NTSE (STAGE-I & II)

BIOLOGY
 PREFACE

Dear Student,

You find yourself at a very important junction in your life as you have to select a correct career
path for your future endeavors and also a suitable study material in this journey which can
keep you on the right track always. It is very important to enjoy this journey as it is long and can

be completed successfully only by making the most out of it.

Aptitude and inclination are clearly the deciding factors for any competitive examination.
Keeping this in view, content of this module has been prepared according to syllabus of
National Talent Search Examination (NTSE). The text of this module enables you to develop

thorough understanding of Principles and Concepts which is required to crack NTSE.

Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division

Every effort has been taken to make our study material error free, however any suggestion to
improve is welcome in this regard.
About NTSE :

National Talent Search Scheme is a flagship activity of the NCERT started in the year 1963. The
purpose of the scheme was to identify talented students and nurture their talent. Talent refers to the
potentiality that manifests itself in a high level of performance in one or more specialized areas.

The purpose of the scheme is to identify talented students and nurture them.This year NCERT will
conduct the National Talent Search Examination for students studying in Class X.

Stages :

There will be two stage selection process for award of scholarship Stage- I, selection will be done by
States/UTs through a written examination Students, who qualify Stage-I, will be eligible to appear for
Stage-II examination, conducted by NCERT. In order to be considered for merit, students from General
Category and Reserved Category (SC/ST/PH) required to qualify with score minimum 40% and
minimum 35% respectively in each MAT, SAT and LCT separately.

Scholarships :
On the basis of the examination conducted,1,000 scholarships will be awarded under the NTSE criteria
:-

 Rs. 1250 per month for Class 11th and 12th level
 Rs. 2000 per month for UG and PG level
 Amount for Phd to be fixed in accordance with UGC norms.

Reservation:
15% scholarships will be reserved for students belonging to the SC category, 7.5% scholarships for
students belonging to the ST category and 3% for Physically Challenged group of students .

How to Apply :
Students can enroll themselves for the examination through school only, application form can
be downloaded from NCERT website http://www.ncert.nic.in also The completed application
form should be signed by the Principal of the School & should be submitted to the Liaison
Officersl. Different states may have different last dates for submission, All queries related to
application form should be directed to the State Liaison Officers (LOs).No application should
be sent to NCERT directly.

Fees :
States and Union Territories may notify the fee required which will be paid for the Stage-I
examination Therefore, before submitting the application form, you may find out the fees
charged for Stage-I examination and also the mode of payment from the respective State
Liaison Officers (LOs) However, NCERT does not charge any fee for Stage-II examination
Paper Pattern:

Test Paper Pattern of NTSE Stage-1 & 2

Test No. of questions Max. Marks Time

MAT
(Mental Ability) 50 50 45 Min.
LCT
(Language Test) 50 50 45 Min.
SAT
(Scholastic Aptitude Test) 100 100 90 Min.
* No Negative Marking in Stage-1 but in stage-2 there will be 1/3 negative marking.

Syllabus :

There is no prescribed syllabus for the NTSE examination. However the standard of the items conforms to the
level of CBSE class 10th.

Results Announcement :
Results of the Stage-I examination will be announced by the respective State Governments/ Union Territories
Results of Stage-II examination will be announced by NCERT Indian Students Studying Abroad in class X can
appear directly for Stage-II NTS examination under conditions prescribed in the NTS brochure which is available
on the NCERT website.

Important Web Links :

Stage –I Examination : http:\\www.rajboard.nic.in

Stage-II Examination : http:\\www.ncert.nic.in

 DETAIL DESCRIPTION OF CONTENTS FOR NTSE

1. CELL
Cell, Cell Theory, Types of Cell, Cell shape, Cell size, Components of cell, Cell membrane, Cell wall, Nucleus,
Cytoplasm, Cell organelle - Mitochondria, Plastid, Endoplasmic Reticulum, Golgi Apparatus, Vacuole, Peroxisomes,
Lysosomes, Glyoxysomes, Ribosome, Difference between Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic cell, Cytoskeleton, Cell division.

2. TISSUE
Introduction, Plant Tissue, Meristematic tissue, Permanent tissue, Simple Permanent Tissue (Parenchyma
Collenchyma, Sclerenchyma), Complex Permanent tissue (Xylem, Phloem), Animal Tissue, Epithelial Tissue,
Connective tissue, Muscular Tissue, Nervous tissue.

3. HUMAN DISEASES
Disease , Terms related to disease, Cause of disease, Categories of disease, Treatment, Prevention from infectious
disease, Some Important Points.

4. NUTRITION
Definition, Modes of Nutrition, Nutrition in Plants, Photosynthesis, Essential for Photosynthesis, Raw material of
Photosynthesis, Site of Photosynthesis, Mechanism of Photosynthesis, Nutrition in animals (Amoeba, Human
being) Summary.

5. RESPIRATION
Definition, Steps of Respiration, Types of respiration, Respiration in Plants, Respiration in animals, Mechanism of
Respiration, Respiratory Quotient, Some Important Points, Some Important Disorders.

6. TRANSPORTATION
Definition, Transportation in Plants, Transportation in Animals, Types of Blood Vascular System, Structure of Heart,
Blood Clotting, Blood Group, Working of heart, Heart Sounds, Special Point.

7. EXCRETION
Definition, Organ of Excretion in Man, Need for Excretion, Nature of Excretory wastes, Excretion in Plants,Excretion in
Amoeba, Excretory System of Man, Physiology of Excretion, Kidney disorders.

8. REPRODUCTION
Definition , Types of reproduction (Vegetative, Asexual & Sexual), Sexual Reproduciton in Plants, Pollination, Fertilisation
in Plants, Sexual Reproduction in Human Beings (Male and Female Reproductive System), Menstrual cycle, Events
of Human Reproduction, Extra - Embryonic membranes , Parturition, Twins.

9. CONTROL & CO-ORDINATION

Introduction, Chemical Co-ordination in Plants, Growth regulators, Parthenocarpy, Control & Co-ordination in Animals
Nervous Co-ordination in Animals, Nervous system in Human, Types of Neuron, Nervous System, Reflex Action.

10. HEREDITY & VARIATION

Heredity, Variation, Mendel’s Contribution, Mendel’s Experiment, Monohybrid cross, Dihybrid cross, Mendel’s Law of
inheritance, Genes, Structure of DNA, Multiple Allele, Co-dominance, Incomplete dominance, Pedigree analysis.

11. ORIGIN & EVOLUTION

Origin of Life, Organic Evolution, Evidences of Evolution, Lamarckism, Darwinism, Human Evolution.

12. DIVERSITY OF LIVING ORGANISMS

Diversity and Classification, Significance of Classification, Taxonomic Hierarchy, Nomenclature, System of
Classification, Classification of Organisms, Basis of Classification, Sub-Kingdom (Cryptogamae, Phanerogamae),
Animal Kigdom.

13. IMPROVEMENT OF FOOD RESOURCES

Introduction, Improvement in Crop yield, Varietal Improvement of Crops, Crop Production Management, Manure & its
types, Storage of Grains, Animal Husbandary, Cattle Farming, Poultry Farming, Pisciculture, Apiculture.

14. NATURAL RESOURCES & ITS MANAGEMENT

Definition, Types of Natural Resources, Atmosphere - Hydrosphere, Lithosphere, Pollution - Air Pollution, Water
Pollution,Soil Pollution, Radio-active Pollution, Noise Pollution, Biogeochemical Cycle (Water, Nitrogen , Carbon,
Oxygen) Forest & Wildlife.

15. OUR ENVIRONMENT

Ecosystem, Components of ecosystem, Food Chain, Food web, Ecological Pyramid, Need to Conserve Ecosystem,
Pollution.
 BIOLOGY
NTSE (STAGE-I & II)

CONTENTS
S. NO. TOPICS PAGE NO.

1. Cell 1 -1 4

2. Tissue 15 -2 8

3. Human Diseases 29 -3 8

4. Nutrition 39 -5 2

5. Respiration 53 -6 2

6. Transpor tation 63 -7 0

7. Excretion 71 -7 8

8. Reproduct ion 79 -9 2

9. Control and Co-ordination 9 3- 10 5

10. Heredity & Variation 10 6- 11 1

11. Origin and Evolution 11 2- 11 5

12. Diversity of Living Organisms 11 6- 13 3

13. Improvement of Food Resources 13 4- 14 3

14. Natural Resource & its Management 14 4- 15 2

15. Our Environment 15 3- 16 1

16. Answer Key 16 2- 16 4

© Copyright reserved

All right reserved. Any photocopying, publishing or reproduction of full or any part of this study
material is strictly prohibited. This material belongs to only the enrolled student of RESONANCE.
Any sale/resale of this material is punishable under law.
 CELL
(ii) Eukaryotic cells : These are well developed
CELL
cells.They have advanced nucleus with nuclear
• All living forms are composed of microscopic units membrane and nucleolus. e.g. Plants & animals.
called as “Cells”. The word cell was derived from a (c) Cell Shape:
Greek word “Cellulae” which means small room.
• A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all Cells are of various shapes and sizes. Their shape is
according to the function. Generally cells are spherical
life forms.
but they may be elongated (nerve cell), branched
• Study of structure and composition of cell is called as
(pigmented cell), discoidal (RBC), spindle shaped
“Cytology”.
(muscle cell) etc.
• Cell was first observed by “Robert Hooke” in a dead
cork slice in the year 1665. He described about this in (d) Cell Size:
his book “Micrographia”. Size of cell is variable depending upon the type of
• First living cell was discovered by A.V. Leeuwenhoek. organism. Some are microscopic while some are
• The term protoplasm was coined by Purkinje in 1839. visible with naked eyes. Their size may vary from 0.2
• Protoplasm was discovered by “Felix Dujardin” and m to 15 cm.
named as sarcode.
• The largest cell is ostrich egg (18 cm. in diameter
• It’s consistency differs under different conditions. t
with shell & 15 cm. in diameter without shell).
exists in sol-gel states.
• The longest cell is nerve cell (upto 1m. or more).
• Protoplasm is an aggregate of various chemicals such
• Smallest cells so far known are PPLOs e.g.
as water, ions, salts and other organic molecules like
Mycoplasma ( 0.1 m in diameter).
proteins, carbohydrates, fats, nucleic acids, vitamins etc.
(e) Components of a Cell
(a) Cell Theory :
There is an occurrence of division of labour within a
• Two biologists, “Schleiden and Schwann’’ gave the
cell as they all got certain specific components called
“Cell theory” which was later on expanded by “Rudolf
“Cell organelles” each of them perform a specific
Virchow”. Cell theory states that
function.
(i) All plants and animals are composed of cells.
(ii) Cell is the basic unit of life. • The three basic components of all the cells are :
(iii) All cells arise from pre-existing cells. (i) Plasma Membrane
(ii) Nucleus
• Viruses are the exceptions of cell theory.
(iii) Cytoplasm
(b) Types of Organism & Cell :

1. On the Basis of Number of Cells Organisms can CELL MEMBRANE

be categorized as : Cell membrane is also called as Plasma Membrane
(i) Unicellular organisms : These are the or Plasmalemma.
organisms which are made up of single cell only.
• It is the limiting boundary of each cell which separates
This single cell performs all the vital body
the cytoplasm from its surroundings.
functions of an organism. e.g. Amoeba
• It is found in both plant as well as animal cells.
(ii) Multicellular organisms : These are the • It is the outermost covering of a cell in case of animals
organisms which are made up of numerous cells. and lies below the cell wall in case of plants.
These cells then combine to form an organ and • It is made up of proteins and lipids where proteins
group of organs performing different functions are embedded in lipids bilayer .
forms an organ system which further forms an
• Plasma membrane is selectively permeable in nature.
organism. e.g. Plants and animals
It allows or permits the entry and exit of some
2. On the basis of type of organization, cells are of materials in and out of the cell.
Two Types : • Singer and Nicholson gave the fluid mosaic model of
(i) Prokaryotic cells : These are primitive and plasma membrane. According to him it consists of a
incomplete cells.They have less developed protein layer sandwiched between two layers of lipids.
nucleus without nuclear membrane and • It is in quasifluid state. It is 75 Å thick. It is flexible and
nucleolus. e.g. Bacteria. can be folded, broken and reunited.

PAGE # 1
 Inside the cell

• Fluid mosaic model : According to this model, the lipid (ii) Osmosis : The movement of solvent or water from
bilayer and the integral proteins appear like mosaic higher concentration to lower concentration
arrangement and the quasifluid feature of both enable through a semipermeable membrane is called
them for lateral movement within the overall bilayer. as osmosis. Osmosis can also be called as
“diffusion of solvents”.
 The membrane protein can be classified in two
types: peripheral (extrinsic) and integral (intrinsic).  Endosmosis : Movement of solvent into the cell is
The peripheral or extrinsic proteins can be called as Endosmosis.
dissociated easily by a mild treatment with salt  Exosmosis : Movement of solvent outside the cell
concentration. is called as Exosmosis.
 These proteins are present entirely outside the
2. Types of solutions on the basis of concentration :
lipid bilayer. The integral or intrinsic proteins
account for 70% of the total membrane proteins, (i) sotonic solution: When the concentration of the
They can not be extracted from the membrane solution outside the cell is equal to the
without disrupting the latter. concentration of cytoplasm of the cell it is called
as isotonic solution.
• Functions of plasma membrane :
(ii) Hypertonic solution : When the concentration of
(i) To regulate the movement of molecules inside
the solution outside the cell is more than that
and outside the cell.
inside the cell. Due to this cell looses water and
(ii) To help in maintaining the distinct composition of becomes plasmolysed.
the cell.
(iii) Hypotonic solution : When the concentration of
(iii) To receive external signals and mediate cellular the solution outside the cell is lesser than that of
responses. cytoplasm of cell. Due to this cell swells up and
(iv) To mediate cell- cell recognition and interaction. bursts.

(v) To facilitate increase in surface area, cell

movements and migration.
1. Transportation of molecules across the plasma It is the outermost covering of the plant cells. It is
membrane : This can be done by following ways : absent in animal cells. Cell wall is rigid, strong, thick,
porous and non living structure. It is made up of
(i) Diffusion : Movement of solutes or ions from
cellulose and hemicellulose. Cell walls of two
higher concentration to lower concentration is
adjacent cells are joined by a layer called middle
called as diffusion. It does not require energy
lamellae. It is made up of calcium and magnesium
therefore it is called as passive transport.
pectate.

PAGE # 2
• Functions of cell wall : • Plasmodesmata : The cell wall does not totally isolate
 It provides definite shape to the cell. a plant cell. It is interrupted by narrow pores carrying
fine strands of cytoplasm, which interlined the contents
 It provides strength to the cell. of the cells.They are called plasmodesma connection
 It is permeable and allows entry of molecules of or plasmodesmata.
different sizes.
 It has the characteristics of repair and
regeneration.

