Consciousness And: Self-Regulafion
Consciousness And: Self-Regulafion
Consciousness And: Self-Regulafion
Self-Regulafion
Advances in Research and Theory
VOLUME 2
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Consciousness and
Self-Regulation
Advances in Research and Theory
VOLUME 2
Edited by
GARY E. SCHWARTZ
Yale University
and
DAVID SHAPIRO
University of California, Los Angeles
vii
viii
The first and foremost concrete fact which every one will affirm to belong to
his inner experience is the fact that consciousness of some sort goes on. I
-William James, 1893
I William James, Psychology: Briefer Course (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1893),
p.152.
ix
x PREFACE
2 Ibid., p. 1.
3 Jacobson, "Electrophysiology of Mental Activities and Introduction to the Psychologi-
cal Process of Thinking." In F. J. McGuigan and R. A. Schoonover (Eds.), The
Psychophysiology of Thinking (New York: Academic Press, 1973), p. 14.
PREFACE xi
... I submit that it was this antitheoretical stance that prevented any
close attention to physiology . . . . If the mechanisms we postulate are
"like" physiological mechanisms, then we will have heeded James in
modem terms. But if we are, as we were, afraid to postulate complex
mental mechanisms, we will never find the corresponding complex phy-
siological mechanisms. 4
4 G. Mandler, "Acceptance of Things Past and Present: A Look at the Mind and the
Brain." In R. B. MacLeod (Ed.), William James: Unfinished Business (Washington, D.C.
American Psychological Association, 1969), pp. 13, 14.
Overview of Volume 2
led him to fail to question the adequacy of the methods used until
subsequent failures of replication emerged.
The question of visceral self-regulation is addressed further by
Wesley C. Lynch and Uwe Schuri in their chapter on "Acquired
Control of Peripheral Vascular Responses." Lynch and Schuri review
the basic anatomy and physiology of the peripheral vasomotor system
with special interest in uncovering "particular variables that may
inadvertently affect vascular response, making the results of psychol-
ogical studies difficult to assess." These authors review the literature
on acquired self-regulation from the perspective of learning theory,
evaluating the classical and instrumental approaches to visceral learn-
ing. The interaction of awareness and learning is shown to exist
within the classical conditioning paradigm, but the authors question
whether the results reflect the role of consciousness per se, or whether
awareness interacts with motivation and thereby influences vasomotor
learning. Data on vasomotor self-regulation using biofeedback proce-
dures are also reviewed and critically evaluated. Whereas studies by
Lynch and Schuri themselves failed to obtain vasomotor self-control in
adults, the authors do present positive results in children. However,
Lynch and Schuri suggest that these observed changes in vasomotor
activity were secondary to learned control of hand isometric-muscle
tension. They conclude that much is to be learned about the mecha-
nisms by which persons can learn to self-regulate vasomotor activity
and about the limitations of this control.
Martin T. Orne and Stuart K. Wilson, in their chapter "On the
Nature of Alpha Feedback Training," raise similar theoretical and
practical issues with regard to the learned self-regulation of EEG alpha
rhythms. Orne and Wilson critically evaluate the early observations of
Brown and Kamiya suggesting that alpha biofeedback training was
associated with pleasant, relaxed feelings. They seriously question
whether alpha biofeedback is a "method by which modern man might
achieve direct control over his anxiety and dysphoria," and they
evaluate "the disparate scientific observations that made this dream
plausible." Based on a detailed presentation of their own series of
studies on the regulation of EEG alpha, as well as a review of the
findings of other investigators, Orne and Wilson conclude that many
of the initial assumptions about the relationship of alpha abundance
to subjective state and their mechanisms of self-regulation are incor-
rect. Regarding potential clinical applications, Orne and Wilson sug-
gest that "once novelty and visuomotor effects are eliminated, alpha
augmentation may be the product of relaxation in one individual and
hyperarousal in another, while a third may show little relationship
between subjective state and alpha density." Emphasizing the need
xviii OVERVIEW OF VOLUME 2
I. Introduction 139
II. Criteria Necessary and Sufficient for Ascribing Self-
Deception 145
III. Empirical Investigations of Self-Confrontation 151
A. Psychophysiological and Psychological
Correlates 152
B. Vocal Masking Experiments 157
C. The Aversiveness of Self-Confrontation 159
D. Social Psychological Effects of Self-
Confrontation 161
E. Self-Confrontation and States of Awareness 162
F. Individual Differences in Reactions to Self-
Confrontation 163
G. A Theoretical Integration of Studies of Self-
Confrontation 165
IV. The Experimental Investigation of Self-Deception 172
A. Studies of Nonrecognition of the Self 172
B. The Demonstration of the Existence of Self-
Deception 173
C. The Ascription of Self-Deception 180
V. Self-Deception, Functional Brain Asymmetry, and
Consciousness 182
A. Motives and Individual Differences in Self-
Deception 182
B. Mechanisms Underlying Self-Deception: The
Hemisphericity Hypothesis 185
C. Overview 189
References 191
CONTENTS xxi
I. Introduction 359
CONTENTS xxiii
A. R. LURIA
1 The relations between the brain and consciousness have been examined in books such
as those by Sherrington (1934, 1940) and Eccles (1953) and also in the proceedings of
international symposia, including: "Brain Mechanisms and Consciousness" (directed
by E. Adrian, F. Bremer, and H. Jasper), Oxford (1954), "The Nature of Sleep"
(directed by G. Wolstenholme and M. O'Connor), London (1960); "Mechanisms of the
Brain" and "Progress in Brain Research" (directed by G. Moruzzi, A. Fessard, and H.
Jasper), Amsterdam (1963), and finally, "Brain and Conscious Experience" (directed by
J. Eccles), Berlin (1966).
1
2 A. R. LURIA
II
2 Because of this special feature of the brain, operations can be perfonned on it even
without anesthesia, for they evoke no sensation in the patient.
6 A. R. LURIA
Having learned the speech of adults and then having learned to form
his own speech, with its aid the child starts to recode incoming
information; when naming objects and classifying them on the basis
of the verbal system, which Pavlov (1949, Vol. 3) deliberately distin-
guished as the "second signal system of reality," he begins afresh to
analyze and classify impressions obtained from the outside world and
to analyze incoming information. Perception mediated through speech
appears (see Vygotskii, 1960; Rozengardt-Pupko, 1948); a new struc-
ture of memory, becoming logical and voluntary in character is formed
(Leont'ev, 1959); and new forms of voluntary attention (Vygotskii,
1956) and new forms of emotional experience of reality arise (Wallon,
1942; Vygotskii, 1960).
Finally, as research in the last two decades has shown, it is on the
basis of speech that complex processes of regulation of man's own
actions are formed (Luria, 1956, 1958); although initially a method of
communication between the child and adults, speech thus gradually
becomes converted into a form of organization of human psychological
activity.
There is every reason to suppose that analysis of this type will
provide the pathway for a new scientific approach to such difficult
problems as self-awareness, which in classical idealistic philosophy
was regarded as a direct "quality," incapable of further subdivision,
but which from these new standpoints must be regarded as a complex
product of evolution, a special "contracted" form of what was previ-
ously expanded mental activity, taking place with the close participa-
tion of internal speech and fully amenable to scientific analytical
investigation (see Gal'perin, 1959).
From these basic principles, Vygotskii concluded that human
consciousness, in the various stages of development, not only differs
in its semantic structure but operates by means of different systems of
psychological processes; whereas in the first stages of its formation the
leading role in the structure of consciousness is played by direct
emotional impressions, in the later stages the decisive role is taken
over first by complex perception of and manipulation with objects and
in the final stages by a system of abstract codes, based on the
abstracting and generalizing function of language.
Human consciousness, formed on the basis of manipulative
activity, naturally acquires a new character, radically different from
the psychological processes of animals; Vygotskii was thus perfectly
right to insist that words, as elements of speech, are correlates of
consciousness, the basic units of human consciousness, rather than
correlates of thinking (Vygotskii, 1958).
It will be clear how the concept of consciousness as formulated in
8 A. R. LURIA
III
If consciousness has a complex semantic and system-based struc-
ture, if conscious activity in its different stages is carried out by a
variety of functional systems, changing in the course of successive
moments of our conscious life, changing depending on the level of
wakefulness and on man's immediate aims and purposes, it will be
perfectly clear why all attempts to seek some special formation or some
special cell group in the brain as the "organ of consciousness" are
meaningless from the very beginning. i Attempts to find an organ
generating consciousness in the depth of the brain would be just as
senseless as were the attempts within our own lifetime to seek the
"seat of the soul" in the pineal gland, in support of the naive
hypotheses of Descartes. The search for the "brain apparatus of
consciousness," proceeding along these lines, could at best lead to the
recognition of the systems in the brain responsible f6r wakefulness (as
did those workers whose research led to the discovery of the brain-
stem reticular formation, maintaining the alert state of the cortex and
thereby creating optimal conditions for the cortical cells); however,
this search did not contribute in any way to the solution of the
problem of the brain structures responsible for conscious reflection of
reality or the complex and variable forms of conscious activity.
This view that consciousness is semantic and system-based in
structure, that psychological processes are complex and variable in
structure, as a result of which the specifically human forms of active
reception of reality and conscious control over human behavior
become possible, demands a radical redirection of our attempts and of
the attention of the research worker toward the identification of the
system of brain mechanisms, each component of which contributes to
human conscious activity.
There is no need to say that such an approach has nothing in
common with the correct but empty assertion that "the brain works as
a whole" and that the "whole brain" is the organ of consciousness.
Without pursuing this theme that consciousness is a function of mass
action of the brain, the parts of which exhibit "equipotentiality" (such
views are nowadays rejected by all progressive neurologists; see
Eccles, 1966, pp. 553-554), we must direct our attention to the analysis
of the concrete contribution made by each brain system to human
THE HUMAN BRAIN AND CONSCIOUS ACTIVITY 9
IV
No lesion of the cerebral hemispheres, however large and how-
ever massive the disturbance of individual functions that it causes,
can lead to loss of the waking state or to a disturbance of the unity of
the personality; "loss of consciousness" arises only after operations on
the brain stem so that impulses running to the cortex from the brain-
stem reticular formation are blocked, with a sudden consequent fall of
cortical tone. This fact led the workers who first described it to regard
the brain-stem reticular formation as the apparatus of wakefulness
(Magoun, 1958), and some of them have actually gone so far as to
postulate that the "centrencephalic system" of the brain stem is the
true supreme brain level, with the role of controller of human
conscious life (Penfield, 1957, 1966).
THE HUMAN BRAIN AND CONSCIOUS ACTIVITY 13
The fact that the brain-stem reticular formation, with its ability to
modulate cortical tone, regulates the state of wakefulness is no longer
in any doubt. However, the view that lesions of certain portions of the
cerebral hemispheres, although not reflected in the waking state of the
cortex, leave consciousness completely unaffected seems to the writer
to be deeply mistaken.
If we accept the definition of consciousness given above and
regard it as a specially complex form of brain activity-permitting the
analysis of incoming information, the evaluation and selection of its
significant (useful) elements, the use of memory traces, control over
the course of goal-directed activity, and, finally, evaluation of the
results of its own activity and the correction of any mistakes made-it
will be easy to see that the elements of this complex system must
inevitably suffer in local brain lesions; moreover, what is particularly
important, they do not always suffer in the same way, but they are
disturbed very selectively in brain lesions in different situations.
These arguments lead to a conclusion that is to some extent
opposite to the one generally held, for we must suppose that the
integrity of consciousness in patients with massive local brain lesions,
to which many writers have referred, is a purely apparent phenome-
non, and in reality massive lesions of the cerebral hemispheres,
although not causing loss of wakefulness, do nevertheless evoke
substantial disturbances (but differing in different cases) of conscious
activity, which call for special analysis and precise qualification in
each case.
This proposition, which invariably arises if we accept the concept
of the semantic structure of consciousness, necessitates rejection of the
simplified, purely quantitative approach to consciousness that
amounts to nothing more than the mere statement of the presence or
absence of consciousness (or at best, references to clear, incomplete, or
confused consciousness) and replaces it with the more concrete task of
describing exactly what changes in the structure of conscious activity
can be found in brain lesions in different situations. It is only by this
approach-one that does not rest on subjective methods of assessment
but requires the objective, structural analysis of the patient's activity-
that we can obtain truly scientific information on the role of the
various zones or systems of the brain in human conscious activity.
Modem views on the structure of activity-as developed previ-
ously by individual workers (Bemshtein, 1935, 1947; Anokhin, 1935;
Leont'ev, 1959; Miller, Galanter, and Pribram, 1960) and that at the
present time, with the development of the study of self-regulating
systems, are shared by virtually everybody-regard human conscious
activity as consisting of a number of major components. These include
14 A. R. LURIA
v
Let us now review the facts relating to the various forms of
disturbance of conscious activity at our disposal.
Lesions of the primary (projection) cortical areas-or as they are
now generally called, intrinsic areas-disturb neither the complex
forms of information processing nor the programming and monitoring
of personal actions nor the selectively organized course of psychologi-
cal processes; in other words, they do not in any way disturb
conscious behavior.
According to views that have developed in neurology, these areas
are merely the "ways in or ways out" of the cerebral hemispheres or,
as some writers prefer to express it, the "posterior and anterior horns
THE HUMAN BRAIN AND CONSCIOUS ACTIVITY 15
VI
I have examined the characteristics of those cortical zones whose
lesions either leave the course of conscious activity unaffected or
THE HUMAN BRAIN AND CONSCIOUS ACTIVITY
19
quate at the time when the action began but ceased to be adequate
with the switch to the new instruction.
The instability of the goal-directed, conscious behavior of patients
with frontal lobe lesions and the ease with which the conscious
performance of actions (governed by the internal program) is replaced
either by the more elementary "field" action (subordinated to direct
external situations) or by perseverating inert stereotypes can be seen
also in the behavior of such patients in a natural setting. I cannot
forget a patient with a massive (traumatic) lesion of the frontal lobes
who, when trying to find his way out of the clinic, yielded to the
impression made by the first staircase he found in his way and went
up it instead of down it, or who went through the open door of a
cupboard instead of leaving the room (B. V. Zeigarnik's case), or a
patient who, when asked to fetch some cigarettes from a ward situated
at the end of the corridor, met some patients coming in the opposite
direction and turned back after them (although he remembered the
instruction quite clearly). I remember a similar patient who, after a
severe wound of the frontal lobes, was discharged from hospital and,
having been given a railroad ticket to her home town, broke her
journey where she had to change trains and settled down there
without ever reaching her destination. Finally, I recall a patient with a
massive wound of the frontal lobes who, when instructed to plane a
piece of wood, continued the action inertly until most of the wood had
been planed away.
In all these cases, the patients' conscious behavior was disturbed
on the same principle: the verbal expression of the intention (or
instruction) could be retained for a long time but it lost its regulatory
influence; once the patient had ceased to behave in accordance with
the internally formulated plan, his behavior fell under the influence of
direct impressions or of inert stereotypes.
The disturbance of conscious activity arising in patients with
passive lesions of the frontal lobes may assume a different character
and be manifested at different levels of psychological activity. In
lesions of the basal zones of the frontal lobes (for example, in tumors
of the olfactory fossa), they assume the character of uncontrollable,
impulsive actions, arising whenever the task is made more difficult,
whereas in lesions of the lateral zones of the frontal region, they
assume the form of gross simplification of motor programs and
pathological inertia of earlier stereotypes. In patients with massive
bilateral frontal lobe lesions, they may assume the form of disintegra-
tion of the patient's behavior, whereas in milder forms of the "frontal
syndrome," disturbances arise only during complex forms of intellec-
tual activity (Luria and Tsvetkova, 1966).
THE HUMAN BRAIN AND CONSCIOUS ACTIVITY 23
VII
So far we have dealt with brain zones whose lesions either do not
disturb conscious activity or disturb it partially, by interfering with
the performance of programs of conscious action and preventing a
critical attitude toward its defects.
We must now turn to the analysis of cases in which a brain lesion
causes disturbances that all observers describe as changes in con-
sciousness but whose brain mechanisms have remained obscure or
difficult to describe for a long time.
In all the cases I shall now discuss, disorders of brain activity
were connected with disturbances of memory, and the connection is
often so close that it is sometimes difficult to draw a line between the
disturbance of consciousness and the disturbances of memory.
Local lesions of the posterior zones of the hemispheres, restricting
the processing of incoming information, often may also be accompa-
nied by definite disturbances of memory. However, these disturbances
of memory are strictly modality-specific in character and never lead to
changes in consciousness.
We know, for example, that lesions of the middle zones of the left
temporal lobe, which do not cause marked defects of phonemic
(verbal) hearing may lead to definite disturbances of audioverbal
memory; the patient is unable to retain audioverbal series and cannot
repeat the names of objects as easily as he should. A characteristic
feature of these disturbances (I have analyzed them in detail else-
where: Luria, 1947, 1966; Luria and Rapoport, 1962) is, however, that
the memory defects in these cases are limited to the audioverbal
sphere only, and visual or kinesthetic memory is never disturbed.
There is reason to suppose that the opposite relations apply in lesions
of the occipitoparietal zones of the cortex, when changes in visuospa-
tial memory (intimately connected with disturbances of visuospatial
THE HUMAN BRAIN AND CONSCIOUS ACTIVITY 25
them, they become mixed with the traces of Group B, thus giving rise
to contamination, or the selectivity of recall is lost and a mass of
interfering associations-which the patient cannot inhibit and which
deprive the recalling of traces of necessary selectivity-begins to be
interwoven into it (Luria, 1974-1975).
Characteristically, in all these disturbances, the patient does not
display the necessary critical attitude toward these phenomena of
contamination or intermingling of interfering associations; he makes
no attempt-in the course of his defects of memory he cannot-to
compare the material reproduced with the traces of that given previ-
ously; and he is quite unaware that his answers are incorrect.
The value of these tests is that they reveal, as it were, a model of
the processes that, as the disease develops further, may assume the
form of marked confusion and gross disturbances of consciousness.
There is no doubt that all these phenomena belong to a sphere
that, without any qualification or restriction, can be classed as
disturbances of consciousness arising in local brain lesions. The
interest of the facts I have given above (and the study of which is still
in its earliest stages) is, however, that they enable us to distinguish
another, qualitatively distinctive structure of disturbances of con-
scious activity by linking it with specific disturbances of memory and
by indicating the importance of lesions of specific brain structures in
its pathogenesis.
VIII
I have completed this survey of my views on the brain systems
that lie at the basis of human conscious activity, and I can now draw
certain conclusions.
Most attempts to study relations between consciousness and the
brain have set out from the notion that consciousness is not qualita-
tive, that it is a subjective experience bestowed ab initio on man,
incapable of further analysis into components, totally devoid of both
history and structure, and fundamentally different in principle from all
the rest of the (especially external) material world. These dualistic
views led inevitably to a search for the location in the brain where, as
Sherrington put it, "consciousness enters the brain," or the most
elementary brain formations in which consciousness is "generated."
Despite the fact that research into this problem, with the most
sophisticated methods of studying the precise functional structure of
neurons and synapses, has yielded rich and important information as
a by-product, the view that consciousness does not possess quality
must be regarded as theoretically sterile and practically unrewarding.
30 A. R. LURIA
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2 Imagery and Thinking:
Covert Functioning of the
Motor System
F. J. MCGUIGAN
37
38 F. J. MCGUIGAN
R B
FIGURE 1. Two extreme views of the role of the brain in thinking. In an extreme motor
theory (A) "the original stimulations from a problem situation playing upon receptor R,
evoke an abbreviated response at effector E,. This in tum serves to excite receptor R2
(kinesthetic or other) which evokes a response at effector Eo. And so the nascent
abbreviated symbolic responses continue until the thinking eventuates in an overt act,
as performed by effector E6 • • • • The neural counterpart of each idea was an excitation in
a local spot (cell-cluster) in the brain [B]; and the transitions from idea to idea were
referable physiologically to the passage of a neural impulse or train of impulses from
cell-cluster to cell-cluster. Now this shooting around of neural currents within the
cerebrum is as grossly oversimplified an account as is the story of receptor-effector arcs
told above and suggested in part A of the figure" (Dashiell, 1949, pp. 588-589).
circuits within the brain that do not interact in any sense with the
external musculature is an empirical question (regardless of Sech-
enov's position) that will probably not be decided within the foresee-
able future. The important point for us here is that the early theorizing
of central-peripheral circuits (as in Figure 1, though with many
simultaneous channels) was empirically confirmed by Jacobson in his
classic measurement of mental activities in terms of neuromuscular
activity. Jacobson's work and that of later researchers has thus pro-
vided us with a sound empirical basis for concluding that the several
classes of covert processes discussed in the introduction occur during
the silent performance of cognitive tasks (also d. McGuigan, 1966,
1970, 1973b). These psychophysiologically measured covert events are
widespread throughout the body, extremely complex, and often of
very low amplitude, and many occur with great rapidity (muscle
responses of special interest to us frequently are of but several msec in
duration and of less than 1 f.L V in amplitude).
Much contemporary research is directed toward the specification
of functions for these covert processes; of special prominence are
processes designated as the contingent negative variation (CNV or
"expectancy wave"), evoked brain potentials, galvanic skin responses,
heart responding, and covert skeletal muscle activity. Our model has
been one in which these brain, muscle, and glandular events are all
critical components of neuromuscular circuits that function in highly
complex internal information-processing systems within humans.
More particularly, we have hypothesized that these covert processes
form: (1) intracerebral circuits within various brain regions and (2)
circuits between the brain and peripheral mechanisms (the eyes, the
skeletal muscles in the neck, arms, tongue, etc.). When activated,
these neuromuscular circuits may serve cognitive functions by gener-
ating and transmitting verbal codes (d. McGuigan, 1970, 1973a,b). In
Figure 2, we represent a model by which various bodily systems
interact during internal information processing. We also indicate
complex circuits between the cerebrum and autonomic systems that
are assumed to add emotional tone to the linguistic input. These
autonomic circuits are extremely slow, perhaps involving seconds, in
contrast to the neuromuscular circuits above, which involve but a few
msec.
This model is more extensively discussed, together with some of
the data on which it is based, in McGuigan (1976). With regard to
skeletal muscle data, we have critically summarized data that implicate
the speech muscle components of these circuits (McGuigan, 1970) but
have not done so for the somatic musculature. In view of our
discussion above that covert nonoral responses generated by the
42 F. J. MCGUIGAN
s AUDITORY
)
FIGURE 2. Once the extemallinguistic signal impinges on the receptor (here on the ear),
circuits of the class Ia and Ib are simultaneously activated. Circuit class Ib directly
functions with the speech musculature, while in circuit Ia information enters the
subcortical regions of the brain, whereupon the receptor is modulated by feedback.
Next the information is processed between the speech musculature and the subcortical
regions (circuit class Ib'). The incoming information is directed to the sensory cortex for
integration from the two separate receptors by circuit class IIa. Cortical-subcortical
circuits are also activated through the cortical association areas (wherein there are
transcortical reverberating circuits) through circuit class IIb. Following this initial
processing, cerebral to skeletal muscle circuits are activated (IlIa) for the speech
musculature and (IIIb) for the nonoral skeletal muscle; the function of circuit class III is
in the generation and transmission of verbal coding for lexical-semantical processing in
conjunction with the three major linguistic regions of the brain through circuit class IV.
sufficient empirical justification for the position that the motor system
serves important functions during imagery and thought. Assuming a
positive answer, next is the extremely difficult question of specifying
possible cognitive functions of the nonoral skeletal musculature. 1
Wallerstein (1954) Yes' (forehead and arms) Yes' Yes (chin, forehead, and Yes ~
arms are independent) :>
Z
Bartoshuk (1956) Yes' (forehead and arms) Yes' Yes (chin, arms, and fore (;)
....,
head EMGs are :I:
independent) Z~
No (frontalis and EEG)
Z
Cl
Learning:
Travis and Kennedy (1947) Yes (brow) Yes Yes
Berry and Davis (1958) Yes' (forehead and left arm) Yes' No (masseter)
Yes (forehead and masseter)
Berger, Irwin, and Frommer (1970) Yes (rt. wrist and arm) Yes' Yes
Petrinovich and Hardyck (1970) Yes (laryngeal, chin-lip and Yes'
rt. arm)
Beh & Hawkins (1973) Yes (arm) ?
Sleep- dreams:
Max (1935) Yes (arms) Yes Yes
Stoyva (1965) Yes (arm) Yes No (EOG) Yes
Wolpert & Trosman (1958) Yes (general) Yes'
Wolpert (1960) Yes (wrist) Yes (?) No (EEG,EOG) Yes'
Jacobson et al. (1964) Yes (29 muscle groups) (various) Yes
Baldridge et al. (1965) Yes (hand, foot) No (eye) Yes
Sassin & Johnson (1968) Yes (arm & leg) No (EEG)
Larson and Foulkes (1969) Yes (forehead) No (EOG, EEG) Yes
Pessah and Roffwarg (1972) Yes (middle ear muscle) Yes' No (EOG) Yes
Gardner et al. (1973) Yes (various) No (EOG) Yes
'I
*'"
48 F. J. MCGUIGAN
A. Problem Solving
Although he was primarily concerned with the physiology of
neurosis, Golla (1921) also reported data relating changes in muscle
activity to cognition. In the first study (McGuigan, 1970), a subject was
instructed initially to sing up and down an octave and then to imagine
the same activity. Phasic changes of the front neck musculature (hence
laryngeal movements associated with thyroid cartilage movement)
were measured by a system of tambours and an optical lever. Sample
records showed that muscle activity during imagination was of lesser
amplitude but in the same pattern as that observed during actual
performance of singing. In the second, more directly relevant study,
tonic muscle activity of an unspecified forearm was measured by a
similar apparatus during a mental arithmetic task. Records obtained
from one "unsophisticated" subject indicated that muscle tonicity
increased during the task and was positively related to the difficulty of
the problem. Golla concluded that such muscle activity may not only
be a manifestation of cerebral activity but a necessary concomitant of
it. In Table 1, because the arm measure changed from baseline, we
enter "yes" in Column 1 (the lack of an asterisk indicating that no
statistical test was applied.) The "yes" in Column 2 is indicative of
Golla's finding that muscle tonicity increased as a function of a
difficulty of the problem, this specific relationship also accounting for
the "yes" in Column 4. The question mark in Column 3 indicates that
no other bodily measures were concomitantly made with arm activity.
Tuttle (1924) tapped subjects' patellar tendons with a constant
force at constant intervals and obtained measures of muscle tonus
during conditions of rest, problem solving, and conversation. Muscle
tonus was measured as the distance of leg deflection during the knee
jerk. The records from all subjects showed that mental activity in-
creased muscle tonus, with reflex activity being highest during prob-
lem solving, next highest for conversation, and lowest for the relaxa-
tion condition. Agreeing with A. P. Weiss, Tuttle concluded that
"attention" is increased tonicity of the muscles which adjusts the body
for the favorable reception of stimuli. Furthermore, the amount of
muscle tonus seemed to be positively associated with the degree of
attention. Because the assessments in Table 1 for each article should be
IMAGERY AND THINKING 51
fairly apparent from this point on, the reader should be able to relate
each study to the four criteria without further comment here except as
necessary.
