Russian language

Russian (русский язык, tr. russkiy yazyk) is an East Slavic

language native to the Russians in Eastern Europe. It is a part Russian
of the Indo-European language family, and is one of four русский язык[note 1]
living East Slavic languages, and also part of the larger Balto- Pronunciation [ˈruskʲɪj jɪˈzɨk]
Slavic branch. Russian is an official language in Russia, ( listen)
Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan, and is used widely as
Native to Russia
a lingua franca throughout Ukraine, the Caucasus, Central
Asia, and to some extent in the Baltic states.[26][27] It was the Region Russian-speaking
de facto language of the Soviet Union until its dissolution;[28] world
and is used in an official capacity or in public life in all the Ethnicity Russians
post-Soviet states. The language is one of the six official Native speakers 150
languages of the United Nations. million (2012)[1]
L2 speakers: 110
Russian has over 258 million total speakers worldwide,[29] million (2012)[1]
and is the most spoken Slavic language, the most spoken Indo-European
Language family
native language in Europe, as well as the most geographically
widespread language in Eurasia.[30] Large numbers of Balto-Slavic
Russian speakers are residents of other countries, such as Slavic
Israel and Mongolia. It is the world's seventh-most spoken
East Slavic
language by number of native speakers, and the world's
eighth-most spoken language by total number of speakers.[31] Russian
Russian is also the second-most widespread language on the
Early form Old East Slavic
Internet, after English.[32]
Writing system Cyrillic (Russian
Russian is written using the Cyrillic script; it distinguishes alphabet)
between consonant phonemes with palatal secondary Russian Braille
articulation and those without—the so-called "soft" and Official status
"hard" sounds. Almost every consonant has a hard or soft
Official language in 11 states
counterpart, and the distinction is a prominent feature of the
Russia (state)[2]
language. Another important aspect is the reduction of
Belarus
unstressed vowels. Stress, which is unpredictable, is not
(state)[3]
normally indicated orthographically,[33] though an optional
Kazakhstan
acute accent may be used to mark stress, such as to
(co-official)[4]
distinguish between homographic words, e.g. замо́ к (zamók
Kyrgyzstan (co-
– a 'lock') and за́ мок (zámok – a 'castle'), or to indicate the
official)[5]
proper pronunciation of uncommon words or names. Tajikistan (inter-
ethnic)[6]
Uzbekistan
Contents (inter-ethnic)[7][8][9]
Ukraine:
Classification
Standard Russian Autonomous
Geographic distribution Republic of
Europe Crimea[note 2]
Turkmenistan
Asia
(inter-ethnic)
North America
 Moldova:
As an international language
Dialects Gagauzia
(co-official)[10]
Comparison with other Slavic languages
Derived languages Transnistria
(co-official)
Alphabet
Transliteration Partially recognized
states:
Computing
Abkhazia[11]
Orthography (co-official)[12]
Phonology Artsakh (co-
Consonants official, pending)
[13]
Vowels
South
Grammar Ossetia[11](state)[14]
Lugansk
Vocabulary
People's
History and examples Republic[11](state)[15]
See also Donetsk
People's
Notes Republic[11](state)[16]
References Organizations:
Citations United Nations
Sources IAEA
External links ICAO
UNESCO
WHO
Classification CIS
Warsaw Pact
Russian is an East Slavic language of the wider Indo- (defunct)
European family. It is a descendant of the language used in EAEU
Kievan Rus', a loose conglomerate of East Slavic tribes from CSTO
the late 9th to the mid 13th centuries. From the point of view CMEA (defunct)
of spoken language, its closest relatives are Ukrainian, GUAM[17]
Belarusian, and Rusyn,[34] the other three languages in the SCO
East Slavic branch. In many places in eastern and southern OSCE
Ukraine and throughout Belarus, these languages are spoken ATS
ISO
interchangeably, and in certain areas traditional bilingualism
resulted in language mixtures such as Surzhyk in eastern Recognised minority List
Ukraine and Trasianka in Belarus. An East Slavic Old language in Romania[18]
Novgorod dialect, although it vanished during the 15th or Armenia[19]
16th century, is sometimes considered to have played a Poland[19]
significant role in the formation of modern Russian. Also Czech
Russian has notable lexical similarities with Bulgarian due to Republic[20]
a common Church Slavonic influence on both languages, and Slovakia[19]
because of later interaction in the 19th and 20th centuries, Latvia[21]
Bulgarian grammar differs markedly from Russian.[35] In the Moldova[22]
19th century (in Russia until 1917), the language was often Mongolia[23]
called "Great Russian" to distinguish it from Belarusian, then Ukraine[24]
called "White Russian" and Ukrainian, then called "Little Regulated by Russian Language
Russian". Institute[25] at the
The vocabulary (mainly abstract and literary words), Russian Academy
principles of word formations, and, to some extent, of Sciences
inflections and literary style of Russian have been also Language codes
influenced by Church Slavonic, a developed and partly
ISO 639-1 ru (https://ww
Russified form of the South Slavic Old Church Slavonic
w.loc.gov/stand
language used by the Russian Orthodox Church. However,
ards/iso639-2/p
the East Slavic forms have tended to be used exclusively in
hp/langcodes_na
the various dialects that are experiencing a rapid decline. In
me.php?iso_639_
some cases, both the East Slavic and the Church Slavonic
1=ru)
forms are in use, with many different meanings. For details,
see Russian phonology and History of the Russian language. ISO 639-2 rus (https://ww
w.loc.gov/stand
Over the course of centuries, the vocabulary and literary style ards/iso639-2/p
of Russian have also been influenced by Western and Central hp/langcodes_na
European languages such as Greek, Latin, Polish, Dutch, me.php?code_ID=
German, French, Italian, and English,[36] and to a lesser 379)
extent the languages to the south and the east: Uralic, ISO 639-3 rus
Turkic,[37][38] Persian,[39][40] Arabic, and Hebrew.[41]
Glottolog russ1263 (htt
p://glottolog.o
According to the Defense Language Institute in Monterey,
rg/resource/lan
California, Russian is classified as a level III language in
guoid/id/russ12
terms of learning difficulty for native English speakers,
63)
requiring approximately 1,100 hours of immersion instruction
to achieve intermediate fluency.[42] It is also regarded by the Linguasphere 53-AAA-ea < 53-
United States Intelligence Community as a "hard target" AAA-e
language, due to both its difficulty to master for English (varieties: 53-
speakers and its critical role in U.S. world policy. AAA-eaa to 53-
AAA-eat)

