampirism  without  them  realizing  that  he  is  a  foreign  other.  This  aligns  
with   the   fear   that   Victorians   had   of   foreign   cultures   and   diseases   infecting  
Britain.  Dracula's  type  of  reverse  colonization  is  a  particularly  apt  metaphor  
because   "if   'blood'   is   a   sign   of   racial   identity,   then   Dracula   effectively  
 Reverse  Colonization

deracinates   his   victims.   In   turn,   they   receive   a   new   racial   identity,   one   that  
marks   them   as   literally   'Other'"   (Arata   116).   Dracula's   use   of   blood   makes  
blood  as  racial  identity  literal.  Dracula  is  taking  Lucy,  who  has  “English  blood”  
and   giving   her   instead   “Vampire   blood”,   which   she   can   then   spread   to   others.  
The  spread  of  vampirism  shows  the  fear  that  the  British  “race”  would  decline  
in  favor  of  that  of  immigrants.  However,  with  Van  Helsing's  guidance,  the  men  
are   able   to   “'re-­‐racinate'   [Lucy]   by   reinfusing   her   with   the   "proper"  
blood”  (Arata  118).  They  give  her  blood  transfusions  each  in  turn.  The  order  
of  the  donors  is  “Holmwood,  Seward,  Van  Helsing,  Morris"  (Arata  118).  This  
order  reIlects  a  strict  hierarchy.  Holmwood,  British  and  of  noble  birth,  is  Iirst.  
Morris,   American   and   of   common   birth,   is   put   behind   even   the   other  
foreigner   Van   Helsing.   Though   they   are   unable   to   save   Lucy   with   this  
technique,   it   shows   how   racial,   cultural,   and   class   order   were   strictly  
established.   Dracula's   attack   on   the   body   “endangers   Britain's   integrity   as   a  
nation  at  the  same  time  that  he  imperils  the  personal  integrity  of  individual  
citizens"  (Arata  115).  He  simultaneously  invades  individuals  and  the  nation.    

The  Count's  campaign  is  a  form  of  revenge  against  imperialism.  Considering  
his   location   and   his   history   of   war,   he   often   fought   against   conquering  
imperialists.   These   people   were,   like   the   British   did   with   their   colonies,  
attempting  to  assimilate  Dracula  and  his  people.  Dracula  takes  great  pride  in  
his   cultural   heritage,   as   vampire   and   as   a   member   of   his   country   Lombroso  
writes  that  "pride,  or  rather  vanity"  is  a  feature  in  many  criminals  (Lombroso  
33).   It   is   because   of   this   pride   that   Dracula   fought   so   Iiercely   against   those  
who   sought   to   assimilate   him   and   his   people,   and   that   he   held   on   to   his  
hatred   for   them   for   so   long.   Through   his   many   experiences   in   war,   he  
developed   a   hatred   not   only   for   those   people,   but   for   any   who   conquer.  
Lombroso   claims   that   criminals   have   “an   extraordinary   thirst   for  
revenge"   (Lombroso   34).   Dracula   is   consistent   with   this   description.     He   says  
that  he  “spread  [his  revenge]  over  centuries”(Stoker  347).  He  is  so  dedicated  
to  it  that  it  does  not  matter  that  those  who  initially  spurred  the  revenge  are  
gone.  He  has  moved  on  to  another  enemy.  The  British  are  not  the  ones  who  
repeatedly   attempted   to   take   away   his   power   and   identity.   However,   as   the  
strongest   empire,   England   is   representative   of   empire   in   general,   and  
according   to   Van   Helsing   “the   place.   .   .most   of   promise   for   him”   (Stoker   356).  
Because   of   this,   Dracula   takes   his   power   there,   to   strip   the   British   of   their  
identities   in   revenge   and   make   them   work   for   him.   Dracula   says   to   Mina,  
“They  should  have  kept  their  energies  for  use  closer  to  home”  (Stoker  328).  
This  seems  not  only  to  refer  to  those  men  who  are  currently  Iighting  him,  but  
to  serve  as  an  indictment  of  imperialists  in  general.  He  hates  imperialism  and  
 Reverse  Colonization

