5842 Romana EguiaMRR2020 AEM66

AQUACULTURE EXTENSION MANUAL NO.
66 JULY 2020
TILAPIA CULTURE
THE BASICS
Maria Rowena R. Romana-Eguia
Ruel V. Eguia
Rolando V. Pakingking, Jr.
Aquaculture Department
Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center
Iloilo, Philippines
Aquaculture Extension Manual No. 66
TILAPIA CULTURE:
THE BASICS
Maria Rowena R. Romana-Eguia

Ruel V. Eguia
Rolando V. Pakingking, Jr.

Tigbauan, Iloilo 5021, Philippines
www.seafdec.org.ph
TILAPIA CULTURE: THE BASICS
July 2020
ISSN 0115-5369
Published and printed by:

Tigbauan, Iloilo, Philippines
Copyright © 2020
Illustrations by Kevin Angelo R. Eguia
All rights reserved

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information
storage system, without permission in writing from the publisher
For comments Training and Information Division
and inquiries: SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department
Tigbauan, Iloilo 5021, Philippines
(63-33) 330 7030
(63-33) 330 7031
[email protected], [email protected]
www.seafdec.org.ph
SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department Library Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Romana-Eguia, Maria Rowena R.
Tilapia culture : the basics / Maria Rowena R. Romana-Eguia, Ruel V. Eguia,

Rolando V. Pakingking, Jr. -- Tigbauan, Iloilo, Philippines : Aquaculture Dept.,
Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center, 2020, ©2020.
[vii], 54 pages : illustrations (chiefly color). -- (Aquaculture extension manual,

0115-5369 ; no. 66).
Includes bibliographical references.
1. Tilapia -- Breeding -- Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Tilapia -- Feeding and

feeds -- Handbooks, manuals, etc. 3. Tilapia -- Breeding -- Economic aspects --
Handbooks, manuals etc. 4. Tilapia -- Diseases -- Handbooks manuals, etc. 5. Fish
culture -- Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Eguia, Ruel V. II. Pakingking, Rolando, Jr.
V. III. SEAFDEC. Aquaculture Department.
SH 167.T54 R66 2020 DLS2020-01

Foreword
The fast-growing and prolific tilapia is among the most important aquaculture
commodities in the world. It grows fast, easily breeds in captivity, and is tolerant of
various environments and culture systems. Propagating and farming this fish requires
little input and the technology can be simple and easily adaptable by small-scale fish
farmers. Investors also find tilapia farming to be profitable because of its fairly low
investment cost and good feeding efficiency in lakes and ponds where natural food
are available.
In the Philippines, tilapia is second only to milkfish in terms of fish production volume
from aquaculture. Based on data from the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources
(BFAR), the country produced a total of 277,006 metric tons of tilapia in 2018. In that
year, this comprised 33.5% of the volume of all non-seaweed production in Philippine
aquaculture.
Realizing the potential of tilapia culture in achieving food security, SEAFDEC/AQD has
been doing research on tilapia since the 1980s. The research center has published
several papers on tilapia including the development of feed for Nile tilapia breeders
and fry. It has also worked on a farm-based genetic selection scheme to give tilapia
farmers a scientific guide in selecting and managing breeders.
SEAFDEC/AQD has also been disseminating science-based tilapia hatchery and grow-
out technologies to its stakeholders through regular training courses on tilapia culture,
extension work, and publication of manuals on tilapia culture.
To date, SEAFDEC/AQD has published three manuals in Filipino on tilapia hatchery

(1996, with revised editions in 2001 and 2007), grow-out (1996, with revised editions in
2001 and 2007), and modular cage culture (2011). Three manuals in English on tilapia
broodstock and hatchery management (2007), grow-out (2004), and net cage culture
in dams and small farm reservoir (2000) were also published. SEAFDEC/AQD experts
also contributed to the 2018 Philippines Recommends for Tilapia, a valuable resource
published by the Philippine Council for Agriculture, Aquatic and Natural Resources
Research and Development (PCAARRD).
This new aquaculture extension manual revisits the basics of tilapia culture with
updated information on the grow-out technology in cages and ponds. Updated cost
and return analyses were also included to guide farmers regarding the profitability
of farming tilapia. A fresh chapter on tilapia health management is also included to
promote the prevention of tilapia diseases.
We hope that this user-friendly manual can be a useful guide to fish farmers and to
other stakeholders such as the academe and extension workers.
DAN D. BALIAO
SEAFDEC/AQD Chief
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword v
Introduction 1
Major Tilapia Production Areas in the Philippines 1
Tilapia Species and Commercial Strains 2
Basic Tilapia Farming Concepts 7
Environmental and Nutritional Requirements 7
Farming in Net Cages 9
Choosing the right cage farming site 9
Cage module types 10
Fabricating net cages 12
Constructing the module 15
Seedstock procurement, transport and stocking 17
Feeding and feed management 20
Maintaining the net cages 21
Harvesting 22
Cost and return analysis 24
Tilapia Pond Farming 26
Choosing the pond farming site 27
Farming intensity 28
Constructing and preparing the ponds 29
Stocking tilapia fingerlings 33
Water quality management 34
Maintaining the ponds 34
Harvesting 35
Cost and return analysis 37
Other Methods 39
Monosex male tilapia culture 39
Rice-fish (tilapia) culture 41
Saltwater culture of tilapias 41
Aquaponics 41
Tilapia Health Management 42
Infectious Diseases 42
Noninfectious Diseases 44
Disease Prevention and Control 44
Tilapia Processing 46
Product Forms 46
Marketing 46
Suggested Readings 48
Acknowledgments 53
About the Authors 53
Introduction
Tilapias are originally from Africa, particularly Sub-Saharan Africa and the
Middle East. The first species of tilapia brought into the Philippines in 1950 was
the Mozambique tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) and this was introduced
by way of a few pieces brought in by the Bureau of Fisheries Aquatic Resources
from Java, Indonesia. Hence the common name Java tilapia was also meant
to refer to the Mozambique tilapia. The Java tilapia is quite prolific as it can
breed even at a small size provided that it has reached the mature age of 3
to 4 months. Farming the tilapia was shown to be relatively easy since it is a
hardy fish that could grow in diverse types of environments. Although tilapia
farming, particularly that of the Mozambique tilapia, have elicited some
interest among fish culturists, early efforts to promote Mozambique tilapia
culture in the Philippines was not as successful because this particular tilapia
species does not grow to the preferred local market size. It was only in the early
1970’s when another tilapia species (Nile tilapia or Oreochromis niloticus), was
introduced, that tilapia farming in ponds and cages became popular among
fish farmers.
Tilapia culture then flourished through the 1980’s with the introduction of a
hybrid species called the red tilapia (Oreochromis spp.). This species was known
for its red-orange to pale red (pink) color which was more appealing to the
local Filipino-Chinese market. Compared to the Nile tilapia, the red tilapias are
more saline-tolerant and can therefore be farmed in rearing enclosures with
varying water salinities, from brackish water to full strength seawater.
At present, most of the commercially valuable tilapias are grown in

brackishwater ponds or in freshwater tanks, ponds and cages in many countries
outside of its origin. Some of them now thrive in natural waters such as lakes
and rivers where they were either unintentionally and/or purposely stocked.
Tilapias once harvested, are marketed in many forms -- live, fresh, frozen, dried
or processed. Since the tilapias are readily available, flavorful, not as bony as
other fish species (e.g. milkfish), and inexpensive, it can be traded easily both
locally and internationally.

Major Tilapia Production Areas in the Philippines
From the 2018 statistics, tilapias comprised 12% of the total aquaculture
production in the Philippines at 277,006 metric tons (see BFAR On line
information System, https://www.bfar.da.gov.ph/profile?id=19#post). It was
noted as the third major species in terms of local aquaculture production
next to seaweeds (1,478,301 MT) and milkfish (303,402 MT). Despite threats
brought about by the incidence of diseases such as the tilapia lake virus,
and the presence of common pathogens (bacteria etc.) that infect farmed
tilapias, tilapia production targets have been steadily achieved with Regions
III (133,358 MT), IV-A (81,491 MT) and I (16,830 MT) being the top producers.
Of the total 277,006 MT, most of the cultured tilapias were harvested from
freshwater ponds (155,433 MT) and cages (85,440 MT). Except for the Cordillera
Autonomous Region (CAR), tilapias are farmed in every region of the country
with some (albeit very low) production even coming from marine cages
(0.44 MT) and pens (0.10 MT).
Tilapia Species and Commercial Strains
As mentioned, several species of tilapia are now in the Philippines and have
been propagated and reared for commercial production. Below is a brief
description of each:
Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)
The Nile tilapia is the most popular, globally farmed tilapia species. It has
vertical black bands on the body and caudal or tail fin. The dorsal fin (or
the fin on the top part of the fish) has a black outline and the caudal fin
has a red margin. Nile tilapia is most preferred because it grows fast, is
hardy, and well adapted for farming in warm tropical countries like the
Philippines. Nile tilapia comprises about 70-80% of the world’s tilapia
production. In the late 1990s, there were several genetically improved
strains or stocks of Nile tilapia that were developed in the Philippines,
for example, the Genetically Improved Farmed Tilapia (GIFT) strain,
Genetically Male Tilapia (GMT), Genomar Supreme Tilapia (GST) among
others.
Fig. 1. The Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus
2 Tilapia Culture: The Basics

Genetic strains of Nile tilapia
In the late 1980s, several Nile tilapia genetic improvement programs

were conducted in the Philippines, some of them with fund support
from international sources. Three of these strains (GIFT, GST
and GMT) were even distributed globally except in Africa where
natural sources of Nile tilapia exist. This is to avoid the “genetic
contamination” of Nile tilapia populations in the natural breeding
grounds in Africa. Unfortunately, there are already recent reports
of aquaculture-mediated transfers of the genetically improved
stocks (developed in the Philippines) to Ghana, one of the natural
sources of the Nile tilapia, despite the fact that they have developed
their own improved strain (e.g. Akosombo tilapia strain). To date,
the following (see Table 1) are the currently available genetically
improved Nile tilapia strains in the Philippines:
Table 1. Genetically improved Nile tilapia strains that are available in the Philippines as of 2019
Name of Tilapia Strain Source Agency
Freshwater Aquaculture Center Strain Tilapia Freshwater Aquaculture Center, Central Luzon
(or FaST, 39th generation) State University (FAC-CLSU), Muñoz, Nueva
Ecija
Genetically Improved Farmed Tilapia-Malaysia Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources
strain (GIFT- Malaysia) (BFAR in selected regions)
Genetically Male Tilapia or YY Supermale FAC-CLSU