Fig. Nucleus
• Nucleus is the most important cell organelle which
directs and controls all its cellular activities.
• t is called as “Headquarter of the cell”. It is the site of both biosynthetic and catabolic
• t was discovered by “Robert Brown in 1831”. pathways. It can be divided into two parts :
• In eukaryotes a well defined nucleus is present while (i) Cytosol : Aqueous soluble part contains various
in prokaryotes a well defined nucleus is absent. fibrous proteins forming cytoskeleton.
• Prokaryotes contain a primitive nucleus. (ii) Cell organelles : Living part of the cells having
• It has a double layered covering called as nuclear definite shape, structure and function bounded
membrane. by plasma membrane.
• Nuclear membrane has pores which regulate the • Double membranous cell organelles : Nucleus,
movement of materials in & out of the nucleus mitochondria, chloroplast
• Besides nuclear membrane nucleus also contains  Single membranous cell organelles :
nucleolus and chromatin material and the substance Endoplasmic reticulum, golgibodies, lysosomes,
filled inside the nucleus is nucleoplasm or vacuoles.
karyolymph.  Non-membranous cell organelles : Ribosomes,
• Chromosomes or chromatin material consists of DNA cytoskeletal elements
which stores & transmits hereditary information for
the cell to function, grow and reproduce.
MITOCHONDRIA
• Nucleolus :
Mitochondria : It is a rod shaped structure found in
 It was first observed by Fontana. cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells except mammalian
 It is without a limiting membrane. RBC’s. These are also absent in prokaryotes.
 It is the structure in which ribosomes are formed. It is also called as “Power House of the Cell” or the
“Storage Battery”.
• Functions of the nucleus : It is double membranous structure where outer
 It controls all the metabolic activities of the cell membrane has specific proteins while inner
and regulates the cell cycle. membrane is folded inside to form projections called
 It helps in transmission of hereditary characters “ Cristae” . ATP synthesizing units are called
from parents to offsprings. Oxysomes or F1 Particles are present on cristae.
Space between inner and outer mitochondrial
membranes is called as perimitochondrial space.

PAGE # 3
• The fluid present in mitochondria is called as matrix. It is site of Kreb Cycle.

Head
(F1 particle) ATPase
Outer chamber
Inner
chamber Stalk
Base
Fo

outer Inner cristae matrix stalked matrix Inner

membrane membrane elementary mitochondrial
particle membrane

(A) Mitochondria (B) Cristae (C) Fo - F1 Complex

• Functions :  In each thylakoid Quantasomes are present
which are called as Photosynthetic units.
 ts main function is to produce and store the energy
in the form of ATP.  Each quantasome possesses 230 chlorophyll
 Oxysome contains enzymes for ATP production. molecules.
 Matrix contains enzymes for Kreb cycle.

It is a double membranous discoidal structure, found

only in plant cells.
Term plastid was given by Haeckel.
Besides being discoidal or rhombic in plant cells they
occur in variable shapes like in algae they can be ‘U’
shaped , spiral , coiled, ribbon shaped etc.

• Depending upon the type of pigment present in them

Fig. Internal structure of chloroplast of higher plants.
they are of following three types :
(ii) Stroma: t is a granular transparent substance
also called as matrix. Grana are embedded in it.
Leucoplast Chromoplast Chloroplast Besides grana they also contain lipid droplets,
starch grains, ribosomes & double stranded
– Non – Coloured – Green
circular DNA etc.
Pigmented pigments pigment
– white other than chlorophyll • Function : This is the site of dark reaction of
in colour green is found photosynthesis. Also helps in protein synthesis due
– Generally Phaeoplast – Brown in them to presence of ribosomes.
found in Rhodoplast – Red – Found in
underground aerial parts
parts of plant ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
– Important which are
for food green in colour It is the network of membranes present in the
storage. cytoplasm. It was discovered by Porter, Claude and
e.g. Aleuroplast,(stores proteins) Fullan.These are present in all cells except
Elaioplast (stores fats and oils) prokaryotes and mammalian erythrocytes.
Amyloplast (stores starch) • They are made up of three components :
• Chloroplast have following two Parts (i) Cisternae : These are long, flattened, parallely
(i) Grana : t constitutes the lamellar system. These arranged, unbranched tubules. These form
are found layered on top of each other, these stacks successive layers of nucleus. These are found
are called as Grana. Each granum of the in cells which are active in protein synthesis and
chloroplast is formed by super imposed closed are 40 – 50 m in diameter..
compartments called Thylakoids.
(ii) Vesicles : These are rounded or spherical they
• Functions : are found in synthetically active cells.
 They are the sites of light reaction of (iii) Tubules : These are small, smooth walled &
photosynthesis as they contain photosynthetic have tubular spaces. These are found in
pigment chlorophyll. secretory as well as steroid synthesizing cells.
Endoplasmic reticulum of striated muscles are
called as sarcoplasmic reticulum.

PAGE # 4
 Fig. Endoplasmic Reticulum

(a) Types :

Endoplasmic reticulum is of two types

Smooth ER Rough ER
– Made of tubules – Made of cisternae &
mainly. vesicles.
– Helps in steroid, – Helps in protein
lipids & polysaccharide synthesis.
synthesis. – Contains ribosomes
– Ribosomes are on its surface.
absent .
– Helps in membrane
biogenesis.

• Functions of ER : (vi) Its vesicles reform the nuclear membrane at

telophase stage of cell division.
(i) It serves as a channel for the transport of
materials between various regions of cytoplasm
and between cytoplasm and nucleus.
(ii) t also functions as a cytoplasmic framework to Golgi apparatus consists of a system of membrane
provide space for some of the biochemical bounded flattened tubules arranged parallel to each
activities. other in stacks called cisternae along with some large
(iii) t forms cytoskeleton of cell. and spherical vesicles.
It was discovered by Camilo Golgi.
(iv) t helps in synthesis of fats, steroids, cholesterol etc.
In plants Golgi body is called as Dictyosomes.
(v) t contains secretory proteins. It is single membrane bounded.
(vi) SER plays a crucial role in detoxification of drugs It is absent in prokaryotes, mammalian RBC’s & sieve
and poisonous by-products. cells.
Discharged
vesicles

Cisternae

Vesicles fusing
with cis face
Tubules
Transition
vesicles
Fig. Golgi apparatus

PAGE # 5
• Functions • In animal cells vacuoles are smaller in size & few
while in plant cells a single large vacuole is found
(i) It helps in formation of lipids.
which occupies about 90% of the volume of cell.
(ii) It helps in formation of middle lamellae.
• Functions :
(iii) It is secretory in nature.
 It helps in maintaining osmotic pressure in a cell.
(iv) It helps in melanin synthesis.
 It stores toxic metabolic products of plant cell.
(v) Lipids and proteins synthesized in endoplasmic  It contains various coloured pigments like
reticulum are packed & modified at Golgi anthocyanins.
complex.
(vi) They provide the site for assembly of new
membrane material.
(Discovery : Christian de Duve) (Lyso = digestive,
soma = body)
These are tiny sac like granules containing enzymes
These are membrane bounded regions in the of intracellular digestion.
cytoplasm containing water and other substances. They are bounded by a single membrane.
They are bounded by a single membrane called They occur in animal cells and a few plant cells.
Tonoplast. They do not have a definite shape or size.

Lysosomes
They contain hydrolysing enzymes called acid (1969)The term ‘peroxisome’ was first used by de
hydrolases. Duve and also called as uricosomes.
• Functions : Peroxisomes are ovoid or granular structures, limited
by a single unit membrane and have a diameter of 0.5
 Their main function is phagy = digestion to 1.0 m.
 They are kind of waste disposal system. In green leaves of C3 plants, peroxisomes carry out
photorespiration.
 They help in digesting foreign materials and worn
In animal cells they carry out lipid metabolism.
out cells.
They contain important enzymes as oxidases (peroxide
 During disturbances in cellular metabolism i.e. producing enzyme), peroxidases and catalases (which
in case of cell damage lysosomes burst and break down toxic peroxides to water and oxygen).
their enzymes are released into the cytoplasm
and they digest their own cell so they are also
called as “Suicidal Bags”. GLYOXYSOMES
Beavers (1961) was the first person to discover these
organelles and were described later by R.W .
These structures were first described from liver and Briedenbach (1967). They are about 0.5 to 1 m in
kidney cells by Rodhin (1954). In plant cells, they were size and are surrounded by a single unit membrane.
first observed in germinating seeds by Tolbert They are found in plant cells, particularly, in germinating
fatty seeds e.g. Ricinus (castor) and groundnut where

PAGE # 6
 fat is being converted into carbohydrates by a process • Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis : All
called glyoxylate cycle. Glyoxysomes contain structural and functional proteins (enzymes) coded by
important enzymes, isocitrate, lyase, maltase and the nuclear DNA, are synthesized upon cytoplasmic
synthetase along with several others. Structure of ribosomes. The DNA codes of chromosomes are
glyoxysome is similar to peroxisome. transcripted into messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules
in the nucleus. mRNA molecules diffuse out into the
cytoplasm and each becomes attached to several
ribosomes which thus form a group called polysome or
• First reported by Claude and named by G. Palade. polyribosomes. In this way each mRNA molecule brings
• They are one of the smallest cell organelles of cell. about polymerization of amino acids to form specific
• It is of two types that is 70s(Prokaryotic),80s protein molecules, with the help of ribosomes in the
(Eukaryotic). cytosol.

Ribosomes
Fig. Differences Between a Plant Cell & an Animal Cell

Plant Cell Animal Cell

PAGE # 7
 TABLE : DIFFERENCES BETW EEN PROKARYOTIC CELLS AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS
S.No. Characters Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells
1. N uclear Incipient nucleus , N o nuclear True nucleus , N uclear m em brane
body m em brane N ucleolus abs ent pres ent Nucleolus pres ent
N o m itos is Single clos ed loop, Mitos is found Multiple
(his tones abs ent) chrom os om es ,(his tones
pres ent in chrom os om e)
2. Mitos is N o m itos is Mitos is found
3. D NA arrangem ent Single clos ed loop, Multiple chrom os om es , (his tones
(his tones abs ent) pres ent in chrom os om e)
4. R es piratory s ys tem In plas m a m em brane, In m itochondria
(m itochondria abs ent)
5. Photos ynthetic apparatus in internal m em branes , In chloroplas ts
(chloroplas ts abs ent)
6. Golgi bodies , Chloroplas t, Abs ent Pres ent
Endoplas m ic reticulum .
Mitochondria, Lys os om es

7. R ibos om es 70 S type 80 S type

8. C ell w all Generally pres ent, com plex Pres ent in s om e types , s im ple
chem ical com pos ition chem ical com pos ition
9. Flagella Subm icros copic, do not have Micros copic s ize have 9 + 2 fibrillar
9 + 0 fibrillar s tructure s tructure
10. C ytoplas m ic m ovem ents C ytoplas m ic s tream ing C ytoplas m ic s tream ing often occurs
rare or abs ent
11. Vacuoles Abs ent Pres ent
12. Lys os om e Abs ent Pres ent
13. C aps ule May be pres ent Always abs ent
(ii) Cilia and flagella : These are thread like
CYTOSKELETON
appendages used for locomotion and emerge
The ability of eukaryotic cells to adopt a variety of from basal body. They are made up of
shapes and to carry out directed movements depends microtubules.
on the cytoskeleton. Three principle types of protein (iii) Chromosomes : These are thread like structures
filaments : microfilaments, microtubules, and containing hereditary information in form of genes.
intermediate filaments, constitute the cytoskeleton. They are made up of DNA and histone proteins.
• Microfilaments are ~ 8 nm in diameter. They help in (iv) There are four different types of membranes
cell motion or change in shape. Microfilaments are on the basis of permeability :
made up of actin-like protein.
(a) Permeable : They allow diffusion of both
• Microtubules are hollow tube of ~ 25 nm diameter & solvent and solute molecules or ions through
composed of tubulin . The microtubules perform them. e.g. Cell wall of plant cell.
following functions :
(b) mpermeable: They prohibit the diffusion of
(i) Help in maintaining cell shape. both solvent and solute particles through
(ii) Are Involved along with microfilaments in cell them. e.g. Cutinized cell wall, Lignified cell
movements. wall.
(iii) Participate in intracellular transport. (c) Semipermeable: Allows diffusion of solvent
molecules but do not allow the passage of
(iv) They play an important role in movement of
solute molecules. e.g. Parchment paper,
organelles.
Kidney membrane.
• The intermediate filaments have 8-10 nm diameter.
(d) Differentially permeable: t allows some
In most animal cells, they form a basket around the
solutes to pass through them along with the
nucleus and are present in cell-cell junction. They are
solvent molecules. e.g. Plasmalemma,
made up of different types of proteins.
Tonoplast.
• Some Important Points : (v) Cell organelles can be separated by the method
(i) Centrosome : It is found in animal cell. It consists of differential centrifugation.
of two centrioles. It is non membranous. It is made (vi) First cell that was developed in laboratory by
up of microtubules. It helps in cell division and Sydney Fox and A.I. Oparin was called as
spindle formation. Coacervate.

