Heat Transfer
Heat Transfer
Heat Transfer
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
Conduction
If a temperature gradient exists in a continuous
substance, heat can flow unaccompanied by
any observable motion of matter.
According to Fourier’s law, the heat flux is
proportional to the temperature gradient and
opposite to it in sign. For one-dimensional heat
flow
dq dt
= −k
dA dx
z In metals, thermal conduction results from the
motion of free electrons.
z In solids that are poor conductor of electricity
and in most liquids, thermal conduction results
from momentum transfer between adjacent
vibrating molecules or atoms.
z In gases, conduction occurs by the random
motion of molecules.
Convection
znatural convection
zand force convection
Natural convection
Wb = σT 4
σ=stefan-boltzmann constant
T=absolute temperature
Heat transfer by conduction
¾Steady-state conduction
Conduction under the condition of constant
temperature distribution is called steady-state
conduction. In the steady state, T is a function
of position only, and the rate of heat flow at
any point is a constant.
For steady one-dimensional flow.Eq.(10-1)
may be written
dq dt
= −k (10-2)
dA dx
Where q= rate of heat flow in direction normal
to surface
x=distance measured normal to surface
k= thermal conductivity
Thermal conductivity
The proportionality constant k is a physical
property of the substance. It , like the Newtonian
viscosity µ, is one of the so-called transport
properties of material.
k = a + bT (10-3)
k vary over a wide range. They are highest for
metals and lowest for finely powdered materials
from which air has been evacuated.
k of metals cover a wide range of values, from
about 17W/m.ºC for stainless steel and 45 for
mild steel, to 380 for copper and 415 for silver.
k of metals are generally nearly constant or
decrease slightly as the temperature is increased.
q t1 − t 2 ∆t
=k =k (10-5)
A x2 − x1 b
∆T ∆T
q= = (10-6)
b R
kA
R=R1+R2+R3
The rate of heat flow through several resistance
in series is analogous to the current flowing
through several electric resistances in series.
dt
q = − k 2π rL (10-11)
dr
∫r r = q t∫ dt
i o
thus
k ( 2π L )( ti − to )
q= (10-12)
ln ( ro / ri )
r =
( ro − ri )
ln ( ro / ri )
It is known as the logarithmic mean.
The logarithmic mean is less convenient than
the arithmetic mean, and the latter can be used
without appreciable error for thin-walled tubes,
where ro/ri is nearly 1.
The ratio of the logarithmic mean to the arithmetic
mean is a function of ro/ri
as shown in Fig10-4.
hd ⎛ du ρ c p µ ⎞
= f⎜ , ⎟ (12-27)
k ⎝ µ λ ⎠
hd du ρ m c p µ n
= c( ) ( )
k µ k
To use the dimensionless relation, the constant
c and index m,n must be known.
A recognized empirical correlation, for long
tubes with sharp-edged entrances, is the Dittus-
Boelter equation
hi d
Nu = = 0.023 Re Pr
0.8 n
(12-30)
k
µ 0.14
Nu = 0.023Re Pr ( )
0.8 1/ 3 (12-32)
µw
∆tm ∆ti
=
1 1 do
U o h i di
1/ hi
∆ti = ∆tm (12-38)
1/ hi + ho di / d o
Cross sections other than circular
du y
dx • (δ − y ) • l • ρg = dx • l • µ
dy
ρg
或 du y = (δ − y )dy
µ
Integration of the equation with the boundary
condition uy=0, y=0 gives the velocity distribution
ρg ⎛ 1 ⎞
u = ⎜ δy − y ⎟
2
µ ⎝ 2 ⎠
y
m = 1 • δρu =
3µ
and
ρ gδ
2 2
dm = dδ
µ
The rate of heat-transfer
ρ gδ
2 2
r • dm = r dδ
µ
The rate of the heat transfers from a fluid to
the wall by the conduction
ρ gδ
2 2
ts − tw
r d δ = 1 • dxk
µ δ
So
1
⎛ 4 µ kx∆t ⎞ 4
δ =⎜ ⎟
⎝ rρ g ⎠
2
The local heat-transfer coefficient can be derived ,
based on the Newtonian law of cooling and the
thermal conduction within the condensate film
1
λ ⎛ r ρ gk ⎞ 2 3 4
α = =⎜ ⎟
δ ⎝ 4µ x∆t ⎠
so
1
⎛ r ρ 2 gk 3 ⎞ 4
α = 0.943 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ µ L∆t ⎠
(13-12)
Horizontal tubes
the following equation applies to single horizontal
tubes
1
⎛ r ρ 2 gk 3 ⎞ 4
α = 0.725 ⎜ ⎟ (13-14)
⎝ µ d o ∆t ⎠
1
⎛ r ρ 2 gk 3 ⎞ 4
α = 0.725 ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎜ N 3 µ d ∆t ⎟
⎝ o ⎠
z Forvertical tubes, the equations were derived on the
assumption that the condensate flow was laminar.