Standard Russian
Feudal divisions and conflicts, and other obstacles to the
exchange of goods and ideas that ancient Russian
principalities before and especially during Mongol rule, Areas where Russian is the majority
strengthened dialectical differences and for a while prevented language (medium blue) or a minority
the emergence of the standardized national language. The language (light blue)
formation of the unified and centralized Russian state in 15th
and 16th centuries and the gradual (re)emergence of a
common political, economic, and cultural space have created
the need for a common standard language. The initial impulse
for the standardization came from the government
bureaucracy for the lack of a reliable tool of communication States where Russian is an official language
in administrative, legal, and judicial affairs became an (dark blue) or spoken as a first or second
obvious practical problem. The earliest attempts at language by 30% or more of the population
standardizing Russian were made based on the so-called (teal)
Moscow official or chancery language, during the 15th to
17th centuries.[43] Since then the trend of language policy in Russia has been standardization in both the
restricted sense of reducing dialectical barriers between ethnic Russians, and the broader sense of expanding
the use of Russian alongside or in favour of other languages.[43]

The current standard form of Russian is generally regarded as the modern Russian literary language
(современный русский литературный язык – "sovremenny russky literaturny yazyk"). It arose in the
beginning of the 18th century with the modernization reforms of the Russian state under the rule of Peter the
Great, and developed from the Moscow (Middle or Central Russian) dialect substratum under the influence of
some of the previous century's Russian chancery language.

Mikhail Lomonosov first compiled a normalizing grammar book in 1755; in 1783 the Russian Academy's first
explanatory Russian dictionary appeared. During the end of the 18th and 19th centuries, a period known as the
"Golden Age", the grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation of the Russian language was stabilized and
standardized, and it became the nationwide literary language; meanwhile, Russia's world-famous literature
flourished.

Until the 20th century, the language's spoken form was the language of only the upper noble classes and urban
population, as Russian peasants from the countryside continued to speak in their own dialects. By the mid-20th
century, such dialects were forced out with the introduction of the compulsory education system that was
established by the Soviet government. Despite the formalization of Standard Russian, some nonstandard
dialectal features (such as fricative [ɣ] in Southern Russian dialects) are still observed in colloquial speech.

Geographic distribution
In 2010, there were 259.8 million
speakers of Russian in the world: in
Russia – 137.5 million, in the CIS and
Baltic countries – 93.7 million, in Eastern
Europe – 12.9 million, Western Europe –
7.3 million, Asia – 2.7 million, Middle
East and North Africa – 1.3 million, Sub-
Saharan Africa – 0.1 million, Latin
America – 0.2 million, U.S., Canada,
Australia and New Zealand – 4.1 million
speakers. Therefore, the Russian
language is the seventh-largest in the
world by number of speakers, after Competence of Russian in countries of the former Soviet Union
English, Mandarin, Hindi-Urdu, Spanish, (except Russia), 2004
French, Arabic and
Portuguese. [44][45][46]

Russian is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Education in Russian is still a popular
choice for both Russian as a second language (RSL) and native speakers in Russia, and in many former Soviet
republics. Russian is still seen as an important language for children to learn in most of the former Soviet
republics.[47]

Europe

In Belarus, Russian is a second state language alongside Belarusian per the Constitution of Belarus.[48] 77% of
the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 67% used it as the main language with family, friends, or at
work.[49]

In Estonia, Russian is spoken by 29.6% of the population according to a 2011 estimate from the World
Factbook,[50] and is officially considered a foreign language.[48] School education in the Russian language is a
very contentious point in Estonian politics, but as of 2019 promises have been given that such schools will
remain open in the near future.[51]
In Latvia, Russian is officially considered a foreign language.[48]
55% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 26%
used it as the main language with family, friends, or at work.[49]
On 18 February 2012, Latvia held a constitutional referendum on
whether to adopt Russian as a second official language.[52]
According to the Central Election Commission, 74.8% voted
against, 24.9% voted for and the voter turnout was 71.1%.[53]
Starting in 2019, instruction in Russian language will be gradually
discontinued in private colleges and universities in Latvia, and in
general instruction in Latvian public high schools.[54][55]
Percentage of people in Ukraine with
In Lithuania, Russian has no official or any legal status, but the use Russian as their native language
of the language has some presence in certain areas. A large part of according to a 2001 census (by region)
the population, especially the older generations, can speak Russian
as a foreign language.[56] However, English has replaced Russian
as lingua franca in Lithuania and around 80% of young people speak English as the first foreign language.[57]
In contrast to the other two Baltic states, Lithuania has a relatively small Russian-speaking minority (5.0% as
of 2008).[58]

In Moldova, Russian is considered to be the language of inter-ethnic communication under a Soviet-era

law.[48] 50% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 19% used it as the main language with
family, friends, or at work.[49]

According to the 2010 census in Russia, Russian language skills were indicated by 138 million people (99.4%
of the respondents), while according to the 2002 census – 142.6 million people (99.2% of the respondents).[59]

In Ukraine, Russian is seen as a language of inter-ethnic communication, and a minority language, under the
1996 Constitution of Ukraine.[48] According to estimates from Demoskop Weekly, in 2004 there were
14,400,000 native speakers of Russian in the country, and 29 million active speakers.[60] 65% of the
population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 38% used it as the main language with family, friends, or at
work.[49] On 5 September 2017, Ukraine's Parliament passed a new education law which bars primary
education to all students in any language but Ukrainian.[61] The law faced criticism from officials in
Russia.[62][63]

In the 20th century, Russian was a mandatory language taught in the schools of the members of the old
Warsaw Pact and in other countries that used to be satellites of the USSR. According to the Eurobarometer
2005 survey,[64] fluency in Russian remains fairly high (20–40%) in some countries, in particular those where
the people speak a Slavic language and thereby have an edge in learning Russian (namely, Poland, Czech
Republic, Slovakia, and Bulgaria).