PAGE # 8
 (vii) Lysosomes exhibit polymorphism i.e. they occur (ii) Short dividing M – phase or mitotic phase
in different forms.
(i) Long non dividing (I – phase) or interphase or
(viii) Mitochondria & plastid have their own DNA preparatory phase : Interphase divided in the
molecules so they are called as “Semiautono- following steps.
mous Cell Organelles”.
• G1 (First growth phase),
(ix) Connections through which cells communicate
• S(Synthesis phase),
chemically with each other through their thick
walls are called as “Plasmodesmata”. • G2 (Second growth phase)

(x) Cell wall of fungi is made up of chitin instead of Mitotic division phase
cellulose.
(xi) Protoplasm was called as “Physical Basis of

(1 h hase
Mp
Life” by Huxley.

r)
(xii) DNA is called as “Chemical Basis of Life”. (3-4 hr)
(xiii) DNA- structure explained by double helix model G2 phase (12 hr)
which was proposed by Watson and crick. DNA
G1 phase
is a polynucleotide chain. S-phase
• One nucleotide is made up of : Phosphate group + (6-8 hr)
deoxy ribose sugar + nitrogen base [A/T/G/C] D.N.A.
(xiv) RNA (Ribose Nucleic acid) : RNA responsible Synthesis
for protein synthesis in a living cell. RNA are of Cell cycle
three type : mRNA, tRNA, rRNA. It is also a (ii) Short dividing M – phase : t is the phase of cell
polynucleotide chain and one nucelotide is made division. It consists of karyokinesis (nuclear
up of Phosphate group + ribose sugar + nitrogen division) and cytokinesis (cytoplasmic division).It
base is of three types:
[A/U/G/C]
(a ) Mitos is :
(xv) Gene is the sub unit of DNA
(xvi) Euglena is the connecting link between plants
• Term mitosis was given by Flemming.
and animals as it lacks cell wall but has plastids. • It is also called as somatic division as it occurs during
formation of body cells.
(xvii) Mesosomes in bacteria are analogous to • It is an equational division in which a parent cell divides
mitochondria as they both help in cellular into two identical daughter cells, each of them contains
respiration. the same number of chromosomes as are present
(xviii)Centre for cellular and molecular biology is in parent cell.
situated at Hyderabad. • It occurs in two steps :
(i) Karyokinesis (ii) Cytokinesis
(xix) In animal cell the ‘Cell Coat’ is present instead
of cell wall which provides them protection. It is (i) Karyokinesis : Division of nucleus. It is divided in
made up of glycocalyx. four steps :
(A) Prophase : Longest phase. In this chromatin
(xx) ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) is the energy
condensed into chromosomes and nuclear
currency of the cell i.e. energy in cell is stored in
membrane disappears.
form of ATP molecules.
(B) Metaphase : Chromosomes are arranged at the
(xxi) Microscopy : Is the practice of using microscope equator & forming a metaphase plate.
for the study of finer details of small objects Chromosomes are shortest and thickest in this
including cells and tissues. stage. This phase is most suitable for study of
TYPES OF MICROSCOPE INVENTOR chromosomes.
Sim ple Robert Hooke (C) Anaphase : Shortest phase of cell division.
Com pound AV Leeuwenhoek • Chromosomes are appeared in different shapes.
Light com pound Jans s en and Jans s en
• V – Shaped (Metacentric)
Electron Knoll and R us ka
• L – Shaped (Submetacentric)
• J – Shaped (Acrocentric)
CELL DIVISION • I – Shaped (Telocentric)
Cell division was first observed by Nageli in plant cell (D) Telophase : It is reverse of prophase
(1842) and it was first studied by Prevost and Dumas (ii) Cytokinesis : It is referred to the division of
in the fertilized egg of frog. cytoplasm.
• Cell Cycle : It is a series of programmed cyclic changes In animals it occurs by formation of cleavage furrow
by which the cell duplicates its contents and divides in the middle by constriction in plasma membrane.
into two daughter cells. Cell cycle was discovered by In plants it occurs by cell plate formation.
Howard and Pelc.It is divided into two phases :
• Note : Colchicine is a mitotic poison. It blocks the
(i) Long non dividing (I – phase) or interphase. completion of metaphase.

PAGE # 9
PAGE # 10
 (b) Meiosis : (A) Meiosis – I : Also called as reduction division.
Diploid stage changes to haploid stage. It occurs
• It occurs only once in the life cycle of organism. in four steps.
• It is a double division in which a diploid cell divides  Prophase – I : It is the longest phase of meiosis.
twice to form four haploid cells. It has following stages :
• It can be studied in anthers of unopened flowers in
 Leptotene : Chromatin fibres condense to form
plants and in testis of grasshopper in animals.It chromosomes.There are two chromosomes of
consists of two phases : each type which are diploid and are called as
“homologous chromosomes”.
(i) Interphase : Size of nucleus increases to three
times. It also involves G1 – S – phase in meiosis-  Zygotene : Synaptonemal complex is formed
I and G1 – G2 in meiosis-II. between two homologous chromosomes.
(ii) M – phase : It occurs in two steps  Pachytene : The exchange of segments between
non sister chromatids of chromosome is called
(A) Meiosis – I, (B) Meiosis – II
as crossing over.

• Diplotene : Synaptonemal complex is dissolved, • Telophase–I : Chromosomes elongate, nucleoplasm

tetrads are cleared. At some places nonsister & nuclear envelope reappears.
chromatids of two homologous chromosomes remain
attached to form a chiasmata. (B) Meiosis – II : It is also called as equational
division and maintains the haploid number of
• Diakinesis : Chiasmata shifts towards ends,
chromosomes. No replication of DNA occurs in
nucleolus degenerates.
this stage (It is similar to mitosis)
• Metaphase – I : Spindles are formed and bivalents
form a double whorl or double metaphase plate. • Prophase – II
• Metaphase – II
• Anaphase – I : Chiasmata disappears, homologous • Anaphase – II
chromosomes separate by disjunction forming dyads.
• Telophase – II
They move towards poles and form two groups of
haploid chromosomes. • Differences between mitotic and meiotic cell division

Mitosis Meiosis
It occurs in all s om atic cells . It occurs in reproductive cells (germ cells )
In the res ultant daughter cells , the num ber In res ultant daughter cells , the
of chrom os om es rem ains the s am e (i.e., diploid), num ber of chrom os om es reduces to half
hence, called equational divis ion. (i.e., haploid), hence, called reductional divis ion.
By m itos is tw o daughter cells are produced By m eios is four daughter cells are produced.
During m itos is no cros s ing over takes place D uring m eios is cros s ing over takes place.
Daughter cells have identical chrom os om es C hrom os om es of the daughter cells are
which are als o identical to that of parent cell w ith com bined com ponents (genes ) of both
(i.e. rem ains cons tant) parents (i.e., genetic variability occurs )

PAGE # 11
• Significance of mitosis : It is essential for growth, 8. When a cell is fully turgid , which one of the
repair, differentiation, maintenance of chromosome following will be zero ?
number etc. (A) turgor pressure (B) wall pressure
(C) suction pressure (D) osmotic pressure
• Significance of meiosis : It produces variations and
9. Mammalian liver cells will swell when kept in
essential for sexual reproduction. It maintains the
(A) hypertonic solution
chromosome number in each generation of living
(B) hypotonic solutions
organisms.
(C) isotonic solution
(c) Amitosis : It was discovered by Remak. In this (D) isothermal solutions
division, cells are divided into two cells without 10. Mitochondrial matrix contains :
any particular pattern. e.g. prokaryotic cells. (A) Enzymes (B) DNA and RNA
(C) Ribosomes (D) All of the above
EXERCISE-1 11. Mitochondria are semi autonomous due to :
Cell (A) Presence of functional naked DNA
(B) Presence of ribosomes
1. Cells are autonomous because :
(C) Synthesize its own Protein
(A) They synthesize components of living protoplasm (D) All of the above
from nonliving materials.
12. Chromoplasts are formed from chloroplast during :
(B) They are able to grow and divide.
(A) Ripening of tomato (B) Ripening of chilli
(C) Each cell has its own life span. (C) Development of carrot (D) Both A and B
(D) All of the above
13. Endoplasmic Reticulum is absent in :
2. In bacteria the respiratory enzymes are located on : (A) Animal cells (B) Prokaryotes
(A) Plasmid (B) Episome (C) Plant cells (D) Protista and fungi
(C) Mesosome (D) Nucleoid 14. W hich one of the following provides mechanical
support to cell ?
3. Which one is present in bacteria ?
(A) Ribosomes
(A) Nucleus (B) Golgi apparatus
(B) Golgi bodies
(C) Mitochondria (D) Ribosomes (C) Lysosomes
4. Which one of the following is the smallest in size ? (D) Endoplasmic reticulum
(A) Bacteria (B) Mitochondrion 15. Ribosomes develop from :
(C) Mammalian cell (D) Virus (A) Nucleus (B) Nucleolus
(C) Endoplasmic reticulum (D) Mitochondria
5. Grapes were put in a concentrated sugar solution. On
16. Proteins are synthesized on,
examination after 12 hours, the grapes were shrunken.
(A) Cytoskeleton (B) Mitochondria
This is because,
(C) Ribosomes (D) Golgi apparatus
(A) Grapes become sweeter
17. If the analogy of a city is applied to a eukaryotic cell
(B) Water evaporates from the solution
then which of the following statements is correct ?
(C) Sugar induces disintegration of grapes (A) Nucleus as a library and ribosome as a slaughter
(D) Loss of water from grapes by osmosis house
6. Osmosis takes place between two solutions (B) Nucleus as a police station and mitochondria as
powerhouse
separated by a semipermeable membrane because.
(C) Mitochondria as powerhouse and Golgi as a cargo
(A) W ater molecules move from the more dilute sorting facility
solution to the less dilute solution (D) Mitochondria as powerhouse and nucleus as
(B) Solute molecules move from the less dilute slaughter house
solution to the more dilute solution 18. If you fractionate all the organelles from the cytoplasm
(C) W ater molecules move from the less dilute of a plant cell. In which one of the following sets of
solution to the more dilute solution fractions will you find nucleic acids ?
(D) Solute molecules move from the more dilute (A) nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplast, cytoplasm
(B) nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplast, glyoxysome
solution to the less dilute solution
(C) n uc leus, c hlorop last , cyto plasm an d
7. Plasmolysis is not observed in boiled plant tissue peroxisome
because : (D) nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplast, Golgi bodies
(A) The cell wall becomes impermeable to water 19. Microtubules are present in :
(B) The cell membrane disintegrates (A) Bacteria (B) Viruses
(C) The cell wall disintegrates (C) Eukaryotes (D) Mycoplasma
(D) The cell membrane becomes impermeable to 20. The following structure is NOT found in plant cells
water (A) vacuole (B) nucleus
(C) centriole (D) vitamin D
PAGE # 12
 9. Ribosome is present in both eukaryotic and
EXERCISE-2 prokaryotic cells, it infers that ribosome is.
(Haryana/NTSE Stage-1/Cell/2013)
COMPETITIVE EXAM QUESTIONS (A) Necessary for protein synthesis
1. Cell organelle which differentiates plant cell from (B) A membrane less organelle
animal cell is – (C) Independent of nucleus
(Raj/NTSE/Stage-1/Cell/13) (D) Meeting body's energy requirement in all the above
conditions.
(A) Cell Membrane (B) Plastids
(C) Nucleolus (D) Vacuoles 10. W hat happens when a cell placed in hypertonic
solution ?
2. Example of cell organelle which do not have a unit
membrane is (MP/NTSE Stage-1/Cell/2013)
(Raj/NTSE/Stage-1/Cell/07) (A) Endosmosis (B) Exosmosis
(A) Mitochondria (B) Lysosome (C) Deplasmolysis (D) Imbibition
(C) Ribosome (D) Plastid 11. Organisms lacking nuclear membrane and cell organelles
3. Chromosome reaches the equator during which stage is called as :
of cell division ? (MP/NTSE Stage-1/Cell/2013)
(Raj/NTSE/Stage-1/Cell/07) (A) Prokaryotes (B) Eukaryotes
(A) Prophase (B) Metaphase (C) Protozoa (D) Virus
(C) Anaphase (D) Telophase 12. Ribosomes are the centre for :
4. Decreasing order of size is : (MP/NTSE Stage-1/Cell/2013)
(Raj/NTSE/Stage-1/Cell/06) (A) Respiration (B) Protein sythesis
(A) DNA, t RNA, m RNA(B) m RNA, DNA, t RNA (C) Photosynthesis (D) Fat synthesis
(C) t RNA, DNA, m RNA(D) DNA, m RNA, t RNA 13. Lipids and proteins constituting the cell membrane
5. Sequence of cell cycle is : are synthesized at :
(Raj/NTSE/Stage-1/Cell /07) (Chandidarh/NTSE Stage-1/Cell/2013)
(A) GI, GII S (B) S, GI ,GII (A) endoplasmic reticulum
(C) GI, S, GII (D) GI , GII ,GIII (B) mitochondria
(C) golgi apparatus
6. Mitosis (D) Lysosomes
(Delhi/NTSE/Stage-1/Cell/2013)
14. W hich one of the following cell organelle does not
(A) leads to recombinant daughter cells
participate in cellular division.
(B) is a reduction division
(Punjab/NTSE Stage-1/Cell/2013)
(C) leads to formation of parental type of daughter
(A) Ribosomes (B) Chromosomes
cells
(C) Cytoplasm (D) Nucleus
(D) occurs in gametes
15. Cell organelle 'Bioplast' was given another name by
7. Mitochondria and chloroplasts are similar because
Benda, which is
(Delhi/NTSE/Stage-1/Cell/2013)
(Raj/NTSE Stage-1/Cell/2013)
(A) Both have nuclei (A) Chloroplast (B) Mitochondria
(B) Both have 80s ribosomes (C) Ribosome (D) Lysosome
(C) Both have DNA
(D) Both have signle membrane envelope 16. Cell organelle that allows certain substances to enter
or come out from the cell is
8. W hich one of the following diagram depict early (Raj/NTSE Stage-1/Cell/2013)
telophase – I. (A) Ribosome (B) Plasma membrane
(Haryana/NTSE/Stage-1/Cell/2013) (C) Centrosome (D) Golgi body
17. Which cell organelle is known as “Suicidal bag” -
1M 1M (M.P./NTSE Stage-1/Cell/2013)
1P 2M (A) Centrosome (B) Mesosome
(A) 1P (B) 2P (C) Lysosome (D) Chromosome
2M 2M
18. Crossing over takes place in ..... stage.
(M.P./NTSE Stage-1/Cell/2013)
(A) Leptotene (B) Pachytene
1M (C) Diplotene (D) Zygotene
1M 1P
2M
2P 2P 19. Mitochondria and Plastids are able to synthesis some
of their proteins because they have :
(C) 1P (D) 1M
2M
1P
2M (Haryana/ntsestage I 2015)
2P
(A) DNA
(B) RNA
M = maternal homologue
(C) DNA and Ribosomes
P = paternal homologue
(D) RNA and Ribosomes