For long tubes, the condensate film becomes
sufficiently thick and its velocity sufficiently large
to cause turbulence in the low portions of the tube.
Also, even when the flow remains laminar
throughout, coefficients measured experimentally
are about 20 percent larger than those calculated
from the equation. This attributed to the effect of
ripples on the surface of the falling film.
In general, the coefficient of a film condensing
on a horizontal tube is considerably larger
than that on a vertical tube under otherwise
similar conditions unless the tubes are very
short or there are very many horizontal tubes
in the stack.
A plot of q/A vs Δt on
logarithmic coordinates
will give a curve of the
type shown in Fig
This curve can be divided into four segments. In
the first segment, at low temperature drops, the
line AB is straight and has a slope of 1.25. This is
consistent with the equation
q
= α∆t 1.25
(13-20)
A
In the first section, at low temperature drops, the
mechanism is that of heat transfer to a liquid in
natural convection. The heat-transfer coefficient
is low in this segment.
The second segment, line BC, is also approximately
straight, the slope of the line lies between 3and 4.
The second segment terminates at a definite point of
maximum flux, which is pointC.
ρ+ α + τ =1 (14-1)
At temperature above
about 5000ºC heat
radiation in the visible
spectrum become
significant.
W
ε=
Wb
Emissivities of solids
Wb=σT4 (14-3)
C1λ −5
Wb ,λ = C1 (14-7)
e λT
−1
q12 = σ AF (T − T
1
4
2
4
) (14-25)
q12 = σ A1 F12 (T − T
1
4
2
4
) (14-26)
If surface A1 is chosen
q12 = σ A2 F21 (T − T
1
4
2
4
) (14-27)
In general, for gray surfaces, Eq(14-26)and
Eq(14-27) can be written
q12 = σ A1 F12 (T − T
1
4
2
4
) = σ A F (T
2 21 1
4
−T
2
4
)
(14-27)
1
F12 = (14-39)
1 1
+ −1
ε1 ε2
One gray surface completely surrounded by
another
1
F12 = (14-40)
1 A1 1
+ ( − 1)
ε1 A2 ε 2
Problem
A shell-and-tube heat exchanger consists of 120 tubes of
internal diameter 22 mm and length 2.5m. It is operated as a
single-pass condenser with benzene condensing at a
temperature of 350 K on the outside of the tubes and water of
inlet temperature 290 K passing through the tubes. Initially
there is no scale on the walls, and a rate condensation of 4
kg/s is obtained with a water velocity of 0.7 m/s through the
tubes. After prolonged operation, a scale of resistance
0.20 m2 K/kW is formed on the inner surface of the tubes.
What is the outlet temperature of water? And what is the
rate of benzene condensing?
Assumption that the coefficient for the condensing vapor is 2.25kW/m2K,
based on the inside area. The latent heat of benzene is 400kJ/kg.