WEAR DEBRIS ANALYSIS

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
The technique of Wear Debris Analysis (Analytical Ferrography) is gaining
popularity in the field of Condition Based Maintenance. WDA is a method of predicting
the health of an equipment in a non-intrusive way, by the study of wear particles. The
continuous trending of wear rate monitors the performance of Machine or Machine
components and provides early warning and diagnosis. Oil condition monitoring can
sense danger earlier than Vibration technique. This technique holds good for both oil and
grease sample.
Analytical Ferrography with supporting physical and chemical tests can determine
the following:

 The start of abnormal wear.

 The components which are wearing.

 Root cause of wear/failure.

 Usability of lubricant beyond its rated life.

Fatigue Wear Along With Normal Rubbing Wear Spherical Particles From A/F Brg

Severe Sliding Wear Fatigue Chunk From Gear

Figure 1.1: Some Typical Ferrograms

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1.1 Wear Particle Analysis Or Ferrography

Ferrography is a technique that provides microscopic examination and analysis of

wear particles separated from all type of fluids. Developed in the mid 1970’s as a
predictive maintenance technique, it was initially used to magnetically precipitate ferrous
wear particles from lubricating oils.

This technique was used successfully to monitor the condition of military aircraft
engines, gearboxes, and transmissions. That success has prompted the development of
other applications, including modification of the method to precipitate non-magnetic
particles from lubricants, quantifying wear particles on a glass substrate (Ferrogram) and
the refinement of our grease solvent utilized in heavy industry today.

1.2 Problem Statement

A regular vibration-monitoring program can capture higher vibration at much later

stage of damage condition. More is the damage; more is the release of particles from
component thereby, increasing the concentration of wear particles in lubrication oil tank.
The choking of filters is next stage when operator comes to know impending failure of
system. Regular monitoring of WPC (Wear Particle Concentration) thus alerts an operator
earlier than any other damage symptoms. This in fact helps a maintenance engineer to
schedule machine overhaul or be prepared for spares & replacement.

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CHAPTER 2

WORKING PRINCIPLE
Analytical ferrography begins with separation of the wear particles by magnetic
separation from the lubricating oil containing the wear debris on a ferrogram slide maker.
The lubricating oil sample is diluted suitably with organic solvent to improved particle
precipitation and adhesion. The diluted sample is allowed to flow from a glass slide called
a ferrogram.
The ferrogram rests on a magnetic bed, which attracts ferrous particles out of the
oil. Due to the magnetic field, the ferrous particles align themselves in chains along the
length of the slide with the largest particles being deposited at the entry point. Nonferrous
or nonmagnetic particles and contaminants, unaffected by the magnetic field, travel
downstream and are randomly deposited across the length of the slide. The deposited
ferrous particles serve as a dyke in the removal of nonferrous particles. The absence of
ferrous particles substantially reduces the effectiveness with which nonferrous particles
are removed. After the particles are deposited on the ferrogram, a wash is used to remove
any remaining lubricant. The wash quickly evaporates and the particles are permanently
attached to the slide.
The ferrogram is now ready for optical examination using a bi-chromatic
microscope. Samples are examined under a microscope that combines the features of a
biological and metallurgical microscope. Such equipment utilizes reflected and/or
transmitted light sources. Different optical filters are deployed to classify sizing,
composition, shape and texture of the particles. After classifying the composition of
particles the analyst then rates the size of the particles using a micrometer scale on the
microscope. Particles having the size of 30 microns or greater are given the rating of
severe or abnormal. Severe wear is a definite sign of abnormal running conditions with
the equipment being studied.

CHAPTER 3
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WEAR DEBRIS ANALYSIS METHODS

3.1 Analytical Ferrography

Analytical ferrography utilizes a skilled analyst examining a prepared ferrogram

slide with a computer-aided microscope to identify the composition of the material
present in a used lubricating oil sample.

Wear material and other debris suspended in a lubricant is deposited and separated
onto a ferrogram slide maker. The sample is diluted to improve particle separation onto
the ferrogram slide. Magnetic separation of wear material from the lubricating fluid
attracts ferrous particles out of the oil onto the ferrogram slide maker. Though the method
is biased to ferrous material, other nonferrous wear particle and contaminants are also
captured and identified. The slide is examined under a microscope to distinguish
composition, morphology, particle size, and relative concentration of the ferrous and non-
ferrous wear particles. Treatment of the ferrogram with heating and chemicals will further
distinguish identification of the metallurgical composition of the wear material.

