Chapter 1 - BRM
Chapter 1 - BRM
Chapter 1 - BRM
Stated simply, and having the above definitions in mind, research is:
A voyage of discovery or a search for a new knowledge through objective and systematic
method of finding solution to a problem
A scientific endeavor that seeks to integrate and systematize its findings
Concerned with the objective verification of generalizations based on logical analyses of
problems with the help of appropriate methodologies
A tool serving managers as an instrument for producing information to reduce uncertainty in
their decision-making
phenomenon, explain why something occurs or how it relates with something else, or address the
cause and effect relations of factors. Studies may have multiple purposes (e.g. both to explore and to
describe) but one purpose usually dominates.
A. Exploratory/Formulative Research
You may be exploring a new topic or issue in order to learn about it. If the issue was new
or the researcher has written little on it, you began at the beginning. This is called
exploratory research. The researcher’s goal is to formulate more precise questions that
future research can answer. Exploratory research may be the first stage in a sequence of
studies. A researcher may need to know enough to design and execute a second, more
systematic and extensive study.
It is initial research conducted to clarify the nature of the problem. When a researcher has a
limited amount of experience with or knowledge about a research issue, exploratory
research is useful preliminary step that helps ensure that a more rigorous, more conclusive
future study will not begin with an inadequate understanding of the nature of the
management problem. The findings discovered through exploratory research would the
researchers to emphasize learning more about the particulars of the findings in subsequent
conclusive studies.
Exploratory research rarely yields definitive answers. It addresses the “what” question:
“what is this social activity really about?” It is difficult to conduct because there are few
guidelines to follow. Specifically there could be a number of goals of exploratory research.
a) Become familiar with the basic facts, setting, and concerns;
b) Develop well grounded picture of the situation;
c) Develop tentative theories, generate new ideas, conjectures, or hypotheses;
d) Determine the feasibility of conducting the study;
e) Formulate questions and refine issues for more systematic inquiry; and
f) Develop techniques and a sense of direction for future research.
B. Descriptive Research
Descriptive research presents a picture of the specific details of a situation, social setting, or
relationship. The major purpose of descriptive research, as the term implies, is to describe
characteristics of a population or phenomenon. Descriptive research seeks to determine the
answers to who, what, when, where, and how questions. Descriptive study offers to the
researcher a profile or description of relevant aspects of the phenomena of interest. Look at
the class in research methods and try to give its profile – the characteristics of the students.
When we start to look at the relationship of the variables, then it may help in diagnosis
analysis. Hence, some of the goals of descriptive research include:
a) Describe the situation in terms of its characteristics - provide its accurate profile;
b) Give a verbal or numerical picture (%) of the situation;
c) Present background information;
d) Create a set of categories or classify the information;
e) Clarify sequence, set of stages; and
f) Focus on ‘who,’ ‘what,’ ‘when,’ ‘where,’ and ‘how’ but not why?
C. Explanatory Research
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AAU PADM Research Methods for Public Administration
When we encounter an issue that is already known and have a description of it, we might
begin to wonder why things are the way they are. The desire to know “why,” to explain, is
the purpose of explanatory research. It builds on exploratory and descriptive research and
goes on to identify the reasons for something that occurs. Explanatory research looks for
causes and reasons. For example, a descriptive research may discover that 10 percent of the
parents abuse their children, whereas the explanatory researcher is more interested in
learning why parents abuse their children. Some of the goals of explanatory research
include:
i. Explain things not just reporting - Why? Elaborate and enrich a theory’s explanation.
ii. Determine which of several explanations is best.
iii. Determine the accuracy of the theory; test a theory’s predictions or principle.
iv. Advance knowledge about underlying process.
v. Build and elaborate a theory; elaborate and enrich a theory’s predictions or principle.
vi. Extend a theory or principle to new areas, new issues, new topics:
vii. Provide evidence to support or refute an explanation or prediction.
viii. Test a theory’s predictions or principles
Applied researchers try to solve specific policy problems or help practitioners accomplish
tasks. Theory is less central to them than seeking a solution on a specific problem for a
limited setting. Applied research is frequently a descriptive research, and its main strength is
its immediate practical use.
Applied research is conducted when decision must be made about a specific real-life
problem. Applied research encompasses those studies undertaken to answer questions about
specific problems or to make decisions about a particular course of action or policy. For
example, an organization contemplating a paperless office and a networking system for the
company’s personal computers may conduct research to learn the amount of time its
employees spend at personal computers in an average week.