Significant Russian-speaking groups also exist in Western Europe. These have been fed by several waves of
immigrants since the beginning of the 20th century, each with its own flavor of language. The United
Kingdom, Germany, Finland, Spain, Portugal, France, Italy, Belgium, Greece, Norway, and Austria have
significant Russian-speaking communities.

Asia

In Armenia, Russian has no official status, but it is recognized as a minority language under the Framework
Convention for the Protection of National Minorities.[48] 30% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006,
and 2% used it as the main language with family, friends, or at work.[49]
In Azerbaijan, Russian has no official status, but is a lingua franca of the country.[48] 26% of the population
was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 5% used it as the main language with family, friends, or at work.[49]

In China, Russian has no official status, but it is spoken by the small Russian communities in the northeastern
Heilongjiang province.

In Georgia, Russian has no official status, but it is recognized as a minority language under the Framework
Convention for the Protection of National Minorities.[48] Russian is the language of 9% of the population
according to the World Factbook.[65] Ethnologue cites Russian as the country's de facto working language.[66]

In Kazakhstan, Russian is not a state language, but according to article 7 of the Constitution of Kazakhstan its
usage enjoys equal status to that of the Kazakh language in state and local administration.[48] The 2009 census
reported that 10,309,500 people, or 84.8% of the population aged 15 and above, could read and write well in
Russian, and understand the spoken language.[67]

In Kyrgyzstan, Russian is a co-official language per article 5 of the Constitution of Kyrgyzstan.[48] The 2009
census states that 482,200 people speak Russian as a native language, or 8.99% of the population.[68]
Additionally, 1,854,700 residents of Kyrgyzstan aged 15 and above fluently speak Russian as a second
language, or 49.6% of the population in the age group.[68]

In Tajikistan, Russian is the language of inter-ethnic communication under the Constitution of Tajikistan and is
permitted in official documentation.[48] 28% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 7% used it
as the main language with family, friends or at work.[49] The World Factbook notes that Russian is widely
used in government and business.[50]

In Turkmenistan, Russian lost its status as the official lingua franca in 1996.[48] Russian is spoken by 12% of
the population according to an undated estimate from the World Factbook.[50] Nevertheless, the Turkmen state
press and websites regularly publish material in Russian and there is the Russian-language newspaper
Neytralny Turkmenistan, the television channel TV4, and there are schools like Joint Turkmen-Russian
Secondary School.

In Uzbekistan, Russian is the language of inter-ethnic communication.[7][8][9] It has some official roles, being
permitted in official documentation and is the lingua franca of the country and the language of the
elite.[48][69] Russian is spoken by 14.2% of the population according to an undated estimate from the World
Factbook.[50]

In 2005, Russian was the most widely taught foreign language in Mongolia,[70] and was compulsory in Year 7
onward as a second foreign language in 2006.[23]

Russian is also spoken in Israel. The number of native Russian-speaking Israelis numbers around 1.5 million
Israelis,[71] 15% of the population.[72] The Israeli press and websites regularly publish material in Russian and
there are Russian newspapers, television stations, schools, and social media outlets based in the country.[73]
There is an Israeli TV channel mainly broadcasting in Russian with Israel Plus. See also Russian language in
Israel.

Russian is also spoken as a second language by a small number of people in Afghanistan.[74]

In Vietnam, Russian has been added in the elementary curriculum along with Chinese and Japanese and were
named as "first foreign languages" for Vietnamese students to learn, on equal footing with English.[75]

North America
The language was first introduced in North America when Russian explorers voyaged into Alaska and
claimed it for Russia during the 18th century. Although most Russian colonists left after the United States
bought the land in 1867, a handful stayed and preserved the Russian language in this region to this day,
although only a few elderly speakers of this unique dialect are left.[76] In Nikolaevsk, Alaska Russian is more
spoken than English. Sizable Russian-speaking communities also exist in North America, especially in large
urban centers of the U.S. and Canada, such as New York City, Philadelphia, Boston, Los Angeles, Nashville,
San Francisco, Seattle, Spokane, Toronto, Calgary, Baltimore, Miami, Chicago, Denver, and Cleveland. In a
number of locations they issue their own newspapers, and live in ethnic enclaves (especially the generation of
immigrants who started arriving in the early 1960s). Only about 25% of them are ethnic Russians, however.
Before the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the overwhelming majority of Russophones in Brighton Beach,
Brooklyn in New York City were Russian-speaking Jews. Afterward, the influx from the countries of the
former Soviet Union changed the statistics somewhat, with ethnic Russians and Ukrainians immigrating along
with some more Russian Jews and Central Asians. According to the United States Census, in 2007 Russian
was the primary language spoken in the homes of over 850,000 individuals living in the United States.[77]

In the second half of the 20th century, Russian was the most popular foreign language in Cuba. Besides being
taught at universities and schools, there were also educational programs on the radio and TV. However,
starting January 2019 the Cuban television opens an educational program devoted to the Russian language.
This project is fully entitled to be called an anticipated one, because the Russian – Cuban collaboration is a
strategic direction actively developed as more and more young people are interested in the Russian language,
the Education navigator informs. The Havana State University has started a bachelor's specialization called the
Russian Language and the Second Foreign Language. There is also the Russian language department, where
students can scrutinize e-books without internet connection. Additional courses on the Russian language are
open at two schools of the Cuban capital city.[78] An estimated 200,000 people speak the Russian language in
Cuba, on the account that more than 23,000 Cubans who took higher studies in the former Soviet Union and
later in Russia, and another important group of people who studied at military schools and technologists, plus
the nearly 2,000 Russians residing in Cuba and their descendants.

