DATUIN, MJ KHRISTIAN LEE D.

DE ISIDRO, NEIL MARK L.

GALLETO, SWEETZEL A.
GARCIA, EUGENE OLIVER R.
GEMENTIZA, JERIC A.
IGCASAMA, JAN LLOYD D.

CONCEPTS IN HYDROLOGY

Hydrology - is the science that encompasses the occurrence, distribution, movement,

and properties of the waters of the earth and their relationship with the environment
within each phase of the hydrologic cycle.

Hydrological Cycle and Processes

Hydrologic Cycle - (also known as the hydrological cycle or water cycle), is the global
system that supplies and removes water from the earth’s surface.
 The 6 Processes/Stages of Hydrologic Cycle

1. Precipitation - is water released from clouds in the form of rain, freezing rain,
sleet, snow, or hail.

2. Surface Runoff - precipitation that reaches the surface of the Earth but does not
infiltrate the soil.

3. Groundwater Flow - a portion of the precipitation that reaches the Earth's

surface seeps into the ground through the process called infiltration or
percolation.

4. Surface Water Body (Storage) - runoff will eventually drain into creeks,
streams, and rivers, adding a large amount of water to the flow.

5. Transpiration - occurs when plant roots absorb water and then release the
water in the form of vapour through the leaves.

6. Evaporation - occurs when radiant energy from the sun heats water, causing the
water molecules to become so active that some of them rise into the atmosphere
as vapor.
Surface Water Hydrology

Hydrology - is the branch of science concerned with the properties of the earth's water,
and especially its movement in relation to land.

2 sub-fields
● Surface water hydrology
● Groundwater hydrology

Surface water hydrology - above-earth water

Groundwater hydrology - water below the surface of the Earth

Surface Water includes:

- rainfall and runoff
- routes that surface water takes
- occurrence of floods and droughts

Surface water hydrology begins before the precipitate hits the ground. The form the
precipitate takes is important. For example, 100 mm of light fluffy snow is equivalent to
about 10 mm of rain while 100 mm of heavy wet snow is equivalent to about 50 mm of
rain.

Other factors of Importance:

- size of the area over which the precipitation falls
- intensity of the precipitation
- duration

The Hydrologic Cycle

When the precipitation hits the ground:

● Evaporation - it may evaporate with no delay

● Infiltration - if the soil is dry, the precipitate may infiltrate into the ground, or it may
only wet the surface
● Interception - is the process of wetting leaves and blades of grass.
● Trapping - the precipitate may also be trapped in small depressions or puddles
● It may run off directly to the nearest stream or lake to become surface water.

These four factors that reduce the amount of direct runoff are called abstractions.
Groundwater Hydrology

- The largest available source of freshwater lies underground.

- Groundwater hydrology - is the science of the occurrence, distribution, and
movement of water below the surface of the earth.
- Most groundwater comes from precipitation.

Divisions of Sub-surface Water

1. Zone of Aeration (Vadose Zone)

a) Soil water zone: It is adjacent to the ground surface consisting of the topsoil
and the subsoil. In this zone, water is lost to the atmosphere mainly due to
evapotranspiration.

b) Pellicular Water Zone: This zone lies between the soil water zone and capillary
water zone. In this zone, water is held in place by capillary forces.

c) Capillary zone: This is the zone in which water is held by capillary action. This
zone is situated between the gravitational zone and the saturated zone
2. Zone of Saturation: Voids are fully saturated with water. This zone may include loose,
unconsolidated deposits of sand and gravel as well as porous rock formations like
limestone and sandstone.
 Types of Geological Formations of Groundwater

Aquifer- they are the permeable formations having structures which permit an
appreciable quantity of water to move through them under ordinary field conditions. (I.e.,
sands and gravels).

Aquiclude- impermeable formations which contain water but are not capable of
transmitting and supplying a significant quantity. (i.e., clays).