Bill's (1927) approach was unique. He asked, "Will an increase in
the total amount of muscular tension in the body increase mental
efficiency?" and thus reversed the usual order of dependent and
independent variables in the experiment. Muscle tension was in-
creased by having the subjects squeeze a spring dynanometer, and the
increased tension was confirmed by kymographic records. Mental
work included the learning of nonsense syllables, the learning of
meaningful paired associates, the adding of columns of numbers, and
a rapid perception task. Learning efficiency (average learning time)
was measured under normal and increased muscular tension. During
all types of mental work, learning efficiency was significantly greater
under increased muscular tension, with no sizable differences among
the various mental tasks.
The effect of fatigue upon adding numbers and upon the percep-
tion task indicated that learning speed was less susceptible to decre-
ment under increased muscular tension than under normal tension,
however, the decrement in accuracy of performance did not differ
during fatigue between the two muscle conditions. After a thoughtful
analysis of various ways in which heightened muscular tension might
facilitate mental work, Bills implied a confirmation of Washburn's
(1916) hypothesis that motor innervations are not mere accompani-
ments of directed thought but are essential parts of the cause of
directed thought. Bills also presented a most interesting historical
summary of previous research on the influence of muscular tension on
the efficiency of mental work, citing the positive findings of Lombard
in 1887, Dresslar in 1891, and so forth. The "yes" in Column 1 for this
study may be somewhat misleading because Bills employed degree of
muscle tension as the independent variable, thus intentionally in-
creasing tension from a resting conciition. In Column 2, the "yes"
indicates the successful use of a control (normal muscle tension)
condition, and the "no" in Column 4 reflects the finding that there
were no sizable differences in learning efficiency as a function of the
various mental tasks. (This same comment applies to several other
studies too, particularly to Smith, Brown, Toman, and Goodman,
1947, and to Beh and Hawkins, 1973).
Golla and Antonovitch (1929) measured tonus or arm and leg
extensor muscles and the patellar reflex by means of an optical
myograph while subjects performed various cognitive tasks (mental
arithmetic, pursuit tasks, etc.). In general, there was an immediate rise
of tonus or reactivity at the inception of mental work, an increase that
52 F. J. MCGUIGAN
and that the general tension level was lower in those subjects who
produced more errors.
Although specifically interested in studying changes in EEG
amplitude, MacNeilage (1966) also obtained records of various other
indices of activation, including right-arm and forehead EMG, EKG,
and palmar conductance during a spaced auditory serial addition task.
Baseline recordings were taken during rest; following that, there were
two experimental conditions in which the subjects simply wrote
numbers or silently performed serial addition of numbers that were
auditorially presented. These two conditions were then repeated and
followed by a final rest period. The results showed that all indices of
activation significantly increased from rest during both of the experi-
mental conditions, but no reliable differences were found between the
two experimental conditions. Difficulty of the serial addition task
(varied by speed of presentation), significantly increased only fore-
head and right-arm EMG in the first part of the experiment; however,
in the second part of the experiment, the difficulty of the task
significantly increased heart rate, respiration, and right-arm EMG,
while significantly reducing EEG alpha. Forehead EMG was not
significantly affected by task difficulty in the second part. A descrip-
tion of the within-trials effects for the addition task indicated that as
percentage of correct responses, EKG, and palmar conductance de-
creased, the EEG alpha amplitude increased. However, arm and
forehead EMG showed no similar gradients. MacNeilage concluded
that all measures excepting EMG show a high concordance and that
this exception presents difficulty for an activation theory of mental
performance.
Pishkin and Shurley (1968) studied the effects of cognitive stress
upon subsequent performance of a concept-identification task and on
level of arousal. Three levels of task complexity were factorially
combined with two sets given to the subjects (solvable and unsolva-
ble). The concept-identification tasks required the subjects to classify
geometric patterns in accordance with the relevant dimension (size,
color, or shape) by pressing one of two response keys. In the first
stage of the procedure, the subjects were given a set task that
established either a solvable or an unsolvable set. For the solvable set,
subjects received accurate feedback. In the unsolvable set, subjects
were given incorrect feedback on 50% of the trials. In the second stage
of the experiment, the subjects were presented a similar series of
concept-identification problems while spontaneous GSR and forehead
EMG were recorded. The results were that task complexity and the
effects of cognitive stress induced by the unsolvable set significantly
increased the number of errors on the concept-identification task and
IMAGERY AND THINKING 59
B. Imagination
The classical work in this section has been conducted primarily by
Jacobson. Further on we discuss Jacobson's development of this
60 F. J. MCGUIGAN
ser than trained, relaxed subjects, so that the small potentials that
accompanied thought may have been swamped by generalized tension
potentials generated by nervous subjects anticipating instructions.
C. Silent Reading
D. Speech Perception
The internal processing that occurs during listening is no doubt
unique in some important respects. By systematically recording var-
ious covert processes, we should be able to specify the critical
neuromuscular circuits that function during speech perception. Unfor-
tunately, as we shall see, much additional research is necessary on this
important problem. Neck, forehead, chin, and both forearm EMGs
were recorded from subjects during listening and talking by Smith,
Malmo, and Shagass (1954). Two groups of subjects--psychiatric
patients and college students--heard a tape-recorded article on sleep.
Subsequently, they were asked to recall verbally what the article was
66 F. J. MCGUIGAN
related for the first presentation only. Recordings from the chin
revealed positive EMG gradients above baseline in approximately half
the subjects, whereas the forearm extensors showed a significant
decrease from baseline during the initial hearing. Both chin and
forearm EMGs were independent of EEG voltage. Considering the
data of his experiment together with those of the similar one by
Wallerstein (l954), Bartoshuk provided three empirical conclusions: (1)
positive frontalis EMG gradients are significantly associated with
listening to either a story or an essay; (2) the slope of the frontalis
EMG gradient is positively associated with interest in the material
listened to, suggesting that this gradient is indicative of motivation to
listen; and (3) frontalis EMG is more closely associated with listening
than are either forearm or chin EMG. In both studies, forearm
entensor EMG failed to show positive gradients during listening;
although positive chin EMG gradients did appear during the three
listening sessions, they were found to be unrelated to interest,
frontalis EMG, and EEG amplitude.
E. Learning
Travis and Kennedy (l947) studied the effect of external feedback
from supraorbital ("brow") muscle tension during a simulated "look-
out" task in which the subjects signaled the perception of visual or
auditory stimuli. Visual or auditory stimuli were presented contingent
upon the reduction of supraorbital muscle tension (EMG), with the
criterion being successively reduced as a function of trials. The results
showed that rate and amplitude of supraorbital EMG and reaction
time are inversely related. The authors noted that alertness often
decreased to the point of somnolence. Travis and Kennedy concluded
that this technique may be practically applied to maintain alertness.
We indicate in Column 2 of Table 1 that there was a change of brow
EMG from baseline during the task; this conclusion seems reasonable
because the procedure used produced EMG decrease, though this is
not a typical baseline procedure.
Berry and Davis (1958) recorded EMGs from the right forearm
extensor, the masseter (jaw), and the frontalis muscles of subjects
engaged in a serial learning task. Nonsense syllables were presented
so that there was a 3-sec information interval and a 3-sec intersyllable
interval. A learning score was computed as the total number of correct
responses for 20 trials. The results indicated that the sum of jaw and
forehead EMGs for response and information intervals was signifi-
cantly and nonlinearly related to learning scores. The best and poorest
68 F. J. MCGUIGAN
F. Nocturnal Dreams
Mental activity occurs throughout sleep, being most vivid during
dreams. While the eyes have been the major focus of study during
dreaming, nonoral muscle responding has received attention too. Max
(1935) conducted an experimental study of the motor theory of con-
sciousness by recording EMGs from the arms and legs of "deaf-mute"
subjects during sleep, dreaming, and external stimulation during
sleep. Since "speech" was produced by activity of the hands and arms
of his deaf subjects, Max hypothesized that increased EMGs in these
70 F. J. MCGUIGAN
EEG, EOG, and submental EMG from five subjects for a total of 42
nights. A total of 196 awakenings for the collection of dream narratives
was classified among three awakening categories: NREM sleep preced-
ing EMG suppression and REM onset; NREM sleep immediately
following the EMG suppression, and early moments of REM sleep
accompanied by EMG suppression. The researchers also recorded the
time from calling the subject's name to the time at which he gave a
coherent reply to the first questions following the awakening ("orien-
tation time"). The results indicated that suppressed-EMG-NREM
awakenings tended (not significantly) to be associated with lower
dream recall frequency and lower Dreamlike Fantasy Scale ratings than
were high-EMG-NREM awakenings. Two of five subjects showed
significantly longer orientation times on suppressed-EMG-pre-REM
awakenings than on high-EMG-pre-REM awakenings. Contrary to the
traditional view of a monotonic transition from NREM sleep to REM
sleep, Larson and Foulkes concluded that a momentary "deepening"
of sleep (in terms of vivid mental content and decreased reactivity to
the awakening stimulus) appears to accompany the pre-REM suppres-
sion of submental EMG potentials.
Experiments demonstrating an association between REMs and
middle-ear muscle activity during sleep were described by Pessah and
Roffwarg (1972). By use of acoustic impedance techniques, the authors
continuously monitored the stapedius and tensor tympani muscles.
The experimenters then observed whether or not REM periods fol-
lowed middle-ear muscle activity (dream narratives were not called
for). The results showed that middle ear activity typically precedes,
and continues throughout, REM periods. Of all middle-ear muscle
activity, 80% occurred within REM periods, and half of the remaining
20% occurred in 10-min intervals prior to REM-sleep onset. Pessah
and Roffwarg concluded that this phenomenon requires further exami-
nation, with particular focus on the possible association of middle-ear
muscle activity and auditory imagery.
Gardner, Grossman, Roffwarg, and Weiner (1973) studied the
relation between fine limb movements and dream actions of REM
sleep. The subjects, selected for good dream recall, were awakened for
dream reports following EMG activity of the four extremities. They
were awakened at four different times: (1) when there was no
movement; (2) when there was upper limb activity with an absence of
lower limb activation; (3) when there was lower limb activity with an
absence of upper limb activation; and (4) when three was mixed upper
and lower limb activation. The total of 209 dream reports and EMG
records were coded, scored blindly, and then decoded for statistical
analysis. The results indicated that a significant correlation existed in
IMAGERY AND THINKING 75
lack of paralysis is that there was never any need for artificial
respiration for their subjects. Illustrative of our concern here is Black's
(1967) statement that "in experiments on the operant conditioning of
heart rate under curare, it may very well be that electromyographic
responses were actually conditioned and that these led to reflexive
changes in heart rate" (p. 202). James Howard (personal communica-
tion, 1972) suggested a compatible physiological possibility: that the
gamma-efferent system may have a significant role in conditioning
since it is apparent that the gamma system of fibers has a higher
threshold to the blocking effect of curare than the extrafusal muscle
system (Buchwald, Standish, Eldred, and Halas, 1964). If Howard's
reasoning is correct, successful conditioning of curarized preparations
may have occurred because the covert behavior that remained was due
to a still-functional gamma-efferent system and its feedback loop. The
most sensitive method of determining whether or not the skeletal
muscle system is actually paralyzed is to monitor it extensively with a
sufficiently sensitive EMG apparatus. When one conducts a suffi-
ciently stringent EMG test of the hypothesis that a neuromuscular
blocking agent does effectively eliminate skeletal muscle activity, the
subject should attempt to contract the skeletal musculature maximally.
The subject could simply be instructed to contract certain muscles
strongly, but a more satisfactory procedure would probably be to
administer electric shock to him. Only when the procedures outlined
herein are effected can we reach a firm conclusion as to whether or not
curare (or whatever neuromuscular blocking agent is under test) can
totally eliminate muscle action potentials, that is, produce EMG
recordings of 0.0 J.tV throughout the body.
A few conditioning researchers did monitor EMGs when they
used curare. EMGs were apparently recorded in only three of these
autonomic conditioning studies, and in those the EMG sampling was
limited and quite insensitive (the scales used were from 100 to 300 J.tVI
cm; d. McGuigan, 1973a). When one considers that important covert
responses may be of the amplitude of less than a microvolt, it is
apparent that more sensitive measurement techniques than those of
ink-writing polygraphs are required. Even so, the sample EMGs
offered by the experimenters cited in McGuigan (1973a) often do show
variations in the curarized preparation; covert behavior of perhaps as
much as 20 J.tV in amplitude may have been occurring in presumably
paralyzed animals. Such covert behavior could have important conse-
quences, such as the possibility considered in this context (though
rejected) by Black (1965) that the "full occurrence of a response and its
associated feedback is not necessary for the modification of that
response by operant reinforcement" (p. 45). In this context, one may
78 F. J. MCGUIGAN
recall the discussion above about the possibility that sufficient proc-
essing for conditioning may occur strictly through the high-threshold
gamma-efferent system, even though there is apparent "muscular
paralysis./I In conclusion, it is hoped that future research in these
areas will include improved methodology, especially by employing
EMG monitoring control procedures.
The second assumption stated at the beginning of this section as
being necessary for successful application of the curare strategy is that
o-tubocurarine affects only the skeletal musculature. Unna and Pelikan
(1951) said that following administration of o-tubocurarine in six
subjects, "no evidence was obtained of any action other than on the
neuromuscular junction . . . . In particular no effects on autonomic
organs and also none on cerebral functions could be demonstrated"
(p. 480). That appears to be the totality of their offering in this
regard-Unna and Pelikan did not present any data (nor were any
cited) that substantiate that statement, nor did they further discuss the
matter of possible central or autonomic nervous system effects of 0-
tubocurarine. (They did, though, indicate that Flaxedil affects blood
pressure and pulse rate.)
The third pharmacological study cited above was that by McIntyre
et al. (1951). In their consideration of this matter of possible brain
effects, McIntyre et al. first criticized the above-cited work of Smith et
al. (1947) on the grounds that the Smith et al. results came from
subjective observations. A second criticism was that Smith et al. did
not make sufficiently sensitive measurements of muscle activity.
McIntyre et al. concluded that "the balance of evidence establishes
beyond doubt that o-tubocurarine is capable of modifying central
nervous system activity independently of secondary effects due to
hypoxia" (p. 301). They did not elaborate, however, on the phrase
"balance of evidence."
Black et al. (1962) summarized evidence indicating that o-tubocu-
rarine affects the brain, as indicated by EEG measures. Other consid-
erable work is consonant with that conclusion. Estable (1959) con-
cluded that curare produces an effect on all cholinergic synapses to
varying degrees. Okuma, Fujmori, and Hayashi (1965) reported elec-
trocrotical synchronization in animals as a function of the environ-
mental temperature in which the animals received the curare. Amas-
sian and Weiner (1966) and Brinley, Kandel, and Marshall (1958) found
an increase in the latency of evoked potentials in curarized animals.
And Hodes (1962) reported EEG effects from three different curare
compounds (o-tubocurarine, Flaxedil, and succinylcholine). Galindo
(1972) implicated both curare and pancuronium. In this same context, I
am grateful to James Howard for informing me that curare releases
IMAGERY AND THINKING 79
It thus seems that the use of "the curare strategy" has not been
adequate to isolate "the response of interest" from other bodily events
that may themselves have been modified and controlled by that
response. Other "strategies," such as electrical stimulation and surgi-
cal techniques, could conceivably be more successful in isolating
relevant bodily systems (d. McGuigan, 1966, p. 294). The work of
Penfield (1958) illustrates the stimulation approach. Surgical tech-
niques with animal subjects, like those in which Horridge (1965)
IMAGERY AND THINKING 81
hurrying to get the day's work done. Jacobson (1929) maintained the
working hypothesis that any report of the experience of muscular tenseness is
incomplete until a function is stated. The subject is simply asked, if
necessary, "A tension to do what?" ... Sherrington (1915) goes so far as to
believe that tonus is always to be understood in the light of its aim or
function. He states, "Every reflex can, therefore, be regarded from the
point of view of what may be called its 'aim.' To glimpse at the aim of a
reflex is to gain hints for future experimentation on it. Such a clue to
purpose is often difficult to get." (pp. 78-79)
CENTRAL PERIPHERAL
PROCESSING PROC[SSING
5YSTEM SYSTEM
PHONEME
STORE
~SP[E.CH
P~g~~TIC.
"'-- /'f MUSCLE.
t ~
GRAPH[ME ~
!
:5TOR E. ~ ALLO~~~~~~C COOE. ~ NON:)PEE.CJ\
~ SKELETAL
~MU&('lE
NON LINGUISTIC
STORE"
~E~=~ODE.
~
}
!
E.MOTIONAL
~3MOOTHE
EMOTIONAL MUSCLES~
STORE ~ GLANDS
Davis (1939): There was a bodily focus of muscular activity for various
psychological processes; for example, during multiplication the
focus was in the right arm (relatively greater activity there than in
the left arm, which, in tum, was greater than in the left leg).
During learning of nonsense syllables, the focus was probably in
the speech musculature. Response amplitude decreased as dis-
tance from the point of focus increased.
ElIson, Davis, Saltzman, and Burke (1952) (Experiment 7): Right arm
EMG was greater during a conflict situation involving a right
versus a left arm response than in the absence of conflict.
ElIson et al. (1952) (Experiment 8): Arm EMG response latencies were
significantly shorter for critical lying responses than for critical
nonlying responses.
Reuder (1956): Subjects under a task-oriented instruction exhibited
higher EMG levels on the relatively difficult problems than they
did on easy problems, whereas subjects who received ego-ori-
ented instructions showed higher EMG levels for easy problems
than they did for difficult problems.
Stennett (1957): As the subject'S incentive was increased, there was an
inverted-U relationship with integrated amplitude of EMGs from
the left and right arms and also with palmar conductance.
Leshner (1961): During problem solving, EMGs decreased significantly
for successful subjects and significantly increased for subjects who
failed.
Pishkin (1964): Amplitude of EMG in the preferred arm significantly
and positively increased with learning rate, and there was a
negative correlation between preferred-arm EMG amplitude and
time required per trial.
MacNeilage (1966): As difficulty of serial addition tasks increased,
forehead and arm EMG significantly increased.
Pishkin and Shurley (1968): There was a positive correlation between
number of errors made on a concept-identification task and
forehead EMG; furthermore, that EMG activity increased signifi-
cantly as a function of task complexity when the subjects were
given both solvable and unsolvable sets.
Vaughn and McDaniel (1969): Amplitude of frontalis EMG during a
match-to-sample visual discrimination task significantly increased
when the subjects made correct responses and decreased follow-
ing errors. Phasic responses were typically superimposed on a
rising and falling EMG gradient.
McGuigan (1971): Amplitude of left arm and lip EMG significantly
increased over baseline during problem solving, with the arm
EMG being significantly greater than during a nonverbal control
92 F. J. MCGUIGAN
Imagination
Jacobson (1927): Reduction in EMG tension prevented the subject from
engaging in conscious processes like imagery, attention, reflec-
tion, and emotion.
Jacobson (1927, 1930a): Imagination of a right arm flexion produced
heightened EMG in the right arm, whereas imagination of activity
of other parts of the body did not produce right arm EMG
increase. Jacobson's general conclusion was that imagination of
voluntary movement is associated with neuromuscular activity in
the locale of the imagined act. For his succeeding studies, we will
maintain this general conclusion and cite only the specific find-
ings.
Jacobson (1930b): Confirmed his (1930a) findings, except that he used
a variety of specific imagination instructions such as "Imagine
lifting a cigarette to your mouth," "Imagine throwing a ball," etc.
The same relationship was found when the subjects were asked to
recollect other muscular acts commonly performed with the right
arm.
Jacobson (1930c): Imagining lifting a lO-pound weight produced EMG
increases in the right biceps, but imagining lifting with the left
did not. Furthermore, subjects could not simultaneously imagine
lifting a weight and keep their arms relaxed; that is, they either
had to disregard the relaxation instructions and imagine or
disregard the imagination instructions in order to keep their arm
relaxed.
Jacobson (1931a): Imagining lifting a weight with the right arm
produced EMG increases in the right arm. On the other hand,
visually imagining lifting the weight with the right arm typically
increased EMG from the ocular region but did not typically
increase biceps activity in the right arm.
Jacobson (1931b): Imagination of left hand flexion in an amputated
arm was associated with a substitute reaction in the correspond-
ing muscles of the right arm and in the remanent muscles of the
upper left arm.
Shaw (1940): The magnitude of right arm EMG linearly increased as
the magnitude of weights increased; the increase occurred while
the subject actually lifted the weights and while he imagined
lifting those weights.
IMAGERY AND THINKING 93
Silent Reading
Jacobson and Kraft (1942): Right leg muscle EMG increased during a
3D-min silent reading period, with the highest EMG level being
during the first and last several minutes of reading.
Strother (1949): EMG level in the forelimbs during the reading of
various kinds of emotional material was in order of descending
magnitude when the subjects were reading the followbg kinds of
prose: fear, hate-anger, happiness, tranquility-reverence.
Hardyck and Petrinovich (1970): Laryngeal, chin-lip, and right arm
EMG measures increased as a function of the difficulty of the
material read.
Speech Perception
Smith, Malmo, and Shagass (1954): EMG increased in the forearms
and chin while the subjects listened to a recording. During overtly
recalling, there were significant increases from the forehead, the
neck, both arms, and the chin.
Wallerstein (1954): Frontalis EMG significantly increased from baselinf>
while subjects listened to a detective story and to a philosophical
essay. Chin EMG increased significantly for the second and third
hearings of the story but not for the essay.
Bartoshuk (1956): Frontalis EMG was associated with interest in the
material listened to and was more closely associated with listening
than were forearm or chin EMGs.
Learning
Travis and Kennedy (1947): Rate and amplitude of super orbital EMGs
were inversely related to reaction time during an external feed-
back lookout task.
Berger, Irwin, and Frommer (1970): Right wrist EMG was higher while
subjects learned the manual alphabet for the deaf through obser-
vation than when they memorized word-number pairs visually
presented. The authors concluded that there was a relationship
between cognitive activity and localized muscle activity.
Beh and Hawkins (1973): Subjects with induced muscle tensions in the
arm learned significantly faster than significants who did not have
such induced tensions. Furthermore, delayed recall was signifi-
cantly greater for those who learned under tension.
94 F. J. MCGUIGAN
Sleep-Dreams
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3 Regulation of the Stream
of Consciousness: Toward a
Theory of Ongoing Thought
101
102 KENNETH S. POPE AND JEROME L. SINGER
This literary effort was not brief and faddish. Poets and novelists have
continued to represent man's stream of consciousness as well as the
stream of behavior and events. The works of Theodore Roethke (the
stream of consciousness of a developing child in Praise to the End),
Erica Jong (Isadora's wildly vivid sexual fantasies in Fear of Flying),
Saul Bellow (the aged man's reflections in Mr. Sammler's Planet), and
Hubert Selby, Jr. (Georgette's jumble of words and images, fantasies,
REGULATION OF THE STREAM OF CONSCIOUSNESS 103
TABLE 1
Determinants of the Stream of Consciousness
1. The mind as activity
2. Sensory input
3. A continuum of awareness
4. Attention: the ability to screen and select
5. A bias favoring sensory input
6. Predictable, dull, or barren environments: an opportunity for private processing
7. The matching function: judging environmental input as predictable, dull, and
barren OR as surprising, exciting, and rich
8. Affect
9. Current concerns, unfinished business, and unresolved stress
10. The set toward internal processing
11. Structural characteristics of the stimuli
REGULATION OF THE STREAM OF CONSCIOUSNESS 107
information reaches the sense organs of the body, but only certain aspects
of it are truly informative about crucial aspects of the environment. Hence,
the input must be analyzed, abstracted, coded, and reworked if the
organism is to survive; in many cases it must also be stored for later
retrieval and use .... There are not simply "sensations," supplemented by
"association" to form "perceptions" which are stored and recovered.
Instead there is a vast array of stages, activities, and processes at every
level. (Neisser, 1972, p. 237)
2. Sensory Input
3. A Continuum of Consciousness
Various amounts of sensory data enter into the continuous activ-
ity of the mind. But not all of the mind's activity finds its way into the
stream of consciousness. Some aspects, in fact, remain stubbornly
hidden. If someone asks us to name the smallest state in the United
States or to add three plus six, the answers probably pop into the
consciousness without our being aware of what our minds were doing
to produce those answers. Posner and Boies (1971) have cited research
indicating that "conscious awareness is itself rather late in the se-
quence of mental processing" (p. 407).
Other aspects of this continuous mental work, however, are
certainly available to our awareness. When Shepard (1975) asked
people to judge whether two abstract geometrical forms, presented
from different perspectives, were isomorphic, the subjects were able
to describe with some precision the subjective experience of arriving
at an answer. Most subjects looked at the two stimulus figures, formed
mental images of the two figures, then mentally rotated one of the
figures around to see if it would "fit" within the other.
As an example more characteristic of everyday life, imagine
yourself deeply involved in a conversation with a close friend as the
two of you stroll through an unfamiliar neighborhood. Although you
are totally absorbed in the conversation, your mind is constantly
processing information about the environment necessary to enable
safe, effective movement. Somehow you take into account the curbs,
the steps, the potential obstacles in your path, and you manage to
avoid tripping, bumping into people, or wandering out into the street
into the path of an oncoming car. The conversation may be so
engrossing that the process of navigating through the physical envi-
ronment simply does not register in your stream of consciousness. Yet
this process is available to our consciousness should we choose to
attend to it; if the conversation lags, for instance, you may suddenly
realize the beauty of the surroundings or perhaps that the two of you
have lost your way.
110 KENNETH S. POPE AND JEROME L. SINGER
and finally, when it is dark both outside and within, nothing more is seen.
H the fire flares up from time to time, the visions in the glass reappear.
In perceptual release, the daylight (sensory input) is reduced while the
interior illumination (general level of arousal) remains bright, and images
originating within the rooms of our brains may be perceived as though
they came from outside the windows of our senses.
The theory thus holds that a sustained level and variety of sensory
input normally is required to inhibit the emergence of percepts or memory
traces from within the brain itseH. When effective (attention-commanding)
sensory input decreases below a certain threshold, there may be a release
into awareness of previously recorded perceptions through a disinhibition
of the brain circuits that represent them. (p. 275)
8. Affect
schemes, and the matching function has been set forth by Tomkins
(1962-1963). We will outline this theory here to sharpen our under-
standing of what material appears in the stream of consciousness. The
discussion will deal first with the appearance of material from within
the physical body (stimuli not readily apparent to the public but still
traceable on the whole to physically measurable characteristics), sec-
ond with the appearance in consciousness of material at the most
public end of the continuum (physical stimuli from the surrounding
environment, clearly measurable or capable of consensual description
by other people as well as the individual), and third with the
appearance of material from the private end of the continuum (long-
and short-term memories, etc.).