As an international language
Russian is one of the official languages (or has similar status and interpretation must be provided into Russian)
of the following:

United Nations
International Atomic Energy Agency
World Health Organization
International Civil Aviation Organization
UNESCO
World Intellectual Property Organization
International Telecommunication Union
World Meteorological Organization
Food and Agriculture Organization
International Fund for Agricultural Development
International Criminal Court
International Olympic Committee
Universal Postal Union

World Bank
Commonwealth of Independent States
Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe
 Shanghai Cooperation Organisation
Eurasian Economic Community
Collective Security Treaty Organization
Antarctic Treaty Secretariat
International Organization for Standardization
International Mathematical Olympiad
Warsaw Pact (defunct)
Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (defunct)

The Russian language is also one of two official languages aboard the International Space Station – NASA
astronauts who serve alongside Russian cosmonauts usually take Russian language courses. This practice goes
back to the Apollo-Soyuz mission, which first flew in 1975.

In March 2013, it was announced that Russian is now the second-most used language on the Internet after
English. People use the Russian language on 5.9% of all websites, slightly ahead of German and far behind
English (54.7%). Russian is used not only on 89.8% of .ru sites, but also on 88.7% of sites with the former
Soviet Union domain .su. The websites of former Soviet Union nations also use high levels of Russian: 79.0%
in Ukraine, 86.9% in Belarus, 84.0% in Kazakhstan, 79.6% in Uzbekistan, 75.9% in Kyrgyzstan and 81.8% in
Tajikistan. However, Russian is the sixth-most used language on the top 1,000 sites, behind English, Chinese,
French, German, and Japanese.[79]

Dialects
Russian is a rather homogeneous language, in dialectal variation, due to the early political centralization under
Moscow's rule, compulsory education, mass migration from rural to urban areas in the 20th century, and other
factors. The standard language is used in written and spoken form almost everywhere in the country, from
Kaliningrad and Saint Petersburg in the West to Vladivostok and Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky in the East, the
enormous distance between notwithstanding.

Despite leveling after 1900, especially in matters of vocabulary and phonetics, a number of dialects still exist in
Russia. Some linguists divide the dialects of Russian into two primary regional groupings, "Northern" and
"Southern", with Moscow lying on the zone of transition between the two. Others divide the language into
three groupings, Northern, Central (or Middle), and Southern, with Moscow lying in the Central region.[80][81]
All dialects are also divided into two main chronological categories: the dialects of primary formation (the
territory of Muscovy roughly consists of the modern Central and Northwestern Federal districts) and
secondary formation (other territories where Russian was brought by migrants from primary formation
territories or adopted by the local population). Dialectology within Russia recognizes dozens of smaller-scale
variants. The dialects often show distinct and non-standard features of pronunciation and intonation,
vocabulary, and grammar. Some of these are relics of ancient usage now completely discarded by the standard
language.

The Northern Russian dialects and those spoken along the Volga River typically pronounce unstressed /o/
clearly, a phenomenon called okanye (оканье).[81] Besides the absence of vowel reduction, some dialects
have high or diphthongal /e⁓i̯ɛ/ in place of Proto-Slavic *ě and /o⁓u̯ ɔ/ in stressed closed syllables (as in
Ukrainian) instead of Standard Russian /e/ and /o/.[81] Another Northern dialectal morphological feature is a
post-posed definite article -to, -ta, -te similarly to that existing in Bulgarian and Macedonian.[81]
In the Southern Russian dialects, instances of unstressed
/e/ and /a/ following palatalized consonants and
preceding a stressed syllable are not reduced to [ɪ] (as
occurs in the Moscow dialect), being instead pronounced
[a] in such positions (e.g. несли is pronounced [nʲaˈslʲi],
not [nʲɪsˈlʲi]) – this is called yakanye (яканье).[81][82]
Consonants include a fricative /ɣ/, a semivowel /w⁓u̯ /
and /x⁓xv⁓xw/, whereas the Standard and Northern
dialects have the consonants /ɡ/, /v/, and final /l/ and /f/,
respectively.[81] The morphology features a palatalized
final /tʲ/ in 3rd person forms of verbs (this is unpalatalized
in the Standard and Northern dialects).[81][83] Some of
these features such as akanye and yakanye, a
debuccalized or lenited /ɡ/, a semivowel /w⁓u̯ / and
palatalized final /tʲ/ in 3rd person forms of verbs are also
present in modern Belarusian and some dialects of
Ukrainian (Eastern Polesian), indicating a linguistic
continuum.

The city of Veliky Novgorod has historically displayed a Russian dialects in 1915
feature called chokanye or tsokanye (чоканье or Northern Central dialects
цоканье), in which /tɕ/ and /ts/ were switched or dialects 6. Moscow dialect
merged. So, цапля (tsaplya, 'heron') has been recorded 1. 7. Tver dialect
as чапля (chaplya). Also, the second palatalization of Arkhangelsk Southern dialects
velars did not occur there, so the so-called ě² (from the dialect 8. Orel (Don) dialect
Proto-Slavic diphthong *ai) did not cause /k, ɡ, x/ to shift 2. Olonets 9. Ryazan dialect
to /ts, dz, s/; therefore, where Standard Russian has цепь dialect
10. Tula dialect
('chain'), the form кепь [kʲepʲ] is attested in earlier texts. 3.
11. Smolensk dialect
Novgorod
Among the first to study Russian dialects was Other
dialect
Lomonosov in the 18th century. In the 19th, Vladimir 12. Northern Russian dialect
4. Viatka
Dal compiled the first dictionary that included dialectal with Belarusian influences
dialect
vocabulary. Detailed mapping of Russian dialects began 13. Sloboda and Steppe
5. Vladimir
at the turn of the 20th century. In modern times, the dialects of Ukrainian
dialect
monumental Dialectological Atlas of the Russian 14. Steppe dialect of Ukrainian
Language (Диалектологический атлас русского with Russian influences
языка – Dialektologichesky atlas russkogo yazyka), was
published in three folio volumes 1986–1989, after four
decades of preparatory work.