wants   to   Iight   against   it,   but   he   does   this   by   being   imperialist   himself.  
Through  the  spread  of  vampirism,  the  Count  is  forging  his  own  empire.  When  
he  infects  people,  he  acts  as  the  ruler  of  an  empire.  He  forces  the  ones  that  he  
feeds   on   to   become   like   him,   as   an   empire   attempts   to   make   natives   of   its  
colonies  assimilate.  They  become  his  “jackals”  (Stoker  347).  This  is  not  only  a  
position  of  servant  who  helps  when  he  wants  to  feed,  but  also  like  a  soldier,  
helping   him   spread   his   regime   by   making   more   people   into   vampires.   He  
expresses   a   desire   to   have   Mina   as   his   “companion   and.   .   .helper”   (Stoker  
328).  He  likely  envisions  her  to  have  a  similar  role,  as  companion  and  a  type  
of  second-­‐in-­‐command,  turning  as  many  people  as  possible  into  vampires.  He  
wants   to   create   a   race,   an   army,   of   people   who   look   and   act   like   him,  
generating  even  more  of  the  Victorians'  fear  of  that  which  is  atavistic.  Were  
Dracula   allowed   to   continue   on   this   path   unhindered,   he   would   eventually   be  
able   to   take   over   by   creating   an   army   of   vampires   and   killing   or   infecting  
everyone   in   the   country.   Arata   writes,   "Dracula   not   only   mimics   the   practices  
of  British  imperialists,  he  rapidly  becomes  superior  to  his  teachers.  The  racial  
threat  embodied  by  the  Count  is  thus  intensiIied."  (Arata  125).  He  is  able  to  
assimilate   people   more   effectively   than   the   British   imperialists   because   he  
can  change  their  race  and  their  alliance  with  his  bite.  The  British  feared  the  
people   that   the   Count   created,   or   the   people   that   they   worried   that   real  
foreigners  might  create,  but  even  more,  they  feared  becoming  one  of  them.    

Stephen  Arata  writes  that  "degeneration  was  a  term  no  late-­‐Victorian  thinker  
could   do   without"   (Arata   2).   The   Victorians,   including   Bram   Stoker,   thought  
frequently   about   degeneration   and   how   it   might   affect   their   country.   The  
work   of   Cesare   Lombroso   and   others   who   explored   the   Iield   of   Criminal  
Anthropology,   describing   how   criminals   were   a   degenerate   and   atavistic   race  
of  humans,  inIluenced  Victorian  thinkers  and  writers.  Bram  Stoker's  Dracula  
shows  how  the  atavistic  criminal  and  another  major  Victorian  Iigure  of  fear,  
the   foreign   other,   could   be   the   same   person.   Dracula   is   a   gothic   horror,   a  
travel   narrative,   and   an   epistolary   novel.   Each   of   these   literary   forms  
individually   concerns   itself   with   boundaries.   The   gothic   crosses   borders   of    
natural   and   supernatural,   the   travel   narrative   geographic   and   cultural,   and  
the   epistolary   crosses   narrative   borders   to   allow   the   reader   directly   inside  
the   mind   of   several   characters   in   one   book.   These   genres   combine   to   make  
the  perfect  format  for  a  narrative  of  reverse  colonization,  which  is  based  on  
transgression   of   traditional   boundaries.   Count   Dracula   is   a   transgressive  
character   in   several   ways.   His   status   as   vampire   puts   him   on   the   border  
between   dead   and   alive,   human   non-­‐human,   natural   and   supernatural.   His  
role  as  atavistic  criminal  puts  him  on  the  border  between  human  and  animal.  
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He   attempts   to   cross   other     boundaries—of   race,   culture,   and   class—and  

forces  others  to  cross  them.  The  fact  that  he  crossed  these  borders  knowingly,  
intentionally  to  undermine  British  imperialism,  makes  him  the  embodiment  
of  the  Victorian  fear  of  reverse  colonization.    

Works  Cited  
Arata,   Steven.   Fictions   of   Loss   in   the   Victorian   Fin   de   Siècle:   Identity   and   Empire.  
Cambridge:     Cambridge  University  Press,  2009.  

Darwin,  Charles.  The  Expression  of  Emotion  in  Man  and  Animals.  Project  Gutenberg:  
2012.  E-­‐book.  

Doyle,   Arthur   Conan.   The   Sign   of   Four.   Ed.   Shafquat   Towheed.   Ontario:   Broadview  
Press,  2010.  

Ellis,  Havelock.  The  Criminal.  London:  Walter  Scott,  1892.    

Lombroso,   Cesare   and   Lombroso-­‐Ferrero,   Gina.   Criminal   Man   According   to   the  

ClassiGication     of  Cesare  Lombroso.     New  York:  Putnam.  1911.  

Stevenson,   Robert   Louis.   The   Strange   Case   of   Dr   Jekyll   and   Mr   Hyde.   Ed.   Martin   A.  
Danahay.    Ontario:  Broadview  Press,  2005.    

Stoker,  Bram.  Dracula.  Ed.  Glennis  Byron.  Ontario:  Broadview  Press.  1998.  
 Reverse  Colonization

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