According to Tomkins, the affects or emotions are one of five
fundamental systems that regulate man's behavior: homeostatic (the
autonomic regulatory system), the drive system, the affect system,
cognition, and the motor system. The primary role of the drives, in
terms of human motivation, is to signal the presence of deprivation
states within the physical body. It is this task of bringing deprivation
states to consciousness and to conscious control that distinguishes the
drive system from the more general homeostatic mechanisms of the
body:
We know that the majority of biological processes within the body of
man and the rat are silent. They have no conscious representation but are
nonetheless capable of running the complex machinery so that the animal
remains alive. These processes do not "need" conscious representation
because they "know" what they need to know, to do what they have to do.
If the finger is cut, the blood knows how to clot, unless this information is
missing, as it is in the genes of bleeders. The body employs a "drive" only
when it lacks the information necessary to maintain the body. Then it
beats on the door of consciousness until the person is goaded into some
activity which will meet the body's needs. The need for air is, ordinarily,
no more a drive than is the need for blood in the various organs of the
body. The human being is born with the information which enables him to
circulate his blood and to breathe to supply that blood with oxygen. He
may spend most of his life unaware of both processes .... At this point
you may argue that breathing is a consummatory response to a drive signal
whether the latter is conscious or not. If the breathing rate varies as a
function of signals from the carotid sinus, which in turn varies its response
as a function of the carbon dioxide content of the blood, is this not a drive
signal system? We would say no more than the blood clotting mechanism
is a drive signal system. The breathing rate comes under drive governance
rather than homeostatic control when the awareness of breathing and
suffocation mobilizes the individual to breathe more rapidly or more
slowly and more deeply, or less so, or to take immediate action to remedy
whatever is threatening his air supply, or both. What of the case when the
drive signal is "sent" but not "received"? Since there is competition
between channels for transformation of messages into conscious form,
some drive signals may be sent but never transmuted into reports. Is an
118 KENNETH S. POPE AND JEROME L. SINGER
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reads a book of poems. The lines call up vivid images in his mind's
eye. The words evoke memories and feelings. The man pauses in his
reading to let this material play itself out. Another poem sets off a
responsive chain of associations, which is not so much an interruption
in the reading of the poem as it is part of the process. Obviously, the
man has adopted one set of "plans" toward private material and the
stream of consciousness for reading the math book and quite another
for reading the book of poems. Two investigators have explored the
nature of such plans on the basis of careful, creative experimental
work.
In a very complex experiment, Miller (1972) asked subjects to
adopt one of two strategies while listening to a brief poetry or prose
passage. One strategy corresponded to that of the imaginary man
described above as he reads the math book: the subject was asked to
be "listening in a problem-solving way ... with a rational, logical,
and scientific orientation to the material." The other strategy corre-
sponded to that of the man as he reads poetry: "In essence, you listen
so as to let whatever ideas, images, thoughts, and feelings which
happen, happen. The purpose of this kind of listening is just to
experience, rather than to be able to repeat or summarize or even to
give some verbal response to what you hear." Miller then obtained
data not on responses to the passages to which the subjects were
asked to attend but rather on the subject's recognition rate to other
verbally presented (and ostensibly, to the subject, irrelevant) material
occurring in the experi.mental situation. Among his findings is that
the "scientific" listener has a significantly greater rate of recognition
for low-imagery, abstract relational words than the "just experienc-
ing" listeners and vice versa. We are able, then, to adopt temporary,
situation-specific "plans" for mental processing, and these plans have
definite, measurable effects.
Klinger (1974) studied people who reported their thoughts aloud
during each of four situations: solving a manual puzzle, solving a logic
problem, reverie, and quasi-hypnogogic thought. Klinger termed the
strategy appropriate for the first two (problem-solving) situations
"operant thought." The strategy appropriate for the other two (non-
problem-solving) situations he termed "respondent thought." He was
able to distinguish operant from respondent thought on the basis of
characteristic utterances: "During the manual puzzle and logic prob-
lem activity, they produced significantly more utterances in which
they evaluated their previous problem-solving thoughts or acts and in
which they indicated that they were controlling their attention than
during reverie and hypnogogic thought" (p. 44). The findings seem to
offer more support for the notion that we are capable of adopting
temporary plans for reacting to ("evaluated their previous problem-
REGULATION OF THE STREAM OF CONSCIOUSNESS 127
activity or task but simply asking the subject to sit or lie comfortably
and report (Klinger, 1971, 1974; Pope, 1977; Rychlak, 1973).
The "thinking-aloud" procedure, however, has its difficulties. It
asks people to perform what is in some cases a demanding task:
putting their thoughts into words and doing so quickly enough so that
they neither slow down (nor further distort) their thoughts nor leave
out parts of a description because they are in a hurry or because they
can't find the right words. It is a problem faced by the early stream-of-
consciousness writers. Wyndham Lewis (1926) had this to say about
Ulysses soon after its publication: "Joyce had to pretend that we were
really surprising the private thought of a real and average human
creature, Mr. Bloom. But the fact is that Mr. Bloom was abnormally
wordy. He thought in words, not images, for our benefit, in a fashion as
unreal, from the point of view of the strictest naturalist dogma, as a
Hamlet soliloquy" (pp. 413-414).
A study by Pope (1977) offers support for this basic insight and
suggests that verbalization may indeed slow down or otherwise
influence the report of the stream of consciousness. Of importance to
the study was the occurrence of "shifts" in thought (changes of
content or the direction of thought). Subjects who kept track of their
stream of thought nonverbally (momentarily releasing a key each time
a shift of consciousness occurred) indicated a significantly higher
shifting rate than subjects who reported by "thinking aloud" (both
when the shifts were supplied by the subjects themselves and when
the shifts were reliably judged from transcripts by independent
raters). Data were obtained from a variety of physical situations
(subjects reporting while lying down, while seated, while walking
around) and from differing social conditions (subjects alone or with
other people present). In this study, subjects reporting their flow of
consciousness nonverbally reported a shift of thought on the average
of every 5 or 6 seconds, while subjects thinking aloud reported shifts
only on the average of about every 30 seconds. The data suggest that
explorations relying solely on a thinking-aloud procedure may present
a distinctly biased picture of the stream of consciousness. One useful
tactic, then, may be to have subjects convey only a limited amount of
information about their stream of thought (e.g., whether their thought
at the moment is preoccupied with the environment or with process-
ing other material) through simple key-press devices (Pope, 1977).
Although it delivers only limited information about the ongoing
thought (and lacks the richness of language), the method may be less
intrusive, less inhibiting of the natural flow of the stream of con-
sciousness. Another useful method is "thought sampling" (Klinger,
1971), in which a subject is interrupted at irregular intervals and asked
REGULATION OF THE STREAM OF CONSCIOUSNESS 131
ness of the individual. Such work will add the necessary precision to
(and serve as a check on) the general principles obtainable through
studies involving large numbers of people.
Third, we must begin to incorporate more than one level of factors
at a time into our research designs. Almost without exception, the
research on which this paper was based explored only single aspects
of the workings of the stream of consciousness. A number of influ-
ences have been outlined here as serving to regulate the flow of
thought. Current concerns, drive states, sets toward particular proc-
essing styles, amount and complexity of incoming sensory stimula-
tion, etc., have each separately served as the subject of research. What
is lacking is an attempt to see, within a research paradigm, how they
interrelate: Is the influence they contribute additive? Do they interact
in unforeseen ways? Can we specify which ones will be effective in a
given situation?
A given experimental situation viewed as an analogue of many
network-occurring situations can be analyzed into a combination of
interacting factors, for example, the environmental determinants,
including physical characteristics of the stimuli and their meaningful-
ness or abstraction; the situational demands, such as the request made
by the experimenter or the social meaning of the situation; and finally,
personal determinants brought to the situation by the subject, the
emotions aroused before he comes into the room, perhaps, and a long-
standing personality predisposition, such as introversion-extroversion
or cognitive style (Singer, 1952). An experiment by Rodin and Singer
(1976) introduced many of these intersecting variables into a situation
in which the focus was upon the relation of private cognitive activity
to the way a person's eyes moved about during a two- or three-person
interview. The interviewer, seated facing the subject, asked a series of
questions that required different degrees or types of reflective
thought. Some questions called for overlearned reactions, for example,
"What is your mother's name?" Others called for more reflective
verbal or arithmetical sequential processing, for example, number
series or "How many r's are there in 'around the ragged rock the
ragged rascal ran'?" Other questions called for reflective visual-
imagery processing, for example, "What did your first-grade teacher
look like?" or "What way does John F. Kennedy face on the half-dollar
coin?" There were thus very different kinds of cognitive inner activity
required, presumably governed by different portions of the brain
(bilateral asymmetry hypothesis) and reflected by differential degrees
and directions of lateral eye movement.
To ascertain whether eye shifts could be influenced not only by
the nature of the cognitive operations required but also by the social
and physical stimuli of the setting, the experiment varied the presence
REGULATION OF THE STREAM OF CONSCIOUSNESS 133
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4 Self-Deception, Self-
Confrontation, and
Consciousness
1. INTRODUCTION
Our position is like that of a puppy who sees himself in a mirror; after
sniffing at his reflection he walks behind and sees only strips of wood and
tacks. We too tend to see one side or the other of our problem: the
physiological and behavioral side on one hand and on the other the side of
experience and sensations. Our difficulty is to see the problem and to see it
whole, to see both the mirror and our reflection, and to understand their
unity. (Cherry, 1957, p. 299)
139
140 HAROLD A. SACKEIM AND RUBEN C. GUR
I cannot but think that the most important step forward that has
occurred in psychology since I have been a student of that science is the
discovery, first made in 1886, that, in certain subjects at least, there is not
only the consciousness of the ordinary field, with its usual centre and
margin, but an addition thereto in the shape of a set of memories,
SELF-DECEPTION, SELF-CONFRONTATION, CONSCIOUSNESS 141
thoughts, and feelings which are extra-marginal and outside the primary
consciousness altogether, but yet must be classed as conscious facts of
some sort, able to reveal their presence by unmistakable signs. (p. 233)
Freud's most radical claim and perhaps his most important
contribution to psychology is the idea that not only is consciousness
nonunitary and nontransparent but also that, at times, selective
awareness and nonawareness of the contents of consciousness are, in
part, motivated. This view of the nature of consciousness underlies
Freud's concept of repression. Concerning the significance of this
concept, Freud (1914/1957) states that repression is "the cornerstone on
which the whole structure of psychoanalysis rests" (p. 16). Since this
statement, scores of experimental investigations have been interpreted
as either propping up or as tearing down this cornerstone. In evaluat-
ing the results of such endeavors as they bear on the utility of concepts
like repression, it is important to keep in mind that the evidence must
be relevant to considerations concerning the nature of consciousness,
not specifically its contents.
Investigators in this area have rarely attempted to outline neces-
sary and sufficient criteria for ascribing the concept of repression.
Freud himself offered several differing formulations of what is meant
by repression and discussed this concept in reference to topological,
economic, and dynamic perspectives of consciousness. Clearly, with-
out a statement of the necessary and sufficient criteria for ascribing the
concept, it is difficult to see how one can determine the extent to
which any evidence bears on the ontological status of the concept.
Recently, Holmes (1974) presented three criteria that he felt must be
met for any given phenomenon to be viewed as an instance of
repression. He argued that repression is an instance of motivated
selective forgetting. Furthermore, repression is not under conscious
control. Finally, the material that is repressed is not lost but rather
stored in the unconscious. Holmes and others (e.g. Hilgard, 1973) who
have reviewed investigations that attempt to demonstrate the exis-
tence of repression have concluded that the evidence is at best
equivocal and that "there is no consistent research evidence to support
the hypothesis derived from the theory of repression" (Holmes, 1974,
p. 649). Our purpose here is not to review the evidence that forms the
basis of this conclusion. Rather, we wish to point out some conceptual
difficulties in the arguments used both by protagonists and by
antagonists in the debate concerning the existence of repression.
Holmes (1972, 1974) and Eysenck and Wilson (1973) have made
the argument that if the phenomena that the repression literature has
attributed to the influences of repression can instead be explained
from biochemical, response competition, or interference perspectives,
142 HAROLD A. SACKEIM AND RUBEN C. GUR
more, it is argued here that the criteria for ascribing self-deception are
necessary but are not sufficient for the ascription of repression. As a
result, acts of repression may be viewed as specific instances of the
broader category of self-deceptive behaviors.
Once we have established conceptual boundaries for the concept
of self-deception, it is necessary to demonstrate that the criteria for the
ascription of the concept are operationable. It is necessary that
investigations of defensive behavior employ methodologies that are
sensitive to motivational factors. Freud (1915/1957) argued that the
contents of consciousness that are repressed are highly individual and
that repression itself is mobile, varying with the motivational concerns
of the individual. In our experimental studies of self-deception, we
have examined the behavior of subjects when they recognize and fail
to recognize audio stimuli of the self. A number of psychologists have
studied the reactions of people when their attention is directed inward
through the use of mirrors, audio- and videotape playbacks, and
audience effects. It has been found that when individuals are self-
confronted and their attention is directed inward, psychophysiologi-
cal, cognitive, affective, and behavioral responses differ markedly
from responses of individuals whose attention is directed outward to
the environment. We briefly review here the results of studies on self-
confrontation. This review not only forms a basis both for the
operationalization of the criteria for ascribing self-deception and for
the hypotheses to be tested in the experiments on self-deception that
we report but also presents a set of arguments pertaining to the
relationship between awareness of the self and the nature of con-
sciousness. It is argued here that consciousness of the self produces an
inherently different state of awareness than consciousness of others or
of events in the environment. Furthermore, it is claimed that self-
consciousness is aversive for many individuals and that they avoid it.
Evidence is presented for the view that the greater the cognitive
discrepancy within an individual-that is, the greater the dissatisfac-
tion with aspects of self-the more intense is the aversiveness of the
state of self-confrontation. In sum, it is argued that differences in
states of awareness, in terms of their properties and consequences,
may be a function, in part, of the contents of the awareness.
After reviewing studies of self-confrontation, we present an
operationalization of the criteria for ascribing self-deception that
applies our knowledge of the effects of self-confrontation. We discuss
how one might go about demonstrating that individuals hold contra-
dictory beliefs and that individuals may hold beliefs that are not
subject to awareness. The criterion of nonawareness has proved to be
particularly intractable to demonstration without the use of highly
obtrusive measures in areas of investigation such as learning without
SELF-DECEPTION, SELF-CONFRONTATION, CONSCIOUSNESS 145
The one to whom the lie is told and the one who lies are one and the
same person, which means that I must know in my capacity as deceiver the
truth which is hidden from me in my capacity as the one deceived. Better
yet, I must know the truth very exactly in order to conceal it more
carefully-and this not at two different moments, which at a pinch would
allow us to re-establish a semblance of duality-but in the unitary structure
of a single project. How then can the lie subsist if the duality which
conditions it is suppressed? (Sartre, 1958, p. 49).
tion, one is left with the original paradox. Arriving at this position by
default does not particularly convince one that there is substantial
justification for the assimilation. However, it can be argued that the
public language use of the concept of self-deception and related
concepts indicates that there are positive grounds supporting the
assimilation.
When individuals claim that a given person is self-deceived, they
often state that although the person believes that p, in that person's
"heart" or "deep inside" the person believes that not-p. Likewise,
individuals, upon recognizing that they are self-deceived-that is,
when self-deception is broken-often use such phrases as "I knew all
along that . . . not-p." Therefore, it appears that individuals use
language to discuss instances of self-deception in a manner that, at
face value, conforms to the assimilation thesis.
Another approach to the formulation of criteria necessary and
sufficient for ascribing self-deception has centered on denying that
consciousness is unitary and/or transparent. Starting with Plato (circa
359 B.c./1953), a number of philosophers have attempted to resolve the
conceptual difficulties of attributing contradictory beliefs to the same
individual by positing that consciousness is nonunitary and/or non-
transparent. When it is denied that consciousness is unitary, self-
deception becomes almost a duplicate of other-deception. Two, at the
least, autonomous agencies (within the same individual) each hold
separate and contradictory beliefs. Since the assimilation with other-
deception also requires that "Jones is not aware that Smith actually
believes that not-p ," such a formulation of nonunitary nature of
consciousness also entails a nontransparent nature. The self-deceived
individual, who expresses belief in p, is not aware that not-p is also
believed. On the other hand, a view that denies the assumption of a
transparent nature of consciousness does not entail a non unitary
nature. Individuals may be said to fail "to notice that they have a
belief" or to be unaware of or unable to notice that they have a belief,
without an implication of any assumptions about autonomous struc-
tures (Demos, 1960). If an adequate account of self-deception can be
formulated on the basis of assuming a nontransparent nature of
consciousness, for reasons of parsimony there is little need to consider
the nonunitary view, as this perspective entails the first assumption
along with another, more drastic one.
On the basis of the assimilation thesis, it is argued that to be self-
deceived, an individual must hold two contradictory beliefs at the
same time. Furthermore, the assimilation thesis requires that the
individual who holds these beliefs be unaware that he holds one of
them. If a nontransparent view of consciousness is assumed, then
SELF-DECEPTION, SELF-CONFRONTATION, CONSCIOUSNESS 149
These four criteria are necessary but are not sufficient for ascrib-
ing repression. It has been argued (Holmes, 1974) that repression
involves motivated selective forgetting. The belief (p) that is "forgot-
ten" is not lost but is stored in the unconscious. Psychoanalytic theory
has elaborated on the types of defense mechanisms that individuals
employ to assert various forms of the belief that not-p on a conscious
level. Thus, the concept of repression entails that an individual
simultaneously hold two contradictory beliefs. The fact that the belief
p is not subject to awareness and that its "forgetting" is motivated
satisfies the third and fourth criteria for ascribing self-deception.
However, the ascription of repression requires the additional claim
that the belief that is not subject to awareness is stored in an
unconscious. The unconscious is a functionally independent control
system, capable of intentional influence on behavior. In this respect,
the concept of repression entails that consciousness is not only
nontransparent but also nonunitary. It is for these reasons that we
believe that the demonstration of the existence of self-deception is
logically prior to a demonstration of the existence of repression and,
further, that such a demonstration in the case of repression is likely to
involve a more arduous adventure.
An obvious candidate for providing instances of self-deception is
the situation in which, like our puppy, individuals are confronted
with aspects of themselves that they find difficult to accept. We will
presently review the effects of self-confrontation in order to provide a
foundation for our operationalization of the criteria for ascribing self-
deception.
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24
The content categories were adapted from Holt and Havel's (1960)
method of content analysis, with the major two categories being
unweighted drive (all ideational themes expressing appetitive and
aggressive states) and weighted drive (with greater emphasis on
blatant, unsocial drive expressions). A number of subsidiary content
categories were also examined. The formal speech characteristics were
measured by an adaptation of Mahl's SOC with "ah" stammers and
speech editing forming the major grouping. A third category, lan-
guage editing, was added by Klein and Wolitsky (1970).
The results indicated that under WNM, compared to normal
conditions, there were significant increases in unweighted and
weighted drive, loosened self-boundaries, and morality references. In
general the masking condition produced an amplification of associa-
tive content, particularly in relation to appetitive and drive ideation.
The findings on formal speech characteristics showed that the amount
of "ah" utterances and speech editing were negatively correlated with
the amount of weighted-drive expression. Language editing, which is
mainly a measure of the qualifications on content, was negatively
correlated with drive expression. These results, coupled with the fact
that under WNM subjects were able to perform successfully tasks
normally susceptible to interference from arousal (e.g., correct color
naming for stimuli discrepantly labeled, subtracting backwards from
100 by 3s), provide some support for the view that vocal masking leads
to disinhibition of content in overt speech and, therefore, a suppres-
sion of a monitoring function.
In Holzman and Rousey's (1970) experiment, the main dependent
variables were responses to Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) cards
and Holzman Inkblot Test (HIT) responses under WNM and normal
conditions. The TAT responses were scored by trained double-blind
judges for impulsive and defensive expression. The HIT was scored
for the use of color as a determinant. The results indicated that
generally with both tests the effects of WNM were enhanced when
WNM followed normal conditions rather than when it preceded them.
In either order, however, subjects showed greater impulse-dominated
themes under WNM than under normal conditions. Predictions con-
cerning the HIT responses were verified only for women, who had
more color responses under WNM than under normal conditions. Men
showed no effects for WNM on color response production in one
experiment and a decrease in productivity in a replication. Overall,
the authors pointed out that there is no evidence that WNM interferes
with thought organization or reality attainment. It does appear that
WNM increases drive-related fantasies, and the authors viewed this as
SELF-DECEPTION, SELF-CONFRONTATION, CONSCIOUSNESS 159
feedback about the self and are self-confronted. Pryor, Gibbons, and
Wicklund (cited in Wicklund, 1975) obtained low correlations between
subjects' reports of their sociability and behavioral measurements.
However, when subjects made ratings while facing a mirror, the
correlations were much higher. The changes in self-esteem found after
self-confrontation manipulations (e.g., Boyd and Sisney, 1967; Ickes,
Wicklund, and Ferris, 1973; Wicklund, 1975) further suggest that
individuals attend to salient aspects of the self when self-confronted.
A question that comes to the fore concerns the fact that in normal
conversation individuals can be said to be continually self-monitoring.
The self-regulatory role of speech has been emphasized by theorists in
several areas of psychology. Freud (1895/1966) argued that ideas are
engendered with reality by their coding in overt speech. Vygotsky
(1962) maintained that speech serves a central mediating function in
connecting thoughts to actions. Indeed, Luria (1961) has written,
"speech enters integrally into the structure of mental processes and ...
it is a powerful means of regulation of human behavior" (p. 50). One
wonders why the cognitive, affective, and behavioral consequences of
self-confrontation do not seem to take place during the normal
circumstances of self-monitoring. Duval and Wicklund (1972) assumed
that attention is discontinuously distributed either to features of the
environment or to the self. Self-confrontation manipulations direct
attention to the self, and self-awareness, in their formulation, is an all-
or-none phenomenon, differing between individuals only in duration
and frequency. In this respect, Duval and Wicklund's theory is
incompatible with the notion that, at least on some level, individuals
may be continually self-monitoring. Holzman (e.g., Holzman and
Rousey, 1966), on the other hand, argued that self-confrontation
heightens ongoing self-monitoring processes. An analogy related to
this position is that of an individual who is writing a paper and the
same individual proofreading the paper. In the first case, the individ-
ual is principally concerned with the work of expression but is also
aware of what is being written, although mistakes will be made. The
proofreader, who is freer to deploy attention to the material, is likely
to find errors that escaped the writer. The Holzman position is more
amenable to the view that in everyday conversation we are engaged in
a self-monitoring process.
The aspects of the self that are being monitored during self-
confrontation have not been directly investigated. However, an exami-
nation of the cognitive, affective, and behavioral correlates and conse-
quences of self-confrontation and the types of manipulations that
affect their expression may provide some indication of the content of
the monitoring process. We know that self-confrontation is associated
SELF-DECEPTION, SELF-CONFRONTATION, CONSCIOUSNESS 167
(e.g., Holzman and Rousey, 1966; Holzman et al., 1966; Huntely, 1940;
Wolff, 1943). The lowest rate of nonrecognition reported to date was in
the Olivos (1967) study, where false negative responses--that is,
incorrect identifications of stimuli of the self as stimuli of others--
constituted 45% of the responses to stimuli of the self. The previously
reported high rates of nonrecognition of the self may have been due to
the fact that the quality of the audio presentations often was not
optimized and the instructions to subjects concerning the identifica-
tion of stimuli sometimes were not explicit. Since our interest in
nonrecognition of the self centers on the issue of self-deception, we
attempted to minimize all errors in identification that would be due to
factors other than self-deception.
7.5
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0
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LL.l
(f)
Z
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LL.l
----'~
::E
I-
Z 35
0 ./: • OTHER •
I-
U
<t
LL.l •
a:
25
0 1 2
1 I
4
1
6
1
12 24
FIGURE 2. Reaction times (in seconds) to audio stimuli of self and other, as a function
of block of trials.
Further evidence for the assertion that a subject who affirms belief
p can also be attributed belief not-p would come from discovering that
the variables that predict the behavioral correlates of not-p in subjects
who outwardly affirm that not-p and those variables that predict the
behavioral correlates of not-p in subjects who outwardly affirm that p
are identical. In this regard as well, the methodology does not differ
from that of the conditioned eye-blink situation. Peak (1933) and
Grant (1968) attempted to distinguish voluntary from involuntary,
conditioned blinks by showing differential reactions to experimental
manipulations.
The proposal, then, for establishing the first criterion was to
demonstrate that the topographies of the behavioral correlates of
incorrectly claiming that a stimulus is another (false negative) are
identical to those when the stimulus is correctly identified as the self
(true positive). Likewise the topographies of the behavioral correlates
of incorrectly identifying a stimulus as the self (false positive) should
be demonstrated to be identical to those when the stimulus is correctly
identified as another (true negative). Furthermore, if it were shown
that the variables that predicted the behavioral correlates did so with
regard to stimulus condition and not with regard to self-reports, the
conclusion that the subject holds two contradictory beliefs would be
strengthened.
The results bearing on these predictions are presented in Figure 3.
Levels of reactivity for both true positive and false negative responses
differed significantly from those for both true negative and false
positive responses. Furthermore, true positive responses did not differ
significantly from false negative responses, nor did true negative and
false positive responses differ significantly from each other on this
measure.
The methodology employed to show that some subjects held
contradictory beliefs was similar to that used in earlier studies of
subception (Lazarus and McCleary, 1951) and subliminal perception
(Dixon, 1971). A major criticism of this research was offered by
Eriksen (1956, 1958), when he argued that differences found between
the verbal reports and psychophysiological responses of subjects are
often an artifact of the substantial but imperfect correlation between
the two response systems. He pointed out that the lack of a perfect
correlation would naturally lead to some instances where psychophy-
siological responses would be associated with correct identifications
while verbal reports would be in error. In addition, Eriksen presented
some of his own results that showed that in identification tasks, verbal
reports are far more accurate overall in identifications of stimuli than
are psychophysiological responses.
176 HAROLD A. SACKEIM AND RUBEN C. GUR
1.3
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BLOCKS OF TRIALS (SECS.)
FIGURE 4. Accuracy of identifications of audio stimuli of the self for GSR and self-
report responses, as a function of block of trials.
voices. In addition, accuracy rates for the two response systems were
computed and are presented in Figure 4. 1 Overall, psychophysiological
responses provided correct identifications on 83% of the trials, while
the self-reports of subjects were correct on 81% of the trials. These
results indicate that the verbal report and psychophysiological re-
sponse systems were independent.
In summary, the first criterion was fulfilled by a demonstration
that on trials of errors in identification, psychophysiological reactivity
paralleled the reactivity of trials of correct identification. Furthermore,
we found that psychophysiological and self-report responses were
independent. The second criterion, that the contradictory beliefs be
1 Mean change in conductance scores were computed for trials of other within each of
the five blocks and subtracted from change in conductance scores for the trial of the
self in each block. As no practice trials were given to subjects prior to experimental
trials, reactivity scores for the first two trials of other voices (in the first block) were
dropped from the analysis.