Comparison with other Slavic languages

There is a high degree of mutual intelligibility between Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian, and a moderate
degree of it across all modern Slavic languages, at least at the conversational level.[84]

Derived languages
Balachka, a dialect spoken in Krasnodar region, Don, Kuban, and Terek, brought by relocated
Cossacks in 1793 and is based on the southwest Ukrainian dialect. During the Russification of
the aforementioned regions in the 1920s to 1950s, it was replaced by the Russian language.
Fenya, a criminal argot of ancient origin, with Russian grammar, but with distinct vocabulary
 Medny Aleut language, a nearly extinct mixed language spoken on Bering Island that is
characterized by its Aleut nouns and Russian verbs
Padonkaffsky jargon, a slang language developed by padonki of Runet
Quelia, a macaronic language with Russian-derived basic structure and part of the lexicon
(mainly nouns and verbs) borrowed from German
Runglish, a Russian-English pidgin. This word is also used by English speakers to describe
the way in which Russians attempt to speak English using Russian morphology and/or syntax.
Russenorsk, an extinct pidgin language with mostly Russian vocabulary and mostly Norwegian
grammar, used for communication between Russians and Norwegian traders in the Pomor
trade in Finnmark and the Kola Peninsula
Surzhyk, a range of mixed (macaronic) sociolects of Ukrainian and Russian languages used in
certain regions of Ukraine and adjacent lands.
Trasianka, a heavily russified variety of Belarusian used by a large portion of the rural
population in Belarus
Taimyr Pidgin Russian, spoken by the Nganasan on the Taimyr Peninsula

Alphabet
Russian is written using a Cyrillic alphabet. The Russian alphabet
consists of 33 letters. The following table gives their upper case
forms, along with IPA values for each letter's typical sound:

А Б В Г Д Е Ё Ж З И Й
/a/ /b/ /v/ /ɡ/ /d/ /je/ /jo/ /ʐ/ /z/ /i/ /j/
К Л М Н О П Р С Т У Ф
/k/ /l/ /m/ /n/ /o/ /p/ /r/ /s/ /t/ /u/ /f/
Х Ц Ч Ш Щ Ъ Ы Ь Э Ю Я
/x/ /ts/ /tɕ/ /ʂ/ /ɕː/ /-/ /ɨ/ /ʲ/ /e/ /ju/ /ja/

Older letters of the Russian alphabet include ⟨ѣ⟩, which merged to ⟨е⟩
(/je/ or /ʲe/); ⟨і⟩ and ⟨ѵ⟩, which both merged to ⟨и⟩ (/i/); ⟨ѳ⟩, which
merged to ⟨ф⟩ (/f/); ⟨ѫ⟩, which merged to ⟨у⟩ (/u/); ⟨ѭ⟩, which
merged to ⟨ю⟩ (/ju/ or /ʲu/); and ⟨ѧ⟩ and ⟨ѩ⟩, which later were
graphically reshaped into ⟨я⟩ and merged phonetically to /ja/ or /ʲa/. A page from Azbuka (Alphabet
While these older letters have been abandoned at one time or another, book), the first East Slavic printed
they may be used in this and related articles. The yers ⟨ъ⟩ and ⟨ь⟩ textbook. Printed by Ivan Fyodorov
originally indicated the pronunciation of ultra-short or reduced /ŭ/, /ĭ/. in 1574 in Lviv. This page features
the Cyrillic script.

Transliteration

Because of many technical restrictions in computing and also because of the unavailability of Cyrillic
keyboards abroad, Russian is often transliterated using the Latin alphabet. For example, мороз ('frost') is
transliterated moroz, and мышь ('mouse'), mysh or myš'. Once commonly used by the majority of those living
outside Russia, transliteration is being used less frequently by Russian-speaking typists in favor of the
extension of Unicode character encoding, which fully incorporates the Russian alphabet. Free programs are
available offering this Unicode extension, which allow users to type Russian characters, even on Western
'QWERTY' keyboards.[85]
Computing

The Russian alphabet has many systems of character encoding. KOI8-R was designed by the Soviet
government and was intended to serve as the standard encoding. This encoding was and still is widely used in
UNIX-like operating systems. Nevertheless, the spread of MS-DOS and OS/2 (IBM866), traditional
Macintosh (ISO/IEC 8859-5) and Microsoft Windows (CP1251) meant the proliferation of many different
encodings as de facto standards, with Windows-1251 becoming a de facto standard in Russian Internet and e-
mail communication during the period of roughly 1995–2005.

All the obsolete 8-bit encodings are rarely used in the communication protocols and text-exchange data
formats, having been mostly replaced with UTF-8. A number of encoding conversion applications were
developed. "iconv" is an example that is supported by most versions of Linux, Macintosh and some other
operating systems; but converters are rarely needed unless accessing texts created more than a few years ago.

In addition to the modern Russian alphabet, Unicode (and thus UTF-8) encodes the Early Cyrillic alphabet
(which is very similar to the Greek alphabet), and all other Slavic and non-Slavic but Cyrillic-based alphabets.

Orthography

The current spelling follows the major reform of 1918, and the final codification of 1956. An update proposed
in the late 1990s has met a hostile reception, and has not been formally adopted. The punctuation, originally
based on Byzantine Greek, was in the 17th and 18th centuries reformulated on the French and German
models.