Tilapia (GMT)
Improved Excel strain tilapia (i-Excel) BFAR-National Freshwater Fisheries

Technology Center (BFAR-NFFTC), Muñoz,
Nueva Ecija
Improved Brackishwater Enhanced Strain BFAR-NFFTC, Muñoz, Nueva Ecija
Tilapia (i-BEST)
Cold tolerant tilapia strain BFAR-NFFTC, Muñoz, Nueva Ecija

Molobicus BFAR National Inland Fisheries Technology
Development Center (BFAR-NIFTDC),
Dagupan, Pangasinan
Genomar Supreme Tilapia (GST) Genomar Philippines (www.genomar.no)
Genetic improvement in most of the strains were focused on growth

enhancement while strains such as i-BEST and Molobicus were
developed for saline tolerance. The cold tolerant strain on the other
hand, was developed for culture in areas in the Philippines where
the ambient temperature (especially the rearing water temperature)
SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department 3

is below the ideal or optimal rearing conditions that favor fast
growth (27-31°C). Meanwhile, the GMT Tilapia was developed for
monosex tilapia farming.
It is to be expected that fingerlings of these improved strains are

sold at premium prices in view of the added value of better traits.
The potential of higher yields within a shorter period of rearing
may thus be achieved, provided efficient husbandry techniques are
applied. On the other hand, farmers can very well improve their own
stocks through simple, conventional, on-farm selective breeding
(e.g. mass selection) methods if the genetically improved stocks
could not be procured. Farmers may also improve tilapia growth
through environmental interventions such as administration of
better feeds and/or maintaining good water quality in their culture
facilities.
Mozambique or ‘Java’ tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus)
The Mozambique or ‘Java’ tilapia is generally black in color. The underside

of the head is white, and dorsal and caudal fins have red margins. The O.
mossambicus can thrive in freshwater, brackishwater and/or seawater and
it is the most common tilapia found in coastal waters upstream of the surf
zone. This tilapia breeds in short and successive cycles. It is a commercial
food fish, and the small-sized Mozambique tilapias are also used as forage
fish for carnivorous marine fishes like groupers, snappers, and sea bass.
This fish accounts for about 10% of world tilapia production.
Oreochromis mossambicus is commonly mated with other tilapia species

to produce all-male fingerlings. When stocked in a common enclosure,
monosex tilapias such as all-male tilapias are observed to grow faster
than when rearing female and male tilapias communally. When the grow-
out enclosures contain only male fish, early breeding and stunting are
prevented and yields are higher.
Source: iucnredlist.org
Fig. 2. The Mozambique or ‘Java’ tilapia Oreochromis mossambicus
Red tilapias (Oreochromis spp. hybrids)
The red tilapias are hybrids produced from crosses between Oreochromis
mossambicus and O. niloticus (Taiwanese red tilapia) or O. mossambicus-
hornorum and O. niloticus (Philippine red tilapia). Red tilapias have no
stripes on the caudal fin. Red tilapia fingerlings are produced and sold to
fishfarmers by BFAR, SEAFDEC/AQD and a few private hatcheries.
Red tilapias grow as fast as the Nile tilapia and can grow even better in
brackish water ponds and sea cages. They have become a popular choice
for farming especially in some Latin American countries. In most parts
of Southeast Asia, red tilapia enjoys a good market in fresh, chilled, or
live form. Red tilapia is marketed as a premium fish in supermarkets and
upscale Chinese restaurants (for freshly cooked seafood-based meals),
where the red tilapias are given other fancy names as ‘King fish’ or ‘Pearl
fish’. Red tilapias have good prospects in the export market. In Japan and
the USA, the red tilapia is sold as fillets or in some other processed forms.
Fig. 3. A red tilapia Oreochromis sp.
Apart from the commercially reared tilapias, some tilapia species have been
used in experimental aquaculture. The following is an example:
Blue tilapia (Oreochromis aureus)
The blue tilapia looks similar to the Nile tilapia with black blotches on the
body and the caudal fin. An obvious distinguishing characteristic of the
blue tilapia is its yellow underside and yellow margins on the caudal and
pectoral fins.
The blue tilapia grows fast and thrives in colder waters, such as those
found in mountain lakes and reservoirs. At present, the blue tilapia
is maintained for experiments undertaken at research and academic
institutions such as the Freshwater Aquaculture Center of the Central

Luzon State University, Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, and
some private companies. One such study is on the improvement of cold
tolerance in the Nile tilapia through hybridization with the blue tilapia.
Meanwhile, in the past three or so years, we have seen another tilapia species
being sold in local markets. This tilapia species has been assumed to have
been unintentionally ‘introduced’ into marine waters as they were brought
in through ballast waters of ships that traverse Philippine seas. This species
can withstand saltier environments. Although commercially valuable in the
countries where it is endemic, its commercial culture in the Philippines is not
being promoted. This is because based on reports, when the black chinned
tilapias are found in abundance, they could potentially disturb the ecological
balance and biodiversity in natural waters. However, since it is already being
caught from the wild fishery (and sometimes as invasive stocks in aquaculture
ponds), this tilapia has somehow found a niche in the local market. The black
chinned tilapia or Sarotherodon melanotheron is sold at very low prices (about
PHP 20.00/kg; see Figure 4) since it is smaller than the Nile tilapia and the
taste, compared to the Nile tilapia, is less appealing to consumers. Below is a
description of the black chinned tilapia which has been named by local market
sellers as ‘Tilapyang arroyo’, ‘Gloria’ or ‘molmol.’
Black chinned or Blackchin tilapia

(Sarotherodon melanotheron)
The main difference between this and the other tilapia species mentioned
earlier is that the black-chin tilapia is a paternal mouthbrooder. Tilapias
classified under the genus Oreochromis (e.g. Nile tilapia, Mozambique
tilapia, red tilapia etc.) are known as maternal mouthbrooders, meaning
the female parent incubates the fertilized tilapia eggs in their mouth
for these to hatch into swim-up fry. The S. melanotheron found in the
Philippines have black blotches on the lower part of the head and
this character has become the basis for farmers to call this species as
“tilapyang Gloria” or in some areas, the fish is called “molmol”. In a study
confirming the identity of these tilapia species found in Manila Bay and in
an aquaculture pond in Bulacan, some were noted to have melanic areas
or black blotches around the lower part of the mouth. Those collected
from Manila Bay had a distinct golden hue on the operculum (gill cover).
The top part (dorsal part) of the fish has a dark metallic gray color which
becomes lighter towards the bottom part (ventral part) of the fish.
Metallic yellow to orange streaks can also be found on the body of the
fish. This fish is highly carnivorous and when found in aquaculture ponds
where milkfish, tilapia or shrimp are farmed, they tend to feed on smaller
fish larvae, eggs and insects.
Fig. 4. “Tilapyang Gloria” or “arroyo”or “molmol”, sold in a
local public market
Basic Tilapia Farming Concepts
Environmental and Nutritional Requirements
To best understand the conditions necessary in optimizing growth in

farmed tilapias, one needs some basic knowledge of its environmental and
feed requirements as well as its feeding behavior. Since most of the traded
species belong to the genus or scientific group Oreochromis or the maternal
mouthbrooders, for purposes of discussion, this section shall focus on the Nile
tilapia as a reference species since the culture requirements for nearly all the
maternal mouthbrooding tilapias farmed in the Philippines are similar.
The Nile tilapia is generally euryhaline which means that it can thrive in a wide
range of salinity from fresh to sea water; only, it grows best in freshwater under
optimal temperatures of 27-31°C. The other species (Mozambique, red hybrid
etc.) are more tolerant to saline waters. When the temperature is low, tilapias

like most tropical species, do not feed as much and not as frequent. The water
quality parameters that are necessary and can be tolerated by tilapias for them
to thrive and grow are summarized in Table 2.
Table 2. Water quality requirements for tilapia farming (from Mjoun et al, 2010)
Parameter Range Optimum for growth Reference
Salinity (ppt or parts 0-36 ppt (depending Up to 19 ppt El-Sayed (2006)
per thousand) on species)
Dissolved oxygen Down to 0.1 >3 Magid and Babiker
(mg/L) (1975); Ross (2000)
Temperature (°C) 8-42 22-29 Sarig (1969); Morgan
(1972); Mires (1995)
pH 3.7-11 7-9 Ross (2000)
Ammonia (mg/L) Up to 7.1 <0.05 El-Shafey (1998);
Redner and Stickney
(1979)
Tilapias are known to be herbivorous or consume feed materials of plant origin.

This is especially true at the early stages where they feed on phytoplankton
or plant plankton. However the tilapias also actually feed on periphyton,
zooplanktons (animal plankton), other larval fish and detritus. Hence if these
are to be reared in lake-based cages, one has to know if the lake is eutrophic
or have natural food (phytoplankton, zooplankton) in abundance and if so,
perhaps full feeding using artificial diets may not be necessary. The same is
true for fertilized ponds.
As tilapias grow, they can also be trained to eat artificial diets such as the
commercially available tilapia feeds that contain plant and animal protein among
other ingredients that are sources of nutrients such as lipids, carbohydrates,
vitamins and minerals. Several commercial diets, even phase diets or feeds for
different tilapia growth stages (e.g. feeds for tilapia fry, fingerlings and juveniles)
are available locally. The farmers need to be guided by the crude protein (CP,
usually ranging from 28-56%) requirements of tilapia at every growing phase.
Fish feed companies usually provide a feeding guide and sometimes, offer
technical support as they sell their artificial diets to fish farmer clients. Both the
feed ration (based on fish biomass) and the CP requirement is adjusted (usually
reduced) with the age and size of the tilapias as the culture period progresses.
More details on feeds and feeding management are discussed in another section
in this manual.