178 HAROLD A. SACKEIM AND RUBEN C. CUR
more false negative responses than the former group, and the differ-
ences between the two groups are significant. There is evidence, then,
for the claim that variations in the aversiveness of the self result in
differences in the frequency and direction of self-deceptive acts
regarding recognition of the self.
The findings of Wolff (1943) and Huntley (1940) are relevant to the
suggestion that there are differential outcomes as a consequence of
recognition or nonrecognition of the self. They found that subjects
who failed to identify themselves when self-confronted wrote more
extreme (positive or negative) character sketches than they wrote
when confronted with stimuli of strangers. We are currently investi-
gating changes in self-concepts following instances of recognition and
nonrecognition of the self. It may be the case that types of affects and
ideations found after failures in identification are markedly different
from those found when there is an awareness of self-confrontation.
Considerations of the motivational components of self-deception
are intimately tied to the issue of individual differences in the
tendency to be self-deceived. As Pynchon (1963) has written, some-
times "the motive is part of the quarry" (p. 362). In our first study, it
was hypothesized that the individuals who would find self-confronta-
tion most aversive would commit false negative responses. However,
the premeasure of the aversiveness of the confrontation was a self-
report inventory of psychopathology, and it was also hypothesized
that individuals who were high in the tendency to be self-deceived
would have depressed scores on a psychopathology measure. The
assumption behind this view was that self-deception is not a stimu-
lus-bound phenomenon but a generalized response set, or characteris-
tic defense, the frequency of its use varying among people. In support
of this view, it was found that the tendency to deny psychologically
threatening statements was associated with the frequency of false
negative and false positive responses. Furthermore, we have found
that high scores on the SDQ are negatively correlated with a number
of tests of psychopathology (see Table 1).
These findings are in line with the contention of Meehl and
Hathaway (1946), who argued that the effects of self-deception are of
greater importance in influencing personality inventory scores than
the effects of conscious lying. As a generalized response set, self-
deception may influence behavior in contexts other than personality
testing. For instance, Mischel (1974) argued that the "neurotic para-
dox" reflects a motivated attempt by individuals to keep specific ideas
out of awareness and that all neurotic behavior is self-deceptive. The
phenomena found in cognitive dissonance experiments may be like-
wise accounted for in terms of self-deceptive acts. Since it may be
SELF-DECEPTION, SELF-CONFRONTATION, CONSCIOUSNESS 185
TABLE 1
Intercorrelations among Measures of Psychopathology, Self-Deception,
and Other-Deceptiona
MSQb EPI-N EPI-L BECK SOQ OOQ
MSQ x 0.65 c -0.16 d O.72 c -0.48 c -0.22c
EPI-N x -0.12 0.55 c -O.34 c -0.18 e
EPS--L x -0.06 0.24e 0.57 c
BECK x -O.34 c -0.10
SOQ x 0.28 c
OOQ x
aN = 250 undergraduates at the University of Pennsylvania.
• MSQ: Total score on the Manifest Symptom Questionnaire.
EPI-N: Eysenck Personality Inventory-Neuroticism scale.
EPI-L: Eysenck Personality Inventory-Lie Scale.
BECK: Beck Depression Inventory.
SDQ: Self-deception Questionnaire.
ODQ: Other-deception Questionnaire.
cp < 0.001.
dP < 0.05.
'p < 0.01.
problem type increases. Gur et al. (1975) found that in these instances
quality of performance deteriorated. The investigators reasoned that
problem saliency decreased under stress and subjects resorted to
stereotypic response modes, which reflected their individual differ-
ences in hemisphericity.
In a number of subsequent studies by R. E. Gur, R. C. Gur, and
their colleagues, it has been found that hemisphericity is a good
predictor for a wide range of personality traits, including hypnotic
susceptibility (Gur and Gur, 1974; Gur and Reyher, 1973), type of
defense mechanisms employed (Gur and Gur, 1975), and self-reports
of psychopathological symptoms (Gur and Gur, 1975; Gur, Sackeim,
and Gur, 1976). The nature of personality correlates associated with
differences in hemisphericity is consistent with our knowledge of
right and left hemisphere functioning. Thus, for example, left hemi-
sphericity subjects (right movers) tend to intellectualize and use
defense mechanisms such as projection, while right hemisphericity
subjects (left movers) are more emotional and tend to use holistic
defense mechanisms such as repression.
There is also some suggestive evidence that hemisphericity and
functional brain asymmetry may be implicated in subliminal percep-
tion. Although it is likely that the left hemisphere, for most people, is
more susceptible to subliminal perception of verbal stimuli and the
right hemisphere is more likely to process spatial stimuli out of
awareness (Henley and Dixon, 1974), individual differences in overall
susceptibility to subliminal perception have also been observed.
Allison (1963) found that when pictorial stimuli were used, subliminal
effects were found only when subjects were encouraged to use
cognitive sets that were intuitive and holistic in emphasis. When
subjects were encouraged to employ cognitive sets that were logical
and analytic in emphasis, subliminal effects could not be found.
Gordon (1967), in a post hoc analysis of results from an experiment
using verbal stimuli, discovered that art students, but not science and
engineering students, showed subliminal effects. It is hypothesized
that subliminal perception of either verbal or pictorial stimuli is
characteristic of left-movers (right hemisphericity people).
These lines of research bear on the issue of self-deception. Split-
brain patients may be shown to hold contradictory beliefs and not be
aware of one of the beliefs. Conjugate lateral eye movements have
been associated with individual differences in emotionality, defensive
style, and psychopathology. Susceptibility to subliminal stimulation
also may be related to hemispheric activation and to individual
differences in hemisphericity. It would seem likely, then, that func-
tional differences between the two hemispheres provide possible
SELF-DECEPTION, SELF-CONFRONTATION, CONSCIOUSNESS 189
C. Overview
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
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5 Visceroception,
Awareness, and Behavior
GYORGY ADAM
199
200 GYORGY ADAM
SLEEP %
I" 2" 3" 4"
TABLE 1
The Dual Role of Visceral Input to the
Brain
Visceral Input
EEG synchronization
Sleep induction
EEG desynchronization
Arousal
•
11.38 Lett upper ureter .5 second vertical row, type of
C'm stimulus (Adam and Meszaros,
11.1,0 Sound +
1957).
the renal pelvis and a segment of the ureter situated 10 cm below and
cannot distinguish at the same time another site situated only 5 cm
from the pelvis (Figure 2). By the application of the same alimentary
classical conditioning method, it has been shown that the dog can
discriminate between stimuli arriving from the left and right kidneys
(Adam, Meszaros, and Zubor, 1957).
Subsequently, we extended the investigations to discrimination
by applying the operant conditioning technique. In the first series of
experiments (Slucki, Adam, and Porter, 1965), we have obtained
evidence that rhesus monkeys with a surgically prepared isolated
intestinal loop discriminated between the presence and absence of the
intestinal stimulus. Recently, these studies have been repeated with
my collaborator Gyorgy Bardos on rats with chronically operated
isolated intestinal loop, with weak electrical stimulation of the intes-
tinal mucosa used as Sd (Figure 3). Thus, the weak electrical stimula-
tion of the gut has been used as a discriminative stimulus for lever
pressing. The results have proved that rats, similarly to monkeys,
succeed in discriminating between the presence and absence of the
visceral stimulus (Bardos and Adam, 1978).
VISCEROCEPTION, AWARENESS, AND BEHAVIOR 203
TABLE 2
Different Methodical Approaches of
Visceroceptive Topographic and
Intensity Discrimination
Visceroceptive Discriminative Tests
1. Classical Conditioning
Topical discrimination +
frlteIlSity discrimination +
2. Operant Conditioning
Intensity discrimination +
3. EEG Habituation
Topical discrimination +
VISCEROCEPTION, AWARENESS, AND BEHAVIOR 205
three techniques may serve in the future as starting points for more
detailed and sophisticated indirect psychophysical investigations.
TABLE 3
Effect of Selective Attention and Verbal Feedback on the Perception of Visceroceptive Impulses Elicited by Electrical
Stimulation of the Cervix Uteri (Kukorelli et aI., 1972)
Sensation Verbal association Alpha
threshold desyn-
Number before chronizing
of association, threshold, Sensation threshold
subject volt V No. V No. V No. V No. V No. V No. volt after association, volt
9 12 19 30 1.5
1 8.0 7.5 7.0 6.5 6.0 5.0 6.5
9 21 40 70 1.5
10 21 25 30 1.5
2 8.5 8.0 7.5 7.0 6.5 6.5 7.0
10 31 56 86 0.5
8 13 18 21 23 30 2.5
3 9.5 9.0 8.5 8.0 7.5 7.0 6.5 6.0 7.0
8 21 39 60 83 113 1.0
6 5 19 15 30 2.0
4 7.5 7.0 6.5 6.0 5.5 5.0 4.1 5.5
6 11 30 55 85 1.4
30 -
5 8.0 7.5 6.0 8.0
30 -
30 -
6 6.5 6.0 4.5 6.5
30 - C)
-<
8 1.8 0'
Mean 8.3 7.8 7.31 18 1 5.4 6.5 ~
8 ~~ 1 6.81 ~~ 1 6.31 57 1.1 -<
1 1 1
:>'
>,
"=::
VISCEROCEPfION, AWARENESS, AND BEHAVIOR 207
60 ~
r-
A B
I
50 I
J
r--
If)
40
c
0
Z
1:1
'0
~ 30 -
0/1
0
'0
"-
eli
.D 20 r-
E
:J
Z
,.--
10
r--
o I i I II II I
5 6 7 8 v
FIGURE 5. Relation between the sensation threshold (B) and the number of verbal
associations (ordinate). Abscissa: voltage of uterine stimulation; A: alpha desynchroniz-
ing threshold. Each column represents the average of data on six subjects (Kukorelli et
aI., 1972).
208 GYORGY ADAM
mmHg
100
'."
er.-------------------
50 . - .. . . .
10 30 50 70 90
NUMBER OF ASSOCIATIONS
V
20
SUBJECTIVE
t --------- - -----(DISCOMFORT)
•
'.,.'.-.
, THRESH •
OBJECTIVE
10 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ( E E G AROUSAL)
THRESH.
10 30 50 70
NUMBER OF ASSOCIATIONS
FIGURE 6. Visceral perception curves. The upper (duodenal) and the lower (uterine)
diagrams represent the process of converting unconscious stimuli into conscious
awareness by verbal feedback. Unconscious visceral stimuli, when reinforced by verbal
feedback, are brought to consciousness by learning; the subjective pain-threshold
approaches the objective one. Abscissa: number of associations; ordinate: intensity of
visceral stimuli.
VISCEROCEPTION, AWARENESS, AND BEHAVIOR 209
1p =discomfort
EEG
pain threshold arousal
11) = learned
T sensation
TABLE 4
The Possible Roles of Visceroception in Homeostatic and
Extrahomeostatic Regulatory Functions of the Organism
1. Unconscious
1.1. Homeostatic regulation
(control of visceral functions)
(inborn)
1.2. Control of behavior
1.2.1.-Control of states of awareness
1.2.2.-Initiation of visceral learning
1.2.3.-Control of operant behavior
1.2.4.-Control of somatic learning
(learned)
2. Conscious
2.1. Control of emergency states
2.1.1.--Control of hunger
2.1.2.-Control of thirst
2.1.3.-Initiation of defecation
(learned)
2.2. Visceral perception
2.2.1.-(Laboratory artifact?)
2.2.2.-Initiation of self-control
benefaction for one human type
damage for another human type
(learned)
212 GYORGY ADAM
Research on research on
vise .• e.rnin human typology
FIGURE 8. In addition to intensive research in the field (left arrow), the application in
practice of human visceral learning must be preceded, by research on human typology
(right arrow) as well as by codification of the ethics (center arrow).
REFERENCES
BARDos, G., AND ADAM, G. Visceroceptive control of operant behavior in rats. Physiol-
ogy and Behavior, 1978. In press.
BYKov, K. M. The cerebral cortex and the internal organs. New York: Chemical Publishing,
1957.
KUKORELLI, T., ADAM, G., GIMES, R., AND TOTH, F. Vteral stimulation and vigilance
level in humans. Acta Physiologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, 1972,42, 403-
410.
KUKORELLI, T., AND JUHASZ, G. Electroencephalographic synchronization induced by
stimulation of small intestine and splanchnic nerve in cats. Electroencephalography
and Clinical Neurophysiology, 1976,41,491-500.
MOISSEEVA, N. A., AND ADAM, G. [Electroencephalographic investigation of interocep-
tive impulses in kittens.] Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1966, 167, 482-485. (In
Russian.)
PREISICH, P., AND ADAM, G. La discrimination nonconsciente des stimuli duodenaux: Ie
test de differentiation d'habituation electroencephalographique. Acta Gastro-Enter-
ologica Belgica, 1964,27, 625-629.
SLUCKI, H., ADAM, G., AND PORTER, R. W. Operant discrimination of an interoceptive
stimulus in rhesus monkeys. Journal of Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 1965, 8,
405-414.
STEVENS, S. S. Sensory power functions and neural events. In W. R. Loewenstein (Ed.),
Principles of receptor physiology: Handbook of sensory physiology, Volume 1. Berlin-
Heidelberg-New York: Springer Verlag, 1971. Pp. 226-242.
6 Stimulus-Bound Behavior
and Biological Self-Regulation:
Feeding Obesity and External
I I
Control
JUDITH RODIN
215
216 JUDITH RODIN
A. Degree of Overweight
Both we (Rodin, Herman, and Schachter, 1974) and Nisbett (1972)
had obtained data from a few greatly obese subjects indicating that
they were no more responsive to food and nonfood external stimuli
than normal weight individuals. During the course of our subsequent
studies we tested the external responsiveness of several hundred
participants who varied in degree of overweight. In each study, there
were individuals in every weight category who were extremely re-
sponsive and those who were not. Across all weight groups, degree of
overweight was almost totally unrelated to degree of external respon-
siveness. Using externality scores standardized on the entire sample in
each study, we did find, however, that when group averages were
compared, moderately overweight subjects were more external than
either the normals or the extremely obese. This finding was consistent
from study to study and was true for palatability ratings of increas-
ingly sweet-tasting glucose solutions (Rodin, Moskowitz, and Bray,
1976) and milk shakes (Rodin, 1975b); responsiveness to preloads of
varying caloric density (Rodin, Moskowitz, and Bray, 1976), and
eating and noneating responses to manipulations of external cue
salience (Rodin, Slochower, and Fleming, 1977). Moderately over-
weight subjects also appeared most willing to work to obtain a highly
preferred milk shake when permitted to sample it first. However, the
actual ease or difficulty of ingesting the milk shake (manipulated by
straw width) once they had obtained it had a greater impact on their
preference ratings and level of consumption than it did for either
normals or the extremely obese (Rodin, 1975b).
Since the experiments that have studied the relationship between
obesity and externality have varied greatly in how overweight the
subjects were, some of the conflicting results reported in the literature
may be more understandable. Moreover, since we have demonstrated
in our recent studies that there are some externally responsive individ-
uals in every weight category, it may be insufficient to group subjects
only on the basis of weight.
The use of summer camps for normal weight and overweight girls
extended the range of subjects tested to as young as 9 years old. The
use of an outpatient hospital clinic (Rodin, Bray, et ai., 1977; Brayet
ai., 1976) and a self-help weight control group (Rodin, Slochower, and
Fleming, 1977) extended the range to people as old as 60. The latter
STIMULUS-BOUND BEHAVIOR AND SELF-REGULATION 223
two samples also included blacks, people of Latin and Oriental origin,
and those with as little as ninth-grade education. In all cases, the
generality of the externality-overweight relationship was maintained.
On the average, moderately overweight subjects appeared more exter-
nal than those who were either extremely obese or normal.
C. Age of Onset
equally close to the subject but was placed away from her direct line of
vision. The tape that played during this condition asked subjects to
think about the taste of winter snow, the smell after it rains, etc.-in
other words, about non-food-relevant stimuli. In all conditions, sub-
jects were encouraged to eat as much ice milk as they wished, and
they were told that it was low calorie and artificially sweetened. The
flavor selected was of moderate palatability for that subject-rated as 6
on a 9-point scale. Pretesting indicated that most subjects still found
ice milk rated as 6 palatable even after eating it for several days.
B. Manipulation of Taste
In the high-palatability condition, the ice milk was a flavor that,
for that subject, was rated 9 on a 9-point scale. In the low-palatability
group, the flavor was one that she rated as 3. In both conditions, the
large serving dish was in front of them, but subjects were asked to
think about the neutral stimuli, thus providing a cue of moderate
external salience.
The exact procedure was replicated for all subjects after weight
loss. Instead of choosing an arbitrary time period to retest subjects
after weight loss, we instead tested each subject after a certain
percentage of her body weight was lost. OIL lhe ii... .::~;::.ge it t00k n
weeks (±7.4) for subjects to reach this criterion reduction index of 60
(-15-20% of body weight).
The experiment examined how, for a particular subject, weight loss
influenced consumption in response to conditions of high versus low
salience (holding palatability moderate) compared to the conditions of
high versus low palatability (holding salience moderate). Those over-
weight subjects who were selected on the basis of high responsiveness
to non-food-relevant external stimuli were also more responsive to
manipulations of visual cues for feeding than either low external
overweight or normal weight subjects. Weight loss did not reliably
change degree of responsiveness to the visual and cognitive salience
manipulations for any group. The pattern of findings for the palatabil-
ity manipulations was different in several respects. First, high and low
external overweight groups were more responsive to differences in
taste than the normals prior to weight loss, and they were not different
from one another. Second, they became even more taste responsive
228 JUDITH RODIN
tasted about the same. Thus, the external responsiveness of the obese
in the absence of internal cues should allow them to meet their
hedonic needs at a lower caloric price. On the other hand, on the basis
of the hypotheses outlined above, we would expect the low-calorie
good-tasting cues to stimulate metabolic responses and subsequent
overeating in the same way as their high-calorie counterparts. Indeed,
Nicolaidis (1969) reported the same metabolic effect for tongue stimula-
tion with a nutritive or a nonnutritive sweet. Thus, a piece of diet
chewing gum or a piece of rich-tasting low-calorie cake may stimulate
hunger and food seeking or lead to greater consumption if food is
already available. In fact, the richer looking and tasting the food
stimulus-despite its actual caloric value-the more it might stimulate
the appetite.
At the present time, we might logically ask whether making
people aware of their external responsiveness would help. Perhaps, if
we encouraged them to consciously restrain these tendencies-in
other words, to place regulation under fully conscious control-they
would do much better. In an interesting series of studies, Peter
Herman and his colleagues (Herman and Mack, 1975; Herman and
Polivy, 1975) demonstrated that people of all weight categories could
easily be classified into those who consciously restrain their eating
and responsiveness to external cues and those who do not. A simple
questionnaire allowed assessment of these differences. They then
placed both restrained and unrestrained eaters in the following situa-
tion (Herman and Mack, 1975). The study was presumably a taste
experiment in which subjects were first required to taste 0, 1, or 2
Id.1~~ milk shakes. In the next phase of the study, subjects were
encouraged to "taste" as much as they wanted from a large dish of ice
cream.
The results showed a fascinating turn of events. When normally
restrained eaters were required, as part of the study, to finish two
large milk shakes, they subsequently ate greater amounts of ice cream
in the following period than if they had consumed no milk shake or
one only. Apparently having drunk so much milk shake, and perceiv-
ing themselves as already having overeaten, these normally restrained
people gave up their restraint on consumption. Herman and his co-
workers argued that this disinhibition effect is cognitive, since per-
ceived and not real calories ingested produced the disinhibition of
restraint. Subjects who reported less conscious restraint of their eating
behaved in exactly the opposite fashion. For them, the greater
amounts of milk shake suppressed ice cream consumption.
In another study, these investigators found that restrained sub-
jects tend to overeat when anxious, possibly because strong emotions
236 JUDITH RODIN
REFERENCES
ANTROBUS, J. S., SINGER, J. L., GOLDSTEIN, S., AND FORTGANG, M. Mind-wandering and
cognitive structure. Transactions of the New York Academy of Science, 1970,32, 242-
252.
ATWOOD, G. An experimental study of visual imagination and memory. Cognitive
Psychology, 1971,2,290-299.
BoOTH, D. A. Conditioned satiety in the rat. Journal of Comparative and Physiological
Psychology, 1972,81,475-481.
BoOTH, D. A. Approaches to feeding control. In T. Silverstone (Ed.), Appetite and food
intake. Braunschweig: Pergamon Press, 1976.
BoOTH, D. A., AND MATHER, P. Prototype model of human feeding, growth, and
obesity. In D. A. Booth (Ed.), Hunger models: Computable theory of feeding control.
London: Academic Press, 1977.
BRAY, G. A., BARRY, R. E., BENFIELD, J., CASTELNUOvo-TEDESCO, P., AND RODIN, J.
Intestinal bypass surgery for obesity decreases food intake and taste preferences.
Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 1976,29, 779-783.
BRUCH, H. Eating disorders. New York: Basic Books, 1973.
CABANAC, M. Physiological role of pleasure. Science, 1971,173, 1103-1107.
CABANAC, M., AND DUCLAUX, R. Obesity: Absence of satiety aversion to sucrose.
Science, 1970, 168, 469-497.
CABANAC, M., MINARE, Y., AND ADAIR, E. Influence of internal factors on the pleasant-
ness of gustative sweet sensation. Communications in Behavioral Biology, Part A,
1968, 1, 77-82.
STIMULUS-BoUND BEHAVIOR AND SELF-REGULATION 237
SCHACHTER, S., GOLDMAN, R., AND GORDON, A. Effects of fear, food deprivation, and
obesity on eating. Journal of Personality and Social Psy:hology, 1968, 10, 91-97.
SCHACHTER, S., AND GROSS, L. Manipulated time and eating behavior. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 1968,10,98-106.
SCHACHTER, S., AND RODIN, J. Obese humans and rats. Wasr,ington: Erlbaum/WiJey, 1974.
SEGAL, S. J., AND FUSELLA, V. Influence of imaged pictures and sounds on detection of
visual and auditory signals. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1970,83,458-464.
SIMS, E. A. H., DANFORTH, E., JR., HORTON, E. S., BRAY. G. A., GLENNON J. A., AND
SALANS, L. B. Endocrine and metabolic effects of e)(perimental obesity in man.
Recent Progress in Hormonal Research, 1973,29,457-496.
SIMS, E. A. H., GOLDMAN, R. F., GLUCK, C. M., HORTON, E. S., KELLEHER, P. c., AND
ROWE, D. W. Experimental obesity in man. Transaction of the Association of American
Physicians, 1968,81, 153-170.
SINGER, J. L. Daydreaming. New York: Random House, 1966.
SINGER, J. L. Navigating the stream of consciousness: R,~search in daydreaming and
related inner experience. American Psychologist, 1975,2:0, 727-738.
SINGER, J. L., GREENBERG, S., AND ANTROBUS, J. S. Looking with the mind's eye:
Experimental studies of ocular motility during daydre2ming and mental arithmetic.
Transactions of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1971,33, 694-709.
SPffiGEL, T. Caloric regulation of food intake in man. Journal of Comparative and
Physiological Psychology, 1973,83, 24-37.
STRICKER, E. M., AND ZIGMOND, M. J. Brain catecholamines and the lateral hypothalamic
syndrome. In D. Novin (Ed.), Hunger: Basic mechanisms and clinical implications.
New York: Raven Press, 1976.
STUNKARD, A. J., AND KOCH, C. The interpretation of gashic motility, I: Apparent bias
in the reports of hunger by obese persons. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1964,11,
74-82.
THAYER, R. E. Measurement of activation through self repor!. Psychological Reports, 1967,
20, 663-678.
WOLGIN, D. L., CYTAWA, J., AND TEITELBAUM, P. The role oj' activation in the regulation
of food intake. In D. Novin, W. Wyrwicka, and G. A. Bray (Eds.), Hunger: Basic
mechanisms and clinical implications. New York: Raven Press, 1976.
WOOLEY, O. Long-term food regulation in the obese and nonobese. Psychosomatic
Medicine, 1971,33, 436.
WOOLEY, S. Physiologic versus cognitive factors in short-lerm food regulation in the
obese and nonobese. Psychosomatic Medicine, 1972,34, 62.
WOOLEY, S., AND WOOLEY, O. Salivation to the sight and thought of food: A new
measure of appetite. Psychosomatic Medicine, 1973,35, 136.
7 Operant Conditioning of
Autonomic Responses: One
Perspective on the Curare
EXperiments
LARRY E. ROBERTS
241
242 LARRY E. ROBERTS
Most observers agree that the initial impact of the curare experi-
ments on the study of operant conditioning derived from the informa-
tion these experiments were thought to have provided about the role of
somatomotor processes in visceral learning. Curariform drugs produce
flaccid paralysis by preventing the transmission of neural impulses
across motor end-plates of the somatic and respiratory musculature
(Koelle, 1970). It is therefore apparent that a demonstration of operant
conditioning in the deeply curarized and artificially ventilated rat
rules out the possibility that heart-rate changes might have been
elicited by the performance of somatomotor or respiratory maneuvers
with which these changes are frequently correlated in the normal
state. However, paralysis controls only for the effects of proprioceptive
and other consequences (for example, mechanical or metabolic) of
OPERANT CONDITIONING OF AUTONOMIC RESPONSES 243
TABLE 1. (Continued)
Curare
dosage Ini tial heart
respiration rate and %
Experiment Shaping procedure Shock density sample size a change b Comment
DiCara, Braun, Discrimination training Trials programmed 2.0/1.0 407 + 1.2% Increase performance not
and Pappas, 1970 with 135 shock, 15 blank every 40 sec on average; 70/1 :1/15 significant; no mention of
trials shocks/trial not reported 6/6 413 6.8% stimulus control; intact neocortex
was necessary for learning.
Fields, 1970a Nondiscriminative 5-25% of all heartbeats 3.6/0.0 459 d + PR interval also conditioned in a
punishment training; shocked at start of 70/1: 1/20 9.8%C separate group.
constant criterion training (estimate 20- 12/12 c 459 d
schedule 115 shocks/min)
10.5%C
Fields, 1970b Nondiscriminative 5-25% of all heartbeats 3.6/0.0 459 d + Extinction observed; PR interval
punishment training; shocked throughout 70/1: 1/20 15.5%C conditioned independently of
percentile reinforcement training (estimate 20- 12/12 c 459 d PP, RR; performance was a r'
schedule 115 shocks/min) function of delay of
15.4%C reinforcement and percentile
criterion.
~
ttl
Thornton, 1971 Discrimination training Trials programmed 0.6/0.6 396 + 14.8% No evidence of stimulus control; ::tI
0
Experiment 1 with 80 shock, 80 safe, every 20 sec on average; 70/1:1/14 group difference in pattern of III
ttl
and 80 blank trials o to about 20 shocks/trial 6/6 414 - 0.1% shock observed. ~
fIl
Thornton and Discrimination training Trials programmed 0.6/0.6 472 + 8.5% No evidence of stimulus control;
Van-Toller, 1973a with 80 shock, 160 blank everr 20 sec on average; 70/1 :1/14 immunosympathectomized rats
~
trials o to .Ibout 10 shocks/trial 4/2 468 4.5% did not learn.