According to the Institute of Russian Language of the Russian Academy of Sciences, an optional acute accent
(знак ударения) may, and sometimes should, be used to mark stress. For example, it is used to distinguish
between otherwise identical words, especially when context does not make it obvious: замо́ к (zamók –
"lock") – за́ мок (zámok – "castle"), сто́ ящий (stóyashchy – "worthwhile") – стоя́ щий (stoyáshchy –
"standing"), чудно́ (chudnó – "this is odd") – чу́дно (chúdno – "this is marvellous"), молоде́ ц (molodéts –
"well done!") – мо́ лодец (mólodets – "fine young man"), узна́ ю (uznáyu – "I shall learn it") – узнаю́
(uznayú – "I recognize it"), отреза́ ть (otrezát – "to be cutting") – отре́ зать (otrézat – "to have cut"); to
indicate the proper pronunciation of uncommon words, especially personal and family names, like афе́ ра
(aféra, "scandal, affair"), гу́ру (gúru, "guru"), Гарси́ я (García), Оле́ ша (Olésha), Фе́ рми (Fermi), and to
show which is the stressed word in a sentence, for example Ты́ съел печенье? (Tý syel pechenye? – "Was it
you who ate the cookie?") – Ты съе́ л печенье? (Ty syél pechenye? – "Did you eat the cookie?) – Ты съел
пече́ нье? (Ty syel pechénye? "Was it the cookie you ate?"). Stress marks are mandatory in lexical dictionaries
and books for children or Russian learners.

Phonology
The phonological system of Russian is inherited from Common Slavonic; it underwent considerable
modification in the early historical period before being largely settled around the year 1400.

The language possesses five vowels (or six, under the St. Petersburg Phonological School), which are written
with different letters depending on whether the preceding consonant is palatalized. The consonants typically
come in plain vs. palatalized pairs, which are traditionally called hard and soft. The hard consonants are often
velarized, especially before front vowels, as in Irish and Marshallese. The standard language, based on the
Moscow dialect, possesses heavy stress and moderate variation in pitch. Stressed vowels are somewhat
lengthened, while unstressed vowels tend to be reduced to near-close vowels or an unclear schwa. (See also:
vowel reduction in Russian.)
The Russian syllable structure can be quite complex, with both initial and final consonant clusters of up to four
consecutive sounds. Using a formula with V standing for the nucleus (vowel) and C for each consonant, the
maximal structure can be described as follows:

(C)(C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)(C)

However, Russian has a constraint on syllabification such that syllables cannot span multiple morphemes.

Clusters of four consonants are not very common, especially within a morpheme. Some examples are: взгляд
([vzglʲat] vzglyad, 'glance'), государств ([gəsʊˈdarstf] gosudarstv, 'of the states'), строительств ([strɐˈitʲɪlʲstf]
stroitelstv, 'of the constructions').

Consonants
Consonant phonemes
Alveolar Post-
Labial Velar
/Dental alveolar
Palatal
plain pal. plain pal. plain pal. plain pal.

Nasal m mʲ n nʲ
p pʲ t tʲ k kʲ
Stop
b bʲ d dʲ ɡ ɡʲ
Affricate ts tɕ
f fʲ s sʲ ʂ ɕː x xʲ
Fricative
v vʲ z zʲ ʐ ʑː ɣ ɣʲ
Approximant ɫ lʲ j
Trill r rʲ

Russian is notable for its distinction based on palatalization of most of its consonants. While /k, ɡ, x/ do have
palatalized allophones [kʲ, ɡʲ, xʲ], only /kʲ/ might be considered a phoneme, though it is marginal and generally
not considered distinctive. The only native minimal pair that argues for /kʲ/ being a separate phoneme is это
ткёт ([ˈɛtə tkʲɵt] eto tkyot – "it weaves") – этот кот ([ˈɛtət kot], etot kot – "this cat"). Palatalization means
that the center of the tongue is raised during and after the articulation of the consonant. In the case of /tʲ/ and
/dʲ/, the tongue is raised enough to produce slight frication (affricate sounds; cf. Belarusian ць, дзь, or Polish ć,
dź). The sounds /t, d, ts, s, z, n, rʲ/ are dental, that is, pronounced with the tip of the tongue against the teeth
rather than against the alveolar ridge.

Vowels

Front Central Back Russian has five or six vowels in stressed syllables, /i, u, e, o, a/ and in
some analyses /ɨ/, but in most cases these vowels have merged to only two
Close i (ɨ) u
to four vowels when unstressed: /i, u, a/ (or /ɨ, u, a/) after hard consonants
Mid e o and /i, u/ after soft ones.
Open a

Grammar
Russian has preserved an Indo-European synthetic-inflectional structure, although considerable levelling has
occurred. Russian grammar encompasses:
 a highly fusional morphology
a syntax that, for the literary language, is the conscious
fusion of three elements:[86]
a polished vernacular foundation;
a Church Slavonic inheritance;
a Western European style.

The spoken language has been influenced by the literary one but
continues to preserve characteristic forms. The dialects show various Russian vowel chart by Jones &
non-standard grammatical features,[87] some of which are archaisms Trofimov (1923:55).
or descendants of old forms since discarded by the literary language.

The Church Slavonic language (not to be confused with Old Church Slavonic which was introduced during
the Christianization of the Kievan Rus' in the 10th century) was introduced to Moskovy in the late 15th
century and was adopted as official language for correspondence for convenience. Firstly with the newly
conquered southwestern regions of former Kyivan Rus and Grand Duchy of Lithuania, later, when Moskovy
cut its ties with the Golden Horde, for communication between all newly consolidated regions of Moskovy.

In terms of actual grammar, there are three tenses in Russian – past, present, and future – and each verb has
two aspects (perfective and imperfective). Russian nouns each have a gender – either feminine, masculine, or
neuter, indicated by spelling at the end of the word. Words change depending on both their gender and
function in the sentence. Russian has six cases: Nominative (for the subject of the sentence), Accusative (for
direct objects), Dative (for indirect objects), Genitive (to indicate possession), Instrumental (to indicate 'with' or
'by means of'), and Prepositional (used after a preposition). Verbs of motion in Russian – such as 'go', 'walk',
'run', 'swim', and 'fly' – use the imperfective or perfective form to indicate a single or return trip, and also use a
multitude of prefixes to add more meaning to the verb.