PAGE # 13
20. The cell organelle storing substances like starch, oil 31. Various colours of flowers and fruits in plants are
and proteins is due to the presence of
(Rajasthan/ntsestage I 2015) (Bihar/ntse/stage I 2015)
(A) Vacuole (B) Lysosome (A) Leucoplast
(C) Plastid (D) Golgi body (B) Chromoplast
21. The common component of nuclear membrane of (C) Coloured pigments in cytoplasm
organelles like Mitochondria, Endoplasmic reticulum (D) Protoplast
and Nucleus is :
32. Nucleosome present in eukaryotic cell is
(Bihar/ntsestage I 2015)
(Bihar/ntse/stage I 2015)
(A) Glycoliped (B) Glycoprotein
(C) Nucleoprotein (D) Lipoprotein (A) part of nucleus
(B) part of chromosomes
22. During rainy season, wooden doors are difficult to (C) part of nucleolus
open or close. It is due to :
(D) part of ribosome
(Bihar/ntsestage I 2015)
(A) Plasmolysis (B) Osmosis 33. If a cell has twice as much DNA as in the normal
(C) Imbibition (D) Dehydration funcational cell, it shows that ?
23. The capsule present in Bacteria is mainly made of : (Bihar/ntse/stage I 2015)
(Bihar/ntsestage I 2015) (A) cell h as completed division
(A) Glycolipids and proteins (B) cell is preparing to divide
(B) Phospholipids and protein (C) cell is preparing to die
(C) Poly saccharide and proteins (D) cell is preparing to modify
(D) All of above 34. In angiosperm how many microspore mother cells
24. Which is a prokaryotic cell, amongst the following ? are required to produce 1000 pollen grains
(M.P./ntsestage I 2015) (Utrakhand/ntse/stage I 2015)
(A) Amoeba (B) Bacteria (A) 100 (B) 200
(C) Yeast (D) Euglena (C) 300 (D) 250
25. A cell will plasmolyse, if it is placed in : 35. Arrange the following terms in a proper sequence and
(Delhi/ntsestage I 2015) choose the correct option :
(A) Hypertonic solution
(Utrakhand/ntse/stage I 2015)
(B) Hypotonic solution
i. Anaphase ii. Prophase
(C) Isotonic solution
iii. Telophase iv. Metaphase
(D) Concentration of water molecules does not matter
(A) i, ii, iv, iii (B) ii, iv, i, iii
26. Which one of the following statements about cell (C) iii, i, iv, ii (D) ii, iv, iii, i
organelles and their funciton is correct ?
(Cell / 2015 / NTSE Stage-2) 36. The sequence of cell cycle is :
(A) Mitochondria are associated with anaerobic (Hariyana/ntse/stage I 2015)
respiration. (A) G1, S, G2, M (B) S, M, G1,G2
(B) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is involved in (C) G2, S, M, G1 (D) G2, S, M, G
protein synthesis. 37. Which among the following cell organelles is able to
(C) Lysosomes are important in membrane make its own proteins ?
biogenesis.
(Rajasthan/stage I 2015)
(D) Golgi bodies are involved in packaging and
(A) Lysosome
dispatching of materials.
(B) Golgi apparatus
27. Number of mitotic divisions required to produce 128 (C) Plastid
cells from a single cell is - (D) Endoplasmic reticulum.
(M.P./ntse/stage I 2015)
(A) 7 (B) 8 (C) 6 (D) 4 38. Which cell organelle is known as “powerhouse of the
cell” ?
28. The lipids and proteins essential for the formation of (Rajasthan/stage I 2015)
cell membrane are synthesized in
(A) Mitochondria
(Delhi/ntse/stage I 2015)
(B) Lysosome
(A) Golgi bodies (B) Mitochondria
(C) Golgi apparatus
(C) Endoplasmic reticulum (D) Lysosomes
(D) Endoplasmic reticulum
29. Which organelle is considered as a suicide bag ?
(Gujrat/ntse/stage I 2015) 39. In a cell which cell organelle other than nucleus con-
(A) Centrosome (B) Mososomes tains DNA ?
(C) Lysosomes (D) chromosome (Rajasthan/stage I 2016)
30. Navya observed one slide through the microscope. In (A) Lysosome (B) Golgi bodies
it, almost the entire cell space was occupied by (C) Endoplasmic reticulum (D) Mitochondria
vacuole. What would it be ? 40. Which cell organ is called "suicide bags" ?
(Andhra Pradesh/ntse/stage I 2015) (Rajasthan/stage I 2016)
(A) Animal cell (B) Amoeba
(A) Centrosome (B) Chromosome
(C) Mature plant cell (D) Non living cell
(C) Lysosome (D) Mesosome

PAGE # 14
 TISSUE
INTRODUCTION involved in movement etc so cells make a group
called tissue.
• In unicellular organisms a single cell performs all the • A tissue is defined as a group of cells with similar
vital activities for example, digestion, respiration, structure, organized to do a common function.
excretion etc. • Term tissue was coined by Bichat.
• In case of multicellular organisms specialized • Branch of biology which deals with the study of tissue
functions are performed by a different groups of cells is called Histology.
possessing a well-developed division of labour to
• In plants and animals tissues are found but these
provide highest possible efficiency of particular
tissues have differences on various aspects which
function. As blood flows for transportation of O2, CO2,
are following :
food, hormones & waste material, muscle cells are

TABLE : DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL TISSUES

S.No. Plant Tissues Animal Tissues
1. Dead supportive tissues are more Living tissues are more common as
abundant as compared to living tissues. compared to dead tissues.
2. They require less maintenance energy. Animals require more maintenance energy.
3. There is differentiation of meristematic Such a differentiation is absent.
and permanent tissues.
4. Organisation is simple. Organisation is complex with the
development of more specialised and
localised organs and organ systems.
5. Tissue organisation is towards stationary habit. Tissue organisation is towards high mobility.

• Mainly they are of two types :

(i) Meristematic (ii) Permanent

PAGE # 15
 (B) Intercalary meristem :
 It is the part of apical meristem which is left behind
• These are simple living tissues having thin walled during growth period.
compactly arranged immature cells which are  These are present at the base of leaf & internode
region. These lead to the increase in the length
capable of division and formation of new cells. of leaf (Primary growth) e.g. In grass stem,
• Actively dividing cells are present in growing regions bamboo stem, mint stem etc.
of plants e.g. root & shoot tips (C) Lateral meristem : It is also called as secondary
• Thin primary cell wall (cellulosic). meristem.
• Intercellular spaces are absent (Compact tissue)  It occurs along the sides of longitudinal axis of
• Generally vacuoles are absent, dense cytoplasm & the plant. It gives rise to the vascular tissues and
prominent nuclei are present. causes growth in girth of stem & root. They are
responsible for secondary growth.
• Large number of cell organelles are present.
• Active metabolic state, stored food is absent.

• Classification on the basis of origin :

(A) Pro meristem : It is the first meristem which

develop during embryonic stage.

(B) Primary meristem :

 Derived directly from the meristems of embryo

(Promeristem).
 They add to primary growth of plants.
(C) Secondary meristem :

 Formed by permanent tissues.

 These are having cells derived from permanent
tissue. Types of meristem in a shoot

 They usually add to the diameter of plants.

PERMANENT TISSUE
 Dedifferentiation
Permanent Secondary • The permanent tissues are composed of those cells
tissue meristem
which have lost their capability to divide.
• Classification on the basis of location : • They have definite shape, size and thickness.
• The permanent tissue may be dead or living.
(A) Apical meristem :It is present at the growing tips
• The division and differentiation of the cells of
of stems and roots.
meristematic tissues give rise to permanent tissues.
 Cell division in this tissue leads to the elongation • In cell differentiation, developing tissues and organs
of stem & root thus it is involved in primary growth change from simple to more complex forms to
become specialized for specific functions.
of the plant.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MERISTEMATIC AND PERMANENT TISSUES

S.No. Meristematic Tissue Permanent Tissue
Cells are small and may be rounded, oval, rectangular Cells are large and of different shapes
1. or polygonal. according to the type of tissue.
2. Cells are thin-walled. Cells are thin or thick-walled.
3. Cells are rich in cytoplasm. Cytoplasm is present as a layer along the cell wall.
4. A prominent nucleus is present. Nucleus is relatively small in size.
5. Vacuoles are small; may even be absent. Usually a large central vacuole is present.
6. Intercellular spaces are absent. Intercellular spaces are often present.
7. Cells are undifferentiated and give rise to different Cells are differentiated.
8. Power of cell division is present. Lack the power of cell division.
9. Always living. May be living or dead.
• Types of Permanent tissue : The permanent tissues (a) Simple Permanent Tissue :
are classified into two types on the basis of cell wall
These tissues are made up of same type of cells
composition –
which are similar structurally and functionally.

PAGE # 16
• They include two types of tissue :
2. Cork or phellem : In older roots and stems, tissues at
(A) Protective Tissues : These tissues are primarily the periphery become cork cells or phellem cells.
protective in function. They consist of :
1. Epidermis : Epidermis forms one cell thick  Cork is made up of dead cells with thick walls
outermost layer of various body organs of plants and do not have any intercellular spaces.
such as leaves, flowers, stems and roots.  The cell walls in cork deposit waxy substance
called as suberin.
 Epidermis is covered outside by cuticle.
 Cuticle is a water proof layer of waxy substance  The cells of cork become impermeable to water
called as cutin which is secreted by the epidermal and gases due to the deposition of suberin.
cells.  The cork cells are without any protoplasm but
 Cuticle is very thick in xerophytes. are filled with resins or tanins.
 Cells of epidermis of leaves are not continuous
at some places due to the presence of small
pores called as stomata.
 Each stomata is guarded by a pair of bean
shaped cells called as guard cells.
 These are the only epidermal cells which
possess chloroplasts, the rest being colourless.

T.S. of cork piece showing cork cells

• Functions :
(i) Cork is protective in function. Cork cells prevent
desiccation, infection and mechanical injury.
Stomata
(ii) Imperviousness, lightness, toughness,
• Functions : compressibility and elasticity make the cork
(i) The main function of epidermis is to protect the commercially valuable.
plant from desiccation and infection. (iii) Cork is used for insulation, as shock absorber in
linoleum.
(ii) Cuticle of epidermis cuts the rate of transpiration
and evaporation of water and prevents wilting. (iv) Cork is used in the making of a variety of sport
goods such as cricket balls, table tennis, shuttle-
(iii) Stomata in epidermis allow gaseous exchange cocks, wooden paddles etc.
to occur during photosynthesis and respiration. (B) Supporting tissue : These are supportive in
(iv) Stomata also helps in transpiration. function and of three types :

Supporting tissue

PAGE # 17
1. Parenchyma :  Present only in herbaceous dicot stem and at
 Tissue first time evolved in bryophyta. thin margin of leaves.
 Thin walled cells, oval or spherical in structure. 3. Sclerenchyma : (Scleras-hard)
 Cell wall mainly composed of cellulose & pectin.
 Strengthening tissue.
 Parenchyma provides turgidity to cells.
 Cells are dead with little or no protoplasm &
 Large central vacuole for food & water storage.
possess very thick lignified walls.
 Primary function is food storage called
prosenchyma.  Lignin is water proof material.
 Some parenchyma involved in excretory  Intercellular spaces are absent.
substance storage are so called as idioblast,
• Cells of sclerenchyma are of two types :
storing such as resin, tannin, gums & oils.
 In typical parenchyma chlorophyll is absent  Sclereids : These are also called grit cells or
Chloroplast containing parenchyma tissues are stone cells. These are small cells, where lumen
chlorenchyma which perform photosynthesis e.g. is so small due to higher thickening of cell wall,
mesophyll of leaves. as present in drup fruit (Mango, coconut, walnut),
 In hydrophytic plants, aerenchyma (A type of in legume seeds (Macrosclereid)
parenchyma containing air spaces) provides  Fibres: They are very long, narrow, thick, lignified
buoyancy. cells. Lumen is large as compared to sclereids.
2. Collenchyma : t is the living mechanical tissue. Generally 1-3 mm. long. In the thick walls of both
the fibres and sclereids are present thin areas
 Elongated cells with thick corners. called as pits.
 Localized cellulose & pectin thickening.  Sclerenchyma fibres are used in the manufacture
 Few chloroplasts may be present. of ropes, mats & certain textile fibres.
 t gives mechanical strength & elasticity to the  Jute & coir are obtained from the thick bundles of
growing stems so responsible for easy bending
fibres.
of plants.

THREE TYPES OF SIMPLE PERMANENT TISSUES

S.NO. Characters Parenchyma Collenchyma Sclerenchyma
(Gr. Para=beside; enchyma= (Gr. Kolla = glue) (Gr. Sclera = hard)
in
filling)
1. Shape Oval or rounded or Prismatic or elongated Isodiametric or
polygonal and isodiametric. with elongated fibre-like.
Usually loosely packed. pointed ends.

2. Nature of cells Thin walled and living. Thick walled and living. Thick walled and
dead.
3. Composition Only of cellulose without Cell wall is thick and Cell wall is thick as
deposition. pectinised at corners. is lignified.
4. Intercellular There are large intercellular There are very There are no
space space. little intercellular spaces. intercellular spaces.

5. Occurrence Most abundant type of Forms hypodermis Forms hypodermis

permanent tissue of plants (below epidermis) of of monocot stem,
and is found in softer dicot stem (e.g. husk of coconut,
tissues e.g. epidermis, sunflower), and leaf covering of seeds,
cortex, endodermis, stem, stalks of the leaves. in the veins of leaves,
mesophyll of leaf, flower around vascular
and fruit. bundles, etc.

6. Functions Primarily helps in storage of Primarily for mechanical Primarily for

food (e.g starch grains in the support (tensile strength) mechanical
parenchymal cells of potato and elasticity (flexibility). support (chief
tuber). It also provides So allow bending of mechanical tissue),
support leaves, stem, etc. so enables
to the stem of herbaceous the plant to resist
plants. It acts as packing various strains.
tissue.

PAGE # 18
 (b) Complex Permanent Tissue : • Xylem & phloem together form vascular bundles.
t consists of more than one type of cells which work (A) Xylem : Also known as wood and is a vascular
together as a unit. and mechanical tissue.
• t helps in transportation of organic materials, water  Thick walled cells are found in the form of tubular
& minerals. passages.
• t is also known as conducting or vascular tissue.

Xylem elements

 Xylem consists of four types of cells called as  Xylem sclerenchyma: They are non living fibres with
elements thick walls & narrow cavities provide mechanical
 Tracheids : They are elongated angular dead support.
cells (primitive elements) mainly involved in  Except xylem parenchyma all other xylem elements
conduction of water & minerals in gymnosperms. are dead.
 Vessels : They are advance elements (Generally  Hadrome: Tracheids & vessels are collectively called
found in angiosperms). Vessels are cylindrical hadrome, as main conducting elements in xylem.
tube like structures placed one above the other  The annual rings present in the trunk of a tree are
end to end which form a continuous channel for xylem rings. By counting the number of annual rings
efficient conduction of water. we can determine the age of a tree.
 Xylem parenchyma : They are small & thick (B) Phloem : They also consist of both parenchymatous
walled parenchymatous cells subj ected for and sclerenchymatous cells.
storage of starch (food).

PAGE # 19
 Phloem
 Phloem consists of four types of elements :  Sieve cells possess slime protein or protein
which is concerned with the growth and repair of
 Sieve tubes : Sieve tubes are slender tube like
sieve cells.
structures made up of elongated, thin walled cells
placed end to end.  Companion cells : Companion cells have dense
 The end walls of sieve tube cells are perforated cytoplasm and prominent nuclei.
by numerous pores are called as sieve plates.  Sieve cells & companion cells are so called sister
 Nucleus of sieve cell degenerates at maturity, cells because they originate from single mother
however, cytoplasm persists, because of cell.
protoplasmic continuation of sieve tube with
 Phloem fibre : They give mechanical support to
companion cell through plasmodesmata.
sieve tubes

PAGE # 20
  Phloem parenchyma : They store food & help in  Leptome : Main part of phloem involved in
radial conduction of food. conduction of food, which is sieve tube.
 I n phloem except phloem sclerenchyma all
elements are living.