S
Thornton and Discrimination training Trials programmed 0.6/0.6 455 e + 9.5% No evidence of stimulus control; ()
Van-Toller, 1973b with 80 shock, 160 blank every 20 sec on average; 70/1: 1/14 group difference in pattern of
o
z
o
trials o tOlbout 10 shocks/trial 5/5 473 - 4.0% shock observed; KCI on cortex
::J
prevented learning. (5
z
Wright, 1974, Nondiscriminative MeaCl shock density 29 4.0/4.01 414 + 8.5% Extinction observed 15 min after
Experiment 4 punishment training shocks/min; range 25-43 70/1: 1/12" training; increase rats received ~
approximating shocks/min 8/8 413 + 1.2% more shock.
o"1
percentile reinforcement )-
Cliner, Horvath, Discrimination training Trias programmed 3.0/1.0 437 + 4.0% No evidence of stimulus control; a
and Wolfe, 1975 for 90 min; estimate every 90 sec on average; 60/1: 1/19 increase rats received more
z
o
maximum of about 50 maximum of 5 shocks/ 8/8 436 9.0% shock; cardiac output measured. ~
;:;
shock trials trial. at 15-sec intervals
~
(Jl
a First entry is curare dosage [initial injection (mg/kg)/infusion (mg/kglhr)]; second entry is respiration [rate (cpm)/inspiration-expiration ratio/peak inspiratory
pressure (cm H 2 0)]; third entry is sample size [number in(Tease/number decrease]. ~
• First entry is increase performance [heart rate in beats/min and percentage of change]; second entry is decrease performance. Z
, RR interval and PP interval groups combined. ~
(Jl
d Initial heart rates not reported; this value is taken from control rats that were curarized but not trained (Fields, 1970a, Table 1).
'Initial heart rates for the increase and decrease groups were inadvertently reversed in the published paper (d. Thornton, 1972, Figure 6.6).
/ Succinylcholine .
• Peak inspiratory pressure was adjusted on-line to hold chest circumference constant.
IV
Ul
Ul
256 LARRY E. ROBERTS
during minor surgery 7-10 days earlier. This assembly also served as a
terminus for subdermal electrodes that were implanted in order to
measure heart rate. Artificial respiration was provided by a positive-
pressure respirator (E and M Company V5KG), which operated at 70
cycles per minute with an inspiration-expiration ratio of 1: 1 and a
peak inspiratory pressure of approximately 12 cm of water (abbrevi-
ated herein as 70/1: 1/12). The latter variable was adjusted for individ-
ual rats during the first 60 min of paralysis in an effort to produce a
stable heart rate of between 380 and 480 beats per minute (bpm) with a
10-30 bpm peak-to-trough variability in the cardiotachometer record.
After this initial adaptation period, respirator parameters were unal-
tered for the remainder of training. Continuous intraoral suction was
used to prevent accumulation of fluids that may have otherwise been
blown down the trachea by the force of positive-pressure ventilation.
The rear feet of the rat were drawn down through the restraining
platform and had silver chloride electrodes attached to them for
measurement of the plantar skin potential. Skin-potential measure-
ments were referred to sites on the tail that were situated anterior to
shock electrodes that were also placed here. The restraining platform
was warmed by a heating pad fixed at a medium setting in an effort to
maintain body temperature and peripheral vasomotor tone. This
apparatus could also be used to carry out experiments in the normal
state. In this case, the head clamp and face mask were removed, and a
collar was placed behind the rat to prevent chewing of electrodes
attached to the feet and tail. In addition to the electrocardiogram, heart
rate, rectal temperature, peak inspiratory pressure, circumferential
chest movements, and skin-potential responding were recorded for all
rats throughout the session. 1
Approximately one hour following initial paralysis and after all
the respiratory adjustments had been completed, a small laboratory
computer (PDP-8/L) was engaged on-line and used subsequently to
maintain a running memory of the rat's 100 most recent RR intervals.
If the rat was to be trained to increase its heart rate, all intervals
exceeding the 90th percentile of the distribution contained in memory
were followed by tail shock when punishment training began. If, on
the other hand, the rat was to be trained to decrease its heart rate, all
intervals falling below the 10th percentile of the distribution contained
in memory were punished when conditioning commenced. The occur-
rence of an RR interval in the appropriate tail of the distribution (a
"criterion" beat) constituted a single training trial and was followed,
during punishment training, by an unsignaled time-out period of 300
o PUNISH LONG
• PUNISH SHORT
en
o
z
8
~ O~---------------------~\-------
:i
...J
2
,,1-----t ----~
-I
r"/
///
-2
C=-1.29
-3~----~------~----~------~
o 2 3
BEATS AFTER CRITERION BEAT
FIGURE 1. Criterion RR intervals and three successive RR intervals thereafter. Data are
taken from the last 250 trials of operant level. The" average RR interval during these trials
was subtracted from each heartbeat. The parameter C is the mean criterion interval in
standard deviation units; the bars are ±1 standard error. The recovery functions are
asymmetrical with respect to zero because distributions of RR intervals were positively
skewed.
TABLE 2
Status Before and After Conditioning U
a Computed from 55 rats that completed punishment training without intervention by the experi-
menter. Of these, 38 were paralyzed by succinylcholine, 11 by D-tubocurarine, and 6 by dimethyl
tubocurarine. Drug groups are combined owing to a lack of significant differences among them.
Bidirectional groups have also been combined. Data were taken from the last 250 trials of operant
level (Trial 10(0) and the last 250 trials of extinction (Trial 60(0). Heart rate in beats/minute; skin-
potential responding in responses/minute; skin-potential level in mV negative; temperature in °C;
peak inspiratory pressure in em H 2 0; chest circumference in arbitrary units (mm).
• p < .05, two-tailed test.
'p < .01, two-tailed test.
d p < .05, one-tailed test.
260 LARRY E. ROBERTS
15 o L I CONDITIONING I EXT
"""I"'jl"'j"'~
FIGURE 2. Changes in the RR interval during operant heart-rate conditioning. Modes of distributions containing all RR intervals emitted
by the rat are depicted in the upper row; changes In the mean criterion RR interval from operant level are shown in the lower row. The
bars are ±1 standard error. The first number above each panel is the initial dosage (mg/kg); the second is the nominal intramuscular
infusion (mg/kg/hr). Sample sizes (punish long/punish short) for Panels A- E are 9/9, 5/5, 5/5, 5/6, and 3/3, respectively. RR intervals falling
in the upper or lower 40% of the distribution cor.tained in memory were tallied as criterion responses in Panel C, to maintain shock
density at approximately 0.5 shocks/sec. tv
0\
......
262 LARRY E. ROBERTS
150
140
130
o PUNISH LONG
• PUrSH SHORT
en 120
o
z ,
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U
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en
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15
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360 o
400 36; . ,(. ". r I
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~~ r\"VV< Z
<Il
tTl
<Il
436 360
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0'1 " , j
100 BPML
10SEC
FIGURE 4. Heart-rate records of curarized rats judged to have been responsive or unresponsive are compared to records taken
from partially restrained rats in the normal state, Each record is from a different rat. Epochs are taken approximately 4 hours after
the start of paralysis (Trial 6000) or restraint afld are representative of performance as a whole, Tonic heart rate is reported to the
nearest five beats. tv
0\
V1
266 LARRY E. ROBERTS
2 Mean heart rate at Trial 1000 for this group was 435 bpm (range: 410-459 bpm), with
an average standard deviation of 11.53 bpm (range: 3.34-32.47 bpm). Mean change in
heart rate in the direction of training was 5.91 % (range: 1.8-9.5%). All experimental
conditions except training under dimethyl tubocurarine were represented in the
sample.
OPERANT CONDITIONING OF AUTONOMIC RESPONSES 267
identified by the present analysis, six also had been punished for
emitting long RR intervals. The performance of these rats cannot be
attributed unequivocally to operant conditioning, since the direction
of the heart-rate changes was the same as the predominant uncondi-
tioned response to shock. Furthermore, it should be noted that eight
of the nine rats that were judged to have emitted responsive heart
rates in the previous analysis evidenced changes in this response that
were incompatible with learning, when punished for short RR inter-
vals (Figure 3 above). Thus, although it is conceivable that learning
played a role in some of the individual performances considered here,
there is nothing in these data that requires the conclusion that
learning had taken place. It should also be noted that the proportion of
rats that evidenced heart-rate changes that might have been attributed
speCUlatively to learning amounted to less than 15% of the total
sample that completed operant conditioning.
It is apparent that the results of these experiments contrast sharply
with the findings summarized previously in Table 1, in which operant
conditioning was carried out in a preparation similar to that employed
in the present work. They are particularly discrepant from the results
of Fields (1970a,b) who reported that a similar shaping procedure
could be used to operantly condition changes in the RR interval
independently of the PR interval with a variety of attendant phenom-
ena. For reasons mentioned earlier, the procedures employed in the
two series of experiments were not strictly identical. Fields based
beat-by-beat computation of the punishment criterion upon distribu-
tions containing t.~e l<'.st "12 consecutive heartbeats, rather than the
last 100 heartbeats as was done in the present study. Another
difference is that Fields did not employ a time-out period, as was done
here. These differences very likely resulted in an increased temporal
density of punishment and a tendency toward clustering of shock in
Fields's (1970a,b) experiments, where the punishment criterion in
effect at any given instant was less appropriate to the current heart
rate than was the case in the present research. Other differences that
are probably of greater importance to the issue of replication pertain to
maintenance of the preparation before and during conditioning, but
the nature of these is difficult to ascertain from the written protocol
provided by Fields (1970a,b).
One possibility we did evaluate, however, is that some aspect of
the procedure used to paralyze and maintain the rats in our study
might have affected central neural functioning to the extent that no
form of learning could reasonably have been expected to take place (d.
Roberts et al., 1974). Data bearing on this possibility are considered
next.
268 LARRY E. ROBERTS
tenninated with 2.8-mA tail shock, which was identical to that used in
our second experiment on operant conditioning (Panel B, Figure 2).
The results for each drug condition are shown in Panels A, B, and C of
Figure 5, which depicts perfonnance on the last block of six positive
and six negative trials. Inspection of skin-potential perfonnance,
which is shown in the upper half of each panel, indicates clearly that
rats paralyzed and maintained by the current methods were able to
learn a simple Pavlovian discrimination. The differentiations evident
in each drug condition were statistically reliable when considered
separately (t = 2.57,3.03, and 3.41 for D-tubocurarine, succinylcholine,
and dimethyl tubocurarine, respectively; p < 0.025 or better in each
case), with no differences in the magnitude of responding between
drug groups (F < 1). The negativity of skin potential increased
following presentation of CS+ in 26 of the 27 rats that were trained
while paralyzed; 21 of the subjects evidenced larger changes to CS+
than to CS- in the last block of six test trials. These results replicate
those reported for a slightly different curarized preparation in an
earlier paper by Roberts et al. (1974) and show that our inability to
obtain operant heart-rate conditioning in the curarized rat cannot be
attributed to an effect of paralysis or artificial respiration that rendered
any fonn of learning impossible.
The results with respect to heart rate, on the other hand, are
different and are of interest for the questions they raise concerning
cardiovascular function in the curarized rat. Although it is apparent
from the electrodennal record that rats paralyzed by each drug have
learned, inspection of the lower half of Panels A, B, and C in Figure 5
shows that their learning was poorly reflected iII G-,e ciii"dicv;:.s(:!.!la!"
system. There was little evidence of heart-rate conditioning in rats
paralyzed by dimethyl tubocurarine or succinylcholine. The slight
differentiation that was noticeable in rats paralyzed by D-tubocurarine
was statistically reliable (t = 1.95, P < .05) but averaged less than 4
bpm. The heart-rate differentiations observed for individual rats in all
drug conditions are depicted in Figure 6, where perfonnance has been
represented by a t statistic and is plotted in relation to the same
measure computed for electrodennal responding. Inspection of these
data shows that only 2 of the 27 rats that were tested evidenced cardiac
changes of a magnitude and consistency suggestive of genuine heart-
rate conditioning, when perfonnance was evaluated on an individual
basis. However, 13 subjects evidenced reliable differentiations with
respect to skin potential, indicating that a substantial proportion of
the sample had in fact learned the discrimination. The results pre-
sented here for classical heart-rate conditioning are rather strikingly
reminiscent of those described earlier for operant conditioning of this
response. At best, only a small minority of rats can be expected to
1.2/1.0 0.110.1 4.0/4.0 NORMAL
N
d - TUBOCURARINE DIMETHYL SUCCINYLCHOLINE STATE "l
ii' i" , i i i , iii' i , i o
.5 [
mV/min
-22.9
0
A B C D
450
" \T "0 cs-
365
b~m[
~
[
1
cs·
r-<
CONSECUTIVE 4 -SECOND INTERVALS
FIGURE 5. Discriminative classical conditioning in three curarized preparations and the normal state. The vertical line in
~
each panel denotes onset of the CS. The top row depicts skin-potential performance; the bottom row is heart rate. The last
rn
:;0
block of 6 positive and 6 negative trials from a session of 42 trials is shown. The first block of 6 trials consisted of pretest o
trials on which the CSs (a clicker and a tone, counterbalanced across subjects) were presented without shock. The intertrial gJ
interval averaged three minutes. Sample sizes for Panels A-D were 9, 8, 10, and 8, respectively. Numbers to the left of the ~
U>
vertical lines are pre-CS means.
OPERANT CONDITIONING OF AUTONOMIC RESPONSES 271
6
... SUCCINYLCHOLINE
5
• o d-TUBOCURARINE
• DIMETHYL TUBOCURARINE
•
4
o o
-.J
<1 3 o
j::: o
.
z
w
r- ••
0 2 ------------------------- .. ------- A-t---------------------------
a.. ... '
z
:;:
CJ)
'. 0:0 I
0 o
-I
" o. "I
-2
-2 -I o 1 2 3 4 5
t (HEART RATE)
FIGURE 6. Individual performance during classical conditioning in the curarized rat.
The skin-potential and heart-rate differentiations observed for each subject during the
last block of six positive and six negative trials are depicted as t statistics. A positive
value of t indicates that larger skin-potential responses and heart-rate decelerations were
observed on posiiivto iiial~. T!-:e !:>!,,,kpn lines depict t.05 (one-tailed, uncorrected for
multiple tests).
3 While it is clear that learning is poorly reflected in the cardiovascular system of rats
maintained by the present procedures, it would be going too far to conclude that
classical heart-rate conditioning was not evidenced at all under these circumstances.
One rat in Figure 6 showed statistically significant differentiations with respect to both
autonomic responses, suggesting that learning had taken place and was manifested in
both response systems. It might also be noted that the t statistics depicted for heart-
rate performance in this figure differ significantly from zero (tt = 2.04, P < 0.025),
suggesting that learning was expressed to at least a limited extent in the curarized
state. However, skin-potential differentiations were significantly larger than heart-rate
differentiations in curarized rats (tsp vs HR = 3.20, P < 0.01), while the same comparison
was not significant in the normal state, where both differentiations were substantial. It
appears that electrodermal discrimination is better preserved in the face of paralysis,
than is differentiation with respect to heart rate (Figure 5, above).
OPERANT CONDITIONING OF AUTONOMIC RESPONSES 273
Ball and Lynch, Heart rate Discrimination training with Attempted replication of Miller and DiCara (1967).
cited in Dworkin, 1973, brain-stimulation reward
page 32
Dworkin, 1973, Heart rate Discriminated avoidance Attempted replication of DiCara and Miller (1968a).
page 32 training
Dworkin, 1973, Intestinal Discriminated avoidance Attempted replication of Banuazizi (1968, 1972).
Experiment 1 contractions training (N = 20)
Goesling and Brener, Heart rate Feedback procedure with Rats were reinforced for activity or immobility in
1972 tail-shock reinforcement the normal state prior to heart-rate conditioning
(N = 20) under curare; the effect of heart-rate conditioning
under curare was not statistically significant.
Middaugh, Eissenberg, Heart rate Discrimination training with No evidence of learning was obtained when a peak
and Brener, 1975, brain-stimulation reward inspiratory pressure of 20 cm H 2 0 was used; how-
Experiment 2 (N = 10) ever, learning was obtained when peak inspiratory r'
pressure was reduced to 12 cm H 2 0 (Experiment 3).
Middaugh,1971, Heart rate Feedback procedure with Training procedure was similar to that of Hothersall ~
tTl
Experiment 3 brain-stimulation reward and Brener (1969); bidirectional difference in heart
(N = 10) rate was not significant after 60 min of training, :;;l
otlO
despite the use of a low peak inspiratory pressure t>j
(12 cm H 2 0). ~
<J>
Dworkin, 1973, Heart rate Discriminated avoidance Used modified Harvard respirator and added 5% o
Experiment 2 training (N = 30) CO 2 to inspired air; initial heart rate was 383 bpm ;;l
and variability improved, but learning was not
obtained. ~
o-j
n
Dworkin, 1973, Heart rate Disniminated avoidance Used constant-volume respirator with 5% CO 2 o
Experiment 3 training (N = 20) added to inspired air; rats tracheotomized and intu- ~
bated. Orienting response to S" was observed, but ::1
learning was not obtained. oz
Dworkin, 1973, Intestinal Dis.:riminated avoidance Rats tracheotomized, three gas mixtures used. No
Z
C"l
Experiment 4 con tractions trailing (N = 24) evidence of learning. Successful performance was o"1
not predicted by blood gas composition.
>-c:::
Wright, 1974, Heart rate Nondiscriminated punish- Bidirectional difference was found only when five
electrodermally unresponsive rats were discarded;
dz
Experiment 1 ment training approximating
o
(see Roberts et aI., 1974) per,:entile reinforcement interpretation was clouded further by failure of ~
(N= 24) groups to converge during 60 min of extinction. n
Wright, 1974, Heart rate Nondiscriminated punish- Peak inspiratory pressure was lowered to 14 cm H 20 f:i'
<Jl
Experiment 3 ment training approximating and was adjusted to hold chest excursions constant; (3
per,:entile reinforcement rats paralyzed by succinylcholine. No evidence of Z
<Jl
ttl
(N= 16) learning was obtained. <Jl
Roberts, 1978 Heart rate Nondiscriminated punish- Shaping procedure was similar to Fields (1970a,b).
(the present chapter) ment training with percentile Performance was not related to shock intensity,
reir,forcement (N = 55) punishment density, response unit, choice of para-
lyzing drug, or variability in the heart-rate record.
However, preparations learned a Pavlovian discrim-
ination with respect to skin potential.
a Saml'le size (bidirectional groups combined) is reported wh,re available.
tv
'1
Ul
276 LARRY E. ROBERTS
A. Procedural Similarities
one source of the vagus nerve. Further evidence for retention of vagal
restraint was provided by Roberts et al. (1974), who showed that heart
rate increased sharply following atropinization in rats paralyzed by
either 1.2 or 3.6 mg/kg D-tubocurarine. These observations indicate
that substantial neurogenic control of the heart is retained when rats
are paralyzed by dosages of D-tubocurarine that abolish EMG and are
identical to or greater than those used in earlier studies of operant
heart-rate conditioning (also see Thornton, 1971). However, the avail-
able evidence does not point unequivocally to the absence of gangli-
onic blocking effects in this species. Hahn (1974a) reported that
although parasympathetic restraint was clearly retained in most rats
paralyzed by 3 mg/kg D-tubocurarine, the cardiac response to direct
stimulation of the unsevered vagus varied substantially from subject
to subject, with a small number of rats evidencing nearly total nerve
block, while others apparently became more sensitive to stimulation
over the course of testing. These variable effects cannot be attributed
unequivocally to the action of D-tubocurarine, since vagal afferents
were stimulated by Hahn's procedure; furthermore, Nembutal anes-
thetic was infused in addition to curare. Nevertheless, Hahn's obser-
vations caution against concluding that ganglionic blocking effects are
of no consequence when operant and classical conditioning are carried
out in the curarized rat.
Bronchial congestion and diminished elasticity of the lungs and
thorax are also well-documented effects of D-tubocurarine that appear
to be secondary to the histamine-releasing properties of this drug
(Howard et al., 1974; Safar and Bachman, 1956). Although these effects
have been studied primarily in the dog rather than in rats, fluid
congestion and reliable decrements in chest excursions are frequently
encountered over the course of operant conditioning in the latter
species (Eissenberg and Brener, 1976; Table 2, above). It is reasonable
to suggest that these effects may interfere with proper gas exchange
and contribute to cardiovascular unresponsiveness in a significant
number of subjects when training is carried out in the curarized state.
2. Artificial Respiration
The problems involved in providing adequate ventilation in the
paralyzed rat are numerous and have been discussed previously by
Brener et al. (1974) and DiCara (1974) and more recently by Dworkin
and Miller (1977). One set of problems has to do with ensuring the
delivery of a constant volume of air to the lungs on each respiratory
cycle. Perhaps the most serious obstacle to this goal occurs when the
larynx and the trachea are displaced from their normal position above
OPERANT CONDITIONING OF AUTONOMIC RESPONSES 283
3. Stress Response
Another factor that may contribute to alteration of the cardiovas-
cular state in the curarized rat derives from the stress imposed by this
procedure. Evidence for the role of a stress response has been gathered
recently by Wilson and DiCara (1975). These investigators first lightly
etherized and then administered a single 2.5 mg/kg dose of D-
tubocurarine to one group of rats on each of three consecutive days. A
second group of subjects was simply etherized and returned to their
home cages without being exposed to the stress of paralysis. Begin-
ning on the fourth day, both groups were curarized and given
Pavlovian conditioning on each of three consecutive days. Curare-
preadapted rats developed a decelerative heart-rate response approxi-
mating 15 bpm on the second and third conditioning sessions under
curare (the fifth and sixth sessions of paralysis), whereas subjects that
OPERANT CONDITIONING OF AUTONOMIC RESPONSES 285
4 Although the cardiac outputs reported by Gliner et al. (1975) for curarized rats exceed
those reported for noncurarized subjects, Gliner (personal communication, 1976) has
cautioned that interpretation of the available data is complicated by differences among
studies with respect to method of measurement (thermal dilution versus the Fick
technique) and by the considerable variability of cardiac output in the freely moving
rat.
286 LARRY E. ROBERTS
E. Sources of Error
5 It should not be assumed that the experiments cited below are more vulnerable to
questioning on methodological grounds than are studies that have not been discussed.
Papers that provided extensive information were more likely to have been useful and
to have been referenced than papers that reported fewer data. Several of the efforts
discussed below (for example, Thornton, 1971) were remarkable for their scope and
detail, even though the interpretation given to the outcome can be questioned. It
might also be noted that a more comprehensive analysis of the curare literature than is
provided here yielded little that was definitive with respect to the relative importance
of the sources of error outlined in this section.
288 LARRY E. ROBERTS
6 This relationship was obtained in the present work, even though heart rate decreased
significantly over the duration of paralysis while temperature increased (Table 2,
above). This decrease indicates that temperature and heart rate are influenced
significantly by variables that are to some extent specific to one or both responses. For
example, temperature may have drifted upward slightly in the present research as a
result of the use of a heating pad; heart rate, on the other hand, may have diminished
owing to a reduction of tidal volume or sympathetic arousal (Table 2). Rats whose
temperature increased the most as a result of passive heating presumably evidenced
the lowest heart-rate decrements attributable to other factors.
OPERANT CONDITIONING OF AUTONOMIC RESPONSES 289
research. Both of these investigators found not only that rats that were
trained to increase heart rate evidenced significantly higher heart rates
following conditioning than did rats that were trained to decrease
heart rate but that the former group received significantly more shock
as well. Gliner et al. (1975) further reported that although performance
was unrelated to reinforcement variables across rats in the increase
group, the same was not true of rats in the decrease group, where it
was found that subjects evidencing the best performance received
significantly fewer shocks. This observation raises the possibility that
the reinforcement and shaping criteria used by Gliner et al. (1975) may
have generated a bidirectional difference in reinforcement density
(and in heart rate) by selectively exempting from punishment those
rats that evidenced tonic heart-rate trends compatible with the direc-
tion of training in the decrease group.
There are also conflicting reports with respect to whether rats
trained to increase heart rate are likely to encounter different patterns
of shock over the course of training, compared to rats trained to
decrease heart rate. Statistically reliable differences in the temporal
distribution of shock have been reported by Wright (1974, Experiment
4), Thornton (1971, Experiment 1), and Thornton and Van-Toller
(1973b). In each study, the nature of these differences was that rats
trained to decrease heart rate were more likely to have received
uninterrupted trains of shock than were rats trained to increase heart
rate, particularly during the early stages of operant conditioning.
Thus, it is conceivable that the lower heart rates evidenced by
decrease rats in these experiments may have been attributable to this
consequence of the shaping procedure rather than to the operant
contingency. For example, lower heart rates may have derived from
states of helplessness or protective inhibition that were engendered by
clustering of shock during operant conditioning (after Black, 1974b).
Alternatively, lower heart rates may have been a consequence of the
fact that decrease rats received relatively fewer of their shocks during
the later stages of training compared to rats that were trained to
increase heart rate (Thornton, 1971). The further report by Thornton
and Van-Toller (1973b) that application of potassium chloride to the
cortex abolished bidirectional differences in heart rate without elimi-
nating differences in pattern of shock does not rule out these possibili-
ties, since one could argue that an intact cortex (a possible site of
cardiosomatic integration) is necessary if differences in the pattern of
shock are to generate tonic and unconditioned cardiac changes in the
curarized rat. It should be noted that the practices adopted with
respect to the analysis of reinforcement variables in relation to
performance and direction of training appear to have ranged from the
OPERANT CONDITIONING OF AUTONOMIC RESPONSES 291
7 Cabanac and Serres (1976) reported that the relationship of heart rate to temperature
was altered in opposite directions when hypothermic rats were rewarded with
peripheral heating for increases or decreases in heart rate. An effect of operant
conditioning on this relationship was examined in the present research by division of
within-subject changes in heart rate by the corresponding change in temperature
(dHRJdT) for operant level and conditioning separately. The resulting ratios for
conditioning were then plotted as a function of the ratios for operant level, with
individual rats used as the unit of observation. Ratios averaged 33.1 bpmrC and were
significantly correlated across operant level and conditioning, as would be expected if
these measures were partially sensitive to the dependency of heart rate on tempera-
ture. However, no evidence for a change in dHRJdT dependent upon direction of
training was found. The reasons for the discrepancy between these observations and
the report by Cabanac and Serres (1976) cannot be ascertained on the basis of the
available data. However, it should be noted that the analysis carried out by these
investigators did not take total performance into account but instead focused upon
portions of the heart-rate record that appeared to have been homogeneous with respect
to patterns of responding that were observed during operant conditioning. This
procedure is attractive in that it takes into consideration the possibility that rats may
display distinctive patterns of learned response that may be missed by more global
analyses, but it is nevertheless fraught with serious hazard. The analysis of Cabanac
and Serres (1976) would have been more convincing had the same response patterns
been sought in both bidirectional groups, and preferably also in yoked controls. It
would also have been desirable to establish the reliability of the scoring procedure,
preferably through the use of observers who were blind with respect to direction of
training.