The skilled analyst performs the analytical ferrography to provide a root cause for
wear mechanisms based on the morphology and composition of the particles. The analyst
will report material composition and wear morphology that will include, but is not limited
to:

 Ferrous wear particles

 High alloy steel
 Low alloy steel
 Dark metallic oxides and cast iron
 Red oxides (rust)
 White nonferrous metal particles
 Yellow metals wear particles
 Contaminants, dirt (silica), fibers and other particulates
 Fatigue wear
 Sliding wear
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 Cutting wear - abrasive wear

 Adhesive wear
 Corrosive wear

3.2 Filter Patch Test

A common method for making a detailed determination of wear occurrence,

especially for non-ferrous materials, is to employ a Filter Patch Test examination using a
microscope for wear particle analysis. A measured portion of used oil is filtered through a
filter patch. Trapped wear particles and debris are then visually examined microscopically
for a qualitative report. Observation will generally be accompanied by a photo of the
filtered wear material on a test report.

3.3 Lasernet Fines

Some of our ALS tribology laboratories employ lasernet Fines instrumentation,

which was developed by Lockheed Martin with the Naval Research Laboratory for
military application. Using direct digital imaging lasernet Fines, test results classify
particles larger than 20 micron into cutting wear, severe sliding wear, fatigue wear, and
nonmetallic material. The analysis economically combines features of particle count
determination with quantifying wear particle classification for industrial, gear and drive
train components without subjective interpretation.

3.4 Particle Quantifier Index

The particle quantifier is a magnetometer that measures the mass of ferrous wear
debris in a sample and displays this as a PQ Index. Test results are quantitated as a
relative number of ferrous material within a sample; this can then be trended for useful
wear monitoring. PQI is a simple, cost-effective test that can easily be incorporated into
routine trending analysis.

CHAPTER 4
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WEAR PARTICLES

4.1 Types Of Wear Partical

There is six basics wear particle types generated through the wear process. These
include ferrous and nonferrous particles which comprise of:

4.1.1 Normal Rubbing Wear

Normal rubbing wear particles are generated as the result of normal sliding wear
in a machine and result from exfoliation of parts of the shear mixed layer. Rubbing wear
particles consist of flat platelets, generally 5 microns or smaller, although they may range
up to 15 microns depending on equipment application. There should be little or no visible
texturing of the surface and the thickness should be one micron or less.

4.1.2 Cutting Wear Particles

Cutting wear particles are generated as a result of one surface penetrating another.
There are two ways of generating this effect.

 A relatively hard component can become misaligned or fractured, resulting in hard

sharp edge penetrating a softer surface. Particles generated this way is generally
coarse and large, averaging 2 to 5 microns wide and 25 microns to 100 microns
long.
 Hard abrasive particles in the lubrication system, either as contaminants such as
sand or wear debris from another part of the system, may become embedded in a
soft wear surface (two body abrasion) such as a lead/tin alloy bearing. The
abrasive particles protrude from the soft surface and penetrate the opposing wear
surface. The maximum size of cutting wear particles generated in this way is
proportional to the size of the abrasive particles in the lubricant. Very fine wire-
like particles can be generated with thickness as low as .25 microns. Occasionally
small particles, about 5 microns long by 25 microns thick, may be generated due
to the presence of hard inclusions in one of the wearing surfaces.

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 Cutting wear particles are abnormal. Their presence and quantity should be
carefully monitored. If the majority of cutting wear particles in a system are
around a few micrometers long and a fraction of a micrometer wide, the presence
of particulate contaminants should be suspected. If a system shows increased
quantities of large (50 micrometers long) cutting wear particles, a component
failure is potentially imminent.

4.1.3 Spherical Particles

These particles are generated in the bearing cracks. If generated, their presence
gives an improved warning of impending trouble as they are detectable before any actual
spalling occurs. Rolling bearing fatigue is not the only source of spherical metallic
particles. They are known to be generated by cavitation erosion and more importantly by
welding or grinding processes. Spheres produced in fatigue cracks may be differentiated
from those produced by other mechanisms through their size distribution. Rolling fatigue
generates few spheres over 5 microns in diameter while the spheres generated by welding,
grinding, and erosion are frequently over 10 microns in diameter.

4.1.4 Severe Sliding

Severe sliding wear particles are identified by parallel striations on their surfaces.
They are generally larger than 15 microns, with the length-to-with thickness ratio falling
between 5 and 30 microns. Severe sliding wear particles sometimes show evidence of
temper colors, which may change the appearance of the particle after heat treatment.