S.NO. XYLEM PHLOEM

1. Xylem parenchyma only living cells Phloem sclerenchyma only dead cells remaining all
remaining cells are dead. cells are living.
2. It carries minerals, salts and water. An organic solution of sugars is translocated.
3. The movement is The movement can be upward or downward.
only upward.

ANIMAL TISSUE

The study of microscopic structure of tissues is called as Histology. Cells of a tissue are often held together by cell
junctions.
• Outline classification of Animal tissue :
Animal Tissue

(1) Epithelial (2) Connective (3) Muscular (4) Nervous

Tissue Tissue Tissue Tissue
(i) Squamous
Epithelium
(ii) Columnar
Epithelium (A) Striated (B) Non (C) Cardiac
(iii) Cuboidal Muscles Striated Muscles
Epithelium Muscles
(iv) Ciliated
Epithelium

(A) Connective (B) Skeletal (C) Vascular

Tissue Proper Tissue Tissue
(1) Areolar tissue (1) Cartilage (1) Blood
(2) White fibrous (2) Bone (2) Lymph
Tissue
(3) Yellow fibrous
Tissue
(4) Adipose Tissue
(5) Reticular tissue

(A) Epithelial Tissue : [Epi means above & thelial (ii) Cuboidal epithelium : They are cube like cells
means to grow) that fit closely, cells look like squares in section,
but free surface appears hexagonal.
 Always grows on some other types of tissues.
 Cells of epithelium are set very close to each other  It is found in kidney tubules, thyroid vesicles & in
glands (salivary glands, sweat glands).
and the tissue rests on a non- cellular basement
membrane.  It forms germinal epithelium of gonads (testes
& ovaries).
 Consists of single layer of cells.
 Blood vessels are absent & non nervous in nature.
 It is involved in absorption, excretion & secretion.
t also provides mechanical support.
 It covers all the organs & lines the cavities of
hollow organs like stomach. (iii) Columnar epithelium : Columnar means “pillar-
 It is primarily protective in function. like” epithelium.
 Epithelial tissues are classified as :  It forms lining of stomach, small intestine & colon,
(i) Squamous epithelium : Also called pavement forming mucous membranes. Border of microvilli
epithelium. is present at the free surface end of each cell
which increases absorption efficiency in small
 Cells arranged end to end like tiles on a floor. intestine.
 Cells are polygonal in surface view.
(iv) Ciliated epithelium :
 It forms the delicate lining of cavities (mouth,
oesophagus, nose, pericardium, alveoli etc.) blood  Cells may be cuboidal or columnar.
vessels and covering of the tongue and skin.  On it’s free surface are present protoplasmic
 Epithelial cells are arranged in many layers outgrowths called cilia.
(stratum) to prevent wear and tear in skin. This  It helps in the movement of ova in the fallopian
pattern is stratified squamous epithelium. tube.

PAGE # 21
 Diagram of the types of epithelial tissues and their location in the body
(B) Connective Tissue : The cells of the connective 7% : Protein (Albumin, fibrinogen, globulin)
tissue are widely spaced and embedded in an 1-2% : Organic salts
intercellular matrix. 0.9% : Inorganic salt etc.
 The nature of matrix decides the function of tissue. • Corpuscles : Forms 45% part of blood.
 White & yellow fibres are present in the matrix.
 Their basic function is to provide support to • RBC’s : They are also called as erythrocytes,
different organs & keeping them in place. containing red coloured respiratory pigment called
haemoglobin that helps in transportation of oxygen.
(A) Fluid or vascular tissue :
• WBC’s (Leucocytes) : They are also called as
(A) Blood : Blood is a connective tissue. “Soldiers of the body”.
 Fluid matrix of blood is called plasma, having
wandering or floating cells, called corpuscles. • They are irregular, amoeboid, phagocytic cells that
protect our body by engulfing bacteria & other foreign
 Blood helps in the transportation of various
particles.
materials such as nutritive substances, gases,
excretory products, hormones etc. • They are of five types : Monocytes, Lymphocytes,
 Blood composition : Basophils, Neutrophils, Eosinophils.

 Plasma : Form 55% part of blood. • Blood platelets or thrombocytes : They are spindle
90-91% : Water shaped cells which are involved in clotting of blood.

Types of blood cells

PAGE # 22
(B) Lymph : It is colourless or light yellow-coloured  Functions : It acts as a “middle man” for the
fluid that bathes all the body organs and is filled exchange of various materials between the blood
in spaces between them. It is blood without the and various body tissues.
RBC’s and blood proteins. Lymph is made up of
plasma and lymphocytes.

(B) Skeletal tissue : t is hard connective tissue that (A) Bone : Matrix of bone is very hard because of salts
forms supportive frame work of the body. It is of such as calcium phosphate, CaCO 3 (60-70%)
two types : etc.and a protein ossein.

Periosteum

Circumferential canal
Haversian
Lamellae

Haversian Canal
Osteocytes
A part of Decalcified Bone in T.S. and L.S.
 Bone cells (osteoblasts) are embedded in this  The long bones are usually hollow containing a
hard matrix. cavity called as marrow cavity. It is full of bone
 Matrix is deposited in the form of concentric marrow.
layers of lamellae formed round a central canal
(B) Cartilage : This tissue is elastic, less harder as
(Haversian canal).
compared to bone.
 The bone cells occupy small spaces between
the concentric layers of matrix.

T.S. of Hyaline Cartilage

PAGE # 23
  Elasticity is due to the presence of chondrin  It occurs at joint of bones, in the nose, ear, trachea
(protein). Cells are called as chondroblast, which & larynx. It provides flexibility and great tensile
are widely spaced and matrix is reinforced by strength.
fibres.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CARTILAGE & BONE
Character Cartilage Bone
1. Chemistry Formed of organic matter, called Formed of both organic matter (ossein protein)
chondrin protein. and inorganic matter (calcium phosphate).

2. Nature of cells Chondroblasts present in group of Irregular cells osteocytes that occur singly in
2 or 4. lacunae.

3. Nature of lacunae With no canaliculi. With canaliculi.

4. Canals With no canals. With Haversian canal and Volkmann's canal.
5. Arrangement of matrix Not arranged in rings. In rings called lamellae.
6. Cavity Solid internally. With marrow cavity.
7. Growth Unidirectional. Bidirectional.

(c) Connective tissue proper : t is the most abundant (C) White fibrous connective tissue : They are very
type of connective tissue. little matrix containing abundant white fibres
forming layers.
 It is further divided into following types :
(A) Areolar tissue : t is the most widely distributed
 Bundles of this tissue are called as tendons,
connective tissue in the body. This tissue fills which attaches muscles to the bones.
spaces inside organs & is found between the
skin & muscles, around blood vessels, nerves &
in the bone marrow.

Areolar Tissue
 There are
Inelastic white fibres
two types of fibres
Elastic yellow fibres
White Fibrous Connective Tissue
(B) Adipose tissue : These are oval & round cells,
filled with fat globules. (D) Yellow fibrous connective tissue : They are very
elastic due to the presence of a network of yellow
 The cells are called as adipocytes.
fibres in its matrix called as ligament which
 It is found in subcutaneous layer below the skin, attaches bone to bone.
around the heart, brain & below the eyeballs.
 It acts as an insulator & prevents loss of heat
from the body.
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Fine White Fibres

Fat Globule

Blood Vessel

Yellow Fibre

Adipose cell Yellow Fibrous Connective Tissue

Adipose Tissue

PAGE # 24
 Differences between Tendon and Ligament • Location of striated muscles : Limbs, neck, facial
S.No. Tendon Ligament muscles etc.
1. It is m ade up of It is m ade up
white fibrous tis s ue. of yellow elas tic
2. Fibroblas ts lie in tis s ue.
Fibroblas ts lie
alm os t continuous rows . s cattered.
3. Tendon connects Ligam ent connects
a s keletal m us cle a bone to a another
to a bone. bone.
4. It is tough and inelas tic. It is s trong but elas tic.

(E) Reticular tissue : The cells in this tissue are star-

shaped and form a network-like structure.
Reticular fibres are made of Reticulin protein.

Striated Muscles

(ii) Non striated muscles : They are involuntary

muscles also called as smooth muscles.
• These muscle fibres are uninucleated & spindle
shaped.
• They are not enclosed by membrane but many fibres
are joined together in bundles. Such muscles are
found in the walls of stomach, intestine, urinary
bladder, bronchi, iris of eye etc.
• Peristaltic movements in alimentary canal are brought
about by smooth muscles.

• Functions :
(i) It forms lymphoid tissues in the body.
(ii) Reticular tissue in bone marrow helps in the
formation of blood corpuscles.

MUSCULAR TISSUE

Movements are brought about in our body with the

help of muscular tissues.

• Features :

 They are long fibre-like cells called muscle fibres.

 They are capable of contraction or relaxations
 Each fibre enclosed by thin membrane which is
called as sarcolemma.
 Cytoplasm is called as sarcoplasm.

• Types : It is of three types :

(i) Striated muscles : They are also called as Non-Striated Muscles

voluntary muscles because these are under the
control of one’s will. (iii) Cardiac muscle fibres : They are also involuntary
muscles.
 Muscle fibres or cells are multinucleated and
• Only found in the walls of heart.
unbranched.
• Their structure is in between the striated & non-striated
 These muscles get tired & need rest. muscles.
• They are uninucleated & branched.

PAGE # 25
• Branches are united by intercalated disc. • Functions :
• In these muscles rhythmic contraction & relaxation (i) They control all the body activities
occurs throughout the life. (ii) They co-ordinate between various body parts
during any body function.
• Spinal cord & brain are made up of nervous tissue.

EXERCISE-1
Plant Tissue
1. A group of cells having a common origin & performing
similar function is called –
(A) tissue (B) organ
(C) organ system (D) cell aggregate
2. Meristems are cells that –
(A) store food
Cardiac Muscle Fibres (B) help in excretion
(C) provide support
(D) divide continuously to produce new cells

• They are highly specialized tissues due to which the 3. Plant length is increased by the activity of –
(A) apical meristem (B) lateral meristem
animals are able to perceive and respond to the
(C) cambium (D) all of the above
stimuli.
• Their functional unit is called as Nerve cell or Neuron. 4. In plants, cell division is restricted upto –
(A) meristematic cells (B) permanent cells
• Cell body or cyton covered by plasma membrane.
(C) xylem (D) phloem
• Short hair like extensions arising from cyton are
dendron which are further subdivided into dendrites. 5. In grasses the length of internodes increases by the
activity of –
• Axon is long, tail like cylindrical process with fine (A) apical meristem
branches at the end. Axon is covered by a sheath called (B) intercalary meristem
as Myelin or medullary sheath. (C) lateral meristem
• Axon of one neuron is very closely placed to the (D) secondary meristem
dendrons of another neuron to carry impulses from 6. Special feature of dividing cells is –
one to another neuron in the form of electrochemical (A) large lacuna
waves.This close proximity is called as synapse (B) thick cell walls
(C) dense cytoplasm devoid of lacuna
• Types : Nerve fibres are of two types :
(D) large intercellular spaces
(i) Medullated fibres (ii) Non-medullated fibres 7. Totipotency is present in –
Or Or (A) meristem (B) cambium
Myelinated Non myelinated (C) phloem (D) cork
8. Which one of the following is a feature of meristematic
tissues ?
(A) Thin cell wall
(B) Compact tissue
(C) Large no. of cell organelles are present in the
cells of tissues.
(D) All of the above
9. W hich one of the following plant tissues causes
growth in girth of stem and root ?
(A) Apical meristem
(B) Intercalary meristem
(C) Lateral meristem
(D) None of the above
10. Which one of the following plant tissues is formed by
permanent tissue ?
(A) Apical tissue (B) Lateral tissue
(C) Intercalary tissue (D) None of above
11. A permanent plant tissue consisting of thin walled
living cells is –
(A) parenchyma (B) collenchyma
(C) sclerenchyma (D) xylem
12. A permanent plant tissue made up of living cells having
thickening at the corners is –
(A) sclerenchyma (B) collenchyma
(C) parenchyma (D) phloem

PAGE # 26
13. The main function of sclerenchyma is to help in the – 28. Fluid part of blood after removal of corpuscles is –
(A) conduction of food (A) plasma (B) lymph
(B) synthesis of food (C) serum (D) vaccine
(C) exchange of gases 29. Yellow muscle fibers are also called as –
(D) mechanical support (A) bone (B) muscle
14. The wall of cork cells are thickened by the deposition (C) ligament (D) none of these
of – 30. Blood platelets are also called as
(A) cutin (B) suberin (A) leucocytes (B) erythrocytes
(C) lignin (D) pectin (C) thrombocytes (D) None of these
15. The wax like substance present in the cell wall of onion
31. Contraction and relaxation are unique features of –
skin is –
(A) epithelial tissue (B) connective tissue
(A) pectin (B) lignin
(C) muscle tissue (D) nervous tissue
(C) cellulose (D) suberin
32. The tissue which is under the control of animal’s will is –
16. The outer wall of epidermis in stems and leaves has
(A) cardiac muscle (B) striated muscle
a waxy covering made up of –
(C) non-striated muscle (D) cartilage
(A) lignin (B) suberin
(C) pectin (D) cutin 33. The muscle which work throughout life without
undergoing fatigue is
17. Collenchyma differs from sclerenchyma in –
(A) striated muscle (B) non-striated muscle
(A) retaining cytoplasm at maturity
(C) cardiac muscle (D) all of the above
(B) having thick walls
(C) having a wide lumen 34. Which one of the following is a voluntary muscle ?
(D) being meristematic (A) Striated muscle (B) Unstriated muscle
(C) Cardiac muscle (D) (A) and (B) Both
18. Lignified elongated dead cells are –
(A) parenchyma (B) collenchyma 35. Wall of urinary bladder consists of –
(C) sclerenchyma (D) none of these (A) striated muscles
(B) unstriated muscles
19. W hich one of the following plant tissue lacks (C) both of above
protoplasm at maturity ? (D) none of these
(A) Sclerenchyma (B) Collenchyma
(C) Parenchyma (D) Epidermis 36. Intercalated discs are present in –
(A) striated muscles (B) unstriated muscle
20. In plants phloem tissues perform the function of – (C) cardiac muscles (D) all of the above
(A) conduction of water (B) conduction of food
(C) photosynthesis (D) mechanical support 37. nvoluntary tissue forms wall of which one of the
following organ ?
21. The entire body surface and cavities inside the body (A) Intestine (B) Stomach
are lined by (C) Bronchi (D) All of the above
(A) muscle tissue (B) epithelial tissue
(C) connective tissue (D) nervous tissue 38. Movements in body are brought about by
(A) muscular tissues
22. Columnar epithelium is present in,
(B) epithelial tissues
(A) kidney tubules (B) small intestine
(C) bones
(C) skin (D) thyroid vesicles
(D) tendons & ligament
23. Which one of the following is a fluid connective tissue ?
39. The functional unit of nervous tissue is called as –
(A) Areolar tissue (B) Cartilage
(A) cyton (B) synapse
(C) Blood (D) Ligaments
(C) neuron (D) axon
24. The tissue that attaches muscles to the bones is –
40. Which type of tissue forms spinal cord and brain ?
(A) cartilage (B) tendon
(A) Muscular tissue (B) Nervous tissue
(C) ligament (D) blood
(C) Epithelial tissue (D) Connective tissue
25. The tissue that joins bone to bone is –
(A) ligament (B) tendon EXERCISE-2
(C) blood (D) cartilage
26. Areolar tissue is a – COMPETITIVE EXAM QUESTIONS
(A) nervous tissue (B) muscular tissue 1. Which tissue acts to increase length of a grass stem ?
(C) connective tissue (D) epithelial tissue (Gujrat/NTSE/Stage-1/Cell/2013)
27. W hich of these cells are called as “soldiers of the (A) Primary meristematic
body” (B) Apical Meristem
(A) RBC (B) WBC (C) Lateral meristem
(C) Platelets (D) None of these (D) Intercalary Meristem