Farming in Net Cages
Tilapias can be grown in net cages in natural water bodies where the fish have
long been introduced. Stocking them in local water resources, where tilapias are
not found or do not thrive, is discouraged to prevent displacement of endemic
aquatic species. The cages are net enclosures much like oversized net boxes
suspended from posts or stakes. Cage sizes range from 1 m3 (1 m x 1 m x 1
m) to 2,700 m3 (30 m x 30 m x 3 m) depending on the site, production target,
financial, and technical capability of the farmer. Cages for tilapia farming can be
suspended from floating or fixed-frame modules set up in lakes, dam reservoirs,
and sometimes in sea water.
In 2018, about 31% of the total tilapia production in the Philippines came from
cages. Tilapia in net cages set in eutrophic lakes like Laguna de Bay can subsist
on natural food and reach marketable size relatively quickly, depending on the
lake’s primary productivity. However, tilapia stocked in cages in oligotrophic
lakes like Taal in Batangas, and in water reservoirs like Pantabangan, Magat, and
Ambuklao, must be fed commercial diets to enable them to reach marketable
size quickly. Net cages in these lakes and dams are stocked with as much as 50-
100 fingerlings/m3.
Choosing the right cage farming site
Physical, biological, and social factors should be considered in choosing a

farm site that is suitable for tilapia cage farming. These are --
Peace and order. The farm should be located in a community that is

relatively peaceful. The presence of the farm itself in the community must
be acceptable to the residents so that security and poaching do not become
problems.
Proximity to markets and roads. Since a fish farm would need supplies
such as fuel, fish nets, rope, floats, feeds, etc., the chosen site must be
near an urban center and a major market where farm supplies can be
procured and the farm produce can be profitably sold. Convenient road
and telecommunication access would be advantageous.
Shelter from winds and waves. Ideal farm sites are coves and inlets
as these are somehow protected from strong winds and waves. In such
places, the terrain of the surrounding shore areas weakens or deflects
strong winds and waves.

Availability of fingerlings. The site should be near reputable hatcheries
that could provide quality tilapia fingerlings for stocking anytime.
Natural food. Tilapia feed on phytoplankton and zooplankton, therefore

the water where the tilapia cage farming site is to be set up must be
sufficiently rich in these organisms. Water abundant in plankton is
brownish, bluish green, or grass green in color. Natural water bodies
where frequent algal blooms are reported must be avoided as the rearing
water in these areas can become oxygen-depleted, and cause fish kills.
Water quality and circulation. Apart from the water quality parameters
indicated in Table 2, the farm site must be free of harmful pollutants, for
example, fertilizer and pesticide runoff from rice fields, heavy metals from
industries, or sludge and decomposing organic matter from livestock
farms. The area where the net cages are to be installed must have good
water circulation so that the fish can have adequate dissolved oxygen
which it needs to grow and survive well.
Type of soil/substrate. The kind of bottom soil in the farm site

determines whether the fish cage modules can be the floating type or
fixed type. Farm sites in shallow water with sandy to clay loam bottom are
better off with fixed type cage modules. This is because the soil will allow
easy and firm penetration of bamboo poles and support for the cages.
Meanwhile, deep (>5m) lakes or water reservoirs with rocky or loose
bottom substrates call for modules of the floating type.
Cage module types
Cage modules are the fabricated floating and/or staked structures where
the tilapia net cages are hung. The two types are described as follows:
Fixed cage module. A

fixed module is usually
made of bamboo poles or
palm tree trunks staked
1-2 m deep into the
bottom of shallow lakes,
reservoirs, lagoons, or
bays. The net cages are
secured onto the bamboo
poles, and are properly
arranged to allow good
water circulation. Fig. 5. A fixed cage module

Floating cage module.
If the selected culture
site is in relatively deep
lakes, reservoirs, lagoons
or bays, a module that
stays afloat on the water
would be most ideal. A
floating cage module
consists of (a) net
cages that will contain
the tilapia stocks and
exclude predators, (b)
flotation system, (c)
mooring system, and
(d) module frame with
working platform. Net
cages are tied securely
to the frame but move
freely with the water
Fig. 6. Examples of floating cage modules
level.
Floats could be bamboo poles, empty drums, and/or hard styrofoam

blocks. The anchors may be concrete blocks or specially designed
weights/structures submerged at the bottom substrate. The frame holds
the components together and may double as floats and as working
platform.
In large-scale tilapia farming, fish cage modules can be arranged in rows
either diagonally or parallel to each other. This way, order is maintained,
water flow is not impeded too much, and operations can be done with
ease — boat movements, harvesting fish, inspecting and repairing the
net cages, etc.
Fig. 7. Arrangement of fish cage modules in rows that are diagonal (top) and parallel (above) to
each other
Fabricating
net cages
Most tilapia net cages

are rectangular. Apart
from the fact that it is
more economical to
fabricate a rectangular
net cage, it is easier for
a small boat to lift and
manage a rectangular
net cage especially
during harvest. Fig. 8. A small net cage measuring 5 m x 10 m x 2.5 m
The size of the cage

one can use depends
on the financial and
technical capability
of the farmer as
well as the required
production targets.
For easy management,
the cage size Fig. 9. A big net cage measuring 10 m x 20 m x 2.5 m
recommended for
tilapia grow-out operations may range from 50 m2 (5 m x 10 m) to
200 m2 (10 m x 20 m). The depth of the net cage depends on the depth
of the water layer where the fish can still obtain sufficient natural food.
Since planktons thrive near the water surface, it is recommended that
the depth of net cages do not exceed 5 meters. This is unless the cage is
installed in a deep lake and artificial feeding is part of the rearing scheme
similar to what is done in Taal Lake in Batangas.
A small cage measuring 5 m x 10 m x 2.5 m is easy to manage. One or

two persons can readily lift the cage during harvest or routine inspection.
Another advantage is that when a small cage gets damaged, fish loss
is minimal. However, one can go for a cage as big as 10 m x 20 m x 2.5
m and save on materials and cost for the netting material and frame,
compared to when one fabricates several units of small cages.
A fish cage is made from netting material sewn together to form an

oversized net “box” suspended from the module frame. The cage can
have a removable net cover to prevent the stocks from escaping in

the event that the netcage is exposed to strong winds/waves during a
typhoon. The netting material to be used depends on the intended use of
the cage. For spawning net enclosures, fine-meshed netting hapa is used.
For grow-out cages, the netting material is selected according to the size
of the fingerlings to be stocked in the cages.
Netting materials are classified by the number of knots it has or by its

mesh size. Four types of netting materials are used for tilapia grow-out
cages.
Table 3. Netting materials used for tilapia grow-out cages
Type of netting Knots in Mesh size SG

6 inches (inches) net
SG net (size 12) 12 1.09
GG net (size 14) 14 0.92 GG

net
CC net (zize 17) 17 0.75
B net
CC
net
One roll of a size 17 netting material is

2.5 meters wide and about 90 meters B
net
long. For one unit of net cage measuring
5 m x 10 m x 2.5 m, 70 meters of CC net
(or about one roll) is needed; that is,
Fig. 10. Types of net used in tilapia
30 m for the side components, 20 m for
grow-out cages
the cage bottom, and 20 m for the cage
cover.
Materials for a 5 m x 10 m x 2.5 m net cage:

• 1 roll netting, CC size 17
• 1 roll polyethylene rope, #8 or 4 mm
• 3-5 rolls nylon twine, #210/18
Materials for a 10 m x 20 m x 2.5 m net cage:

• 2 1⁄2 rolls netting, CC size 17
• 2 1⁄2 rolls polyethylene rope, #8 or 4 mm
• 8 - 10 rolls nylon twine, #210/18

Rolls of different types CC net size 17 #8 polyethylene rope
of nets
#210/18 nylon twine needle
scissors or shears
Fig. 11. Materials for a net cage
Sewing the net cage
1. Measure the desired length

of netting material. An
allowance or additional 2 cm machine stitch
length of the netting material
should be extended at both
ends. Cut the material with a
pair of scissors.
2. Sew the edges of the netting
material using a sewing PE rope Nylon twine
machine.
3. Thread a polyethylene (PE)
rope through the mesh at the
edges of the netting material.
4. Sew together the side,
bottom, and cover nets, piece
by piece, until a net ‘box’ or
cage is formed. Sew the edges
Fig. 12. Edges of the netting sewn using
of the net cage by using a sewing machine (top) and edges of a
clover stitches with overhand net cage sewn using clover stitches with
knot (see Figure 12). overhand knot (above).
Constructing the
module
Bamboo poles are the most

commonly used materials for
fixed cage modules, at least
in the Philippines, where
bamboos are abundant.
Bamboo poles are easy
to procure and can be
staked onto the substrate
bottom manually. However, Fig. 13. Sewing of the net cage
these have become more
expensive, can last for only 3-4 years, and do not make for a very sturdy
and stable working platform.
A bamboo fixed module is usually 30 meters long and 12 meters wide,

and holds five net cages, each 5 m x 10 m (see diagrams on the next
page). The vertical posts are staked 3 meters apart and 1-2 meters deep
into the sediment. The horizontal frame is kept two meters above the
water. Each net cage is secured to six posts.
Materials needed:
• 40 bamboo poles (for vertical posts)
• 10 bamboo poles (for horizontal frames)
• rope for securing bamboo poles in place
On the other hand, anahaw

trunks can also be used in
making a fixed module.
Anahaw trunks (from
the palm tree Livistonia
rotundifolia) are cheaper,
sturdier (especially during
typhoons), lasts longer (10
years), and provide a more
stable working platform than Fig. 14. Anahaw trunks used as vertical posts in a
bamboo poles. However, the fixed cage module
source of anahaw trunks are
limited apart from the fact
that the anahaw requires special equipment for staking into the bottom.

An anahaw fixed module is 30 meters long and 12 meters wide, and holds
five net cages, each 5 m x 10 m (see diagrams on the next page). The
anahaw vertical posts are staked 5 meters apart and 1-2 meters deep into
the sediment. The bamboo horizontal frame is kept 2 meters above the
water. Each net cage is secured to six posts.
Materials needed:
• 18 anahaw trunks (for vertical posts)
• 10 bamboo poles (for horizontal frames)
• rope for securing bamboo poles and anahaw trunks in place
Top view
Side view
Fig. 15. Construction of a bamboo fixed module

Top view
Side view
Fig. 16. Construction of a fixed module using anahaw for vertical posts
Seedstock procurement, transport and stocking

The success of any tilapia farming operation depends mainly on the
quality of seedstock used. The main concern of farmers is to be able to
buy quality seedstock that can grow to marketable sizes within the
shortest possible time. Farmers can procure seedstock from reliable
reputable hatcheries, or from their own hatchery if they operate one
for themselves to be assured of good quality seed. Another option is to
use all-male stocks or genetically improved stocks from licensed farms,
agencies, or research institutions.
Tilapia fingerlings (sizes ranging from 37 mm or size 17, to 46 mm or size

14) are normally stocked in grow-out enclosures. Hatchery operators thus
have to nurse ‘fry’ to marketable-sized fingerlings.