Vocabulary
See History of the Russian language for an account of the successive foreign influences on Russian.

The number of listed words or entries in some of the major dictionaries published during the past two
centuries, are as follows:[88][89]
 Work Year Words Notes
Russian and Church
Academic Slavonic with some
1789–1794 43,257
dictionary, I Ed. Old Russian
vocabulary.
Russian and Church
Academic Slavonic with some
1806–1822 51,388
dictionary, II Ed Old Russian
vocabulary.
Russian and Church
Academic
1847 114,749 Slavonic with Old
dictionary, III Ed.
Russian vocabulary.
44,000 entries
Explanatory lexically grouped;
Dictionary of the attempt to catalogue
Living Great 1880–1882 195,844 the full vernacular
Russian language. Contains
Language (Dahl's) many dialectal, local,
and obsolete words.
Explanatory
Dictionary of the
Current language with
Russian 1934–1940 85,289
some archaisms. This page from an "ABC" book
Language
(Ushakov's) printed in Moscow in 1694 shows the
letter П.
"Full" 17-volumed
dictionary of the
Academic
contemporary
Dictionary of the
1950–1965 language. The second
Russian 120,480
1991 (2nd ed.) 20-volumed edition
Language
was begun in 1991,
(Ozhegov's)
but not all volumes
have been finished.
Orthographic, current
Lopatin's
1999–2013 ≈200,000 language, several
dictionary
editions
Current language, the
Great Explanatory
dictionary has many
Dictionary of the
1998–2009 ≈130,000 subsequent editions
Russian
from the first one of
Language
1998.
Number of entries in
Russian 3 September the category Русский
429,738
Wiktionary 2019 язык (Russian
language)

History and examples

The history of the Russian language may be divided into the following periods:[90]

Kievan period and feudal breakup

The Moscow period (15th–17th centuries)
Standard national language
Judging by the historical records, by approximately 1000 AD the predominant ethnic group over much of
modern European Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus was the Eastern branch of the Slavs, speaking a closely
related group of dialects. The political unification of this region into Kievan Rus' in about 880, from which
modern Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus trace their origins, established Old East Slavic as a literary and
commercial language. It was soon followed by the adoption of Christianity in 988 and the introduction of the
South Slavic Old Church Slavonic as the liturgical and official language. Borrowings and calques from
Byzantine Greek began to enter the Old East Slavic and spoken dialects at this time, which in their turn
modified the Old Church Slavonic as well.

Dialectal differentiation accelerated after the breakup of Kievan Rus'

in approximately 1100. On the territories of modern Belarus and
Ukraine emerged Ruthenian and in modern Russia medieval Russian.
They became distinct since the 13th century, i.e. following the
division of the land between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the
Poland in the west and independent Novgorod and Pskov feudal
republics plus numerous small duchies (which came to be vassals of
the Tatars) in the east.
The Ostromir Gospels of 1056 is the The official language in Moscow and Novgorod, and later, in the
second oldest East Slavic book growing Muscovy, was Church Slavonic, which evolved from Old
known, one of many medieval
Church Slavonic and remained the literary language for centuries,
illuminated manuscripts preserved in
until the Petrine age, when its usage became limited to biblical and
the Russian National Library.
liturgical texts. Russian developed under a strong influence of Church
Slavonic until the close of the 17th century; afterward the influence
reversed, leading to corruption of liturgical texts.

The political reforms of Peter the Great (Пётр Вели́ кий, Pyótr Velíky) were accompanied by a reform of the
alphabet, and achieved their goal of secularization and Westernization. Blocks of specialized vocabulary were
adopted from the languages of Western Europe. By 1800, a significant portion of the gentry spoke French
daily, and German sometimes. Many Russian novels of the 19th century, e.g. Leo Tolstoy's (Лев Толсто́ й)
War and Peace, contain entire paragraphs and even pages in French with no translation given, with an
assumption that educated readers would not need one.

The modern literary language is usually considered to date from the time of Alexander Pushkin (Алекса́ ндр
Пу́шкин) in the first third of the 19th century. Pushkin revolutionized Russian literature by rejecting archaic
grammar and vocabulary (so-called высо́ кий стиль — "high style") in favor of grammar and vocabulary
found in the spoken language of the time. Even modern readers of younger age may only experience slight
difficulties understanding some words in Pushkin's texts, since relatively few words used by Pushkin have
become archaic or changed meaning. In fact, many expressions used by Russian writers of the early 19th
century, in particular Pushkin, Mikhail Lermontov (Михаи́ л Ле́ рмонтов), Nikolai Gogol (Никола́ й
Го́ голь), Aleksander Griboyedov (Алекса́ ндр Грибое́ дов), became proverbs or sayings which can be
frequently found even in modern Russian colloquial speech.

Russian text Pronunciation Transliteration

Зи́ мний ве́ чер [ˈzʲimnʲɪj ˈvʲetɕɪr] Zímny vécher
Бу́ря мгло́ ю не́ бо кро́ ет, [ˈburʲə ˈmɡɫoju ˈnʲɛbə ˈkroɪt] Búrya mglóyu nébo króyet,
Ви́ хри сне́ жные крутя́ ; [ˈvʲixrʲɪ ˈsʲnʲɛʐnɨɪ krʊˈtʲa] Víkhri snézhnyye krutyá,
То, как зверь, она́ заво́ ет, [ˈto kaɡ zvʲerʲ ɐˈna zɐˈvoɪt] To, kak zver, oná zavóyet,
То запла́ чет, как дитя́ , [ˈto zɐˈpɫatɕɪt, kaɡ dʲɪˈtʲa] To zapláchet, kak dityá,
То по кро́ в ле обветша́ лой [ˈto pɐˈkrovlʲɪ ɐbvʲɪtˈʂaɫəj] To po króvle obvetsháloy
Вдруг соло́ мой зашуми́ т, [ˈvdruk sɐˈɫoməj zəʂʊˈmʲit] Vdrug solómoy zashumít,
То, как пу́тник запозда́ лый, [ˈto ˈkak ˈputʲnʲɪɡ zəpɐˈzdaɫɨj] To, kak pútnik zapozdály
К нам в око́ шко застучи́ т. [ˈknam vɐˈkoʂkə zəstʊˈtɕit] K nam v okóshko zastuchít.