PAGE # 27
2. The function of xylem in plants is 14. The inner layer of the pharynx of a frog is made of
(M.P./NTSE/Stage-1/Cell/2013) _________ Epithelium.
(A) Transport of food (Gujrat/ntse/stage I 2015)
(B) Transport of oxygen (A) Squamous (B) Cuboidal
(C) Transport of water and minerals (C) Ciliated (D) columnar
(D) transport of aminoacids
15. W hose functions are same of the following?
3. The muscles found connected to the bones are - (W.Bangal/ntse/stage I 2015)
(M.P./NTSE/Stage-1/Cell/2013) (A) Stomata and Veins
(A) Striated muscles (B) Unstriated muscles (B) Stomata and Lenticels
(C) Cardiac muscles (D) All of above (C) Lenticels and Parenchyma
4. W hich of the following statement is correct that is (D) Hydathodes and Seive Tube.
related to phloem of plants ? 16. Read the Following :
(Karnataka/NTSE/Stage-1/Cell/2013) (Andhra Pradesh/ntse/stage I 2015)
(A) Phloem in pinus contains phloem fibres (i) Nerve cells do not have the ability of regeneration
(B) Phloem in sunflower does not contain parenchyma (ii) Nerve cells are one kind of muscle tissue.
(C) Phloem in cycas contains companion cells (iii) No two nerve cells have same appearance.
(D) Phloem in Maize does not contain parenchyma (iv) Nervous tissue, is a fluid tissue.
5. The tissue which is helpful for the movement of ovum Which of the following is true ?
in the Fallopian tube is : (A) (i) and (ii) (B) (iii) and (iv)
(Karnataka/NTSE/Stage-1/Cell/2013) (C) (i) and (iii) (D) (ii) and (iv)
(A) Columnar Epithelial Tissue 17. Some plants do not have broad leaves. Leaves are
(B) Ciliated Columnar Epithelial reduced to spines in some plants. Those plants
(C) Cuboidal Epithelial Tissue belong to ....
(D) Squamous Epithelial Tissue (Andhra Pradesh/ntse/stage I 2015)
(A) Hydrophytes (B) Mesophytes
6. Which of the following are cardiac muscles ? (C) Marine plants (D) Xerophytes
(Haryana/NTSE/Stage-I/2015)
(A) Uninucleated and Unstriated 18. The cause of thickness of stem in plants is due to
(B) Multinucleated and Unbranched :(Utrakhand/ntse/stage I 2015)
(C) Uninucleated and Branched (A) Apical meristem
(D) Uninucleated and Unbranched (B) Lateral meristem
(C) Intercalary meristem
7. Skeletal muscles are (D) All of the above
(Rajasthan/NTSE/Stage-I/2015)
19. In a six year old stem, the oldest layer of secondary
(A) striated and voluntary
xylem is situated just :
(B) unstriated and voluntary
(Hariyana/ntse/stage I 2015)
(C) striated and involuntary (A) Outside the primary cambium
(D) unstriated and involuntary (B) Outside vascular cambium
8. Coir of commerse comes from which part of the (C) On the inner side of cork cambium
'coconut' : (D) On the inner side of vascular cambium
(Bihar/NTSE/Stage-I/2015) 20. Intercalary meristem is present in
(A) Epicarp (B) Pericarp (Rajasthan/stage I 2015)
(C) Mesocarp (D) Endocarp (A) at the base of the leaves and both the sides of
9. In Xerophytes, the rate of water loss get reduced due node
to covering of epidermis by : (B) in the roots
(Delhi/NTSE/Stage-I/2015) (C) at the tip of the leaves
(A) Cutin (B) Suberin (D) at the shoot apex.
(C) Lignin (D) Gum 21. In plants transport of soluble products in the
10. The girth of stem increases due to the activity of process of photosynthesis occurs in
(Rajasthan/stage I 2015)
(Tissue/2015/NTSE/Stage-2)
(A) xylem (B) phloem
(A) lateral meristem.
(C) both of these (D) none of these.
(B) apical meristem.
(C) intercalary meristem 22. How many types of muscle tissue are found ?
(D) apical and intercalary meristem. (Rajasthan/stage I 2015)
(A) Striated and unstriated
11. Perforations are not found in cell wall of the following (B) Striated and cardiac
cells (C) Cardiac and unstriated
(Delhi/ntse/stage I 2015) (D) Striated, unstriated and cardiac.
(A) Tracheid (B) Companion
(C) Sieve tube (D) Vessels 23. The tissue which makes the plants hard and stiff is %
(Rajasthan/stage I 2016)
12. Living mechanical tissue is: (A) Parenchyma (B) Chlorenchyma
(Gujrat/ntse/stage I 2015) (C) Collenchyma (D) Sclerenchyma
(A) Parenchyma (B) collenchymas
24. The lining of oesophagus and mouth is covered with
(C) Sclerenchyma (D) Chlorenchyma
which type of tissues
13. Which plant leaves have a parallel venation ? (Rajasthan/stage I 2016)
(Gujrat/ntse/stage I 2015) (A) Cuboidal epithelium
(A) Peepal leaves (B) Hibiscus leaves (B) Squamous epithelium '
(C) Banana leaves (D) Banyan tree leaves (C) Columnar epithelium
(D) Stratified squamous epithelium
PAGE # 28
 HUMAN DISEASES
• has no mental problems and social tensions.
HUMAN HEALTH & DISEASE
• has all the body organs functioning properly.
The most widely accepted definition is (1947) World • has purposeful life.
Health Organisation's description that states "Health • has sufficient balanced diet.
is a state of physical, mental and social well being • Health can be catagorised as :
and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity
1. Personal Health
• A person is said to be healthy if one : 2. Community Health
• has no symptoms of disease and anxiety. • Difference Between Personal Health and Community
• has no physical deformity. Health :
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PERSONAL HEALTH AND COMMUNITY HEALTH
Personal health Community health
The state of physical, It is maintainance, protection & improvement
mental & social well being of health of the whole community
of an individual is called personal health
Only the individual maintains his/her health The whole community remains healthy
An individual can maintain his health by - Community health
(a) Eating balanced diet can be achieved by -
(b) Observing personal and domestic hygiene (a) Provision for treated and safe drinking water
(c) Consuming clean food, clean water (b) Proper disposal of sewage and wastes
and clean air (c) Providing medical facilities
(d) Proper exercise, relaxation and good (d) Control of communicable diseases
habits (e) Health education

• Although they are different but also co-relate as - pollutants. These diseases can be prevented and
"All the personal health along with the environmental cured by taking proper food and keeping the clean
services for the improvement of health of surroundings.
community."
• Factors Affecting Health : The factors affecting health DISEASE
may be  ntrinsic (inside the body) or Extrinsic
A disease is a condition of the body or a part of it in
(outside the body).
which functions are disturbed. Disease may also be
(i) Inside the body or Intrinsic factors : These are defined as morphological (structural), physiological
factors related to malfunctioning of any organ or (functional) or psychological disturbance in the body
part, hormone or immune system of the body. or body parts caused by external agencies which may
The diseases caused due to hormonal be nonparasitic e.g. deficiency of nutrients or may
disturbance or immune system are called be parasitic e.g. caused by viruses, bacteria, fungi,
metabolic diseases. These diseases can be etc. The term disease means dis-ease or discomfort
prevented and cured by taking medical treatment. or without ease. In short, it can be defined as "Disease
(ii) Outside the body or Extrinsic factors : These is disorder of body."
factors include disease causing organisms, (a) Distinction Between Healthy and Disease
deficiency of proper diet and environmental Free :
DIFFERENCES BETW EEN HEALTHY AND DISEASE FREE
S.No. Healthy Disease Free
1 It is the s tate of phys ical, m ental & It is the s tate of abs ence of any body dis com fort.
s ocial well being
2 It depends upon the pers on and one's It depends upon the pers on alone.
environm ent including s ociety.
3 A pers on can be unhealthy A pers on would be dis eas e free in the
even in the abs ence of dis eas e. abs ence of his com fort.

• Incubation period :The interval between infection and

TERMS RELATED TO DISEASES
appearance of first symptom of the disease is called
• Infection : The entry of the pathogen in the body is incubation period.
called infection.

PAGE # 29
 INCUBATION PERIOD OF SOME DISEASES (a ) Cat eg ori es of Di se ase s Bas ed On T he
Extent of Occurrence :
Disease Incubation Period
1. Endemic when the disease is found in a certain area
Pneumonia 1-3 days only attacking a fewer number of people, e.g. yellow
Diphtheria 2-5 days fever in certain African countries, goitre in sub-
Cholera 2-6 days Himalayan regions.

Bacillary dysentery 3-7 days 2. Epidemic when the disease breaks out and spreads
from place to place affecting large numbers of people
Tetanus 4-20 days at the same time e.g. plague in India in 1994 (from
Gonorrhoea 5-10 days Surat to many other places).
Typhoid 7-21 days 3. Pandemic when the disease is widely distributed
worldwide, e.g. AIDS.
Measles 10-12 days
4. Sporadic when there are scattered individual cases
Smallpox 10-14 days
of a disease e.g. malaria and cholera.
Whooping cough 10-15 days
(b ) Cat egorie s of Dis eas es Ba sed On T he
Chicken pox 14-21 days duration :
Rabies about 1 month • Acute and Chronic Diseases : The manifestation of
Leprosy up to several years diseases are different depending upon a number of
AIDS up to 12 or more years factors. One of the factors is duration of disease. On
the basis of duration a serious disease can be acute
• Antibiotic : Antibiotics are chemicals that kill or stop or chronic.
the growth of certain kinds of microbes. (i) Acute disease : Acute disease is the one which
• Pathogen : Disease causing microorganism is called has a short duration by relatively severe course.
Most people with acute illness can expect to return
pathogen
to normal health. A case of cough and common
• Vaccine : A vaccine is a suspension of disease - cold is an example of an acute illness which lasts
only for few days. Afterwards the patient becomes
producing micro-organisms which is modified by
well without any bad effect, loss of weight,
killing or weakening (attenuated) so that the feeling of tiredness.
suspension will not cause disease.
(ii) Chronic disease: Chronic disease is the one
• Antibodies : These are special proteins found in the which is long lasting is usually slow to develop,
blood which act against the germs or their secretions. often having a major effect on health, reducing
the person's ability to do work efficiently, learning
• Antigen : Antigens are proteins or other harmful in school or doing work. The patient will also
chemicals that are present on surface of invaders & loose weight and feel tired all the time. Examples
stimulate the immune system of host of chronic diseases include tuberculosis,
diabetes, asthma, hypertension, kidney disease,
depression, etc. In these diseases we can
CAUSES OF DISEASES develop a treatment plan to manage symptoms
and prevent complications with the help of doctor.
The various causes of diseases are
(c ) Cat eg ori es of Di se ase s Bas ed On T he
(i) Pathogens : They are disease causing organisms com munic ablit y :
like bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoans, worms, (A) Congenital Diseases : Congenital diseases are
etc. present right from the birth. They are caused either
due to genetic disorders or environmental factors
(ii) Lack of nutritious diet : t is a second level cause during development or due to combination of
of disease as absence of nutritious diet makes a these factors. These diseases pass on from
person unhealthy. generation to generation e.g. haemophilia, colour
blindness, sickle cell anaemia, Down's
(iii) Lack of public services : If the public services are
syndrome, albinism etc.
poor, there are more chances of contamination of
(B) Acquired Diseases : These disease are acquired
food and water. They are the third level cause of
by an organism after birth and are not inheritable
disease. i.e., do not pass on from one generation to
another. These are further classified into two
categories :

• Diseases can be categorised in several ways based on ; (i) Communicable or Infectious diseases : These
diseases are caused by pathogens/infectious
1. Extent of occurrence
agents such as bacteria, viruses, fungi,
2. Duration protozoans, worms, etc. These diseases can
3. Communicability spread from diseased person to healthy person
4. Kinds of pathogen by means of air (droplet method), water, food,
insects, physical contact, etc., e.g. tuberculosis,
malaria, diarrhoea etc.

PAGE # 30
 Means of Spread
Direct transmission Indirect transmission
1. Contact with infected person 1. Vector e.g. : Cholera, Dysentry,
e.g. : Chicken pox, Small pox, AIDS etc. Typhoid by house fly ; Malaria and
2. Contact with Soil e.g. : Tetanus filariasis by mosquito etc.
3. Animal bites e.g. : Rabies 2. Through contaminated food and water
4. Transplacental transmission e.g. : AIDS, e.g. : Cholera, Hepatitis B, ascariasis, etc.
German measles etc. 3. Air born disease e.g. : Common cold,
5. Droplet infection e.g. : Common cold, pneumonia etc.
tuberculosis. pneumonia etc. 4. Fomite born e.g. : Common Cold etc.
(ii) Non-Communicable or Non-Infectious diseases • Allergies : Caused due to hypersensitivity of an
: These diseases can't be spread through infected organism to certain type of material like pollen
persons to healthy persons. e.g. Scurvy grains, dust etc.
These diseases are of following types : • Uncontrolled growth of cells : This can cause
cancer and tumor.
• Deficiency diseases : Caused due to lack of • Mental disorders : Alzeimer, Parkinson,
some nutrient materials in our body like vitamins, Schizophrenia etc.
minerals, protein etc. • Occupational diseases : Silicosis, Florosis,
• Degenerative diseases : Caused due to ageing Asbestosis etc.
or malfunctioning of any organ or part of body. • Addiction : Caused due to excessive intake of
drugs tobacco, alcohol etc.