4.1.5 Bearing Wear Particle

These distinct particle types have been associated with rolling bearing fatigue: Fatigue
spall particles constitute actual removal from the metal surface when a pit or a crack is
propagated. These particles reach a maximum size of 100 microns during the
microspalling process. Fatigue Spalls are generally are flat with a major dimensions-to-
thickness ratio of 10 to 1. They have a smooth surface and a random, irregularly shape
circumference.

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 Laminar particles are very thin free metal particles with frequent occurrence of
holes. They range between 20 and 50 microns in major dimension with a thickness
ratio of 30:1. These particles are formed by the passage of a wear particle through
a rolling contact. Laminar particles may be generated throughout the life of a
bearing, but at the onset of fatigue spalling, the quantity generated increases. An
increasing quantity of laminar particles in addition to spherical wear is indicative
of rolling-bearing fatigue microcracks.

 4.1.6. Gear Wear

Two types of wear have been associated with gear wear:

 Pitch line fatigue particles from a gear pitch line have much in common with
rolling-element bearing fatigue particles. They generally have a smooth surface
and are frequently irregularly shaped. Depending on the gear design, the particles
usually have a major dimension-to-thickness ratio between 4:1 and 10:1. The
chunkier particle result from tensile stresses on the gear surface causing the
fatigue cracks to propagate deeper into the gear tooth prior to spalling.
 Scuffing or scoring particles is caused by too high a load and/or speed. The
particles tend to have a rough surface and jagged circumference. Even small
particles may be discerned from rubbing wear by these characteristics. Some of
the large particles have striations on their surface indicating a sliding contact.
Because of the thermal nature of scuffing, quantities of oxide are usually present
and some of the particles may show evidence of partial oxidation, that is, tan or
blue temper colors. 

Many other particle types are also present and generally describe particle morphology
or origin such as chunk, black oxide, red oxide, corrosive, etc. In addition to ferrous and
non-ferrous, contaminant particles can also be present and may include: sand and dirt,
fibers, friction polymers, and contaminant spheres.

CHAPTER 5

ADVANTAGES OF FERROGRAPHY
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Although ferrography is an expensive and lengthy process requiring well-trained

analysts, the benefits far outweigh the costs. The following are the key benefits of using
ferrography:

 Ferrographic analysis determines the number, size and shape of wear particles.

 Decrease of maintenance costs.

 Effective maintenance scheduling.

 Improved equipment reliability and safety.

 Minimal machine power consumption over a period.

 Reduction in unscheduled downtime due to wear of rotary components such as

gears and bearings.

 Improves environmental cleanliness of the process, due to optimized oil changes.

CHAPTER 6

APPLICATIONS

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6.1 Clinker Hammer Crusher

The clinker hammer crusher is one of the main pieces of equipment in cement
production and is used for the crushing of clinker, the main product of cement kilns, into
smaller parts for the preparation of grinding.

At CEMEX Egypt, the bearings used in the clinker crusher are spherical roller
bearings. These bearings are lubricated with lithium complex thickened grease with and
synthetic base oil designed for high-temperature applications.

Figure 6.1: Clinker Hammer Crusher

At the CEMEX plant, bearing failures can lead to a halt in cement production. To
maintain continuous operation, it is critical for the bearings to operate smoothly. As part
of the predictive maintenance program, vibration analysis is used to monitor the condition
of the crusher.

A grease sample to analyze wear debris was taken at the first shutdown of the
clinker crusher as part of a new program to monitor the performance of equipment.
Vibration monitoring of the outboard bearing in the third clinker crusher line at a speed of
360 RPM provided no warning signals.

Wear debris analysis was carried out on used greases by extracting magnetic
particles from the sample using a magnet. Microscopic analysis of the sample identified
numerous small and large spherical particles. Research has shown that spherical wear
debris can reveal the severity of rolling-contact fatigue wear. Because large spherical

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particles (50 microns) are the product of high metal-to-metal contact and high frictional
temperature, their presence is considered a supporting symptom for assessing the wear
severity levels.

Figure 6.2: Stereoscopic Zoom Microscope

6.2 Follow-Up Inspection

During shutdown, the crusher's outboard bearing was replaced. To check for
potential defects, the bearing was opened and visually inspected. A close look of the outer
race of the defective bearing showed signs of severe wearing.