Operating a tilapia hatchery
requires technical expertise.
Knowledge in proper
broodstock management is
necessary. Genetically inferior
or poorly managed breeders
may produce poor quality
fingerlings that grow slowly,
have deformities, are susceptible
to diseases, or mature too early.
On the other hand, good quality

fingerlings have the following
traits:
• Fast growth (in terms of

length and weight)
• Robust body
• Normal color Fig. 17. Fingerlings of Nile tilapia (top) and red
• No deformities tilapia (above)
• Efficient feed conversion
Information regarding other criteria such as sexual maturity, resistance
to diseases, and social behavior may be obtained from the hatchery
operator. It is also important to obtain pertinent information on the seed
stock number, age, strain, ancestry or parental cross from which they
were derived, and survival rate from hatching to nursery stage.
Tilapia fingerlings must be conditioned by not feeding them for at least

24 hours prior to transport. Immediately after harvest from the hatchery,
fingerlings should be stocked in a conditioning tank or cage with flowing
aerated water to allow them to rest and defecate. Feces should be
removed before transport. It is better to transport fingerlings in the early
morning or after sunset.
When packing tilapia fingerlings, enough oxygen must be available

to fish at all times in preparation for the whole duration of transport.
Water temperature must be lowered to about 20°C to reduce the oxygen
consumption of fish. Ice packed in plastic bags may be placed in the
transport containers — this is especially important for long-distance land
or air transport. Loading density (number of fingerlings per transport
container) must be adjusted according to fish size, water temperature or
time of day, duration of transport, distance, and road condition.

• Oxygenated plastic
bags are commonly
used for long-
distance transport of
fingerlings. Double
plastic bags (each
75 cm x 40 cm) with
water and oxygen in
1:1 to 1:3 volume ratio
(depending on the
travel distance) can
hold about 500 pieces
of size-17 fingerlings.
To protect against Fig. 18. Packing tilapia fingerlings in plastic bags for
puncture, the plastic transport
bags are placed in
thicker bags for short-distances, or packed with bagged ice in
styrofoam boxes or corrugated cardboard boxes for long-distance
transport. For air freight, both styrofoam boxes and cardboard
boxes are required.
• Transport boxes made of plywood are fitted inside a truck or van.

The loading density can be as much as 20,000 of size 17 fingerlings
per ton of water in the box. Battery-operated aerators and medical
oxygen should be provided.
• Transport boats are used in tilapia farming areas where lake

farms get their fingerlings from lake-based hatcheries. The tilapia
fingerlings are loaded into the hull of a boat in a compartment with
small holes that allow free water entry as the boat moves along. To
keep the boat from sinking, water is constantly bailed out by hand
or by pump.
In transporting fingerlings, one should be familiar and comply with the

requirements set by the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources
such as the procurement of a health certificate etc. prior to transport of
domestically traded live fish. A fish health certificate is given when the
fingerlings do not manifest symptoms of diseases, or harbor parasites and
other pathogens.
The fingerlings are transported from the hatchery to the farm once the
cages are ready to be stocked. The sealed transport bags are made to
float in the cage until the water temperature in the bags becomes equal

to that in the cage. Water from the cage is also slowly introduced into
transport bags to help fingerlings adjust to the water temperature and
salinity of the water in the cage. These are done to prevent stress which
could later make them weak and prone to diseases. If transport boxes or
boats are used, the water in the boxes/boats must be gradually diluted
with water from the cage.
A 10 m x 20 m x 2.5 m cage may be stocked with fingerlings (3-4 cm or 10

grams) at a stocking rate of 10-15 pieces/m3 of net cage. After stocking,
the fingerlings need very little care, at least in plankton-rich farming areas
where feeding is not necessary. Higher stocking densities may be used,
as high as 50-200/m3 (if permitted), but feeding then becomes necessary.
Feeding and feed

management
Although primarily
herbivorous, tilapias
can eat almost any
available food/ feed,
from microscopic
phytoplankton to
zooplankton, bottom
invertebrates, and
detritus. They also
readily eat rice bran, Fig. 19. Feeding of tilapia in concrete tanks.
copra meal, stale bread
or pastries, and commercial feed pellets. They eat frequently and digest
their food thoroughly. Because of their feeding behavior, tilapias grow
fast and survive well in different farming systems (given water quality
conditions that are conducive to good growth).
Studies conducted at SEAFDEC recommend a Nile tilapia formulated diet

consisting of fish meal (18.25% of the dry diet), soybean meal (25%), copra
meal (10%), rice bran (6%), cassava flour (36.42%), and vitamin-mineral
mix (4.33%). This diet contains 28% crude protein, 4% crude fat, 4% crude
fiber, 54% carbohydrate, and 10% ash. Soybean meal is noted to be an
expensive import commodity hence local researches particularly funded
by the Philippine Department of Science and Technology (DOST) on the
use of an alternative feed ingredient such as protein enriched copra meal
(PECM) were done and have shown promising results. The PECM was
developed by the University of the Philippines Los Baños - BIOTECH.

Fig. 20. A farmer feeding tilapia in a floating cage in Taal Lake.
As mentioned previously, a variety of formulated diets for tilapia are

commercially available, mostly containing 25-30% crude protein. The
recommended feeding rate for Nile tilapia is 3-7% of the fish biomass per
day, given in 2-3 rations. Tilapias prefer dry pelleted diets than moist or
ground diets. The water temperature, fish size, feed quality, and presence
of natural food affects feed intake in tilapias. It is best to observe the fish
eating, and if hand fed, give only as much feed as they eat. Although
the use of feeding devices is not popular in the Philippines, in intensive
farming such as in Taal Lake, automated and/or mechanical demand
feeders can be employed to improve feed management and avoid feed
wastage. It would be wise as well to have a good storage facility for fish
feeds should these be purchased in bulk. Diets, if improperly stored, can
become rancid. Rancid diets, if still fed to fish, may cause poor growth
and worse, ‘nutritional’ diseases. In Taal Lake, other lakes, and reservoirs
where tilapia cage aquaculture is practiced, use of extruded or floating
feeds, although more costly, are recommended. This is to minimize
pollution caused by uneaten fish feeds that otherwise sink to the bottom
if sinking pellets are administered.
Maintaining the net cages
Net cages should be regularly inspected for torn and worn out portions
that must be repaired immediately to prevent escape of the fish stocks.
Net cages should be cleaned at least once every two weeks depending
on the extent of clogging. During bad weather, the net cages must be
covered with netting and submerged 30-60 cm below the water surface
so they will not be destroyed by floating debris and water hyacinths.
Some farms have strategically located guard houses to secure the fish
stocks from poaching or theft.

Fig. 21. A net cage covered with a netting and submerged 30-60 cm below the water surface.
Fig. 22. A farm with guard houses to secure the fish stocks from poaching or theft.
Harvesting

In most countries, the preferred market size for tilapia is 350-500 grams,
but in the Philippines, 150-200 grams is already considered marketable.
Under favorable conditions, in eutrophic lakes such as Laguna de Bay
in the Philippines, it takes about six months for caged tilapia to grow
from 10 grams to 150-200 grams (or about 5-7 pieces/kg), feeding only
on natural food. However, in oligotrophic lakes such as Lake Taal in the

Philippines, it takes full feeding with commercial pellets for four months
to reach the same size. When the market price allows good profit, larger
tilapia may be partially harvested (this also usually improves the growth
of the remaining fish).
At least two persons are needed to lift a 5 m x 10 m net cage during

harvest. For bigger cages, at least 3-4 persons are needed to lift the cage
from a small boat.
To lift large net cages from a small canoe (banca) or boat,
1. Untie the net cages from the frames, posts, or anchor.

2. Get the boat inside the cage and position it at one end of the cage
that is of the same length as the canoe.
3. Slowly pull the net cage towards the hull of the boat.
4. Lift the net onto the boat, making sure no fish gets stuck in the net.
5. When fish are gathered in the remaining submerged part of the net
cage, carefully scoop out the marketable-size fish.
6. After all the large fish have been harvested, return the net cage into
the water.
7. Tie the net cage back in place.
8. Sew back the cage cover to allow the remaining fish to grow further.
Fig. 23. Harvesting of tilapia in a net cage.

Cost and return analysis
Based on the aforementioned technical concepts and requirements,

an economic viability analysis of a medium scale, tilapia cage farming
operation is presented in Tables 4 to 7. Table 4 defines the technical
assumptions.
Table 4. Technical Assumptions
Project duration (years) 5

Volume per 10 x 10 x 3 m cage (m ) 3
300
Number of cages 10
Stocking density (pcs/m ) 3
65
Number of crops per year 2
Average weight at harvest (kg/pc) 0.25
Feed conversion ratio 1
Recovery at harvest (%) 80
Number of stocks per cage (pcs) 19,500
Total number of stocks/crop (pcs) 195,000
Total amount of feeds per cropping (bags) 1,560
Total cost of feeds per crop (PhP) 1,248,000
Total recovery at harvest/crop (pcs) 156,000
Total weight of fish at harvest/crop (kg) 39,000
Farm gate selling price (PhP/kg) 65
From the tabulated information, the assumptions are for a five-year farm
operation. There will be two cycles of production at six months each.
Since the system of culture is semi-intensive, 65 pieces of advanced
fingerlings (each costing 1.75) is stocked per cubic meter of culture
volume. With semi-intensive farming, apart from the natural food in the
lake, the fish shall thrive on artificial commercially available diets. The
expected survival would be at least 80 percent and as such, with a farm
gate selling price of PhP 65/kg, the gross sales per harvest would be PhP
2,535,000.
After having identified the technical assumptions, the investment cost for
starting the farm operations have to be considered as well. Table 5 shows
the investment items, the corresponding cost and depreciation value for
each.
Meanwhile, Table 6 summarizes the revenue, variable and fixed costs for
a semi-intensive tilapia cage farming operations given the assumptions
described in Table 4.
Table 5. Investment items and depreciation costs
Item Price Quantity Total Life Depreciation