294 LARRY E. ROBERTS
v. IMPLICATIONS
500 INCREASE
450
400
350 • 05 6
500 DECREASE
450
400
•
FIGURE 7. Operant conditioning of
350 heart rate in the normal state. Separate
groups of rats received brain-stimula-
tion reward for emitting fast or slow
ADAPTATION CONDITIONING heart rates, for 10 daily sessions. (From
SESSIONS Black et al., 1977.)
8 In another study, Black et al. (1977) exposed a third group of rats to random
reinforcement in the presence of the discriminative stimulus. This procedure did not
affect heart rate over five days of training. This observation together with the stimulus
control that is evident in both bidirectional groups in Figure 7 suggests that
performance was determined by the operant contingency rather than by classical
conditioning or other effects of the training procedure.
OPERANT CONDITIONING OF AUTONOMIC RESPONSES 301
SO ABSENT
40
CI)
w
CI) 20
z
0
Il.
CI)
W
0::
..J
~
0 SO PRESENT
I- 60
15
I-
Z
w 40
U
0::
W
Il.
20
HS HM BM w BT Rr Rn
460
440
420
400
380
360
340
320
300
280
2 3 4 5
19
18
z 17
0-
f=~ 16
0.::>
~~ 15
cn::E
z , 14
o eli
U u 13
U
N~
o 12
II
I I
10
2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15
-v
176r
16 OJ; ~
128
112
96
80
64
Ef23~
48
32
16
o 2 3 4 5 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15
ADAPTATION CONDITIONING
SESSIONS
FIGURE 9. Operant conditioning of heart rate in the normal state. Rats were punished
for emitting inappropriate heart rates in the presence of a discriminative stimulus, for 15
daily sessions. Heart rate, oxygen consumption, and ambulation are shown . • increase
5 D; 0 increase 5"; • decrease 5 D; 0 decrease 5". (From Brener et aI., 1977.)
24
~ 20
~
"-
on 16
2
E 12
w
!:t
a: 8
I-
a: 4
<l
w
:r: 0
-4
24
20
16
12
(::> 8
~
w
4
-4
FIGURE 10. Avoidance conditioning of heart rate in noncurarized human subjects. The
effect of constraining somatomotor and respiratory maneuvers on heart-rate and
electromyographic performance is shown. (Redrawn from Obrist et aI., 1975.) 0 HR
up--no control; .& HR up--minimum control; • HR up--maximum control; • ran-
dom-maximum contro!.
VI. CONCLUSION
The fact that the curare experiments have been widely cited in
reviews of both basic (Harris and Brady, 1974) and applied (Blanchard
and Scott, 1974) biofeedback research serves as one of several indica-
tions that these experiments have been believed to have established
the phenomena of operant autonomic conditioning on a firm scientific
basis. The assessment of these experiments that has been offered in
this chapter gives reason to reflect briefly upon the adequacy of this
basis in the absence of the curare literature.
Certainly, the issue of whether autonomic responses can be
operantly conditioned is no longer a matter of serious dispute. There
is also sufficient evidence to suggest that operant conditioning estab-
lishes control of visceral function by altering the activity of neural
systems within which visceral responding is normally integrated.
Although several reviewers have cautioned that the power of operant
conditioning as a technique for treating visceral pathology appears to
have been overstated in the past (Blanchard and Young, 1974; Lege-
wie, 1977), there is evidence that suggests that some autonomic
applications may be useful (for example, Engel and Bleecker, 1974;
Engel, Nikoomanesh, and Schuster, 1974; Wickramasekera, 1973) and
merit further study. Despite these significant accomplishments, how-
ever, one cannot help but be impressed by gaps in present knowledge
pertaining to (1) properties of operantly conditioned autonomic re-
sponses; (2) optimal conditioning procedures; (3) mechanisms of
OPERANT CONDITIONING OF AUTONOMIC RESPONSES 311
conditioning; and (4) the basis and extent of therapeutic gains pro-
duced by biofeedback training.
The fact that so much remains to be researched should not be
taken to mean that the answers are likely to prove exciting. On the
contrary, there is reason to expect that continued study will show that
the limits of visceral learning are considerably more constrained than
was suggested by the curare experiments. Furthermore, it will not be
surprising if in most instances the mechanisms involved in the
performance of visceral operants tum out to be less remarkable than
was assumed to be the case for the phenomena depicted in the curare
literature. Nevertheless, continued study of these issues is likely to
prove worthwhile. One product is certain to be a deeper understand-
ing of the limits of visceral learning and of the organization of the
autonomic nervous system. Another product will very likely be a
better appreciation of the utility and limits of biofeedback training as
a treatment for visceral pathology.
As a final consideration, one is led to ask whether the study of
visceral learning is likely to profit from the continuing effort to
demonstrate operant autonomic conditioning in the curarized rat
(Dworkin and Miller, 1977). Clearly, the original justification for the
use of paralysis is inadequate. Curarization does not control satisfac-
torily for the participation of somatomotor mechanisms in perform-
ance; instead, it is evident that central components of these mecha-
nisms are capable of exerting a measurable influence on cardiovascular
activity in the paralyzed state. That exclusion of somatomotor partici-
pation should be seen as a priority in biofeedback research can also be
questioned, insofar as exclusion of somatomotor influences is not
easily defended as a criterion tor membershIp In an operant class.
Nevertheless, it would be rash to conclude that continued study of
learning in the curarized preparation cannot provide useful informa-
tion about mechanisms of conditioning or the plasticity of visceral
function. The use of a paralyzed animal offers certain advantages,
provided that a satisfactory preparation can be devised. One of these
is that operant conditioning may be applied to visceral activities that
are not easily measured without artifact in the normal state. This
feature may make possible systematic investigation of the determi-
nants and limits of conditioning that may be impractical in human
subjects or impossible in freely moving animals. Another advantage is
that certain problems such as the analysis of neural circuits can be
undertaken more readily in this preparation than in the normal state.
Thus, it is possible that further study in the curarized rat (or some
other more suitable species) may prove worthwhile. It should perhaps
312 LARRY E. ROBERTS
ApPENDIX
REFERENCES
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changes in fighting to emotion and exercise. Journal of Physiology, 1971,212, 321-
335.
ALLEMAN, H. D., AND PLATT, J. R. Differential reinforcement of interresponse times
with controlled probability of reinforcement per response. Learning and Motivation,
1973,4,40-73.
ALTLAND, P. D., BRUBACK, H. F., PARKER, M. G., AND HIGHMAN, B. Blood gases and
acid-base values of unanesthetized rats exposed to hypoxia. American Journal of
Physiology, 1967,212,142-148.
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T
WESLEY C. LYNCH' Rockefeller University, New York, New York. Present address: John
B. Pierce Foundation Laboratory, 290 Congress Avenue, New Haven, Connecticut.
UWE SCHURr' Rockefeller University, New York, New York. Present address: Max-
Planck-Institut fur Psychiatrie, Munchen, West Germany. Financial support for this
work was provided by the Spencer Foundation.
321
322 WESLEY C. LYNCH AND UWE SCHURI
waste products, carbon dioxide, and heat from cells and regulating the
overall heat content of the body. To achieve these functions, several
control systems have developed in man and other mammals that have
the purpose of regulating the two primary circulatory variables:
vascular pressure and volume blood flow. The means by which pressure
and blood flow are regulated constitutes the study of cardiovascular
control systems. Control systems may be described as feedback loops
(reflexes, when controlled neurally) that are sensitive to some form of
peripheral or central stimulation, are integrated by a local or central
(neural) process, and have as outputs one or more cardiovascular
effects. By far the most significant control systems affecting peripheral
circulation are those that modulate the level of tonic activity in the
resistance vessels (small arteries and arterioles) of skin and muscle.
These are largely integrated in the CNS (central nervous system) at the
level of the medulla oblongata, although neural levels both above and
below this bulbar area can affect vascular tone independently or via
modulation of the medullary output.
While a change in vascular tone instigated by a cardiovascular
reflex may have a range of effects in vivo, the most common outcome
(other influences remaining relatively constant) is a change in vascular
resistance leading to a change in blood flow. In general, flow is
decreased by an increase in vascular tone and increased by a reduction
in tonic influences. This is true of both skin and muscle circulation,
although muscle also has an active mechanism for vasodilation.
In addition to reflex control of circulation, there are local influ-
ences that may become important under certain conditions. Most
~ienifi('ant of these, F~rticul~!"lJ" ir.. ll'i.tl5clc, is ll-l~ uuilJup 01 the
metabolites of cellular energy exchange. Metabolites generally increase
muscle blood flow and thereby act, through a process of negative
feedback, to decrease the buildup. In skin, a similar effect upon heat
exchange is initiated by the local effect of sweating. The sweat glands,
when stimulated neurally, produce certain chemicals that, in turn,
stimulate vasodilation and thereby increase blood flow. This increased
blood flow both supplements the heat loss due to sweating and
supplies needed water. The connection between sweating and blood
flow, however, is sometimes severed by "emotional or psychic"
influences. These may become particularly important in psychophy-
siological studies. In cases of so-called emotional sweating, the blood
vessels of the skin may remain fully constricted while profuse sweat-
ing occurs. In such instances, sweating is most often localized on the
palms of the hands, the soles of the feet, and the forehead in man.
The skin circulation is principally controlled by the constriction
and dilation of arterioles (resistance vessels). However, skin blood
326 WESLEY C. LYNCH AND UWE SCHURI
C. Summary
D. Conclusion
The review of vasomotor classical conditioning studies leads to
the conclusion that while such conditioning is clearly possible, it is
uncertain by what mechanism it operates. Subjective awareness of
contingencies, the need for emotional or "urgent" unconditioned
stimuli, and the effect of variations in the thermal environment all
suggest that what is conditioned is not the peripheral vasomotor
response per se but some antecedent "central" response that may have
peripheral vascular effects as only one manifestation.
I REST REST
this subject, who received more than 30 daily practice sessions prior to
collection of these data. During each session a 3-min baseline stability
period was followed by a S-min practice period, during which the
subject attempted to change the temperature of one finger either
upward or downward (arrows). A 3-min rest interval was followed by
a second practice period, during which the direction was reversed.
Temperature feedback was provided by a meter and a variable
frequency tone. Whether instructions were to increase or decrease
temperature during the first period was decided on a random basis.
Figure 2 shows the mean temperature change for seven test days when
instructions were to decrease and then increase temperature and eight
test days when instructions were to increase and then decrease
temperature. As can be seen, a temperature change of O.SoC in each
direction was achieved regardless of direction. While these data were
very encouraging in light of our own earlier results, they were quite
unimpressive when compared to reports from Taub's laboratory. Taub
and Emurian (1972) reported changes of 1.2°C in either direction in
most subjects given only four IS-min practice sessions.
A recent article by Surwit, Shapiro, and Feld (1976) indicates that
other investigators have also had difficulties demonstrating bidirec-
tional learning. By reinforcing digital skin temperature changes via
feedback and monetary rewards, these workers trained 8 subjects to
voluntarily vasoconstrict and 16 subjects to vasodilate. The training
started after two baseline days and lasted either five or nine sessions.
Summarizing their data, the authors concluded "that simply leaving
subjects alone during long baseline periods seems to be as effective as
feedback training in producing vasodilation" (p. 247). On the other
hand, their subjects were able to voluntarily control digital vasocon-
striction as indicated by decreasing hand temperature over trials
within sessions. There was no evidence for an across-sessions training
effect.
The results reviewed so far raise the queE~ion of how specific the
reported vasomotor changes (if obtained) may become. Surwit et al.
(1976) reported that although their "increase" and "decrease" groups
showed significantly different temperatures, feedback did not result in
group differences in heart rate or respiration rate. In the Kimmel and
Kimmel (1967) study, on the other hand, both the GSR and the
plethysmographic responses (reinforced) showed differential effects in
a very short training period. It is especially interesting to compare
those vasomotor changes on which the reinforcement was contingent
with vasomotor changes in other locations. Again, the data are
conflicting; Taub (1977) reported that with extended practice, the locus
of control was gradually reduced to the location of the transducer
ACQUIRED CONTROL OF PERIPHERAL VASCULAR RESPONSES 343
changes in the temperature difference between the two hands, and the
direction of the required change was reversed at the end of each 8-min
period. To our consternation, this experiment, like the previous one,
was a virtual failure! Whereas Roberts et al. (1975) had reported a
mean successful performance for all 14 of their subjects of 0.82°C by
the eighth training session, our best individual subject produced a
change of only 0.63°C during her best session! Computing our data by
a method identical to that used by Roberts, the eighth session score
for all eight subjects was 0.16°C. Our success at demonstrating
differential temperature control was clearly limited.
For several reasons, which will be discussed later, we thought that
children might be better vasomotor learners. In an experiment with
four children aged 4 to 11 years (Lynch, Hama, Kohn, and Miller,
1976), three subjects were able to learn highly specific responses.
When given feedback for temperature differences and a contingent
money reward for success, these children were also able to demon-
strate reliable control of the temperature difference between their two
hands. One subject eventually learned to control the temperature
difference between two fingers on one hand.
Taken altogether, work over the past 10 years demonstrates
beyond any doubt that instrumental vasomotor learning is possible. It
is even possible to learn highly specific responses, which suggests that
vasomotor learning may be possible without generalized somatic
mediation. Data reported from different laboratories, however, are
highly variable with regard to the number of learners and the
magnitude and direction of changes. Both Taub and Roberts (personal
communication, 1974) have had some troubie repeating their own
earlier results. Surwit et al. (1976) and our group (Lynch, Hama, Kohn,
and Miller, 1974) have found fewer learners and generally have had
more difficulty training vasodilation than vasoconstriction. Thus,
there remains the question of what variables are responsible for these
differences.
., LUW :;:,t.N'::>.
~ .2
'-l
\oJ .1
9:::
~ 0
"l:
~ -.I
~
~ -.2
I...::
FIGURE 3. Mean change in the -.3
~
temperature difference between
~-.4
two hands for three groups of
~
four subjects. Each group re- -.5
ceived feedback, for temperature
differences, at one of three sen- 2 3 4 5 6
sitivities (see text for details). SESSIONS
348 WESLEY C. LYNCH AND UWE SCHUR!
tude over the 10 sessions, according to a sign test (p = .004); there was
no difference between groups. Apparently feedback did not enhance
the ability to reduce pulse amplitude.
As mentioned earlier, our studies of children were begun because
we believed that they might be better vasomotor learners than adults.
They are known to be superior at learning some motor skills and
language, they are rather easily motivated to learn, and they tend to
attempt the solution to a new problem without questioning its
feasibility. We reasoned that such factors as lack of motivation or
belief in the feasibility of vasomotor learning might have hindered the
performance of our adult subjects.
In an initial experiment, six children ranging in age from 3 to 11
years were given feedback training to increase and decrease the
temperature of one hand. Feedback was provided by the movement of
a meter needle. All subjects received six IS-min sessions in which they
attempted to decrease the temperature of one finger, followed by six
sessions of increase training. In remarkable contrast to the adults, all
six children were able to increase finger temperature, and four of them
were able to decrease temperature. Tests of the three best subjects
showed no correlation between changes in respiration and tempera-
ture. In a subsequent study (Lynch, Hama, Kohn, and Miller, 1976),
three other children ranging from 9 to 11 years were able to learn
highly specific responses (see p. 39).
These preliminary studies suggested the need for a more direct
comparison of children and adults. If we could demonstrate a reliable
difference between adults and children, it might provide clues about
how instrumental vasomotor control was achieved. In order to follow
up our earlier work with children,we carried out an extensive study of
16 individuals. Since this work has not previously been published, a
detailed description of it is presented here. Our main purpose was to
examine the role of age in the acquisition of specific instrumental
control of the temperature difference between the two hands. In
addition, we wanted to evaluate further the significance of extended
training and to analyze, in greater detail, the individual abilities of
those subjects who were especially proficient.
1. Method
10.9). The experimental room and the equipment were the same as
those already mentioned. Communication with the subject was via
intercom; however, the subject was observed constantly over closed-
circuit TV. Room temperature was 24 ± 1°C. Skin temperature of the
middle finger of each hand and respiration were recorded continu-
ously during each session. Feedback for the difference in temperature
between the two hands was both visual and auditory. In addition, a
counter provided a running indication of earned money. This counter
was driven at a rate of 20 cents/degree/min when the correct response
was made.
Prior to the first session, instructions were given concerning the
task, the nature of the feedback, and the method of payment. Each
subsequent session consisted of a 5-min baseline, two 8-min trials,
and a 5-min recovery. During the baseline period, the subject was
instructed to relax and was given the option of listening to music.
Following the baseline period, the first trial began immediately, the
task being to warm one hand and cool the other. After 8 min the
direction of the temperature change was reversed, and practice contin-
ued for another 8 min. The hand warmed first was randomly selected,
with the stipulation that each hand was first an equal number of
times. All 16 subjects initially completed 8 sessions run on alternate
weekdays. An additional 4 sessions were completed after a one-
month hiatus, bringing the total number of sessions to 12.
2. Results
3. Group Data
Figure 4 shows the mean temperature change for the two groups
across sessions. There was a significant group difference (p < .025),
and as the figure indicates, the difference was due to the superior
350 WESLEY C. LYNCH AND UWE SCHURI
• CHILDREN
.5
""'
~
0
.4
o ADULTS
'-
~
.3
~~ .2
a~ .1
<t)~
~~ 0
~"
~~ -.I
I~
\I)~ -.2
~ -.3
~
-.4
~
~ -.5
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12
SESSIONS
FIGURE 4. Mean change in the temperature difference between two hands for two
groups of eight subjects each. Filled circles represent data for children; open circles
show data for their parents--"adults" (see text for details).
ability of the children. While the G-mean scores for the adults
remained consistently near or below zero, those for the children were
generally in the correct direction.
The lack of a significant sessions effect or a group x sessions
interaction indicated that the ability of neither group changed over
sessions. This conclusion was verified further by an analysis of data
for the individual sessions of each group. T tests comparing the
change in each session with a hypothetical mean change of zero
showed that only the children were successful as a group during only
3 of the 12 sessions (2, 6, and 7:p < .05).
4. Individual Performance
C. Conclusion
The critical variables and conditions that can promote instrumen-
tal vasomotor learning are not yet clearly established, and a close
replication of the methods reported in the available literature does not
ensure a replication of results. In many of the experiments reviewed,
more insight has been obtained into those factors that are insignificant
(or at least much less important than originally assumed) than into
those that are critical.
A particular concern for ruling out somatic "artifacts" may have
accounted for the fact that experiments from our laboratory yielded so
few talented individuals. Some investigators, particularly those inter-
ested in therapy, have made little or no attempt to control for somatic
involvement. Others have been less cautious about controlling slight
movements or the very subtle isometric exercises that we eventually
found could be so influential.
Our comparison of children and adults and our subsequent
studies of isometric exercise illustrate the technical difficulties arising
from attempts to establish direct vasomotor control. (By direct control,
we mean control that is exerted directly over the autonomic nervous
system and not via intervening mediators.) While it may, in fact, be
impossible to establish such direct controC the benefits in new
knowledge and in therapeutic potential make the effort of further
research well worth the cost.
But effort and a hope that direct control is possible are not
sufficient. One must be constantly aware that factors other than direct
autonomic learning may account for positive results. Additional
knowledge about what other variables and conditions may be impor-
tant is essential. Our progress will be more rapid if emphasis is placed
on discovering relationships among variables rather than on seeking
particular results.
To establish the possibility of direct vasomotor control we need
more data. Among the facts that would greatly increase our confidence
that direct instrumental control is possible would be: (1) demonstra-
tions of reliable learning by a large number of individuals; (2)
evidence of very large magnitude responses in a few individuals; (3)
further examples of specific regulation of the direction and locus of
response, such as those reported by Taub and Emurian (1972) and
Roberts et al. (1975); and (4) doing all of the above when somatic
responses are rigorously controlled and/or monitored. Present evi-
dence suggests that these data may not be forthcoming for some time.
Meanwhile, what can be done? Among the more profitable lines
that might be pursued are the following: (1) detailed study of the
ACQUIRED CONTROL OF PERIPHERAL VASCULAR RESPONSES 353
v. DISCUSSION
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
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358 WESLEY C. LYNCH AND UWE SCHURI
1. INTRODUCTION
MARTIN T. ORNE AND STUART K. WILSON' Unit for Experimental Psychiatry, The
Institute of Pennsylvania Hospital, and University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania. The research reported here was supported in part by the Advanced
Research Projects Agency of the Department of Defense and was monitored by the
Office of Naval Research under contract #N00014-70-C-0350 to the San Diego State
College Foundation, by grant #MH 19156 from the National Institute of Mental Health,
and by a grant from the Institute for Experimental Psychiatry.
359
360 MARTIN T. ORNE AND STUART K. WILSON
For each subject, one of the two possible light colors was associ-
ated with one of the three EEG frequency bands identified above. The
subjects were then asked to sort more than 100 mood-descriptor terms
into the appropriate red, blue, green, or white bin, symbolizing the
three colored lights and no particular color association, respectively.
Brown (1971) compared their sorting with the sorting performed by 45
control subjects who had not undergone the three-light feedback and
had not associated any colors with the experimental situation. She was
able to show that the experience of linking an EEG state with a colored
light significantly changed the mood terms sorted with that color.
Descriptors significantly associated more frequently with alpha colors
were calm, peaceful, pleasant, at ease, neutral, illusion, dreamlike, myste-
rious, and uncertainty. Beta wave production (low voltage or small
waves of greater than 13 Hz) was associated with feelings of being
angry, aggravated, irritated, impatient, unhappy, troubled, frustrated,
touchy, shaky, and investigative, as well as with feeling a void inside.
Thus, a much more specific assessment of the associated subjec-
tive experiences again seemed to confirm Kamiya's (1969) original
reports. It appeared, then, eminently reasonable to try to utilize alpha
feedback training as a means of helping the individual learn to gain
control over the extremes of arousal. The only further requirements
seemed to be an appropriate learning context for the subject and the
necessary learning schedules.
z 7
~
i;j 6
5
.....
z
:::> ..
o
... 2
...J
C
2 3 .. 567 8 9 10
TRIAL SEQUENCE
FIGURE 1. Seconds per minute of criterion EEG alpha produced during the first day of
binary alpha wave feedback by visual display. Ten 2-min feedback trials are presented.
this finding in the same study. Thus, on the second day of feedback
training, subjects had five feedback trials with instructions to augment
alpha, followed by several trials during which they were alternately
told to increase and decrease alpha density. Figure 2 certainly seems to
document the claim that subjects can be taught to reduce, as well as to
increase, alpha; however, careful examination indicates that some-
thing other than learning could explain this observation. On the very
first trial during which subjects were told to "keep the red light on,"
alpha density dropped to a level non significantly below the initial trial
on Day 1, when feedback training with the visual display was started.
Since subjects were producing almost no alpha under these circum-
stances, performance during subsequent "alpha-off" trials could not
manifest any significant increase in alpha blocking from that seen
during the first trial. It would, therefore, appear inappropriate to
speak of subjects' learning to block alpha, since this is a skill that they
seem to possess from the very beginning.
II ALPHA ON
10 N=13
~
~ 9
[rl
'" 8
z
\ ---
7
....
z 6
:::>
0
(.)
5
oC 4
...
:%:
3 ~ __ -.~.
ALPHA OFF
~.-_.~ •••-o
...J
oC
\
2
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II
TRIAL SEQUENCE
FIGURE 2. Seconds per minute of criterion EEG alpha produced during the first day of
binary feedback by light display. Five 2-min enhancement feedback trials were followed
by 12 discrimination trials with alternating instructions to enhance and inhibit alpha
production.
ON THE NATURE OF ALPHA FEEDBACK TRAINING 369
25
z 20
~
frl
CI)
z
15
....
z
::>
0
t.>
10
...
:I:
n. FEEDBACK ALPHA
...
-'
BASE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
LINE TR I AL SEQUENCE
FICURE 3. Seconds per minute of criterion EEG alpha produced during binary feedback
with light display compared with baseline and rest period levels. The alpha feedback
data are the same as those presented in Figure 1. Baselines and 1-min rest period alpha
levels interspersed between 2-min feedback trials were obtained while the subject was
in total darkness.
the alpha density during the initial eyes-open and eyes-closed base-
lines in total darkness as well as the alpha density during the rest
periods. In these intervals, the feedback light was turned off and the
feedback room again became totally dark. It is evident in Figure 3 that
subjects in total darkness began with a spontaneously high baseline
level of alpha density, which was promptly depressed by the visual
feedback stimulus. However, during the rest period, when the room
again was in total darkness, the alpha density returned to the much
higher baseline levels.
2 At Dr. Kamiya's suggestion, two procedural changes were incorporated: (1) Subjects
also received digital feedback indicating the amount of alpha they had produced
during each of the 2-min periods by means of a digital display that indicated the
number of seconds of alpha during the preceding 2 min and that was lit for 5 sec
immediately at the conclusion of each 2-min trial before the I-min rest period started.
This feedback was deemed important to maintain motivation, since subjects could not
really judge how well they were doing by listening to the tones. Further, the digital
display provided information concerning even relatively small changes. Subjects were
required to read the display out loud, thus providing feedback to the experimenter
about their continuing alertness. (2) The frontal output was used as the basis of
feedback. However, as in our previous studies, occipital alpha was also recorded, and
the changes in occipital alpha, which were essentially parallel to those of the frontal
alpha, were used as the basis for analysis.
372 MARTIN T. ORNE AND STUART K. WILSON
c
~ 30.0 Trials
~
Rest
~
'!
c•
.2a.
~ '0.0
II
~
II.
C
20.0
2 3 4 5 6
Sesslans
FIGURE 5. Mean seconds per minute of criterion EEG alpha produced during each of six
separate sessions of binary alpha wave feedback by tones. The subjects were in total
darkness during the auditory feedback as well as during baseline and rest periods.
374 MARTIN T. ORNE AND STUART K. WILSON
.:
,.. 2
::E
Trials
u
OIl
,,,""......-........
.............';' ......, ..... Rest
,//?'-_----....._--------_ .•/
FIGURE 6. Mean seconds per minute of criterion EEG alpha produced during the
seventh session of binary alpha wave feedback by tones. In this session, auditory
feedback was presented while the subjects sat in a dimly lighted room. E. c.: eyes
closed; E. 0.: eyes open; F. F.: free feedback.
The importance of light, which had long been noted and again
underlined in the earlier studies, was now dearly identified as being
of major significance to any understanding of the alpha feedback
experience. Further, the data supported the hypothesis that the
apparent augmentation of alpha density during feedback occurred
only when alpha density previously had been depressed by light. The
increment in density shown during feedback seemed to involve the
individual's gradually learning to ignore the stimuli that had been
responsible for alpha suppression in the first place; that is, to cease
orienting to visual stimulation.
~
2
"-
r.3
(/) N=9
30
z
\
>-
l-
(/) 20
z
10.1
C
C(
:%: 10
Q.