Figure 6.3: Large And Small Spherical Particles Found In A Bearing Grease Sample

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Figure 6.4: Defective Bearing Shows Signs Of Severe Wear

This case study illustrates the efficiency of condition monitoring based on the
detection of debris in grease, which can be a resourceful tool in controlling machine
condition and should integrate diagnostic devices.

6.3 Aircraft Gas Turbines

  Aircraft and aircraft-derivative jet engines are subject to various failure

mechanisms. Some of these failure modes proceed very rapidly, whereas others can be
detected hundreds of operating hours before a shutdown condition is reached. Most
failures of gas turbines occur in gas path. Gas-path failures frequently, but not always,
cause an increase in wear particle size and concentration in the oil system, probably due
to the transmittal of imbalance forces to turbine bearings and other oil-wetted parts. The
resulting bearing or gear wear is then detected by both Used Oil Analysis and Wear
Particle analysis.

Determining the exact source of wear problem can be difficult in a gas turbine
because of complexity of the oil-wetted path. Typically several cavities, housing bearings,
or gears will be force lubricated through individual return lines connected to a tank from
which the oil is pumped (at a high rate), then pass through a filter and heat exchanger, and
the cycle repeated. Magnetic chip detectors or magnetic plugs are often installed in the
return lines from various engine parts. However, chip detectors will not give a warning
until the wear situation is so severe that extremely large particles are being generated. By
this time, the opportunity for predictive maintenance may be lost. Other analytical
techniques, such as vibration analysis, may help to pinpoint the part in distress utilizing

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expert system software that provides recommendations for action. In any case, predictive
maintenance tools integrated together offer the maintenance engineer the best decision
making tool.

6.4 Monitoring Wear Debris (Ferrography) Analysis - Maintain

Equipment & Reduce Downtime

Figure 6.5: Analytical Ferrography

Wear Debris Analysis (Analytical Ferrography) is a method of predicting the

health of equipment in a non-intrusive manner by studying the wear particles present in
the lubricating oil. The continuous trending of wear rate monitors the performance of
machine components and provides early warning and diagnosis of worn parts. This
technique can diagnose active machine wear earlier than using vibration techniques,
enabling the replacement of key components before any serious damage occurs.
Therefore, production can be maintained, machinery life extended and the return on
capital investment increased.

CONCLUSION
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The benefit of automation is in the use computer programs and emerging software
technologies of artificial intelligence to assist in determining when to remove equipment
from service for maintenance. These case histories provide a real world scenario that
indicates it’s not that easy to put artificial intelligence to make maintenance decisions.
However, this does not mean we do not try. For example, an advanced system, which
integrates emerging technologies in vibration, motor current analysis, Thermography,
ultrasonic, electronics, microprocessing, graphics, and data management, could regularly
sample a number of machines. From a sampling device, compare the samples to previous
samples for trend information (along with other Data parameters), make the decision to
schedule the machine for maintenance, generate a work order for the maintenance team
and send a purchase/work order to accounting for needed repair parts.

The maintenance manager/engineer could have almost instantaneous reports on

the condition of each machine, along with a dollar figure indicating the optimal dates for
shutdown and other maintenance requirements, basically, a financial decision.

 The wear debris monitoring method access the nature of the particles generated
when components wear.

 They can indicate exact nature of the machine problem

 The methods of wear debris analysis used as an indication of machine conditions
are: Indication from the amount of debris present, Indication from the size
distribution of debris Indication from the physical form of debris Application of
chemical analysis of debris.

REFERENCES

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[1] Jian Ding, 2003. "Determining Fatigue Wear Using Wear Particle Analysis
Tools." Practicing Oil Analysis magazine. Available at:
http://www.machinerylubrication.com/Read/526/fatigue-wear-particle-analysis.
[2] Sabrin Gebarin And Jim Fitch, 2005. "Origin of Spherical Particles in
Lubricants." Practicing Oil Analysis magazine. Available at:
http://www.machinerylubrication.com/Read/719/spherical-particles-lubricants.
[3] Ray Garvey, 2005. "Enhanced 5200 Minilab Offers Improved Oil Analysis."
Practicing Oil Analysis magazine. Available at:
http://www.machinerylubrication.com/Read/760/5200-minilab-oil-analysis.
[4] Venkatraman.A, Senthilvelan. “Winter school on recent trends in diagnostic
maintenance”.
[5] Prabhu.B.S “Workshop on plant engineering and industrial tribology”. Available
at:https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/9bf4/40505b1a7d2f4a532b5e09616cd20cf42e5
3.pdf.

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