Aquifuge- it is an impermeable formations which neither contains nor transmits any water
(i.e., rocks)

Aquitard- is also a saturated formation. It permits the water through it but does not yield
water in sufficient quantity as much as aquifer does. (i.e., sandy clay)

TYPES OF AQUIFER

UNCONFINED AQUIFER
● Unconfined aquifer, or water table aquifer is one in which a water table serves as
the upper surface of the zone of saturation.
● In such an aquifer, the water table varies in undulating form and in slope.
● Rises and falls in the water table corresponds to change in the volume of water in
storage within an unconfined aquifer.

CONFINED AQUIFER
- A confined aquifer is an aquifer confined between two impermeable beds such as
aquifuge and aquiclude. The water in the confined aquifer will be under greater
pressure which is greater than atmospheric pressure. Hence, the water level
shown by piezometer is always higher than the top level of the confined aquifer.
PIEZOMETRIC SURFACE

Schematic of groundwater aquifers

Hydrologic Mass Balance

➢ Hydrologic problems of interest to civil and environmental engineers such as:

○ Sizing of retention ponds/reservoirs
○ Estimating the size of sewers for parking lots,streets, and airports

❖ Mass rate of accumulation = Mass rate of input - Mass rate of output

❖ Noting that mass rate = volumetric rate x density, we may write:

Schematic diagram of a hydrologic subsystem

Mass balance diagram of a hydrologic subsystem

where Q refers to the volume per unit of time (m^3/s), r is the density of water (kg/m^3 ),
and the subscripts are defined as follows:
S = storage
P = precipitation
Q = river flow (in and out)
I = groundwater infiltration/exfiltration (in and out)
R = runoff
E = evaporation
T = transpiration

We often assume that the density of the water is constant throughout the system.
Thus, we divide both sides of the equation by the density to yield an equation for the
volumetric rate of accumulation.

In many hydrology texts, the equation is further simplified by writing the expression in
terms of the subscripts:

The common units of expression for the measurement of these terms are not consistent
with one another. For example, the common unit of measure for precipitation,
infiltration, evaporation, and transpiration is (mm/h) while the common unit of measure
for storage, river flow, and runoff is (m^3/s).
- Assume that precipitation, infiltration, evaporation, and transpiration occur over
the entire surface of the hydrologic system, we approximate the volumetric rate
by multiplying the measurement (in unit of length per unit time) by the surface
area.

The terms of the mass balance equation for the hydrologic equation may be expanded
to show their functional relationship to other physical phenomena.

Infiltration
- is the process by which water on the ground surface enters the soil.
-
A typical infiltration curve is shown . This is the type of curve that results when the
rainfall rate exceeds the infiltration rate. Horton expressed the infiltration rate as:
The infiltration parameters are a function of the properties of the soil; thus, the
values for fo, fc, and k are, as you might expect, a function of the soil type. Some
examples are (in mm/h and h^-1)

The third property, which is directly related to hydrologic balances, is that the area
under the infiltration curve represents the volume of water that infiltrates. Integration
of Horton’s equation yields the volume:

Because of the extensive experimental data required to implement the infiltration

models, civil and environmental engineers use lumped parameters to estimate direct
runoff rather than attempt to estimate infiltration and subtract it from rainfall.
Evaporation

- the process of turning from liquid into vapor.

The estimation of loss of water from lakes and reservoirs is an important component of
water management activities to increase sustainability through drought mitigation. The
loss of water from the surface of a lake or reservoir is a function of solar radiation, air
and water temperature, wind speed, and the difference in vapor pressures at the water
surface and in the overlying air.

Dalton first expressed the fundamental relationship in the form:

Empirical studies at Lake Hefner, Oklahoma, yielded a similar relationship:

Water vapor pressures at various air temperatures are listed in the Table.
.
Evapotranspiration (ET)

- the process by which water is transferred from the land to the atmosphere by
evaporation from the soil and other surfaces and by transpiration from plants.