(PhP/unit) Cost span cost/year
(year)
Technician’s 100,000/unit 1 100,000 10 10,000
quarters/warehouse,
working area
SG netcages 20,000/unit 15 300,000 10 30,000
(10 x 10 x 4 m)
Anahaw poles 1,500/unit 50 75,000 10 7,500
Breaker nets size 10 10,000/bundle 10 100,000 10 10,000
Service boat 50,000/unit 1 50,000 10 5,000
Battery (12 volts) 3,000/pc 2 6,000 2.5 2,400
Dugout canoe 15,000/pc 1 15,000 10 1,500
Oxygen tanks 3,000/tank 2 6,000 10 600
TOTAL 652,000 67,000
Table 6. Revenue, variable and fixed costs
Pesos/ cropping Pesos/ year

Revenue 2,535,000 5,070,000
Gross sales assuming sold-out product
39,000 kg/crop at PhP 65/kg selling price
Costs
A. Variable costs
Wages, 3 workers, PhP 4,000/worker/month 72,000 144,000
Tilapia fingerlings (size 8) PhP 1.75/pc 341,250 682,500
Fuel 30,000 60,000
Incentives for staff at 3-6.5% of the net income 13,208 52,832
Feeds (bags) PhP 800/bag 1,248,000 2,496,000
Transport cost 15,000 30,000
Total variable costs 1,719,458 3,465,332
B. Fixed costs
Maintenance, repairs (2% of investment costs 65,200 130,400
per year)
Rent or permit for cages 7,500 15,000
Interest on investment and variable costs 247,040 494,080
(12% per year)
Depreciation costs 33,500 67,000
Operator’s management fees, part-time 42,000 84,000
Total fixed costs 395,240 790,480
TOTAL COSTS 2,114,698 4,255,812

Finally, Table 7 describes the economic indicators of a five-year semi-
intensive tilapia cage farming operations.
Table 7. Economic Indicators
Per cropping Per year

Net income (PhP) = (gross revenue-total costs) 420,302 814,189
Return on Investment (%) = (net income/investment 125

cost) x 100
Payback period (years) = investment cost/(annual net 0.74
income + annual depreciation)
Break-even price (PhP/kg) = annual total cost/annual 54.56
production
Break-even production (pcs) = total cost/selling price 65,474
Total capital investment required (PhP) 4,090,916
= investment cost + twice the variable cost
On the whole, there is a potential economic benefit in semi-intensive

tilapia cage farming based on the economic indicators. Net income per
cropping is estimated at PhP 420,302 or about PhP 814,189 on a yearly
basis. Return on investment is computed at 125%.
Tilapia Pond Farming
Ponds are earthen impoundments, either excavated or diked in, depending on

the terrain, such that flooding and draining of water can be done with ease at
any given time. Earthen ponds are the most widely used system for growing
tilapia to marketable size. Pond compartments may be as small as 100 m2 or
as large as one hectare (10,000 m2). Ponds may be from 0.5 to 3 meters deep,
depending on the operator’s capability, preference, and production target.
About 63% of the total tilapia production in the Philippines comes from ponds,
freshwater and brackish water. The species farmed in brackish water ponds
are euryhaline tilapias such as the mossambicus, the hybrid red tilapias, and
some of the locally available genetically improved stocks such as i-BEST and
Molobicus, both developed by the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources.
One is able to stock Nile tilapia as well but these need to be gradually
acclimated from freshwater to brackish water. However, the Nile tilapias would
best be grown in freshwater for they have been noted to grow poorly despite
surviving in both brackish water and full-strength seawater.
The aforementioned salt-tolerant species are either grown by themselves or

in polyculture with tiger shrimp, milkfish, and other marine fishes. The tilapia

harvests from ponds, especially those located in Pampanga and Bulacan, are
transported live in aerated tanks by pick-up trucks and brought to the wet
markets in Metro Manila and some are sold live along the major provincial
roads. Because of the availability of saline-tolerant tilapias, we can now find
tilapias being farmed widely in Visayas and Mindanao.
Choosing the pond farming site
Similar to the criteria in choosing a tilapia cage farming site, the following
physical, biological, and social factors should be considered in selecting a
tilapia pond farm site:
Peace and order. The neighborhood and the communities surrounding

the farm must be peaceful. An ideal community would be one that is
safe and where any activity related to fish farming is acceptable so that
security and poaching do not become problems.
Proximity to markets and roads. The farm site must be near an

urban center and major market where farm supplies (i.e. fuel, fish
nets, rope, floats, food supplies, etc.) can be obtained, and where the
farm produce can be profitably sold. Convenient access to roads and
telecommunications is an advantage.
Topography. The farm site must be relatively safe from flooding, soil
erosion, waves, and storms. The lay of the land must be such that water
can easily flow in and out of the pond without need for a water pump.
If possible, choose an area with a gentle slope to take advantage of the
existing contours.
Water supply. The farm site must have an abundant supply of clean
water. Water may come from rivers, streams, irrigation canals, etc. One
can also invest in a deep well with pump. The water source must be free
of harmful pollutants — fertilizer and pesticide runoff from rice fields,
heavy metals from industries, or sludge and decomposing organic matter
from livestock farms.
Soil type. The clay loam type of soil is best for ponds. This type of soil is
ideal for natural food production and has properties that prevent leakage
of water out of the pond. To determine the pond site’s soil type, soil
samples may be taken for analysis at a soil laboratory normally associated
with agriculture agencies or universities. The pH of the soil must be
checked to determine its acidity. Acidic pond soils are not conducive
to fish farming since this type limits the production of natural food and
may, at extreme levels, kill the fish. The laboratory personnel can also give
advice on the kinds of fertilizers that would be appropriate for use based
on the soil types.
Availability of tilapia fingerlings. If possible, the farm site must be near

reputable hatcheries that could provide quality fingerlings for stocking
anytime. The criteria for selection of good-quality fingerlings are given in
an earlier section of this manual.

Farming intensity
There are three types of fish rearing management systems based on

the level of inputs. These are -
The extensive pond farming system entails proper pond

preparation to get rid of unwanted species and promote the growth
of natural food on which the tilapia feed. Periodic application of
fertilizers is necessary to sustain the growth of natural food. Fertile
ponds can support stocking rates of 1-2 tilapia fingerlings/m2 for six
months until harvest. Water exchange is minimal. While yields per
unit area depend on pond productivity and are relatively low, but so
are the costs.
The semi-intensive pond farming system uses moderately

high stocking rates of 3-4 tilapia fingerlings/m2. Adequate pond
preparation and periodic application of fertilizers are necessary to
produce sufficient natural food. Supplemental food or a complete
tilapia diet is provided on the third week of culture at 2-3% of the
total fish biomass daily. Regular water exchange is necessary to
maintain optimum water quality. Additional costs are incurred
for feeds, but the yields are higher at 1-3 tons per hectare of
150-200 gram fish.
The intensive pond farming system is ideal where land is limited

or expensive. Stocking rates are 5-10 fingerlings/m2 and commercial
feeds are given at 3-5% of fish biomass daily throughout the
growing cycle. It is important to have life support systems for water
quality management such as (a) paddlewheels to maintain high
dissolved oxygen and (b) pumps to allow daily water change (5-
10% of the volume). Some farms use probiotics to maintain good
pond conditions. Production costs are high, but the yields are also

high, about 5-15 tons per hectare, usually of 300-gram fish. Without
proper management, intensive ponds become polluted, diseases
may set in, and mass fish kills may occur.
Fig. 24. An intensive pond
Constructing and preparing the ponds
For large-scale farms, it is important to consult a civil engineer for

the right pond design. Fish ponds greater than one hectare require
digging equipment (backhoe, etc.). For smaller farms, ponds may
be dug or diked manually, given enough workers. A depth of at
least 1-1.5 meters is ideal for small fish ponds. The elevation of the
main water canal must be lower than the elevation of the fish pond
bottom, so that water outflow is easier.
Fish ponds must have a structure to control the flow of water in and
out. For ponds smaller than 500 m2, a stand pipe connected to a
drain pipe by an elbow may be installed at the deepest end of the
pond or a culvert may be used. Ponds larger than 500 m2 must have
a sluice gate to control the inflow and outflow of water.
If the pond water comes from irrigation, river, or stream, it is

advisable to construct a water reservoir. The pond reservoir should
have an area of at least 1⁄4 the total area of the grow-out ponds to
ensure sufficient water supply in the farm. The reservoir may be
stocked with a few pieces of tilapia to serve as indicators that the
water is safe.

Fig. 25. Pond must be at least 1 m deep and elevated higher than the main canal
Fig. 26. A stand pipe connected to a drain pipe by an elbow can control
water inflow and outflow in a small pond
Fig. 27.Small pond with water inlet; drained for pond preparation

Fig. 28. Large ponds have a sluice gate to control water inflow and outflow
Fish ponds for

stocking tilapia are
prepared as follows:
• Sun-dry the pond

bottom to rid
it of unwanted
organisms.
• Apply lime to
stabilize the soil
and water pH.
Lime application
is not necessary Fig. 29. Application of lime to pond bottom.
when the pH of
the bottom soil is above 7.5 and the alkalinity of the pond water
is above 50 mg/liter of CaCO3.
• To protect the farmed stock and ensure a good harvest, farmers
eradicate unwanted organisms such as potential competitors,
predators, pests, and parasites. Natural toxins such as derris
root, tea seed cake, rotenone, saponin, tobacco dust, as well as
lime and ammonia fertilizers, work against pests.
• Collect all dead organisms twelve hours after application of
the toxins. A two-week period is allowed for the pond to be
rid of toxins. To test for residual toxicity, test fish are stocked
in a cage set in the pond. If the test fish survive and show no
adverse reaction, then the pond will be ready for stocking after
fertilization.
Table 8. Natural toxins, doses, and application
Toxin, Dose (g/m3) Ways to prepare and apply
Derris root, 20-40 Cut fresh derris roots into small pieces. Soak in water overnight,
extract rotenone by squeezing, dilute, and mix with pond water.
Tea seed cake, 50-70 Soak dried and finely ground tea seeds in lukewarm water for 24
hours. Dilute and mix with water in ponds.
Rotenone, 20 Dissolve amount required in pond water.
Saponin, 2-5 Dissolve amount required in pond water.
Tobacco dust, 30 Dissolve amount required in pond water.