NON COMMUNICABLE DISEASES

Cause Nam e of Disease Sym ptom s

1. Protein energy (PEM) Maras m us Shrivelled appearance, thinning of lim bs ,
(Infants below 1 Year) prom inent ribs , retarded phys ical and m ental
grow th,diges tive dis order, repeated diarrhoea.

2. Protein (PEM) Kwas hiorkar Los s of appetite, s tunted grow th, bulging eyes ,
(1 to 3 year age) enlarged s tom ach, long thin and curved legs .
3. Iron Anaem ia Becom e pale, loos e appetite, feels tired
4. Vitam in B 12 Perinicious anaem ia Becom e pale, loos e appetite, feels tired, reduced
(Cyanocobalam ine) num ber of R BC s .
5. Folic acid Macrocytic anaem ia Becom e pale, loos e appetite, feels tired, reduced
grow th of R BC s .
6. Iodine Goitre Abnorm al enlargem ent of thyroid, s welling in the
neck,reduced thyroid function, retarded growth.

7. Vitam in A (R etinol) Xeropthalm ia N ight blindnes s , drynes s of cornea

8. Vitam in D (Calciferol) Rickets (children) , Tw is ted, thin, s oft, bent bones , deform ed ribs .
Os teom alacia (adults )
9. Vitam in B1 (Thiam ine) Beri - Beri Mus cular dys trophy, N ervous dis order
10. Vitam in B3 (N iacin) Pellagra 4D ' s yndrom e( derm atitis , diarrhoea, dem entia,
death).
11. Vitam in - C (As corbic acid) Scurvy Bleeding gum s , loos ening and falling of teeth,
los s of w eight
12. Degeneration H eart attack , H ypertens ion, liver m egaly etc.
liver failure, kidney failure.
13. Hyper s ens itivity Allergy Sneezing, coughing, w atering of eyes , as thm a,
hay fever.
14. Uncontrolled grow th of C ancer and tum our Los s of w eight, pers on becom es w eak, can lead
cells to death or des truction of affected organ

PAGE # 31
 (d) Categories of Diseases Based On Pathogen :

Causative Mode of
Disease Symptoms Cure Prevention
Organisms transmission

Bacteria

1. Cholera Vibrio cholerae Contam inated food Watery diarrhoea, Antibiotics , ORS Proper s anitation
and water vom iting, or pers onal hygiene.
dehydration, m us cle Salt–Sugar
cram p, weight los s . s olution

2. Typhoid Salm onella Contam inated food Headache, fever in Antibiotics Us e of s afe
typhi & water afternoon, s low drinking water,
puls e, erruption of TAB vaccine,
s pots & ras hes on Proper s ewage
abdom en,diarrhoea. s ys tem .

3.Tuberculos is Mycobacterium Droplet Infection Los s of appetite, Antibiotics , Public

tuberculos is weaknes s , typical Antitubercular awarenes s , BCG
fever pattern, night Therapy (ATT) vaccine.
s weat, ches t pain,
breathles s nes s .

4. Diarrhoea Salm onella, Contam inated food Los s of water, Antibiotics like Properly was hed
Shigella and water vom iting, headache, penicillin & cooked food,
fever, abdom inal clean
pain. s urroundings .
5.Syphilis Treponem a Sexual contact, Antibiotics Im proper and
pallidum from m other to Painles s ulcers , unhygienic
child s wollen lym ph s ex practices
glands and joints , s hould be
paralys is , heart avoided.
trouble etc.

6.Gonorrhoea Neis s eria Sexual contact,us e Pus containing Antibiotics Properly cleaned
gonorrhoeae of com m on toilets dis charge, burning and dis infected
s ens ation in s ex toilets s hould be
organs , arthritis us ed, im proper
s ex practices
s hould
be avoided

7. Tetanus Clos tridium Through injury Degeneration of Tetanus ATS and DPT
(Lock jaw) tetani m otor neurons , rigid antitoxins vaccines
jaw m us cles ,
s pas m and
paralys is .

PAGE # 32
 Causative Mode of
Disease Symptom s Cure Prevention
Organism s transmission
Virus
1. H epatitis A Hepatitis A virus C ontam inated food High tem perature, Interferon injection, Us e boiled water and
(Endem ic) and w ater headache, Joint adequate res t fres h food, Hepatitis
pains , dark yellow vaccine
urine, fatigue. It is
als o called jaundice
2. H epatitis B Hepatitis B virus Infected blood, Progres s ive liver Interferon injection, Hepatitis B vaccine,
(Serum ) inoculation, from dis eas e, chronic adequate res t avoiding ris ky s ex
m others to their active hepatitis , practices , injectable
child, s exual route hepatocellular drugs and direct or
carcinom a (cancer) indirect contact with
blood, s em en etc. of
infected pers on
3. R abies Rabies virus Bite of Dog, Monkey, High fever , painful A cours e of 5 anti Pet anim als s hould
etc. contraction of rabies vaccines at be vaccinated w ith
m us cles of throat regular intervals anti rabies vaccine
and ches t. Patient w ith in 30 days is
develops fear of given
water s o it is als o
called hydrophobia.
4. Influenza Influenza virus It is s pread from Sneezing, fever, Am anatadine and We s hould try to keep
pers on to pers on headache, R im antidine are away from flu
contact, D roplet m us cular us ed patients .
Infection. pains , coughing,
dis charge from
nos e
5. AIDS HIV Virus 1. Spreads through Sw ollen lym ph – 1. D is pos able
[Hum an unprotected nodes , regular s yringes
Im m uno s exual contact w ith fever, and needles
deficiency virus ] an Infected weight los s , los s of s hould be us ed.
pers ons im m unity. 2. Sexual contact w ith
2. Spreads through unknow n people
the trans fus ion s hould be avoided
of blood 3. Before trans fus ion
contam inated with blood s hould be
AIDS virus tes ted for H IV virus
3. Spreads through
the us e of infected
needles for injection
4. AID S infected
m other can trans m it
the virus
6. Mum ps Mum ps -virus C ontagious & Painful Antibiotics . Mum ps vaccine,
(DN A-virus ) D roplet infection enlargem ent of is olation
parotid s alivary
glands .

PAGE # 33
 Causative Mode of
Disease Sym ptom s Cure Prevention
Organism s transm ission

Protozoa

1. Malaria Plas m odium It s preads H eadache, m us cular Quinine s hould 1. U s e proper

through the pain, higher fever, be us ed arrangem ent
bite of fem ale feeling cold and to avoid
anopheles s hivering, patient feels m os quito
m os quito w eak and becom es from our hous es .
anaem ic 2. Mos quito
larvae
s hould
be killed
3. We s hould
not allow the
collection of
water in any
uncovered
2. Am oebias is Entam oeba C ontam inated D iarrhoea container.
his tolytica food and
w ater. – –

Helm inthes
1. Filarias is Wuchereria Biting of Blockage Drug D iethylcar - Culex & Aedes
bancrofti Aedes or of lym ph nodes and bam ezine or m os quitoes
C ulex lym ph ves s els caus e Hetragen s hould be
m os quito s w elling in hand, foot, eradicated.
ches t, tes tis , leg s w ell
like foot of an
elephant, fever.

2. Guinea D racunculus C ontam inated Blis ter form ation Drugs and Filtered and
worm Dis eas e m edinens is . w ater having on s kin, tail of rem oval of boiled w ater
infected w orm can be worm from s hould be us ed,
cyclopes . s een in blis ter, body bathing &
w hite s ecretion s urgically. was hing
oozes out from in w ater bodies
blis ter. s hould be
banned.
Cyclops s hould
be controlled.

(ii) Killing infectious agents : This can be done by

TREATMENT
targeting the biochemical pathways of infectious
agents using specific drugs.
The basic concept behind the treatment process is to
target the biochemical pathways occurring inside an • Drugs : Chemical compounds that targets a
organism. For this certain drugs like antibiotics are particular reaction among the chain of reactions
prepared to alter or stop the biochemical reaction of involved in the biochemical pathway by reacting
the microbes at some stages to stop them to produce with some substrates of that reaction and
infections, toxins or to kill them or to check their further resulting in an undesirable product so that
growth and multiplication. There are two ways in which reaction cannot proceed further and stop
these diseases are treated they are : infections by killing the microbes. They do not
affect human cells.
(i) Reducing the symptoms : By this, infection is not
• Antibiotics : Antibiotic are chemicals that kill or
cured but some of the symptoms like fever, pain,
stop the growth of certain kinds of microbes. They
aches, inflammation can be reduced to make the
help our body to fight against diseases. The
patient comfortable. This is done by medicines
development of antibiotics began with the discovery
like pain killers etc.
of penicillin by Sir Alexander Flemming in
1928.Flemming noticed that an agar plate

PAGE # 34
 inoculated with bacterium Staphylococcus aureus  Strong immune system : t helps to defence our
had become contaminated with a mould. He further body against invading microbes and can be made
noticed the presence of a clear zone in the agar strong by proper diet and nourishment.
plate in which breakdown of the bacterial cells had
occurred. Detailed studies led to the isolation of  Immune system : Our body possesses a special
an inhibitory substance from the mould. As the type of defence mechanism called immune
mould was identified as Penicillium, Flemming system. It provides resistance against disease
causing microorganisms. Immunity is the ability
called the antibiotic Penicillin. Soon other
of the body to resist the infections. Two specific
antibiotics were isolated. Some well known
types of cells are present in our body that provide
antibiotics are streptomycin, gramicidin and
immunity.
tetracycline.The antibiotics have been obtained
from either bacteria or fungi.  They are W BC (leucocytes) in blood and
lymphocytes in lymph when any foreign body
• These are the drugs specific for curing bacterial
attacks our body these cells are released to all
diseases. They either ceases the formation of parts of body, they isolate, engulf, kill and digest
cell wall or interferes in their metabolic activities the infectious agents and thus defend our body
like production of proteins. This kills or stops the against any type of infection.
growth of bacteria.
(ii) Specific preventive measures : This can be done
• Antibiotics are not effective for viruses or it is by two ways :
difficult to make antiviral antibiotics because  Immunization : Stimulating the body to produce
viruses are acellular entities which only have antibodies by artificial means. Our immune
nucleic acid and protein but lack cytoplasm, cell system is misleaded, to develope a memory
wall and cell organelles they do not have their against particular infection by introducing
own metabolic system but they use the host 's something into the body that mimics the specific
metabolic machinery to grow & multiply so drugs microbe. Specific prevention is provided by the
are not effective for them. immune system It produces specific molecules
called antibodies that fight against the invading
microorganisms or their products called
PREVENTION FROM INFECTIOUS antigens. Antibodies are proteinaceous
DISEASES molecules made by W BC's and lymphocytes to
fight against foreign bodies or other harmful
Preventive measures are categorized into two distinct chemicals. Antigens are also proteins or other
groups: harmful chemicals that are present on surface of
invaders. W henever there occurs attack of a
(i) General preventive measures : foreign body specific antibodies are produced
corresponding to that antigen and an antigen
 Safe drinking water : Drinking water should be
antibody reaction occurs. t either engulfs and
filtered to remove suspended particles, boiled,
phagocyte it or makes it harmless and then
ozonized and treated with chlorine before drinking
makes it unable to grow and multiply. Besides
to avoid water borne diseases like typhoid,
this immune system also possesses memory.
cholera, hepatitis etc.
Once antibodies are produced they remain in the
 Proper disposal of waste : Garbage should not body and at the second infection they recognize
be dumped here and there rather it should be the antigens and show a much faster response.
thrown in covered garbage cans and burnt or • Vaccination : A vaccine is a suspension of
buried for disposal. Sewage carrying drains disease - producing micro-organisms which is
should be covered for proper treatment of modified by killing or weakening (attenuated) so
diseases of stomach and intestine. that the suspension will not cause disease.
 Control of vectors : Growth and breeding of Rather it stimulates the formation of antibodies
animals like mosquitoes, rats, flies, cockroaches upon inoculation. The antibodies remain in blood
for long and when the germs of a particular
should be controlled, by keeping surroundings
disease enter the body, the antibodies destroy
clean, spraying insecticides, removing stagnant
them. This is the basis of immunization.
water from populated areas.

PAGE # 35
• Some common vaccines :  Alcohol causes fatty liver syndrome and affects
 DPT vaccine, for protection against diphtheria, synthesis of protein and carbohydrates.
whooping cough (Pertussis) and tetanus  It causes economic loss and social reputation
 BCG vaccine, for protection against tuberculosis goes down.
 Polio (OPV) vaccine  World T.B. day is on 24th March.
 Typhoid vaccine  BCG is a vaccine against T.B.
 Measles vaccine  Chloragen is a toxin produced by the cholera
 TT vaccine, against tetanus bacteria.
 Leprosy is also called as Hansen's disease after
• Pulse polio programme : The aim of this programme
the name of it's discoverer.
is to eradicate polio from our country. It was first held
in our country in December, 1995. Polio vaccine called
 30th January is the Anti Leprosy day.
Oral Polio Vaccine (OPV) is given to children orally  Tetanospasmin is the toxin produced by Tetanus
(through the mouth) , as per the National Immunisation bacteria.
Schedule (NIS).  Widal test is a very sensitive test for Typhoid.
 Degenerative diseases are also called as
SOME IMPORTANT POINTS organic diseases.