- The rate of evapotranspiration is a function of soil moisture, soil type, plant type,
wind speed, net radiation, and temperature.

Methods to Estimate Evapotranspiration

Penman–Monteith method

- is currently the most widely used relationship.

- it considers the aerodynamic resistance to water vapor transfer and the
movement of water vapor from inside the leaves to the ambient air.

Blaney–Criddle method

- it was developed for conditions in the arid western regions of the United
States.
- monthly evapotranspiration is estimated for a specific crop.
- Unlike the Penman– Monteith method, the Blaney–Criddle method does
not separate climate and crop parameters.
Example:
Pan evaporation method

- observing the water loss from the pan that provides a measurement of the
combined effect of temperature, humidity, windspeed, and sunshine
- more practical approach is to use local pan evaporation data corrected for
a specific crop.
- when irrigation is practiced
Example:
Rainfall-runoff Relationships

Runoff

· It is defined as the portion of the precipitation that makes its ways towards rivers or
oceans and etc. as surface or subsurface flow.

· It occurs when the rate of the precipitation exceeds the rate at which water may
infiltrate into the soil.

· The first drop precipitation is intercepted by vegetation, as the precipitation goes

on the soil reaches the infiltration capacity which runoff is generated.

Factors affecting Runoff

· Precipitation characteristics

· Shape and size of catchment

· Topography

· Geological characteristics

· Meteorological characteristics

· Characteristics of the catchment surface

· Storage characteristics

· Slope

1. Precipitation characteristics

· Runoff depends on the type of the storm and its duration which causes
precipitation.

· More rainfall, more will be runoff

· If the rainfall intensity is very less and it rains as light showers then much of the
water will be lost in infiltration and evaporation resulting less runoff

2. Shape and size of the catchment

· Runoff depends on the size and location of the catchment

· Generally more rainfall in smaller area resulting in greater runoff

· Less runoff in larger catchment due to uniform rainfall over the entire area, thus
only few tributaries of the stream feed water to a main stream during a particular storm.
3. Topography

· Runoff depends on surface smoothness and slope.

· If slope is steep, flow will be quick and less evaporation and absorption, resulting
greater runoff.

· If the catchment is in mountainous area and on the windward side of the mountain,
then more rain fall resulting more runoff.

4. Geological characteristics

· Includes the type of surfaces soil, subsoil, type of rock and their permeability
characteristics

· If soil and subsoil is porous, seepage will be more resulting reduction of the peak
flood

· If the surface is rocky then absorption will be nil resulting more runoff.

· If rocks have fissures, are porous in nature, have a lava tunnels water will be lost
resulting less runoff.
5. Meteorological characteristics

· Runoff may also be affected by the temperature, wind and humidity.

· If the temperature is low, and ground is saturated, then runoff will be greater.

· If the temperature is high and greater wind velocity give rise to greater evaporation
loss and resulting in less runoff.

6. Character of the catchment surface

· Runoff depends upon the surface conditions like drained, natural or cultivated.

· If the surface has no natural drainage, then absorption loss will be more.

· If more area of the catchment is cultivated resulting less runoff.

· Vegetal cover reduces the runoff in smaller storms.

7. Storage characteristics

· The artificial storage such as dams, weirs and natural storage such as lakes,
ponds, tend to reduce the peak flow.

· They also give rise to greater evaporation loss.

8. Slope

· Larger slopes generate more velocity than smaller slopes and hence can dispose
off runoff faster.

· For smaller slopes, the rainfall input and runoff rate gets stored temporally and
gradually drain over time.
 RUNOFF PROCESSES

· Rain and snowmelt water takes various paths to streams. Each path contributes
differently to;

1. Peak and timing of storm runoff

2. Erosion

3. Transport of chemical into streams

Possible path of water moving downhill

 Types of Runoff processes

● Horton overland flow

· Infiltration capacity decreases as the soil gets wet. Overland flow occurs when
rainfall intensity exceeds infiltration capacity.