Quick lime, 200-300 Mix 1 part of quick lime to 4 parts water and spread mixture over
the pond bottom.
Hydrated lime, 300-460 Broadcast lime over the dry pond bottom. In partially irrigated
ponds, apply as uniformly distanced heaps.
From Coche et al. (1996)
• In extensive and semi-intensive ponds, production of natural

food is very important. Apply fertilizers to the pond to promote
growth of plankton, which is a natural food item of tilapia.
Commercial inorganic fertilizers provide ammonia, nitrate,
phosphate, potassium, and other limiting nutrients for algal
growth. Natural fertilizers are usually agricultural and livestock
wastes that contain a mixture of organic matter and mineral
nutrients. Farmers usually apply both kinds.
Basal fertilizer application is done after draining, plowing, and

liming and before introducing water into the pond. Organic fertilizer
(poultry droppings or cow and pig manure) is broadcast over the
pond bottom at a basal rate of 2-3 tons/ha.
• Gradually allow water to flow into the pond (over three days) to
a depth of 20 cm.
• Wait for 2-3 days until algae are seen growing. The water level
is then increased to 75-100 cm. The pond is ready for stocking
when the color of the water becomes green.
Periodic fertilizer application is done every two weeks, at a lower

than basal rate, to sustain the plankton production. There are four
methods of periodic application:
• Broadcast method: commercial fertilizers are applied at 10% of

the basal rate
• Heap method: fertilizer is distributed in heaps along the dikes

• Hanging method: sacks half-filled with organic fertilizer are
hung at the corners of the pond to be distributed by wind-
induced waves or currents
• Platform method: fertilizer is submerged 10-20 cm below the
water surface from a platform
Fig. 30. Pond being prepared to grow natural food
Stocking tilapia fingerlings
When the ponds are ready for stocking, the tilapia fingerlings are
transported from the hatchery to the farm. Once in the farm, these must
be gradually acclimated to the pond water’s salinity and temperature
levels. The sealed transport bags are allowed to float in the ponds until
the water temperature inside the bags is equal to that of the pond water.
The bags may also be opened and pond water gradually added to the
bags.
Fig. 31. Tilapia fingerlings ready for stocking in ponds

Water quality Table 9. Water quality requirements of farmed tilapia
(Balarin and Haller, 1982)
management
Water variable Tolerance
range
Pond conditions must be
Temperature (ºC) 8-42
maintained within the
Salinity (ppt) <20-35
optimum range for tilapia
to ensure good health Critical oxygen level (mg/l) 0.1-3.0
and fast growth. Tilapias pH 4-11

tolerate wide ranges Lethal ammonia levels:
of salinities and water Total (mg/l) >20
temperatures. Nile tilapia NH3 -N (mg/l) 2.3 (0.5*)
tolerates temperatures from Lethal CO3 concentration (mg/l) >73
8°C to 42°C but the normal Nitrite tolerance limits: LC50 (mg/l) 2.1
tolerance range is from 17°C
*level at which growth is affected
to 35°C. Although mainly a
freshwater species, many
tilapias can grow in saline environments. Mozambique tilapias can thrive
best in seawater while red tilapias grow faster in sea water.
Tilapias are generally hardy and tolerate poor water quality. In fact, some
tilapias are able to survive in habitats with dissolved oxygen as low as 1
mg/l or 1 ppm. Some tilapias live and reproduce in swamps and shallow
lakes where oxygen depletion occurs regularly.
Maintaining the ponds
Aside from the capital investments, fingerlings and feed inputs, farming
practices that promote optimal environmental conditions help ensure
successful tilapia production. Some of the DO’s:
• Maintain water depth at 100 cm — shallow water is conducive to

the growth of natural food, which supports tilapia growth.
• Prevent entry of predators into the ponds by installing screens at
the water inlet and outlet. Predators reduce the tilapia yield.
• Remove aquatic weeds — they compete with phytoplankton in
ponds, and reduce fish growth.
• Prevent contamination of pond water with agricultural pesticides,
especially in water from an irrigation system.
• Maintain the growth of natural food by applying fertilizers
periodically.
• Monitor water quality and ensure adequate dissolved oxygen and
low ammonia.

Fig. 32. Predatory birds perched on floating cages at SEAFDEC/AQD’s Binangonan
Freshwater Station in Binangonan, Rizal
CLIMATE SMART TIP:

To counter overly warm temperatures (especially during El Niño) that would
adversely affect tilapia survival in ponds, one can install net shading over the grow-out
ponds. This has been proven effective in a study conducted at the Central Luzon State
University (Emmanuel Vera-Cruz, pers comm).
Harvesting
Tilapia may be harvested from the ponds when the fish reach marketable
size (150-300 grams; 3-7 fish/kg). There are two methods of harvesting
marketable size tilapia from fishponds:
Total harvest. This is done on the sixth month after initial stocking. All
the fish are harvested regardless of size. Harvesting is done after the pond
has been totally drained of its water.
Selective harvesting.
Selective harvesting is
done when the market
demand for tilapia is
not high. The larger
fish are harvested on
the fourth month from
stocking. More fish may
be harvested every 2-4
weeks. The smaller fish
are able to grow until
the next scheduled Fig. 33. Selective harvesting of tilapia
harvest.
It is the responsibility of fish farmers to ensure that they produce and
market wholesome products. Harvested tilapias must be handled
properly to maintain the freshness of the product until they reach the
market and the consumers’ kitchen. One way to keep fish fresh is to pack
or stack the fish alternately with ice in buckets, or in insulated plastic fish
boxes. Another way is to place newly harvested live tilapia in aerated
transport tanks.
A B
Fig. 34. Tilapia stacked alternately with ice in a bucket (A) and in an insulated plastic fish box (B).
Fig. 35. Transport boxes for harvested tilapia

Cost and return analysis
From the aforementioned farming concepts and technical requirements,

Tables 10-13 show details of an economic viability analysis of a medium
scale, intensive tilapia pond operation. Table 10 defines the technical
assumptions.
Table 10. Technical Assumptions
Project duration (years) 5

Area (hectares) 1
Stocking density (pcs/m ) 2
10
Total initial number of fish stocked (pcs) 100,000
Cost of fingerlings (PhP) 0.80
Number of crops per year 3
Average weight at harvest (kg/pc) 0.25
Recovery at harvest (%) 85
Total number of harvested fish stock/cropping (pcs) 85,000
Feed conversion ratio 1.3
Total number of harvested fish stock per year (pcs) 300,000
Total amount of feeds used (kg/cropping) 27,625
Total amount of feeds per cropping (bags) 1,105
Total cost of feeds (PhP/year) 884,000
Price of feed (PhP/kg) 32
Total weight of fish at harvest/crop (kg) 21,250
Farm gate selling price (PhP/kg) 80
Gross sales after harvest/crop (PhP) 1,700,000
From the tabulated information, the assumptions are for a five-year

farm operation. There will be three cycles of production at four months
each. Since the system of culture is intensive, 10 pieces of fingerlings
(each costing 0.80) is stocked per square meter of the culture area. With
intensive farming, apart from the natural food in the fertilized pond, the
fish shall thrive on artificial (commercially available) diets. The expected
survival would be at least 85% and as such, with a farm gate selling price
of PhP 80/kg, the gross sales per harvest would be PhP 1,700,000.
After having identified the technical assumptions, the investment cost

for starting the farm operations have to be considered as well. Table 11
shows the investment items, the corresponding cost and depreciation
value for each.

Table 11. Investment items and depreciation costs
Item Price Quantity Total Cost Life Depreciation

(PhP)/unit span cost/year
(year)
SG net #14 5,000/roll 2 10,000 2.5 4,000
(harvest net)
Net 10,000/unit 1 10,000 2.5 4,000
fabrication
Pond 300,000/ha 1 300,000 10 30,000
development
Caretaker’s 50,000/unit 1 50,000 5 10,000
quarters
TOTAL 370,000 48,000
Meanwhile, Table 12 summarizes the revenue, variable and fixed costs for
the tilapia pond farming operations given the assumptions described in
Table 10.
Table 12. Revenue, variable and fixed costs
Pesos/ cropping Pesos/ year

Revenue 1,700,000 5,100,000
Gross sales assuming sold-out product
21,250 kg/year at PhP 80/kg selling price
Costs
A. Variable costs
Wages, 3 workers, PhP 5000/worker/month 60,000 180,000
Tilapia fingerlings (size 14) PhP 0.80/pc 80,000 240,000
Fuel 25,000 75,000
Feeds (bags) 1,105 @ PhP 800 884,000 2,652,000
Maintenance, Repairs 15,000 45,000
Incentives for workers, 2% of gross revenue 34,000 102,000
Total variable costs 1,098,000 3,294,000
B. Fixed costs
Maintenance, repairs (2% of investment costs 2,467 7,400
per year)
Interest on investment & variable costs 58,720 176,160
(12% per annum)
Rent on land, PhP 20,000/ha/yr, 10,000 30,000
total area = 1.5 ha including farm house and
work area
Depreciation costs 16,000 48,000
Total fixed costs 87,187 261,560
TOTAL COSTS 1,185,187 3,555,560

Finally, Table 13 describes the economic indicators of a five-year intensive
tilapia pond farming operations.
Table 13. Economic Indicators
Per cropping Per year