Types of Applied Research
Practitioners use several types of applied research. Some of the major ones are:
i. Action Research: The applied research that treats knowledge as a form of power and
abolishes the line between research and social action. Those who are being studied
participate in the research process; research incorporates ordinary or popular
knowledge; research focuses on power with a goal of empowerment; research seeks
to raise consciousness or increase awareness; and research is tied directly to political
action.
The researchers try to advance a cause or improve conditions by expanding public
awareness. They are explicitly political, not value neutral. Because the goal is to
improve the conditions of research participants, formal reports, articles, or books
become secondary. Action researchers assume that knowledge develops from
experience, particularly the experience of social-political action. They also assume
that ordinary people can become aware of conditions and learn to take actions that
can bring about improvement.
ii. Impact Assessment Research: Its purpose is to estimate the likely consequences of a
planned change. Such an assessment is used for planning and making choices among
alternative policies – like to make an impact assessment of "Hidasse Dam" on the
environment; to determine changes in housing if a major new highway is built.
iii. Evaluation Research: It addresses the question, “Did it work?” The process of
establishing value judgment based on evidence about the achievement of the goals of
a program. Evaluation research measures the effectiveness of a program, business
policy, or way of doing something. “Did the program work?” “Did it achieve its
objectives?” Evaluation researchers use several research techniques (survey, field
research). Practitioners involved with a policy or program may conduct evaluation
research for their own information or at the request of outside decision makers, who
sometime place limits on researchers by setting boundaries on what can be studied
and determining the outcome of interest.
fixed time point and allow us to analyze it in detail. Other studies provide a moving picture that lets
us follow events, people, or sale of products over a period of time. In this way from the angle of
time, research could be divided into two broad types:
A. Cross-Sectional Research: In cross-sectional research, researchers observe at one point in
time. Cross-sectional research is usually the simplest and least costly alternative. Its
disadvantage is that it cannot capture the change processes. Cross-sectional research can be
exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory, but it is most consistent with a descriptive approach
to research.
B. Longitudinal Research: Researchers using longitudinal research examine features of
people or other units at more than one time. It is usually more complex and costly than
cross-sectional research but it is also more powerful, especially when researchers seek
answers to questions about change. 4. Research (data collection) Techniques Used
What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental importance. The
possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical
problems initiates research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability
However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake research studies.
Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity about new
things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening, and the like may as
well motivate (or at times compel) people to perform research operations.
1.4 Research Process (Overview)
Before embarking on the details of research methodology and techniques, it seems appropriate to
present a brief overview of the research process. Research process consists of series ofChapter 2 or
actions
steps necessary to effectively carry out research and the desired sequencing of these steps. The chart
shown below well illustrates a research process.
1. Formulating the Research Problem: At the very beginning the researcher must single out the
problem he/she wants to study, i.e., he/she must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a
subject-matter that he would like to inquire into. Initially the problem may be stated in a broad
Chapter 3
general way and then the ambiguities, if any, relating to the problem be resolved. Then, the
feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered before a working formulation of the
problem can be set up. The formulation of a general topic into a specific research problem,
Chapter thus,
4
constitutes the first step in a scientific enquiry. Essentially two steps are involved in formulating
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the research problem, viz., understanding the problem thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into
meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.
The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with one’s own colleagues or with
those having some expertise in the matter. In an academic institution, the researcher can seek the
help from a guide who is usually an experienced man and has several research problems in
mind. Often, the guide puts forth the problem in general terms and it is up to the researcher to
narrow it down and phrase the problem in operational terms. In private business units or in
governmental organizations, the problem is usually earmarked by the administrative agencies
with whom the researcher can discuss as to how the problem originally came about and what
considerations are involved in its possible solutions. Chapter 5
The researcher must at the same time examine all available literature to get himself acquainted
with the selected problem. He/she may review two types of literature - the conceptual literature
Chapter 7
concerning the concepts and theories, and the empirical literature consisting of studies made
earlier which are similar to the one proposed.
Chapter 8
The basic outcome of this review will be the knowledge as to what data and other materials are
available for operational purposes, which will enable the researcher to specify his/her own
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AAU PADM Research Methods for Public Administration
research problem in a meaningful context. After this the researcher rephrases the problem into
analytical or operational terms i.e., to put the problem in as specific terms as possible.