· Infiltration capacity varies considerably within a catchment depending on soil

types and vegetation cover. Horton overland flow may occur in localized areas within
the catchment.

· Horton overland flow is rare in vegetated humid region.

· Sheet flow occurs when depression storage is exhausted. Runoff peak is sharp
and time lag is small. Infiltration capacity varies considerably within a catchment
depending on soil types and vegetation cover.

· Horton overland flow may occur in localized areas within the catchment; partial-
area concept. Horton overland flow is rare in vegetated humid region.

· It is common in areas devoid of vegetation such as; - semi-arid rangelands ,

compacted soil and paved urban area.

● Subsurface storm flow

· Lateral movement of water occurring through the soil above the water table

· Subsurface storm flow generates lower volume of runoff than Horton overland
flow. Runoff to rainfall ratio is usually less than 20 %. Most of the rain is stored in the
sediments and is released slowly to supply steady base flow

● Saturation overland flow

· If the rainstorm is large enough, the water table near the stream rises to the
ground surface; groundwater seeps out from the ground surface and generates
overland flow.

· Direct precipitation onto saturated areas (DPS) also generates overland flow.
· The peak rate of runoff generation varies, but it is less than that of Horton
overland flow

Types of Runoff Flow

Surface Flow

· The water from precipitation move only above the surface, moves overland and
channel flow.

Interflow

· Interflow is water that has entered the upper soil profile and then moves laterally
through the soil profile and reappears as surface flow at a downstream point.

· The lateral flow is caused by a relatively impervious zone that prevents further
downward movement.

Base Flow

· Base flow is water from a saturated ground water zone that underlies most land
areas.

· It usually start at a downstream location where the channel elevation is lower than
the ground water table.

Runoff coefficients

· Runoff coefficient is a dimensionless factor that is used to convert the

rainfall amounts to runoff. It represents the integrated effect of catchment
losses and hence depends upon the nature of land surface, slope, degree
of saturation, and rainfall intensity.

· It's also worth noting that the physical conditions of a catchment

region aren't uniform. Even at the micro level, there are a range of slopes,
soil types, vegetation covers, and other factors to consider.
 · As a result, each catchment has its own runoff response and will
react differently to different rainstorms.

Equation: Runoff [mm] = K x Rainfall depth [mm]

· The quantitative value of runoff depends by the rainstorm to a given catchment

area.

· It is commonly assumed that the quantity (volume) of runoff is a proportion

(percentage) of the rainfall depth.

· The coefficient K, which describes the percentage of runoff resulting from a

rainstorm.

· Thus k is not a constant factor

Determining of runoff coefficients

· The runoff coefficient from an individual rainstorm is defined as runoff divided by

the corresponding rainfall both expressed as depth over catchment area (mm)

· When plotting the runoff coefficients against the relevant rainfall depths a
satisfactory correlation is usually observed

· It requires long period to record rainfall and run-off data

Assessment of annual or seasonal runoff:

· To calculate the ratio of catchment to cultivated area, it is necessary to assess

either the annual (for perennial crops) or the seasonal runoff coefficient.

· This is defined as the total runoff observed in a year (or season) divided by the
total rainfall in the same year (or season).

· Annual assessment takes into account also those rainfall events which did not
produce any runoff.

· The annual (seasonal) runoff-coefficient will always lead into smaller arithmetic
mean compared to individual runoff coefficient.
Runoff Coefficient (C)

· The coefficient C represents the integrated effect of the catchment losses and
hence depends upon the nature of the surface, surface slope and rainfall intensity.

· This equation assumes a homogeneous catchment surface. If however, the

catchment is non-homogeneous but can be divided into distinct sub areas each having
a different runoff coefficient, then the runoff from each sub area is calculated separately
and merged in proper time sequence.

In such cases a weighted equivalent runoff coefficient 𝐶e as below is used

typical values of C are indicated in Table (1) and Table (2).

Examples:
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