Net income (PhP) = (gross revenue-total costs) 514,813 1,544,440
Return on Investment (%) = (net income/investment 417

cost) x 100
Payback period (years) = investment cost/ (annual net 0.23
income + annual depreciation)
Break-even price (PhP/kg) = annual total cost/ annual 55.71
production
Break-even production (pcs) = total cost/ selling price 44,445
Total capital investment required (PhP) 2,566,000
= investment cost + twice the variable cost
On the whole, there is a potential economic benefit in intensive tilapia

pond farming based on the economic indicators. Net income per
cropping is estimated at PhP 514,813 or about PhP 1,544,440 on a yearly
basis. Return on investment is computed at 417 percent.
Other Methods
Monosex male tilapia culture
One way of increasing fish yield in the farm is to use single sex or
specifically, all-male tilapia fingerlings for grow- out. Male tilapias grow
faster and larger than females when grown separately. The following
techniques have been developed to produce all-male tilapia offsprings
through stock manipulation:
Manual sexing. This involves visual identification and manual

separation of male and female tilapia fingerlings prior to stocking
in the grow-out ponds. The success of this method depends on the
ability of the technicians and farm workers to accurately distinguish
male tilapias from female tilapias. This method is extremely
laborious and is subject to human error.
Sex reversal by hormone treatment. This method involves feeding
newly hatched tilapia with diets containing the synthetic hormone
17-α methyltestosterone for 4-5 weeks to induce sex reversal in
the female tilapia fry. The hormone is mixed with the diet at rates
of 10-60 milligrams hormone per kilogram of feed. Once the tilapia
fry stock becomes all-male and on-grown, breeding of stocks in the
grow-out culture ponds will not take place. The success of having all
male tilapias using this method varies from 90-100%.
Sex reversal using non-synthetic agents. A phyto-androgen
derived from an organic source (Benguet pine pollen) has been
used effectively in inducing sex reversal in tilapia fry. The mode of
application is that the extract (raw pine pollen powder) is dissolved
by mixing the same in 95% ethanol. The solution is then allowed to
sit for a week then sprayed onto the tilapia fry feed. The pine pollen
powder-feed mixture will be administered to the fry for 28 days to
induce sex inversion. The treatment may produce male seedstock
ranging from 87-95% based on studies done at the Central Luzon
State University (Velasco, pers comm.) and verified on farm by
collaborators from Bicol University.
Hybridization. This method entails the mating of different species
of tilapias that are known to produce all-male hybrids. This method
has a limited commercial application for it is difficult to obtain
pure genetic lines of the different species. The purity of the stock is
necessary in obtaining consistent results. Some of the hybrid crosses
that produce all-male tilapias are listed in Table 14 below.
Genetically male tilapia (GMT) or YY supermale technology.

This technology was developed in the late 1980s by the University
of Wales (now known as Swansea University), Swansea, Wales, UK in
collaboration with the Freshwater Aquaculture Center of the Central
Luzon State University in Muñoz, Nueva Ecija, Philippines. The
collaborative work was implemented to produce all-male Nile tilapia
fry/fingerlings on a large scale. All-male populations are obtained
through a series of genetic manipulation, feminization, and
progeny testing to produce novel YY males. The genetically male
YY genotypes, when mated with normal XX females can produce
all-male XY progenies. This method has a mean success rate of
96.5% males.
Table 14. Crosses of tilapia Oreochromis spp. that produce all-male hybrids
Female parent Male parent Reference
O. mossambicus O. urolepis hornorum Hickling (1960)
O. niloticus O. urolepis hornorum Pruginin (1967)
O. spilurus niger O. urolepis hornorum Pruginin (1967)
O. niloticus O. aureus Fishelson (1962)

Rice-fish (tilapia) culture
This is an integrated system that consists of a rice field cum fishpond.

Fish are reared either simultaneously or alternately with rice. This system
enables the production of fish, in this case tilapia, in the same area where
rice is grown without adversely affecting rice yield. The fish is either
intentionally stocked or may enter rice fields from surrounding water
ways when flooding occurs. If rice-fish culture is practiced, pesticides
should not be applied in the rice field.
Saltwater culture of tilapias
Since most tilapias are known to be euryhaline, meaning, they can tolerate
a wide range of salinity levels, they can be reared in either brackish water
or seawater environments. As mentioned in an earlier section of this
manual, the Mozambique tilapia, red tilapia hybrids and the genetically
enhanced brackishwater tolerant tilapias such as the i-BEST and the
Molobicus (both are hybrids) can be grown in brackishwater ponds.
Aquaponics
Aquaponics is the culture

of fish and plants in a
recirculating system. It is
a way of optimizing the
use of water for both fish
and plant rearing. The
system uses fish effluents
(composed of waste
solids and dissolved
nutrients) from a
recirculating aquaculture
subsystem, as a medium
that will provide nutrients
for plants to grow since
this is connected to a
hydroponic subsystem. Fig. 36. An aquaponics system
The system is mutually
beneficial to the plant
being grown and the fish being reared since metabolites that are toxic to
the fish are taken up as nutrients by the plants. Such a system is usually
ideal as a form of urban aquafarming. The plants that can be grown are

usually leafy salad greens (lettuce, etc.), herbs and other vegetables (e.g.
tomatoes, etc.). Fish grown in an aquaponics system could vary from
tilapias, catfish to koi carps (and other ornamental fishes) while freshwater
prawns (crustaceans) can also be stocked.
Tilapia Health Management

Although known to be a relatively hardy fish, tilapias are still susceptible to
pathogens or disease-causing agents, such as parasites, bacteria and the
recently reported tilapia lake virus (TILV), should conditions in the rearing
water environment (e.g. poor water quality, etc.) become stressful to the fish.
Apart from poor water quality conditions, increasing intensification and

lack of proper health management measures could lead to many disease
problems of bacterial, viral, parasitic, and fungal origin. Fish cultured in
floating net-cages and pens are susceptible to diseases particularly when
environmental parameters including temperature, dissolved oxygen, and
suspended particles suddenly or erratically fluctuate. Thus, once conditions
suitable for pathological changes develop, disease progression in warm water
environments rapidly advances. Diseases of tilapias are generally classified into
infectious and noninfectious diseases. Infectious diseases can be caused by
bacteria, parasites, fungi, or viruses. On the other hand, noninfectious diseases
or abnormalities can be caused by environmental stress, contaminants, or
nutritional deficiencies.
Infectious Diseases
A great number of aquatic bacteria are opportunistic, meaning they may be

present but rarely affect the fish unless their immune system is compromised.
Hence, under normal conditions, these aquatic bacteria do not cause disease.
They become pathogenic only when the balance between the host and
environment is altered by increased stocking density, inadequate nutrition,
or other stress factors. Generally, the early signs of bacterial infections include
lack of appetite or reduced feed intake, lethargy, abnormal swimming behavior
such as swimming near the water surface, and discoloration due to abnormal
pigmentation of the skin. However, as the disease progresses, fish develops
exophthalmia, abdominal distention, pale gills, scale loss, frayed fins, skin
lesions, and necrosis.
Important bacterial diseases of tilapias include aeromonad septicemia,
edwarsiellosis, columnaris, pseudomonad septicemia, and streptococcosis
respectively caused by the following bacterial species -- Aeromonas spp.,
Edwardsiella tarda, Flavobacterium columnare, Pseudomonas spp., and
Streptococcus iniae or S. agalactiae.
Fig. 37. Tilapia Oreochromis niloticus infected with Aeromonas hydrophila manifesting bilateral
exophthalmia.
Parasites are invertebrate organisms that attach to the skin, digestive tract
and various organs of the fish. In most cases, affected fish appear weak with
excessive mucus production and with frayed fins and gills. Fish heavily infected
with parasites rub their body against objects which may lead to extensive
damage and hemorrhage or bleeding under the skin’s surface. Some of
the common parasites that attack tilapias are protozoans (Ichthyophthirius
multifilis, Trichodina spp., Chidonella), trematodes (Dactylogyrus, Gyrodactylus),
crustacean copepods (Lernea, Argulus), and leeches (Hirudina).
Some species of fungi may induce heavy infections in tilapias that may result in
abnormal swimming behavior and mortality. However, far less is known about
fungal diseases of tilapias compared to bacterial or parasitic diseases. Fungal
infection is easily recognized by the cotton-like growth that occurs on skin
injuries either caused by handling or external parasites or ectoparasites.
Research on viruses has recently received new impetus following high

mortalities in hatchery-bred juvenile tilapias soon after transfer to culture
ponds or pens and floating net-cages in lakes or streams. Nervous necrosis
virus (NNV) and TILV are by far the emerging viruses responsible for significant
mortalities of tilapias reared in hatcheries and grow-out culture facilities. The
definite signs of viral nervous necrosis induced by NNV in tilapia fingerlings and
juveniles include abnormal swimming behavior and the presence of vacuoles
in the eyes, brains, and nervous tissues. On the other hand, TILV causes skin
lesions and ulcers, loss of appetite, slow movement, eye abnormalities, opacity
of fish eye lens, gathering of fish at the pond bottom, and reduced schooling
behavior. Outbreaks seemingly appear frequently during summer months with
different strains of tilapia being affected. Notably, in polyculture systems, other
species like mullets and carps do not die.
Noninfectious Diseases
Environmental stress, contaminants coming from industrial and agricultural

pollution or run-off, and nutritional deficiencies can cause serious disease in
farmed tilapias, while inadequate diets and uncontrolled water quality can
induce secondary infection. Physical injuries often encountered in pen- or net-
caged tilapias include skin damage caused by net abrasion in over-stocked
fish, and susceptibility to opportunistic pathogens especially in fish that are
handled without due care.
Disease Prevention and Control
As pointed out earlier, under stressful conditions, the prevalence and spread
of infectious diseases will inevitably rise as a result of higher infection pressure,
environmental deterioration, and crowded conditions, particularly in semi-
intensive and intensive culture systems. Accordingly, effective methods of
controlling infectious diseases have become more and more important in the
cultivation of tilapias. Good health management is therefore the best way to
control if not eradicate disease occurrence. Pertinent strategies include:
• adherence to proper pond preparation (e.g. appropriate drying and

liming) prior to stocking as such can eliminate or destroy pest and
parasites;
• use of healthy and good quality fingerlings, i.e. ascertained to be

from a reliable source and not infested with external parasites prior
to stocking;
• minimization of stress when transporting and handling the fish for

stocking;
• adherence to appropriate stocking density as overcrowding can

induce stress that affects fish growth and survival;
• adherence to good husbandry techniques such as maintenance

of good water quality, thus, whenever possible, conduct water
exchange regularly to avoid the build-up of parasites, fungal, and
bacterial pathogens;
• feeding optimization by providing and following the appropriate
feeds and recommended feeding rates, respectively, to optimize fish
growth;
• avoidance of overfeeding fish as nutrients in uneaten feeds that leach
into the water can be utilized by bacteria during decomposition
resulting in oxygen depletion and pollution of the culture
environment. Thus, floating feeds are recommended as sinking feeds
are difficult to monitor whether they have been consumed or not by
the fish;
• regular disease monitoring (surveillance and reporting) of the

fish stocks should be conducted to enable early detection of any
behavioral (e.g. lack of appetite, gasping for air, abnormal swimming,
etc.) or physical (e.g. fin rot, bulging eyes, hemorrhages, etc.)
abnormalities;
• immediate removal and disposal of dead fish by burying;
• responsible administration of chemicals and veterinary drugs to

control if not eradicate pathogens in cultured fish. This is done by first
determining the correct diagnosis of the disease thereby effective
treatment and control measures can be achieved. It should be borne
in mind that misuse of veterinary drugs, particularly antibiotics, can
result in residue build-up and antimicrobial resistance in fish which is
detrimental to human health; and
• use of commercially available vaccines coupled with biosecurity

measures in areas where a specific disease problem, such as
streptococcal infection persists, is logically practical as emphasis must
be on prevention rather than therapy.