This task of formulating, or defining, a research problem is a step of greatest importance in the
entire research process. The problem to be investigated must be defined unambiguously for that
will help discriminating relevant data from irrelevant ones. Care must, however, be taken to
verify the objectivity and validity of the background facts concerning the problem. The
statement of the objective is of basic importance because it determines the data which are to be
collected, the characteristics of the data which are relevant, relations which are to be explored,
the choice of techniques to be used in these explorations and the form of the final report. If there
are certain pertinent terms, the same should be clearly defined along with the task of
formulating the problem. In fact, formulation of the problem often follows a sequential pattern
where a number of formulations are set up, each formulation more specific than the preceding
one, each one phrased in more analytical terms, and each more realistic in terms of the available
data and resources.
b. the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any);
c. explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be organized
and the reasoning leading to the selection;
d. the time available for research; and the cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance
available for the purpose.
Some of the most important tasks in designing/planning the research involve:
A. Determining Sample Design: All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry
constitute a ‘universe’ or ‘population’. A complete enumeration of all the items in the
‘population’ is known as a census inquiry. It can be presumed that in such an inquiry when
all the items are covered no element of chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained. But,
in practice this may not be true. Even the slightest element of bias in such an inquiry will get
larger and larger as the number of observations increases. Moreover, there is no way of
checking the element of bias or its extent except through a resurvey or use of sample checks.
Besides, this type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money and energy. Not only this,
census inquiry is not possible in practice under many circumstances. For instance, blood
testing is done only on sample basis. Hence, quite often we select only a few items from the
universe for our study purposes. The items so selected constitute what is technically called a
sample.
The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known as the
sample design. In other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined before any data
are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population. Thus, the plan to
select 12 of a city’s 200 drugstores in a certain way constitutes a sample design. Samples
can be either probability samples or non-probability samples. With probability samples each
element has a known probability of being included in the sample but the non-probability
samples do not allow the researcher to determine this probability. Probability samples are
those based on simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling,
cluster/area sampling whereas non-probability samples are those based on convenience
sampling, judgement sampling and quota sampling techniques. The sample design to be
used must be decided by the researcher taking into consideration the nature of the inquiry
and other related factors.
B. Data Collection Design: In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at
hand are inadequate, and hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate.
There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data, which differ considerably in
context of money costs, time and other resources at the disposal of the researcher. Primary
data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. If the researcher conducts
an experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or the data, with the help of
which he examines the truth contained in his hypothesis. However, in the case of a survey,
data can be collected by any one or more of the following ways:
i. By observation: This method implies the collection of information by way of
investigator’s own observation, without interviewing the respondents. The information
obtained relates to what is currently happening and is not complicated by either the
hypotheses should be subjected to tests of significance to determine with what validity data
can be said to indicate any conclusion(s).
D. Hypothesis-testing: After analyzing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position
to test the hypotheses, if any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypotheses
or they happen to be contrary? This is the usual question which should be answered while
testing hypotheses. Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been developed
by statisticians for the purpose. The hypotheses may be tested through the use of one or
more of such tests, depending upon the nature and object of research inquiry. Hypothesis-
testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it. If the researcher had no
hypotheses to start with, generalizations established on the basis of data may be stated as
hypotheses to be tested by subsequent researches in times to come.
E. Generalizations and Interpretation: If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it
may be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalization, i.e., to build a theory. As a
matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalizations.
If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the
basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation. The process of interpretation may quite
often trigger off new questions which in turn may lead to further researches.
F. Preparation of the Report: Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has
been done by him/her. Writing of report must be done with great care keeping in view the
following:
The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the preliminary pages; (ii) the main text,
and (iii) the end matter. In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date
followed by acknowledgements and foreword. Then there should be a table of contents
followed by a list of tables and list of graphs and charts, if any, given in the report. The main
text of the report should have the following parts:
a. Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and
an explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope
of the study along with various limitations should as well be stated in this part.
b. Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a statement of findings
and recommendations in non-technical language. If the findings are extensive, they
should be summarized.
c. Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence
and broken-down into readily identifiable sections.
d. Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down the
results of his research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing up.
At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data.
Bibliography, i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should also be given in the
end. Index should also be given specially in a published research report.
Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language avoiding vague
expressions such as ‘it seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like.
Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the
information more clearly and forcibly.
4. Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the various constraints experienced
in conducting research operations may as well be stated.