....I
C(
for the three trials, 3.08, 2.40, and 3.45; p < 0.01) and rests (ts for the
three trials, 4.43, 2.60, and 3.08; p < 0.01). Alpha density during
auditory search was not significantly below resting levels of alpha
density (ts for the three trials, 1.23,0.18, and 1.16; p > 0.10). Clearly, in
contrast to visual search, the auditory search task caused very little
drop in alpha density.
It is apparent that the attempt to see, even in the total absence of
visual stimuli, is sufficient to produce alpha blocking. Thus, these
findings replicated the visual-attention effects on alpha density re-
ported by Adrian and Matthews (1934), supported by Durup and
Fessard (1935), and suggested as part of the definition of alpha by
Storm van Leeuwen and committee (1966). However, it would appear
that the actual relationship of alpha rhythm to visual activity, brain
activity, and subjective state is considerably less clear than one might
expect 40 years after those simple and elegant studies that first
demonstrated the connection between alpha density and the visuomo-
tor system. Certainly, our work within the feedback setting did
confirm and expand upon some of the original observations of the
alpha rhythm's basic characteristics.
The primary finding was that the visuomotor system is of overrid-
ing importance in the suppression of, and in subsequent learning to
ON THE NATURE OF ALPHA FEEDBACK TRAINING 377
Shock intensity was varied during the experiment, with only one or
two being sufficiently intense to feel painful (since the purpose of the
shock was to create apprehension rather than to inflict discomfort).
These same procedures were repeated during a third visit to the
laboratory .
The findings did not confirm the predictions of the theory. The
initial alpha baselines during the second session were just as high as
those in the first session, when no shock threat was present. During
the first four feedback trials, alpha density was sustained at baseline
levels (see Figure 8). The lack of alpha blocking following the shock
instructions was most striking, in view of previous reports that fear
causes drops in alpha density (Stennett, 1957). Alpha density did drop
slightly, but transiently, during the first two jeopardy periods them-
selves. However, by the third jeopardy feedback period, alpha density
levels were no different than those during nonshock feedback trials.
The data from the third session showed alpha density differences
between jeopardy and nonjeopardy periods only during the first
jeopardy feedback trial. The group mean alpha density was equivalent
to baseline levels during the rest of the trials. Thus, neither the
anticipation of receiving electric shock nor the signal of the imminent
!:! ; 10 Day 2 A
(Paskewitz and Orne, 1972). The 24 subjects were primarily males who
had participated in at least three laboratory feedback sessions.
The average intercorrelation (Pearson) between the mean alpha
density for the six periods (two baselines during each of three visits)
was 0.76, with individual coefficients ranging from 0.67 to 0.95. In
spite of the generally high correlations, some baselines were highly
atypical and failed to reflect the subject's usual alpha density. Base-
lines with reductions in alpha density of greater than 50% during 30-
sec intervals were examined more closely in a subset of 9 subjects for
whom eye movement data were available. Of 22 atypical baselines, 15
were accompanied by slow eye movements, a characteristic precursor
of the onset of sleep (see Table 1).
Thus, a study of the reliability of baseline EEG alpha measures
also clearly documented the now well-established relationship be-
tween the onset of drowsiness, which merges into Stage 1 sleep, and a
corresponding decrease in alpha density. It is tempting to accept these
data as documenting the relationship between low arousal and the
absence of alpha. Here too, however, caution is needed. The drop in
alpha density may not be a function of low arousal at all; rather it may
be an incidental manifestation of the active processes associated with
sleep onset.
For example, if one examines nighttime sleep records, there are
periods when individuals show a great deal of arousal. Notably, REM
is associated not only with the rapid eye movements that give the
sleep stage its name but also with other manifestations suggesting
heightened arousal, such as penile erection and marked variation in
heart rate. Nonetheless, during these periods there is a disproportion-
TABLE 1
Number of Episodes of Slow Eye Movements Compared with Number of
Periods of Atypically Low Alpha Density in 1-Min Samples from the Baseline
Recordings of Nine Subjects
Does Baseline Contain
Atypically Low
Minute?
Yes No
series, except for the seventh session, when two of the subjects
reported feeling extremely drowsy.
Legewie (1975) and Pavloski, Cott, and Black (1975) also used this
alpha/no-alpha discrimination procedure in experiments attempting to
replicate Kamiya's (1969) original findings. Neither group was able to
demonstrate that their subjects could actually discriminate between
these two EEG states. When trial probabilities and confounding cues
were controlled, the subjects could not determine at anyone moment
whether alpha or no-alpha was occurring in their EEG recording. In
summary, these alpha state discrimination studies suggested that the
apparent ability to discriminate between alpha and no-alpha events
during the pilot studies was probably an artifact of the individual's
strategy within the experiment. For example, our subjects tried to
increase their incidence of alpha without instructions to do so and
followed this attempt with the strong tendency to choose "alpha"
more often than "no-alpha" for their decision.
While it would be all too easy to dismiss Kamiya's (1969) anecdo-
tal findings in light of the above studies, we are not yet prepared to do
so. The number of subjects examined for the ability to discriminate
alpha and no-alpha conditions is small, and our automated procedures
may be obscuring the issue as much as helping to clarify it. Thus, our
failure to replicate the earlier Kamiya results may be as much a
function of our approach as of the nature of alpha. However, while it
is, of course, possible that it is necessary to train individuals with
longer windows than those that were used in these studies, it would
seem essential that more carefully controlled positive observations be
obtained before we are justified in assuming that the simple presence
of alpha has cortical representation.
The line of inquiry into alpha and its connections with subjective
experience had thus demonstrated that: (1) subjects do not appear to
learn to increase their alpha density above their resting baseline
through feedback; (2) visuomotor activity is of prime importance in
depressing optimal alpha density and in subsequently learning to
enhance alpha; (3) high levels of alpha density can be present even
during very high arousal and subjective fear during alpha feedback;
(4) the absence of alpha during activation/arousal changes during sleep
suggests that whatever relationship exists in the waking state between
alpha density and arousal levels is not readily seen during sleep itself;
and (5) subjects may not be able to discriminate directly between
alpha and no-alpha events during waking states. In sum, the view that
alpha production is closely related to subjective experiences, has
specific cortical representation, and alone reflects level of activation/
arousal cannot be justified with currently available data.
390 MARTIN T. ORNE AND STUART K. WILSON
/~
,,/' \ 1\
....
>- ...-/ \ / \
\
\ /
/ \ \
\ I \
\ I \
\ / .----11
FIGURE 9. ECBL: eyes-closed baseline; \ I
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The line of research reported here would not have been possible
without the close collaboration of David A. Paskewitz, who designed
the equipment, ran the subjects, and supervised the analysis of all but
the most recent studies. This later work was carried out in collabora-
tion with Frederick J. Evans, Betsy E. Lawrence, Emily Carota Orne,
and Anthony L. Van Campen. We would like to express our apprecia-
tion to them and also to William M. Waid for helpful comments and
suggestions in the preparation of this manuscript and to Mae C.
Weglarski and Lani L. Pyles for their technical and editorial assistance.
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ANAND, B. K., CHHINA, G. S., AND SINGH, B. Some aspects of electroencephalographic
studies in yogis. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 1961,13,452-
456.
BERGER, H. Uber das Elektrenkephalogramm des Menschen, I. (On the electroencephalo-
gram in man, I.) Archiv fur Psychiatrie und Nervenkrankheiten, 1929,87, 527-570.
BERGER, H. Uber das Elektrenkephalogramm des Menschen, II. (On the electroencepha-
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BROWN, B. B. Recognition of aspects of consciousness through association with EEG
alpha activity represented by a light signal. Psychophysiology, 1970,6, 442-452.
BROWN, B. B. Awareness of EEG-subjective activity relationships detected within a
closed feedback system. Psychophysiology, 1971,7, 451-464.
BURCH, N. R. Data processing of psychophysiological recordings. In L. D. Proctor and
W. R. Adez (Eds.), Symposium on the analysis of central nervous system and
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1962, 14, 858-868.
398 MARTIN T. ORNE AND STUART K. WILSON
LEGEWIE, H., SIMONOVA, 0., AND CREUTZFELDT, O. D. EEG changes during performance
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ORNE, M. T., EVANS, F. J., WILSON, S. K., AND PASKEWITZ, D. A. The potential
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400 MARTIN T. ORNE AND STUART K. WILSON
401
402 CHARLES F. STROEBEL AND BERNARD C. GLUECK
II. BIOFEEDBACK
TABLE 1
Reaction Times for Voluntary Control of Seven Visceroautonomic Functions:
Pilot Study Data (N = 5)
Median
Function reaction time
EEG alpha blocking 0.3 sec
EEG alpha enhancement 0.75 sec
Heart rate change 1 sec
Hand warming 2 sec
Foot warming 3 sec
Electrodermal response 3 sec
Colonic motility change 6-9 sec
406 CHARLES F. STROEBEL AND BERNARD C. GLUECK
,,2 ,,2 + k x
Black Box
Model pp
= k2 +
b
"b
,,2 ,,2 + k2 +
Black En-
vironment pp =
P
"p x k
Model
u
~
t
~
"
o
1 is 20 25 // 50
FIGURE 2. Emotions and behavioral states associated with various bands within the
spectrum of EEG activity stabilized as steady states using EEG biofeedback.
408 CHARLES F. STROEBEL AND BERNARD C. GLUECK
1 For a more detailed description, see Robins and Fisher (1972) or Forem (1973).
410 CHARLES F. STROEBEL AND BERNARD C. GLUECK
with the most consistent finding being a universal increase in the GSR
in all subjects (up to 30% increase over baseline), although we never
saw the extreme changes described by Wallace in his original studies
(up to 400%).
The subjective reports of these meditators were generally positive,
the meditational state being described as a special kind of free-floating
attentional state that is essentially nonverbal and nonconceptual in
nature, a state of restful alertness. All of these skilled meditators
reported a marked reduction in their levels of anxiety and tension
subsequent to starting regular daily meditation.
As a result of these findings, we began a series of experiments
designed to test this hypothesis, namely, that if we could train
volunteer subjects to produce increased alpha densities in their EEGs,
we would help them toward a less tense and anxious general level of
adaptation. The subjects were all volunteers, mainly college students
and other young adults. The ability of these subjects to produce
spontaneous alpha, particularly from the occipital areas, simply by
sitting relaxed and closing the eyes varied considerably. It seemed to
be related to the amount of psychopathology present in an individual
as described on a self-report, the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory (MMPI) and on evaluation by two psychiatrist-observers
during the course of the study.
In general, the higher the level of psychopathology, the greater
the difficulty experienced by the subject in producing spontaneous
alpha rhythms during eyes-closed control sessions. This same general
pattern followed through during the biofeedback conditioning, with
those subjects who produced the greatest amount of spontaneous
alpha seeming to show a more rapid development of good control in
turning alpha on or off on demand, frequently achieving maximum
performance by the 10th training session. In contrast, three of the
subjects who had the greatest amount of psychopathology experienced
great difficulty in controlling their alpha frequencies and never really
approached consistent performance over the entire 20-hour-Iong train-
ing trial.
The subjective reports of the alpha subjects during the alpha-on
condition were generally feelings of well-being. However, a few of the
subjects reported some discomfort, especially a feeling of lightheaded-
ness or dizziness immediately after the sessions, which persisted for
an hour or two.
A third approach to providing the increased general relaxation of
the alpha state is the methods originally described as autogenic
training by Schultz and Luthe (1959) and more recently formalized by
Luthe (1965) and progressive relaxation by Jacobson (1929) and Wolpe
and Lazarus (1966). Similar claims of reductions in the general levels of
PASSIVE MEDITATION 411
anxiety and tension have been made for this approach, which consists
in gradually attempting to relax the voluntary musculature in a
progressive fashion, starting with the toes and feet and sweeping
upward to involve the whole body.
In the summer of 1972, we designed a research project to test the
relative efficacy of these three types of general relaxation techniques in
psychiatric inpatients at a private psychiatric hospital. Our reasons for
utilizing three comparison groups were based upon the obvious
impossibility of designing a blind study utilizing intervention tech-
niques that demanded specific behavior activity obvious to everyone.
A second important limitation was our inability to use the kind of
strict controls of other treatment variables that would be preferred in a
tight research design, since this would involve withholding other
known effective treatment techniques in order to test the efficacy of
these three unknown intervention modalities.
Patients were evaluated before beginning the study on the follow-
ing psychophysiological measures: EEG recordings from eight chan-
nels-the right and left frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital areas 2;
respiration, as recorded by a nasal thermistor; eye movements from
bilateral leads over the external canthus; EKG from right and left wrist
leads; and silver-silver chloride electrodes and isotonic saline paste for
measurement of skin conductance between the middle finger and the
wrist of the subject's right hand.
Measures of the patient's behavioral state and level of psycho-
pathology were obtained by: a self-report, the MMPI, standardized
descriptors of behavior obtained by the research psychiatrist and
research staff utilizing the Minnesota Hartford Personality Assay
(MHPA), and the automated daily nursing notes in use at the hospital,
which give daily quantified measures of levels of acceptable behavior,
anxiety, depression, antisocial behavior, disorganization, etc., as
observed by nursing personnel on the patient's unit. These evalua-
tions were repeated at intervals during the 16 weeks of the study.
In an attempt to equalize the amount of individual and group
attention being given to the patients in the project, determined
primarily by the amount of time spent by the TM instructors with the
patients leaming to meditate, we expected patients in all three groups
to spend up to 20 min twice a day (which is the usual routine for the
TABLE 2
Potential Applications of Biofeedback: General Stress Reduction and Specific
Treatment Objectives
General Specific
Objectives: Objective: To regulate or lower the activa-
1. Relaxation tion of a target organ symptom
2. Lowering of tension Thermal (smooth muscle relaxation)
3. Creating states incompatible with Classic migraine--vascular headache
emergency fight-or-flight response (rapid)
EEG alpha biofeedback Common migraine--vascular headache
EEG theta biofeedback (slow)
Frontalis EMG biofeedback Raynaud's disease
Nonbiofeedback modalities Irritable colon syndrome
Passive meditation-TM Essential hypertension
Benson relaxation response Angina pectoris
Autogenic training Frontalis EMG
Progressive relaxation Tension-muscular contraction head-
ache
Bruxism
TMJ syndrome
Lumbar-sacral EMG
Muscular back pain
EKG
Cardiac dysrhythmias
GSR and thermal
Hypertension
Stress aspect of eczematous conditions
416 CHARLES F. STROEBEL AND BERNARD C. GLUECK
3 Documentation and calibration techniques for these programs are being published
elsewhere or, alternately, may be obtained at reproduction cost from the authors.
PASSIVE MEDITATION 417
130
EYES CLOSED
144
EYES OPEN
'"::IW
D
[l.
o 10 20 30
FREQUENCY I N HZ
[HRNNEL 4 R TEM
,"",;'llr~11tt'":'o
-180 V
~
BHZ:~.~~~
[OHEREN[E ~~. ~
SECOND 121 130 140 150 Ib0 170 180
SMOOTHING TIME=1 FREQUENCY=1 SE[TION: 1
~..,
o 10 20 30
FREQUEN[Y IN HZ
[HRNNEL 3 L TEM
+180
'"'" '~
-180
B HZ
[OHEREN[E
SE[OND
SMOOTHING
: 1
TIME=I
10
FREQUEN[Y=I
20 30 40 50
SE[TION:
b0
3
FIGURE 4. This is another isometric display of the same experienced meditator during
the 6th minute of meditation. The leads are from the two temporal areas and show the
high degree of synchronization-as shown by the coherence graph approaching 1, and
the phase angle graph approaching {}-that is seen in experienced meditators within the
first few minutes of starting to meditate.
PER C E N T S Y N C H RON Y
T M RELAXATION BIOFEEDBACK
RESPONSE THERMAL & EMG
ALPHA-THETA
BETA ACTIVATION ACTIVATION
r
POSTERIOR COMMISSURE
HABULAR COMMISSURE
MASSA INTERMEDIA
RIGHT BODY
VI. SUMMARY
Cognition without peripheral effector sequelae (e.g., 2 + 2 '" 4) Left brain PSYCHOLOGY
Ergotropic
Full emergency response Sympa thetic
Type A
Beta activation
l'
Steady state - less influenced by behavior
1
Corrective modalities: Surgery, medication (Traditional)
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
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428 CHARLES F. STROEBEL AND BERNARD C. GLUECK
Abel, G.G., 308, 314 Antrobus, J.S., 113,114, Barnes, H., 196
Abramson, D.l., 324, 115,123,125,129, Barrault, N., 278, 315
330, 331, 355 134,136,221,236, Barry, R.E., 236
Acker, M., 164, 196 239 Bartlett, J.C., 107, 134
Adair, E., 236 Appleton, J., 76,98 Bartoshuk, A.K., 47, 66,
Adam, G., 199-213, 199, Arkin, R.M., 168, 191 67,93,95
200,201,202,203, Armington, J.C., 390 Batenchuck, C., 243, 314
204,205,212,213 397 Beals, J., 336, 358
Adams, D.B., 245,314 Armstrong, D.M., 173, Beary, J.F., 403, 424,
Adams; H.E., 314 191 426
Adams, J.A., 82, 94 Arnold, S.E., 151, 162, Beatty, J., 316, 317,318,
Adez, W.R., 397 195 319,320,356,358
Adler, C., 404, 426 Aronson, A.E., 82, 95 8echterev, V.M., 38,95
Adrian, E.D., 1, 376, Aserinsky, E., q4 Becker, J., 111, 123,
384,390,397 Atkinson, R.L., 238 124, 134
Agnello, S.A., 153, 197 Atwood, G., 221, 236 Becker, S., 135
Agras, W.S., 308, 314 Beh, H.C., 47, 51, 69,
Airapetyants, E.S., 210, Baccelli, G., 245, 314 93,95
212 Bachman, L., 282, 319 Bekesy, G.V., 156, 191
Akert, K., 20, 33, 35 Bacon, J., 250, 319, Bekhterev, V.N., 5, 20,
Albrecht, 1., 285, 320 327,343,357 33
Alkire, A.A., 152, 169, Baer, P.E., 335, 355 Bellow, S., 102
191 Bagchi, B.K., 362, 400 Benfield, J., 236
Alleman, H.D., 252, 314 Bailey, G.G., 152, 191 Bennett, A.L., 75, 99
Allen, E.V., 326,327, Bakan, P., 186, 187, 191 Benson, H., 403, 415,
355 Baldridge, B.J., 47,72, 417,424,426
Allen, W., 103 73,94,95 Berger, C., 155, 156,
Allison, J., 188, 191 Ball, G., 273, 274, 277 194
Altland, P.D., 278, 314 Banquet, J.P., 408, 416, Berger, H., 43, 360, 364,
Amassian, V.E., 78,94 426 369,384,390,397
Anand, B.K., 362, 397 Banuazizi, A., 244, 248, Berger, R.J., 73, 95
Anastasi, A., 143, 191 274,277,291,294, Berger, S.M., 47,68,93,
Angyal, A., 113, 133 307,314,318 95
Anokhin, P.K., 9, 13,14, Barcroft, H., 328, 355 Berkowitz, L., 197
19,32,33,116,133 Bardos, G., 202, 213 Berman, A.J., 81, 100
Anschel, C., 328, 358 Barker, N.W., 326, 355 Bernardis, L.L., 234, 237
Antonovitch, S., 45, 51, Barlow, D.H., 308, 309, Bernshtein, N.A., 9, 13,
52,96 314 14,15,33
429
430 AUTHOR INDEX
Berry, R.N., 46, 67,68, Brener, J., 97, 241, Campbell, R.G., 232,
95 243, 246, 248, 250, 237
Bickford, R., 400 260,273,274,277, Camus, A., 142, 181,
Bills, A.G., 45, 51, 52, 279,282,283,285, 192
69,95 294,300,301,302, canfield, J.V., 146,192
Birch, L., 76,98 305,308,313,314, Cannon, W.B., 306, 315,
Black, A.H., 75, 77,78, 315,316,317,318, 402,426
79,80,95,97,241, 319,355,357,400 Carlson, N.J., 75,95
242, 243,244, 246, Brinley, F.J.,Jr., 78,95 Carmichael, E.A., 327,
248,250,281,290, Broadbent, D.E., 122, 355
298,299,300,301, 134 Carol, M.P., 403, 424,
302, 305, 306, 308, Brock, T.C., 160, 161, 426
313,314,315,316, 164,165,192 Carrington, P., 403, 414,
317,318,319,355, Brogden, W.J., 332,357 415,419,426
357,389,399,400 Brown, B.B., 360, 363, Carroll, B.J., 285,320
Blanchard, E.B., 248, 364,365,377,397, Carver, C.S., 151, 192
249,250,299,308, 406,426 Castaldo, V., 152,163,
310,314,413,426 Brown, E.B., Jr., 328, 192
Blatt, S.J., 113, 134 355 Castelnuovo-Tedesco, P.,
Bleecker, E.R., 310, 316 Brown, H.O., 51, 99 236
Blinkov, S.M., 15, 33, 34 Brown, J.R., 82, 95 Chapman, R.M., 390,
Blumenthal, J., 84, 95 Brown, R., 101, 134, 391,397,398
Bogen, J.E., 186, 191 168, 192 Chapot, G., 278, 315