Tilapia Processing
Product Forms
Tilapia can be sold as live, frozen whole and gutted, frozen fillet, dried (tilanggit)
and as value-added products (tilapia tocino, tilapia longganisa, nuggets, rolls
etc.). In the interest of food safety, tilapia producers/processors are advised
to comply with the Philippine National Standards (PNS) for the commonly
farmed and traded fish species, to include the tilapias, as set by the Bureau of
Agriculture and Fisheries Standards (BAFS) of the Department of Agriculture.
For details of the approved PNS for live and frozen forms of the tilapia, you may
visit their website (www.bafs.da.gov.ph).
Apart from the traditional products from tilapia, novel forms have been
produced through projects funded by the Department of Science and
Technology. These include tilapia cookies and the tilapia ice cream, the latter
having been developed and promoted by the Central Luzon State University
(www.pcaarrd.dost.gov.ph).
Fig. 38. Dried tilapia or tilanggit (left) and smoked tilapia or tinapa (right)
Marketing
Trading tilapias locally differ depending on the location of the supply sources.
The farmers can choose to sell their tilapia harvests to wholesalers or retailers,
consumers, and sometimes, brokers. As the product is now in various forms,
one can find tilapias not only in wet public markets but also in supermarkets
where the fish are sometimes also sold in the live form, kept in aerated glass
aquaria or tubs.

Local trade has always been steady and since the tilapias have become a
popular food fish even in temperate countries, they can be easily exported to
the US and Europe, mostly as frozen fillets or frozen value-added products.
Fig. 39. Pickup trucks transporting live tilapia in aerated tanks

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Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank the members of the SEAFDEC/AQD Publications
Review Committee for their comments and suggestions which helped improve
the technical manual. We especially thank Dr. Nerissa Salayo for her invaluable
comments on the cost-and-returns analyses.
About the Authors

Dr. Maria Rowena R. Romana-Eguia obtained
her BSc Zoology degree from the University of
the Philippines in Diliman in 1982 after which
she joined SEAFDEC/AQD. She gradually rose
from the ranks from a Research Assistant to a
Scientist after completing an MSc in Genetics
from the Swansea University, Wales, U.K. in
1985 and a PhD in Agricultural Science (major
in Fish Population Genetics) from the Tohoku
University, Sendai, Japan in 2004. These aside
from having several scientific publications in between. Some of her scientific
journal publications, particularly on Nile tilapia and red tilapia have won two
Elvira O. Tan Memorial Awards as Best Published Paper in Aquaculture in 1995
and 2004 from the Philippine Council for Agriculture, Aquatic and Natural
Resources Research and Development or PCAARRD of the Department of
Science and Technology. She has also edited conference proceedings and co-
authored books and technical manuals on tilapia, milkfish and mangrove crabs.
Apart from being a technical evaluator for government projects in aquaculture,
she sits as Scientific adviser of the Philippine government in UN meetings on
issues related to marine genetic resources and aquatic biodiversity. Population
genetics of tropical aquaculture species such as tilapia, freshwater prawn,
milkfish, abalone, mangrove crab and Anguillid eels are her major research
interests. Weng also serves as lecturer on topics like aquaculture genetics,
good aquaculture practices as well as tilapia/freshwater prawn breeding,
hatchery and nursery operations.

Ruel V. Eguia completed his MSc Aquaculture
at the Universiti Putra Malaysia, in Serdang,
Selangor, Malaysia in 1999 and his BSc Inland
Fisheries at the Central Luzon State University,
Nueva Ecija, Philippines in 1982. He trained in
fish genetics in Canada in 1990 and in freshwater
aquaculture in Malaysia in 1995. Ruel also
learned on-farm skills from working in various
local private fish farms and hatcheries, including
a stint as Fish Hatchery Supervisor at the Saudi
Fisheries Company in Dammam, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. He worked with
the SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department from 1982 to 2008 starting from
being a Technical Assistant to becoming a Research Specialist until he left
SEAFDEC/AQD to manage the CDO Foodsphere Inc. Aquaculture Farm in 2009
to date. From his various assignments including some local and international
FAO short term project engagements, Ruel acquired extensive knowledge in
the breeding and farming of fishes such as carp, tilapia, sea bass, milkfish and
mangrove crab. Even while working as an Aquaculture Farm manager, he is still
invited to serve as lecturer and practical instructor in Freshwater Aquaculture
and other training courses at SEAFDEC/AQD.
Dr. Rolando V. Pakingking, Jr. is a scientist

of the Fish Health Section, SEAFDEC/AQD,
where he actively engages in researches that
delve on interactions of viruses and bacteria in
fish. He has conducted research with funding
from the Government of Japan Trust Fund
(GOJ-TF), Philippine Council for Agriculture,
Aquatic and Natural Resources Research-
Development (PCAARRD)-Department of
Science and Technology (DOST) and National
Research Council of the Philippines (NRCP)-DOST among others. He obtained
his master’s (M.S. Biology) and doctoral (Ph.D. Aquatic Pathobiology) degrees
respectively from the University of the Philippines Visayas and Hiroshima
University, Japan. He has served as consultant/fish disease expert of the
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations assigned at the Fish
Farming Center, Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and visiting professor of
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. He has authored and co-authored book chapters
and scientific articles published in peer-reviewed journals and serves as
referee to several scientific journals. He has been a recipient of various awards
including the 2019 Elvira O. Tan Memorial Awards for Outstanding Published
Paper in Aquatic Science Category and has been conferred as Diplomate in
Microbiology by the Philippine Academy of Microbiology.
about seafdec
The Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC) is a regional treaty
organization established in December 1967 to promote fisheries development in
the region. The member countries are Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia,
Japan, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Viet
Nam.
The policy-making body of SEAFDEC is the Council of Directors, made up of
representatives of the member countries.
SEAFDEC has five departments that focus on different aspects of fisheries
development:
• The Training Department (TD) in Samut Prakan, Thailand (1967) for
training in marine capture fisheries
• The Marine Fisheries Research Department (MFRD) in Singapore (1967)
for post-harvest technologies
• The Aquaculture Department (AQD) in Tigbauan, Iloilo, Philippines (1973)
for aquaculture research and development
• The Marine Fishery Resources Development and Management Department
(MFRDMD) in Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia (1992) for the development and
management of fishery resources in the exclusive economic zones of
SEAFDEC member countries, and
• Inland Fishery Resources Development and Management Department
(IFRDMD) in Palembang, Indonesia (2014) for sustainable development
and management of inland capture fisheries in the Southeast Asian region.
AQD is mandated to:

• Conduct scientific research to generate aquaculture technologies
appropriate for Southeast Asia
• Develop managerial, technical and skilled manpower for the aquaculture
sector
• Produce, disseminate and exchange aquaculture information
AQD maintains four stations: the Tigbauan Main Station and Dumangas
Brackishwater Station in Iloilo province; the Igang Marine Station in Guimaras
province; and the Binangonan Freshwater Station in Rizal province. AQD also has
an office in Quezon City.
www.seafdec.org.ph

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AQUACULTURE EXTENSION MANUAL NO.

Maria Rowena R. Romana-Eguia

Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center

Published and printed by:

Illustrations by Kevin Angelo R. Eguia

All rights reserved

SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department Library Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Romana-Eguia, Maria Rowena R.

Tilapia culture : the basics / Maria Rowena R. Romana-Eguia, Ruel V. Eguia,

[vii], 54 pages : illustrations (chiefly color). -- (Aquaculture extension manual,

Includes bibliographical references.

1. Tilapia -- Breeding -- Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Tilapia -- Feeding and

SH 167.T54 R66 2020 DLS2020-01

To date, SEAFDEC/AQD has published three manuals in Filipino on tilapia hatchery

At present, most of the commercially valuable tilapias are grown in

Tilapia Species and Commercial Strains

Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)

Fig. 1. The Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus

2 Tilapia Culture: The Basics

In the late 1980s, several Nile tilapia genetic improvement programs

Genetically Male Tilapia or YY Supermale FAC-CLSU

Improved Excel strain tilapia (i-Excel) BFAR-National Freshwater Fisheries

Cold tolerant tilapia strain BFAR-NFFTC, Muñoz, Nueva Ecija

Genomar Supreme Tilapia (GST) Genomar Philippines (www.genomar.no)

Genetic improvement in most of the strains were focused on growth

SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department 3

It is to be expected that fingerlings of these improved strains are

Mozambique or ‘Java’ tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus)

The Mozambique or ‘Java’ tilapia is generally black in color. The underside

Oreochromis mossambicus is commonly mated with other tilapia species

Fig. 3. A red tilapia Oreochromis sp.

Blue tilapia (Oreochromis aureus)

SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department 5

Black chinned or Blackchin tilapia

Basic Tilapia Farming Concepts

Environmental and Nutritional Requirements

To best understand the conditions necessary in optimizing growth in

SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department 7

Tilapias are known to be herbivorous or consume feed materials of plant origin.

8 Tilapia Culture: The Basics

Choosing the right cage farming site

Physical, biological, and social factors should be considered in choosing a

Peace and order. The farm should be located in a community that is

SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department 9

Natural food. Tilapia feed on phytoplankton and zooplankton, therefore

Type of soil/substrate. The kind of bottom soil in the farm site

Cage module types

Fixed cage module. A

10 Tilapia Culture: The Basics

Floats could be bamboo poles, empty drums, and/or hard styrofoam

Most tilapia net cages

The size of the cage

A small cage measuring 5 m x 10 m x 2.5 m is easy to manage. One or

A fish cage is made from netting material sewn together to form an

12 Tilapia Culture: The Basics

Netting materials are classified by the number of knots it has or by its

Table 3. Netting materials used for tilapia grow-out cages

Type of netting Knots in Mesh size SG

GG net (size 14) 14 0.92 GG

One roll of a size 17 netting material is