The political upheavals of the early 20th century and the wholesale changes of political ideology gave written
Russian its modern appearance after the spelling reform of 1918. Political circumstances and Soviet
accomplishments in military, scientific, and technological matters (especially cosmonautics), gave Russian a
worldwide prestige, especially during the mid-20th century.

During the Soviet period, the policy toward the languages of the various other ethnic groups fluctuated in
practice. Though each of the constituent republics had its own official language, the unifying role and superior
status was reserved for Russian, although it was declared the official language only in 1990.[91] Following the
break-up of the USSR in 1991, several of the newly independent states have encouraged their native
languages, which has partly reversed the privileged status of Russian, though its role as the language of post-
Soviet national discourse throughout the region has continued.

The Russian language in the world declined after 1991 due to the collapse of the Soviet Union and decrease in
the number of Russians in the world and diminution of the total population in Russia (where Russian is an
official language), however this has since been reversed.[44][92][93]

Recent estimates of the total number of speakers of Russian

Native Total
Source Native rank Total rank
speakers speakers
G. Weber, "Top Languages",
Language Monthly,
160,000,000 8 285,000,000 5
3: 12–18, 1997, ISSN 1369-
9733
World Almanac (1999) 145,000,000 8 (2005) 275,000,000 5
5–6 (tied with
SIL (2000 WCD) 145,000,000 8 255,000,000
Arabic)
CIA World Factbook (2005) 160,000,000 8

According to figures published in 2006 in the journal "Demoskop Weekly" research deputy director of
Research Center for Sociological Research of the Ministry of Education and Science (Russia) Arefyev A.
L.,[94] the Russian language is gradually losing its position in the world in general, and in Russia in
particular.[92][95][96][97] In 2012, A. L. Arefyev published a new study "Russian language at the turn of the
20th-21st centuries", in which he confirmed his conclusion about the trend of weakening of the Russian
language after the Soviet Union's collapse in various regions of the world (findings published in 2013 in the
journal "Demoskop Weekly").[44][98][99][100] In the countries of the former Soviet Union the Russian
language was being replaced or used in conjunction with local languages.[44][101] Currently, the number of
speakers of Russian in the world depends on the number of Russians in the world and total population in
Russia.[44][92][93]
 The changing proportion of Russian speakers in the world (assessment Aref'eva 2012)[44][100]:387
population Russian total number
worldwide share in share in
Empire, Soviet Union of speakers
Year population, world world
and Russian Federation, of Russian,
million population, % population, %
million million
1900 1,650 138.0 8.4 105 6.4
1914 1,782 182.2 10.2 140 7.9
1940 2,342 205.0 8.8 200 7.6
1980 4,434 265.0 6.0 280 6.3
1990 5,263 286.0 5.4 312 5.9
2004 6,400 146.0 2.3 278 4.3
2010 6,820 142.7 2.1 260 3.8
2020 7,794 143.7 1,8 256 3.3

See also
List of English words of Russian origin
List of Russian language topics
List of territorial entities where Russian is an official language
Computer Russification

Notes
1. On the history of using "русский" ("russkiy") and "российский" ("rossiyskiy") as the Russian
adjectives denoting "Russian", see: Oleg Trubachyov. 2005. Русский – Российский. История,
динамика, идеология двух атрибутов нации (pp. 216–227). В поисках единства. Взгляд
филолога на проблему истоков Руси., 2005. РУССКИЙ - РОССИЙСКИЙ (http://krotov.info/li
br_min/19_t/ru/bachev.htm). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20140218214456/http://krot
ov.info/libr_min/19_t/ru/bachev.htm) from the original on 18 February 2014. Retrieved
25 January 2014.. On the 1830s change in the Russian name of the Russian language and its
causes, see: Tomasz Kamusella. 2012. The Change of the Name of the Russian Language in
Russian from Rossiiskii to Russkii: Did Politics Have Anything to Do with It? (pp. 73–96). Acta
Slavica Iaponica. Vol 32, "The Change of the Name of the Russian Language in Russian from
Rossiiskii to Russkii: Did Politics Have Anything to Do with It?" (http://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/p
ublictn/acta/32/04Kamusella.pdf) (PDF). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201305181651
47/http://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/publictn/acta/32/04Kamusella.pdf) (PDF) from the original on
18 May 2013. Retrieved 7 January 2013.
2. The status of Crimea and of the city of Sevastopol is under dispute between Russia and
Ukraine since March 2014; Ukraine and the majority of the international community consider
Crimea to be an autonomous republic of Ukraine and Sevastopol to be one of Ukraine's cities
with special status, whereas Russia, on the other hand, considers Crimea to be a federal
subject of Russia and Sevastopol to be one of Russia's three federal cities.

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External links
The dictionary definition of Appendix:Russian Swadesh list at Wiktionary
Oxford Dictionaries Russian Dictionary (http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/ru/)
Russian Language (https://curlie.org/Science/Social_Sciences/Linguistics/Languages/Natural/I
ndo-European/Slavic/Russian) at Curlie
USA Foreign Service Institute Russian basic course (https://www.livelingua.com/fsi-russian-co
urse.php)
 Национальный корпус русского языка (http://www.ruscorpora.ru/) National Corpus of the
Russian Language (in Russian)
Russian Language Institute (http://www.ruslang.ru/) Language regulator of the Russian
language (in Russian)

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