Boies, S.J., 109, 136 Brozek, J., 229, 237 Chase, W.G., 37,95
Bolton, B., 327, 328, Bruback, H.F., 278,314 Cherry, C., 139, 192
333,355 Bruch, H., 229, 236 Chhina, G.S., 362, 397
Booth, D.A., 216, 226, Brucker, B., 243, 319 Chism, R.A., 327,328,
228,236 Bruner, J.S., 140, 192 356,359,398,404,
Boring, E.G., 99 Brunse, A.J., 152, 169, 427
Bouchard, C., 308, 314 191 Church, R.M., 135
Bourne, L.E., 102, 134 Brush, F.R., 95, 314 Clark, W.H., 390, 398
Bovet, D., 96 Buchwald, J.S., 77,95, Clites, M.S., 45,53,90,
Bovet-Nitti, F., 96 268,315 95
Bower, G.H., 314, 319 Budzynski, T., 404, 426 Clyde, D.J., 407, 426
Boyd, H.S., 152, 166, Buhler, 6 Cobb, W.A., 400
169, 191 Buitendijk, 5 Code, C.F., 237
Bradley, P.B., 408, 426 Burch, N.R., 386, 397 Cohen, G., 186, 192
Brady, J.V., 248,310, Burke, C.J., 55, 91, 96 Cohn, R., 378, 398
317 Burton, A.C., 323, 324, Cole, M., 134, 137
Bragdon, H.R., 390, 397, 355 Connally, S.R., 250,
398 Buss, A.H., 165, 193 300,315
Braun, J.J., 254, 287, Bykov, K.M., 210, 213, Cook,M.R., 323, 355
315 321,326,331,355 Cornsweet, T.N., 307,
Bray, G.A., 222, 224, 315
228,231,236,237, Cabanac,J.,241,288, Corson, J.A., 308, 314
238,239 291,292,293,315 Costa, L.D., 378, 398
Brazier, M.A.B., 400 Cabanac, M., 225, 236 Costanzo, P.R., 169, 192
Breger, L., 122, 134 Calhoun, K.S., 314 Costello, J., 366, 399
Brehm, J.W., 143, 192 Campbell, B.A., 135 Cott, A., 389, 399
Bremer, F., 1, 9,33 Campbell, D., 76, 95 Cox, M., 378, 398
AUTHOR INDEX 431
Coyne, L., 155, 192 DiCara, L.V. (cont'd) Eldred, E., 77, 95, 268,
Crane, H.D., 307, 315 278,282,283,284, 315
Creutzfeldt, O.D., 391, 285,286,287,288, Eliot, T.S., 103, 134
399 289,291,294,305, Ellison, G.D., 245, 316
Crider, A., 359, 398 307,314,315,316, ElIson, D.G., 55, 56,91,
Crider, A.B., 404, 428 317,318,319,320, 96
Critchley, M., 27, 34 343,355,356,357, Elman, D., 219,238
Csikszentimihalyi, I., 115, 359,361,399,400, Emurian, C.E., 339, 342,
134 404 358
Csikszentimihalyi, M., Dickinson, W.H., 153, Engel, B.T., 310, 316,
114,115,128,134 192 327, 328, 356, 359,
Culp, W.C., 245, 315 Dixon, N.F., 173, 175, 398,404,427
Cytawa, J., 232, 239 182,188,192, 194 Erdelyi, M.H., 111, 134,
Dondey, M., 400 140,193
Dahms, W.T., 238 Douglas, W.W., 79,96 Ericksen, C.W., 173, 175,
Danet, B.N., 152,192 Dow, P., 355, 356, 357, 176,193
Danforth, Jr., E., 231, 358 Estable, C., 78, 96
237,239 Dresslar, 51 Evans, C.R., 398, 399
D'Anna, J., 357 Drucker, E., 114, 134 Evans, F.J., 383, 388,
Dargnat, N., 278, 315 Duclaux, R., 236 398,399
Darley, F.L., 82, 95 Duminowski, R.L., 102, Eysenck, H.J., 141, 164,
Darrow, C.W., 390, 398, 134 185, 189, 193
399 Dunlap, K., 38, 96 Eysenck, S.B.G., 164,
Dashiell, J.F., 39, 40, 95 Durup, G., 376, 398 193
Davidson, R.J., 187,196 Duval, S., 151, 159, 161,
Davis, D., 160, 161, 164, 162, 163, 164, 165,
165, 192 166,167,168,169, Fair, P.L., 154, 197
Davis, H., 314 170,191,192,197 Feather, R., 404, 427
Davis, R.C., 37,44, 45, Dworkin, B.R., 243, 249, Fehmi, L., 420, 427
47,53,54,55,67,68, 251,263,273,274, Fehr, F.S., 84, 98
90,91,95,96 275,276,277,278, Feld, J.L., 250, 320,
Dawson, M.E., 335, 355 279,280,281,282, 342,358
Day, M.E., 187,192 283,284,286,287, Fenigstein, A., 165, 193
DeGroot, A., 129, 134 288, 295, 296, 298, Ferris, C.B., 151, 166,
Delabarre, E.B., 338 311,316,318,319, 194,197
Delafresnaye, J.F., 37, 322,344,356,357 Fessard, A., 376, 398
96 Festinger, L., 143, 162,
Delse, C., 404, 427 193
Dement, W.C., 72, 96 Eccles, J., 1, 2, 3,8,9, Field, J., 399
Demos, R., 148, 150, 10,33,34,35,37,96 Fields, C.I., 244, 248,
192 Edelberg, R., 245, 246, 251,252,253,254,
DeNike, L.D., 336, 358 315,316 255,267,273,277,
Denton, D., 237 Edin, M.B., 343, 356 291,316
Descartes, R., 140, 192 Edwards, P., 197 Figar, S., 326, 356
Dibner, A.S., 157, 192 Eisenstein, S., 103, 134 Fine, 159, 161, 164
DiCara, L.V., 75, 80, 96, Eissenberg, E., 241,243, Fingarette, H., 142,145,
97,100,241,243, 272,274,278,280, 149,150,172, 181,
244,245,248,249, 282,283, 315, 316, 185,193
252,253,260,263, 318 Fisher, D., 409, 427
272,273,274,276, Ekstrand, B.R., 102, 134 Fiske, D.W., 116, 134
432 AUTHOR INDEX
Fleming, B., 219, 22, Gall, F.J., 39, 96 Goldstein, S., 113, 134,
223,224,225,226, Gallup, G.G., 170, 193 221,236
237,238 Galosy, R.A., 80, 97, Golla, F., 96
Forem, J., 409, 427 244,262,272,281, Golla, F.L., 45,50,51,
Fortgang, M., 113,134, 316,317,318,357 52,90,96
221,236 Gal'perin, P.Ya., 7, 33, Gomes, 3
Foulkes, D., 47, 73, 74, 38,96 Goodman, L.S., 51,96,
94,97 Ganong, W.F., 329, 356 97,99,317
Fowler, R., 403,427 Gantt, W.H., 98, 99, 355 Goodman, N.R., 219,
Fox, S.S., 359, 398,400 Garafolow, L., 37,96 238
Frankel, H.L., 243, 319 Garcia, J., 225, 237 Gordon, A., 231, 239
Frazer, A., 194 Gardiner,P.L., 147, 149, Gordon, G., 188, 193
Freedman, A.M., 357 193 Gottschalk, L.A., 332,
Freedman, S.J., 100 Gardner, R., 47, 74, 94, 356
Freeman, G.L., 45, 52, 96 Granit, R., 2, 33
90,96 Garner, W.R., 116, 134 Grant, D.A., 175, 193
Freud, S., 104, 141, 145, Gastaut, H., 400 Grantt, W.H., 99
166,171,183,193, Gault, F.P., 37,96 Green, A.M., 426, 427
402,427 Gazzaniga, M.S., 233, Green, E.E., 309, 319,
Freyschuss, U., 243, 305, 237 412,426,427
316 Geldard, F.A., 85, 96 Greenberg, S., 114,123,
Friedman, M., 216, 228, Gershon, E., 359, 400 134,221,239
237 Giambalvo, V., 336, 358 Greenfield, A.D.M., 326,
Frohman, L.A., 234, 237 Giambra, L., 125, 134 329,356
Fromer, R., 332, 356 Gibbons, F.X., 160, 161, Greenfield, N.D., 195
Fromm, E., 398 166, 193 Greenfield, N.S., 196
Frommer, G.P., 47, 68, Gibson, A.R., 233, 237 Greenwald, A.G., 44, 96
93,95 Gide, A., 142, 181, 193 Greenway, F.L., 238
Fryrear, J.L., 152, 193 Gill, M., 104, 134 Grings, W.W., 37,96
Fuhrer, M.J., 335, 355 Gilliatt, R.W., 328, 356 Grob, D., 79, 96, 262,
Fujmori, M., 78, 99 Gillman, A., 96, 97 316
Furedy, J.J., 333, 335, Gilman, A., 317 Gross, L., 217, 229, 230,
355,356 Gimes, R., 205, 213 237,239
Fusella, V., 113, 136, Glanzer, M., 390, 398 Grossman, W.I., 74, 96
221,239 Glass, A., 390, 398 Grunewald, G., 391,398
Glennon, J.A., 231, 239 Gur, R.C., 139-197,
Glesser, G., 378, 400 143,153,167,172,
Gliner, J.A., 241, 255, 179, 181, 183, 186,
Gaebelein, C.J., 80, 97, 278,285,289,290, 187,188,193,194,
244,262,272,273, 292,316 196
277,279,280,281, Gloor, P., 400 Gur, R.E., 186, 187,
283,316,317,318, Gluck, C.M., 239 188,193,194
357 Glueck, B.C., 401-428, Guse, L.L., 145, 195
Galanter, E., 13, 34,116, 401,404,406,407, Gustafson, D.F., 146,
123,135,221,237 408,413,427,428 192
Gale, E.N., 332, 333, Goesling, W.S., 243,274, Guyton, A.C., 281,317
334,356 305, 316
Galef, B., 296, 297 Goetz, R.H., 329, 356 Hadfield, J.A., 343, 356
Galin, D., 187,189,193, Goldman, R., 231, 239 Hahn, W.W., 263, 273,
195 Goldman, R.F., 239 278, 282, 283, 294,
Galindo, A., 78, 96 Goldstein, K., 168, 193 295,317,319
AUTHOR INDEX 433
Kagan, J., 107, 135 Koelle, G.B., 79, 97, Legewie, H., 249, 250,
Kalat, J.W., 225,238 242,262,268,317 309,310,317,318,
Kales, A., 72, 97 Kogan, N., 107, 135 319, 320, 389, 391,
Kalmus, H., 108, 135 Kohli, D.R., 402, 428 398,399
Kamin, L.J., 135 Kohn,S., 309,318,356 Lehmann, D., 72, 97
Kamiya, J., 359, 360, Kondo, C.Y., 377, 400 Leibling, R.A., 162, 164,
361,362,363,364, Konorski, J., 20, a3 168,195
365,366,368,371, Konovalov, A.N., 26, Lemere, F., 378, 399
377,387,388,389, 27,34 Lenneberg, E.H., 420,
398,399 Koslovskaya, LB., 243, 427
Kandel, E.R., 78,95 317 Leob, C., 400
Kaplan, H.I., 357 Kovacs, A., 203, 212 Leont'ev, A.N., 7,10,
Karpowitz, D.H., 220, Kraft, F.L., 47,64,93, 13,33,38,98,356
237 97 Leshner, S., 45, 57, 91,
Kasamatsu, A., 362, 398 Kramer, J., 72, 95 98
Kasanin, J.S., 133 Kreitman, N., 391, 398 Leuba, C., 76, 98
Katkin, E.S., 243,245, Kris, E., 105, 135 Levine, J.M., 336, 358
248,249,299,307, Kuch, D.O., 252, 317. Levine, P.H., 416, 427
317,338,356 Kugler, J., 400 Levy, J., 186, 194, 195
Katzman, R., 378, 398 Kukorelli, T., 200, 201, Lewin, K., 122, 135
Keefe, F.J., 309,317 205, 206, 207, 212, Lewis, W., 130, 135
Kelemen, V., 200, 212 213 Lewis, W.C., 195
Kelleher, P.C., 239 Liebert, R.M., 179, 195
Kennedy, J.L., 47,67, Light, J.S., 81, 98
93,100 Lacey, B.C., 37, 97 Lilly, 40
Kewman, D.G., 343, 357 Lacey, J.I., 37,97 Lindsley, D.B., 359,
Keys, A., 229, 237 Lacroix, J.M., 250,260, 360, 378, 382, 383,
Khomskaya, E.D., 19, 317,319 384,399
20,23,27,33,34,35 Lader, M., 154, 195 Lising, M.I., 356
Kimble, G.A., 174,195, Lader, M.H., 323, 356 Locke, J.L., 84, 98
245,317,320 Lairy, G.C., 400 Loewenstein, W.R., 213
Kimmel, E., 338, 342, Lane, R.W., 122, 134 Lombard,51
356,427 Lang, P.J., 298, 308, Lorens, S.A., Jr., 390,
Kimmel, H., 404, 427 317,318 399
Kimmel, H.D., 338, 342, Langer, S.K., 104, 135 Lovallo, W., 330, 356
356 Langfeld, H.S., 37,97 Luchins, A.S., 140, 195
Kinsbourne, M., 187, Larson, J.D., 47, 73, 74, Lumet, S., 103
195 94,97 Lumsden, D.B., 98
Klein, G.S., 111, 135, Lashley, K.S., 37, 98, Luria, A.R., 1-35, 1,7,
152,157,158,195 111,135 11,17,18,19,20,22,
Kleinbard, J., Ill, 134 Laverty, S.G., 76, 95 23,24,25,26,27,
Kleist, K., 23,33 Lawicka, W., 20, 33 28, 29, 33, 34, 35,
Kleitman, N., 72,94,96 Lawler, A., 378, 400 107, 135, 166, 195,
Klerman, G.L., 154, 197 Lawler, J.E., 244, 318, 356
Klimkovskii, M., 33, 34 357 Luthe, W., 410, 427
Klinger, E., 122, 126, Lazarus, A.A., 411, 412, Lykken, D.T., 173,
129,130,135 428 195
Kneale, W., 2, 33 Lazarus, R.S., 173, 175, Lynch, J.J., 366, 399,
Knott, J.R., 377,400 195 408,427
Kocel, K.,187, 195 Lebedinskii, V.V., 23, Lynch, W., 273, 274,
Koch, C., 231, 239 33 277
AUTHOR INDEX 435
Lynch, W.C., 309, 318, McDaniel, J.W., 46, 59, Mischel, T., 143, 184,
321·358,356,357 91,100 196
Lyublinskaya, A.A., 34 McDonald, C., 131 Mischel, W., 102,135
McDowall,R.J.S.,329, Mitchell, K.M., 314
357 Moisseeva, N.A., 203,
MacDonald, H., 343, 357 McFarland, 234 213
Mach, E., 2, 5 McGuigan, F.J., 37·100, Molitch, M., 238
Mack, D., 235, 237 37,41,43,46,48,50, Monakow, V., 12, 34
MacKay, D.M., 3, 34 59,64,72,76,77,80, Monroe, R.R., 421, 427
Mackintosh, N.J., 136 82,83,84,85,87,88, Moray, N., 145, 196
MacNeilage, P.F., 45, 58, 91,96,97,98,99,100 Morris, L.W., 179,195
91,98 McIntyre, A.R., 75, 78, Moruzzi, G., 1, 9, 12
Maddi, S.R., 116, 134, 99,100 Moskowitz, H.R., 222,
234,237 McIntyre, J.S., 82, 94 224,228,238
Maer, F., 187, 196 McReynolds, P., 164, Mountcastle, V.B., 357
Magnus, 0., 400 196 Mulholland, T.B., 359,
Magoun, H.W., 34, 399 Meehl, P.E., 143, 184, 363,366,370,374,
Mahl, G.F., 154, 158, 196 398,399
195 Menzies, R., 332, 357 Muller, M., 278,315
Malmo, R.B., 20,34, Merrin, E., 187,195 Mundy-Castle, A.C., 391,
65,93,99 Meskin, B., 133, 135 399
MaUzman,1,134,137 Meszaros, I., 201, 202, Murphy, G., 143, 196
Mancia, G., 245, 314 212 Murray, E.N., 243, 245,
Mandel, M.R., 154, 197 Meyer, R.G., 426, 427 248,317,338,356
Mandler, G., 168, 195 Meyers, K.A., 357 Murray, H.A., 153, 196
Marini-Bettolo, G.B., 96 Mickelson, D., 229,237 Mussen, P., 135
Marks, 1, 154, 195 Middaugh, S., 243,273,
Marshall, G., 327,343, 274,277,280,283, Nagy, A., 203, 212
357 287,292,315,318 Neisser, U., 108,116,
Marshall, J., 233, 237 Miller, B., 196 135
Marshall, W.H., 78, 95 Miller, G.A., 13, 34,116, Nicolaidis, S., 235, 237
Martens, R., 151, 195 123,135,221,237 Nikoomanesh, P., 310,
Martin, D.G., 145,178, Miller, N., 402, 404, 316
195 427 Nisbett, R.E., 220, 222,
Martin, 1, 356, 358 Miller, N.E., 75,96, 224,225,226,231,
Maser, J., 428 241,243,244,245, 237,238
Maslach, C., 327, 343, 248,249,251,252, Noble, M.E., 338, 358
357 253,260,262,273, Novikova, L.A., 45, 57,
Mather, P., 216, 236 274,275,276,277, 59,99
Mathews, A., 309, 320, 278,281,282,283, Novin, D., 228, 238,239
358 284,286,287,289, Nowlin, J.B., 153, 197
Mathews, A.M., 408, 427 291, 294, 296, 298, Nowlis, D.P., 365,377,
Mathias, C.J., 243, 319 305,307,309, 311, 399
Matthews, B.H.C., 376, 314,315,316,317, Nuell, L.R., 152,193
384,390,397 318,319,322,334,
Max, L.W., 45, 47,52, 338,340,343,344,
53,54,59,69,70,90, 356,357,359,360, Obrist, P.A., 80, 97, 241,
94,98 399 243,244,246,250,
May, R., 168, 195 Miller, T., 126,135 262,273,281,298,
McCleary, R.A., 173, Milton, A.W., 195 303,304,305,306,
175,195 Minare, Y., 236 314,315,316,317,
436 AUTHOR INDEX
Obrist, P.A. (cont'd) Petrie, A., 108, 109, 136 Rado, S., 402, 427
318,319,355,357, Petrinovich, L.F., 47, Rapaport, D., 112, 135,
400 65,68,69,93,94,96, 136
O'Connor, M., 1 99 Rapoport, M.Y., 24, 34
O'Connor, N., 99 Petsche, H., 400 Raskin, D.C., 335, 357
Okuma, T., 78, 99 Pfaffman, C., 225, 238 Ray, R., 79, 99, 272,
Olivos, G., 152, 196 Phillips, C.G., 10, 35 280,319
Oller Daurella, L., 400 Phillips, K., 250, 300, Ray, T.S., 153,192
Orne, M.T., 359-400, 315 Reeder, R.C., 281, 317
173,196,266,371, Piaget,6 Rescorla, R.A., 116,136,
375,380,385,388, Pickering, T.G., 243, 319 333,357
390,391,395,399, Pishkin, V., 45,57,58, Reuder, M.E., 45,56,
400,407,427 59,91,99 91,99
Ornstein, R., 186, 187, Plato, 140, 145, 148, Reyher, J., 188, 194
195 196 Richards, D.W., 327,
Ornstein, R.E., 189, 196 Platt, J.R., 251, 252, 328,357
Osborne, B., 299, 314 314,317,319 Rickers-Ovsiankina, M.A.,
Osgood, C.E., 65, 84, Pliner, P., 219, 231, 238 194
87,88,99,155,196 Plotkin, W.B., 377,399, Ridley, S.D., 152, 193
Otis, L., 423, 427 400 Riley, R.L., 279, 319
Oxon, M.A., 343, 356 Podgornaya, A.Ya., 26, Rinaldi, P., 287, 294,
34 319
Polivy, J., 235, 237 Ristow, W.C., 299,314
Paden, R.C., 152, 196 Pollack, M.H., 250, 320 Roberts, A.H., 250,309,
Paivio, A., 101,136 Pollen, D.A., 375, 391, 319,327,343,357
Pappas, B.A., 254, 272, 392,400 Roberts, L., 10, 35,420,
286,315,318 Pope, K.S., 101-137, 427
Parker, M.G., 278, 314 130,136 Roberts, L.E., 241-320,
Paskewitz, D.A., 173, Popova, L.T., 35 245,246,250,260,
196,366,371,375, Porter, R.W., 202, 213 267,269,275, 282,
377, 380, 385, 388, Posner, M.l., 109, 136 286,295,296,306,
390,395,399,400, Postman, L.,] 40,192 308,312,313,317,
408,427 Preisich, P., 200, 203, 319
Patterson, R., 250, 319, 204,212,213 Robins, J., 409, 427
327,343,357 Pribram, K., 13, 34,116, Robinson, S., 328, 357
Patton, H.D., 319 123,135,136,221, Roddie, R.A., 329, 357
Paul, G.l., 152,196 237 Rodier, W.l., III, 46, 48,
Pavek, G.V., 48, 98 Pribram, K.N., 20, 23, 64,98
Pavloski, R., 389, 399 34,35 Rodin, J., 215-239, 108,
Pavloski, R.D., 338, 358 Proctor, L.D., 397 132,136,217,219,
Pavlov, l.P., 7, 10, 26, Prokasy, W.F., 95 220,222, 223, 224,
34,38,89,99 Prouty, L.R., 323, 357 226, 228, 233, 236,
Peak, H., 175, 196 Pryor, 166 238,239
Pelikan, E.W., 75, 76, Pshonik, A.T., 331, 357 Roessler, R.L., 332,357
78,100 Pynchon,T.V.,196 Roethke, T., 102
Penelhum, T., 146, 196 Roffwarg, H.P., 47,74,
Penfield, W., 3, 10, 12, 94,96,99
34,35,80,99,112, Quinton, A., 173, 196 Rogers, C.R., 168, 196
136,420,427 Rogov,A.A.,331,357
Pessah, M.A., 47,74, Rohmer, E., 103
94,99 Racine, 268 Rolls, E.T., 225, 238
AUTHOR INDEX 437
Root, W.S., 96, 316 Schuler, J., 250, 319, Shmavonian, B.M., 332,
Rosen, R.C., 308, 319 327,343,357 333,334,336,358
Rosenfeld, J.P., 359,400 Schultz, J.H., 410, 427 Shor, R.E., 398
Ross, G.R.T., 192 Schuri, U., 321-358,357 Shotland,J., 187, 191
Ross, L., 217, 218, 238 Schuster, M.M., 310, 316 Shumilina, A.I., 19, 35
Rothman, S., 327, 357 Schwab, R., 400 Shurley, J.T., 45, 58,
Rousey, C., 151,152, Schwartz, G.E., 154, 59,91,99
154,155,156,157, 187,196,197,250, Siegel, S., 285, 319
158,161,162,165, 298,306,307,308, Siegler, F.A., 197
166,173,194,196 316,319,356,358, Silverstone, T., 236, 237,
Rowe, D.W., 239 387,400,408,426, 238
Rozengardt-Pupko, G.L., 427,428 Simonova, 0., 391, 398,
7,35 Schwartz, M.L., 278, 399
Rozin, P., 225, 238 317 Simpson, C.W., 285, 320
Rubin, S., 219, 238 Scott, R.W., 248, 299, Sims, E.A.H., 224, 231,
Ruch, T.C., 319 308,310,314 237,239
Rudell, A.P., 359, 398, Sechenov, I.M., 37,38, Singer, J., 220, 238
400 41,99 Singer, J.L., 101-137,
Rychlak, J.F., 129, 130, Segal, B., 125, 135, 136 101,108,113,114,
136 Segal, S.J., 101, 113, 115,122,123,125,
136,221,239 128,129,132,133,
Seidman, J.M., 102, 136 134,135,136,220,
Sackheim, H.A., 139- Selby, Jr., H., 102 221,236,238,239
197, 143, 152, 153, Seligman, M.E.P., 428 Singh, B., 362, 397
164,165,167,169, Selye, H., 402, 408,428 Sisney, V.V., 152, 166,
172,179,181, 183, Serres, P., 241, 288, 291, 169,191
188,194, 196 292,293,315 Skinner, B.F., 39, 99,
Sadock, B.J., 357 Shagass, C., 65, 93, 99 101,137,190,197,
Safar, P., 282, 319 Shallice, T., 81,82,99 321,338,358
Salans, L.B., 231, 237, Shanks, E.M., 244, 318 Slaughter, J., 287,294,
239 Shapiro, A.K., 404, 425, 319
Salt, P., 154, 197 429 Slochower, J., 219, 222,
Saltzman, I.J., 55,91, Shapiro, D., 250, 308, 223,224,226,228,
96 319,320,342,358, 238
Salzinger, K., 98 359,398,400,428 Slucki, H., 202, 213
Sanderson, R.E., 76, 95 Sharpey-Schafer, E.P., Smith, A.A., 47,65,93,
Sapper, H.V., 278, 317 327,328,357 99
Sargent, J.D., 309,319, Shaver, P., 162, 164, Smith, K.E., 246, 320
426,427 168,195 Smith, M.O., 37, 99
Sassin, J.F., 47,73,94, Shaw, J.C., 391, 398 Smith, O.A., 243, 304,
99 Shaw, M.E., 169, 192 320
Satson, D.L., 195 Shaw, W.A., 46,55,63, Smith, S.M., 51, 75, 78,
Schachter, S., 108, 136, 92,99 99
217,219,220,222, Shean, G.D., 335, 358 Snyder, C., 151, 152,
225,230,231,233, Shean, G.E., 328, 358 194,338,358
238,239 Sheehan, P.W., 101,135, Sokolov, A.N., 59,72,
Scheier, M.F., 165, 193 136 100
Scherrer, H., 111, 135 Shepard, R.N., 109, 116, Sokolov, E.N., 33, 34,
Schmitz, H., 391, 398 136 116,137,356
Schoonover, R.A., 82, Sherrington, C.S., 1, 29, Solomon, H., 249, 318
96,97,98,99,100 34,35,86,99 Solomon, R.E., 75, 100
438 AUTHOR INDEX
Solomon, R.L., 75, 95 Stunkard, A.J., 231, Travis, R.C., 47, 67,93,
Solso, R., 136 239 100
Songer, E., 151, 162, Stiirup, G., 327, 355 Travis, T.A., 377, 395,
195 Subkov, A.A., 99 400
Sowder, W.T., 152, 191 Suci, G.J., 155, 196 Trosman, H., 47,71,94,
Sperry, R.W., 3, 35,89, Surwillo, W.W., 384, 100
100,185,197 400 Trowill, J.A., 292, 320
Spiegel, T., 232, 239 Surwit, R.S., 250, 309, Tsvetkova, L.S., 18, 22,
Spielberger, C.D., 105, 320,342,343,358 34
336,358 Sussman, H.M., 85, 100 Turin, A., 309, 320
Sprague, J.M., 316 Sutterer, J.B., 243, 318 Turner, L.H., 75, 100
Spurzheim, G., 39, 96 Svorad, D., 187, 191 Tursky, B., 359, 398,
Standish, M., 77, 95, Szigeti, A., 203, 212 400,404,428
268,315 Tuttle, W.W., 45, 50,90,
Starker, S., 125, 137 100
Steller, E., 316 Twentyman, C.T., 308,
Stennett, R.G., 45, 56, Tannenbaum, P.H., 155, 318
91,100,359,360,378, 196
381,382,383,384, Tanner, R.G., 72, 98
400 Tart, C.T., 398
Uber, F.M., 357
Steptoe, A., 309, 320, Taub, E., 81, 100, 322,
Ulett, G.A., 378, 383,
358 339,340,342,358
398,400
Stern, J.A., 332, 333, Taylor, H., 229, 237
Unna, K.R., 75, 76, 78,
334,356 Teichner, W.H., 336,358
100
Stern, M., 359, 400 Teilhard de Chardin, P.,
Stern, R.M., 328,338, 10,35
358 Teitelbaum, H.A., 187,
Sternbach, R.A., 196 197 Van Itallie, T.B., 232,
Stevens, S.S., 200, 213 Teitelbaum, P., 232, 239 237
Stoltz, S.B., 332, 334, Temoshok, L., 220, 238 Van Liew, H.D., 278,
358 Thackray, R.I., 173,196 320
Stone, E.A., 248, 249, Thauer, R., 323, 330, Van-Toller, C., 241, 252,
291,315 358 255, 277, 290, 292,
Storm van Leuuwen, W., Thayer, R.E.,234, 239 320
376,400 Thiesen, J.W., 384, 400 Vaughn, A.O., 46, 59,
Storms, M.D., 151, 168, Thomas, C.C., 34,96, 91,100
197 97 Venables, P.H., 356, 358
Stoyva, J., 404, 426 Thornton, E.W., 241, Vertes, R.P., 243, 317
Stoyva, J.M., 47,70, 252,254,255,277, Verwoerdt, A., 153, 197
71,94,100 282,287,290,291, Vieth, R.N., 390, 398
Strachey, J., 193, 427 292,320 Vinogradova, O.S., 356
Strange, P.W., 328, 358 Thorsheim, H.I., 82,94 Vizek, M., 285, 320
Stricker, E., 216,228, Titchener, E.B., 38,85, Volger, J., 307,319
233,237 100 Voronin, L.G., 356
Stricker, E.M., 239 Toman, J.E.P., 51,99 Vygotskii, L.S., 5, 6, 7,
Strobel, U., 427 Tomkins, S., 107,116, 16,18,20,30,35,38,
Stroebel, C.F., 401-428, 117, 118,119,128, 100, 166, 197
401,404,406,407, 137
408,413,427 Toth, F., 205,213
Strother, G.B., 46, 64, Trachtenberg, M.C., 375, Wallace, R.K., 409,410,
93,100 391,392,400 428
AUTHOR INDEX 439
Wallerstein, H., 47, 66, Wilson, E., 102, 137 Wright, M.L. (cont'd)
67,93,100 Wilson, G.D., 141, 189, 289,290,291,292,
Wallon, H., 6, 7, 35 193 295,296,319,320
Walsh, D.H., 395,400 Wilson, J., 390, 398 Wundt, W., 140, 197
Walter, W.G., 400 Wilson, J.R., 80, 100, Wyrwicka, W., 238, 239
Walters, E.D., 309, 319, 263,273,284,285,
426,427 286,320
Warren, J.M., 20, 33, Wilson, S.K., 359-400,
35 388,395,399,400 Young, G.A., 314
Washburn, M.F., 51, 100 Wine,J., 171, 197 Young, L.D., 249, 250,
Wason, P.C., 143, 197 Winer, B.J., 358 307,308,310,314,
Watson, D.L., 168, 195 Winokur, A., 194 319,413,426
Watson, J., 101 Winokur, G., 378, 400 Young, R., 245, 246,
Watson, J.B., 38, 39,81, Winstead, C.L., Jr., 84, 313,319
90,100 98 Young, R.E., 195
Webb, R.A., 243, 318 Wisdom, J.O., 182, 197 Young,R.M., 37, 100
Webster, J.B., 252, 320 Wolf, G., 249, 318
Weiner, H., 74, 78, 94, Wolfe, R.R., 241, 316
96 Wolff, W., 152,172,173,
Weinman, J., 323, 358 184,197 Zanchetti, A., 245, 314,
Weiss, A.P., 50 Wolgin, D.L., 232, 239 316
Weiss, H.M., 249, 318 Wolitzky, D.L., 152,157, Zangwill, O.L., 35
Weiss, J.M., 253,287, 158,195 Zankov, L.V., 35
316 Wolley, S., 232, 234, Zaporozhets, A.V., 6,
Wenger, M.A., 362, 400 239 35
West, L.J., 113, 137 Wolpe, J., 428 Zeigarnik, B. V., 22
Whatmore, G.B., 402, Wolpert, E.A., 46,47, Zeiner, A.R., 250, 320,
428 63,71,94,100 330,356
Whitman, R.M., 72, 95 Wolstenholme, G., 1 Zeis, F.R., 220, 237
Wicklund, R.A., 151, Wooley, 0., 232, 234, Zigmond, M.J., 232, 233,
159,160,161,162, 239 239
163,164,165,166, Woolf, V., 102, 137 Zimbardo, P.G., 327, 343,
167,168,169,170, Worshel, S., 151, 162, 357
192,193,194, 197 195 Zimmerman, R.L., 250,
Wickramasekera, I.E., Wright, M.L., 251, 255, 319,327,343,357
309,310,320 260,275,277,278, Zubek, J.P., 408, 428
Widen, L., 400 279, 280, 287, 288, Zubor, L., 202, 212
Subject Index
441
442 SUBJECT INDEX