• Harmful Effects of Obesity :  Tooth decay is the most common disease in the
 It is a luxury nutritional disorder caused by great world.
intake of food than the requirement of body.  Rabies is 100% fatal disease.
 It is common in persons having higher intake of  HIV virus is a 'Retro virus'. (genetic material is
sweets, fried articles, fat rich food etc. RNA)
 Obese persons are over weight with excessive  Test for AIDS infection can be performed three
accumulation of fats. months after infection. This is called as 'Window
 Movements are reduced. There is a risk of Period'.
diabetes osteoarthritis, gall bladder stones, high  In our country ELISA and WESTERN BLOT tests
blood pressure and cardiac problems. for AIDS are available.
• Harmful Effects of Tobacco :  Peptic ulcer – Caused by "Helicobacter pylorii"
 Regular contact of tobacco increases the - Discovered by "Marshell and Warren".
possibility of mouth, tongue, throat or lung cancer.
 Nicotine of tobacco causes thickening of walls of EXERCISE-1
arteries which can increase blood pressure and
rate of heart beat. 1. Community health aims at
(A) better health and family planning
 Carbon monoxide can destroy the blood cells.
(B) better hygiene and clean environment
 Rate of embryo development reduces if a pregnant (C) removing communicable diseases
woman uses tobacco. (D) all of the above

• Harmful Effects of Drugs : 2. Head quarter of World Health Organisation (WHO) is

located at
 Some drugs e.g. morphine, buprenorphine etc.
(A) New York (B) Geneva
are misused as intoxicants.
(C) London (D) Paris
 These drugs can cause nightmares, lung and
3. W hich one of the following is a communicable
kidney infections, damage to brain and various
disease ?
unending physical and mental health problems.
(A) Leucoderma (White patches on the skin)
 It can reduce learning and memory in young ones. (B) Diabetes mellitus
(C) Beri-beri
• Harmful Effects of Alcohol :
(D) Cholera
 Liver converts excess of alcohol to acetaldehyde
4. The form of cancer called 'carcinoma' is associated
which is a poisonous substance.
with
 Alcohol reduces body coordination capacity and (A) lymph cells
self control power of body. (B) mesodermal cells
 It decreases working capacity of person and (C) blood cells
increases possibilities of accidents. (D) epithelial cells

PAGE # 36
5. The familiar disease Amoebiasis is caused by 18. In order to prevent spreading of a communicable
(A) Entamoeba histolytica disease like cholera it is necessary to
(B) Taenia solium (A) control the population of mosquitoes
(C) Ascaris lumbricoides
(B) dry up all ponds in the neighbourhood
(D) Wuchereria bancrofti
(C) educate people to drink boiled water and not to eat
6. Which one of the following is correctly matched ? exposed food
(A) AIDS - DNA virus (D) prevent others from coming in contact with the
(B) Cholera - Tubercle bacillus
diseased person
(C) Tuberculosis - Mycobacterium tuberculosis
(D) None of these 19. An antiviral protein which might help in curing viral
disease in future is
7. Saline is given to a person suffering with cholera
(A) antibody (B) histone
because it
(A) causes lysis of bacterial cell wall (C) nucleoprotein (D) interferon
(B) helps to produce antibodies 20. Antibodies are produced by
(C) causes severe diarrhoea leading to loss of salts (A) RBCs (B) platletes
(D) both B and C are correct
(C) lymphocytes (D) saliva
8. One of the following is a deficiency disease caused
due to lack of iron in the body 21. We celebrate World Health Day on
(A) Tuberculosis (B) Tetanus (A) 7 April (B) 7 May
(C) Anaemia (D) Colour blindness (C) 7 June (D) 7 July
9. The group of diseases spread by housefly is
(A) Malaria,Cholera, Scabies EXERCISE-2
(B) Rabies, Rickets, Diarrhoea
(C) Typhoid, Dysentry, Cholera COMPETITIVE EXAM QUESTIONS
(D) Ringworm, Scurvy, Vomiting
1. Examples of bacterial diseases are :
10. The mosquito that spreads malaria in man is named (Raj/NTSE Stage-1/Disease/07)
(A) Male Anopheles (A) Smallpox, Typhoid, Tuberculosis
(B) Female Anopheles (B) Typhoid, Tuberculosis, Tetanus
(C) Culex
(C) Polio, Smallpox, Whooping cough
(D) Female Aedes
(D) Diphtheria, Smallpox, Typhoid
11. Many children in our country suffer from Kwashiorkar.
This can be prevented by giving children food rich in 2. W hich of the following diseases is not related with
(A) carbohydrates (B) fats sexual transmission ?
(C) proteins (D) minerals (Raj/NTSE Stage-1/Disease/07)
(A) Syphilis (B) Gonorrhoea
12. Vitamin A is necessary for the synthesis of
(A) haemoglobin (B) visual pigment (C) Allergy (D) AIDS.
(C) melanin (D) R.N.A. 3. W orms are responible for which of the following
13. Which one of the following diseases is caused by virus diseases ?
? (Gujrat/NTSE Stage-1/Disease/07)
(A) Tuberculosis (B) Smallpox (A) Elephantiasis (B) Anthrax
(C) Cholera (D) Diphtheria (C) Flu (D) Kala Azar
14. The deficiency of vitamin D causes
4. HIV virus when active in body, mainly attacks on -
(A) beri-beri (B) rickets
(C) anaemia (D) goitre (M.P./NTSE Stage-1/Disease/07)
(A) Lungs (B) Liver
15. Hydrophobia is caused by
(C) Heart (D) Immune System
(A) acute virus (B) bacteria
5. Which one of the following is not a sexually transmitted
(C) rabies virus (D) tubercle
disease ?
16. Disease transmitted by dog is (Mizoram/NTSE Stage-1/2013)
(A) plague (B) T.B. (A) Gonorhoea (B) Syphilis
(C) scurvy (D) rabies (C) AIDS (D) Typhoid
17. Deficiency of vitamin C causes
6. Antibiotics work against :
(A) rheumatism
(Haryana/ntsestage I 2015)
(B) kidney malfunctioning
(C) scurvy (A) bacteria (B) virus
(D) night blindness (C) dengue (D) elephantiasis

PAGE # 37
7. Which of the following follows a general principle of 11. Sexually transmitted disease is :
flowing the immune system by putting particular (M.P./ntse/stage I 2015)
infection into the body ? (A) Malaria (B) Diarrhoea
(C) AIDS (D) Hepatitis
(Rajasthan/ntsestage I 2015)
12. With what are the dieses like Swine Flu, Dengue and
(A) AIDS (B) Vaccination
Chikungunya Fever spread ?
(C) Antibiotic (D) Antiseptic (Gujrat/ntse/stage I 2015)
8. The word “Vaccine” was first coined by (A) Bacteria (B) Virus
(C) Parasites (D) Fungi
(W.B./ntsestage I 2015)
13. For which of the following diseases vaccine has not
(A) Koch (B) Pasteur
been invented yet ?
(C) Jenner (D) Kohler (Gujrat/ntse/stage I 2015)
9. Given below are the pairs of disease and causal (A) Jaundice (B) cholera
(C) Typhoid (D) Chikungunya
pathogen. Which one of these is not a matching pair ?
(Delhi/ntsestage I 2015) 14. When one consumes contaminated water contain-
ing germs & micro orgainsms, it causes one of the
(A) Kala azar-Leishmania following diseases -
(B) Sleeping sickness - Trypanosoma (Bihar/ntse/stage I 2015)
(C) Malaria - Salmonella (A) Diphtheria (B) Tuberculosis
(D) Acne - Staphylococci (C) Diarrhea (D) Plague

10. The causative agent of the disease ‘sleeping 15. Match the following disease with their causing factor
and choose the right options :
sickness’ in human beings is an
(Utrakhand/ntse/stage I 2015)
(Diseases Cell / 2015 NTSE Stage-2)
a. Sleeping sickness i. Helicobacter pylori
(A) intracellular parasite found in RBC. b. Kala azar ii. Plasmodium vivex
(B) extracellular parasite found in blood plasma c. Peptic ulcer iii. Trypanosoma
(C) intracellular parasite found in W BC. d. Malaria iv. Leishmania
(D) extracellular parasite found on the surface of (A) a-i, b-iii, c-ii, d-iv (B) a-ii, b-i, c-iv, d-iii
platelets. (C) a-iv, b-ii, c-iii, d-i (D) a-iii, b-iv, c-i, d-ii



PAGE # 38
 NUTRITION
• Nutrients : These are the substances required by our
NUTRITION
body for its growth, repair, work and maintenance.
“Nutrition” is a process of intake as well as utilization Different types of nutrients are carbohydrates, fats,
of nutrients by an organism. t also includes proteins, vitamins, minerals etc. Our daily energy need
breakdown of nutrients into smaller molecules and may vary according to our occupation, age, sex and
their absorption. Food provides us nutrition and energy. under some specific conditions.
t contains different types of nutrients in varying
amounts according to the need of our body. MODES OF NUTRITION
There are several modes of nutrition on the basis of
which organisms are classified as follows :

(a) Autotrophic : (ii) Saprotrophic : They absorb organic matter from

dead and decaying organisms with the help of
(Auto = self, trophic = food) It is a mode of nutrition in
their enzymes. e.g., Bacteria , Fungi etc.
which organisms prepare their own food. Inorganic
molecules like CO2 and H2O are converted into organic (iii) Parasitic : They derive/absorb their nutrition from
molecules like carbohydrates in the presence of other living plants or animals. e.g. Plasmodium,
sunlight and chlorophyll. e.g. Green plants. Autotrophs Round worm etc.
are further categorized as :
NUTRITION IN PLANTS
(i) Photoautotrophs : Those which utilize sunlight
for preparing their food e.g. green plants. • Plants are photoautotrophic in nature. They prepare their
(ii) Chemoautotrophs : Those which utilize chemical own food hence they are called as producers.
energy for preparing their food. e.g. Purple • They contain a green pigment called chlorophyll which
sulphur bacteria. can entrap solar energy which is then converted into
(B) Heterotrophic : chemical energy in the form of food and the process
is called as “Photosynthesis”.
(Hetero = different ; trophic = food) It is a mode of
nutrition in which organisms derive their food from (A) Photos ynthesis :
some other animals or plants. They cannot prepare
(i) Definition : The synthesis of organic compounds
their own food e.g. Human being.
like glucose from simple inorganic molecules like
• On the Basis of Mode of Feeding Heterotrophs are CO2 & H2O by the cells of green plants having
Categorised as : chlorophyll in the presence of sunlight is called
(i) Holozoic : It is a mode of nutrition in which as photosynthesis.
ingestion,digestion,absoption & assimilation
takes place inside the body. e.g. Amoeba , Human
etc.

PAGE # 39
(ii) Equation of photosynthesis : (B) Chlorophyll : These are the green pigments
Sunlight present in chloroplast. They are found in green
6 CO2 + 12H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
Chlorophyll leaves in the maximum amount as well as in
(iii) Steps of photosynthesis : Photosynthesis is a other green aerial parts of plant. There are six
two step process.
different types of chlorophyll :chl a, b, c , d, e and
(A) Light reaction (B) Dark reaction bacteriochlorophyll. Amongst them chlorophyll a
( B ) Essent ials for p hotosynthe sis : and chlorophyll b are the most commonly
(A) Sunlight : For plants sun is the basic source of occurring chlorophyll.
radiant energy. Chlorophyll ‘a’ C55 H72 O5 N4 Mg
Chlorophyll ‘b’C55 H70 O6 N4 Mg
• Plants utilize the light in the visible region of solar
spectra (electromagnetic spectrum) which comes • Besides chlorophyll certain other/ accessory
under the range of 390 nm – 780 nm wavelength. pigments are also present in plants like :
• Visible region consists of white light which is a
mixture of 7 lights of different wavelengths. (i) Carotenes : Orange in colour e.g. Carrot.
• Maximum photosynthesis occurs in red region (ii) Xanthophylls : Orange yellow in colour e.g. Maize.
• There is minimum photosynthesis in green
(iii) Phycobilins : Different colours like red , violet
region because green parts of plants reflect
e.g. Blue-green algae, Brown algae etc.
almost whole of the green light.
( C ) Raw Materials of Photosynthesis :
UV Visible IR (A) Carbon dioxide :Terrestrial plants obtain carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere through the small
openings present on leaves called as stomata.
V I B G Y O R ‘Stomata’ are the small pores present on the
390 nm 780 nm surface of leaves.

They help in exchange of gases and water. Stomatal ( D ) Site of Photosynthesis :

opening is guarded by the presence of guard cells • Site of photosynthesis is different in prokaryotes and
(kidney shaped). Aquatic plants obtain CO2 dissolved eukaryotes.
in water through their general body surface so they • n prokaryotes : Photosynthesis occurs in lamellar
perform more photosynthesis than terrestrial plants. chromatophores.
(B) Water : Plant’s roots absorb water from the soil • n eukaryotes : Photosynthesis occurs in chloroplast
by the process of osmosis (endosmosis). This • Exception : Fungi (t lacks chlorophyll so no
water is transported to leaves by a special type of photosynthesis occurs here).
tissue called as xylem. • n higher plants chloroplast is the main site of
photosynthesis.
 Plants utilize carbon dioxide during photosynthesis
and release it during respiration and both • Chloroplast : Contain green pigment, called as
processes occur simultaneously. The intensity of chlorophyll.
light at which amount of CO 2 used during • Chloroplast was discovered by Schimper.
photosynthesis becomes equal to the amount of • Number of chloroplasts is variable in different species
CO2 released during respiration by plants is called of plants.
as Compensation point.
• n lower plants like algae they are 1 or 2 in number.
 Compensation point occurs at low light intensity • n higher plants their number varies from 40 – 100 or
that is during morning and during evening hours. more per palisade cell .

PAGE # 40
 Internal structure of chloroplast
• Chloroplast also have variable shapes, for example where they trap solar energy in the form of small
in algae cup shaped, ribbon shaped etc. While it is energy packets called ‘photons ‘or ‘ quanta’. Grana
discoidal in higher plants. are interconnected to each other by a channel called
• A typical structure of chloroplast is a double as stroma lamellae or Fret‘s channel.
membranous structure having two parts : • Stroma : t is a non pigmented proteinaceous matrix
• Grana : t is a lamellar system consisting of stacks of in which grana remain embedded. t contains enzymes
granum lamella each bounded by a membranous box for dark reaction.
called as thylakoid. They are 40 – 60 per cell. Number (e ) Mecha nism of Photosynthe sis :
of thylakoids per grana is 50 or more. Chlorophyll
molecules are found inside the thylakoid membrane

Green Plants Make their Own Food by Photosynthesis

PAGE # 41
 (i) Light reaction : (A) Carboxylation : n this CO2 is captured by CO2
acceptors like RUBP (C3 Plants) PEP (C4Plants)
 It is also called as photochemical process.
with the help of carboxylase enzyme i.e.
 It was discovered by ‘Robert Hill’, therefore it is RUBISCO & PEPCO respectively. The first stable
also called as Hill’ s reaction.
compound of C3 cycle is a three carbon containing
 Site : Grana of chloroplast. molecule phosphoglyceric acid so it is called
 Requirements : Light and water. as C 3 cycle while in C 4 cycle it is four carbon
containing oxalo acetic acid.
 Regulated by : The process is regulated by
chlorophyll molecules. (B) Synthesis : n this phase captured CO 2 is
• t consists of 3 steps : assimilated into glucose in the presence of
phosphatase and isomerase enzymes.
(A) Photoexcitation of chlorophyll molecule : During
this process chlorophyll molecule receives (C) Regeneration of RUBP.
sunlight in the form of small energy bundles
• Note : Bacterial Photosynthesis - It is a special kind
called as photons and become excited to higher
of photosynthesis which takes place in certain
energy level.
bacteria. In this process also solar energy is utilised
(B) Photolysis : It is also called as photooxidation of for the synthesis of carbohydrates and H 2S is the
water, this takes place in presence of Mn+2 and
hydrogen donor instead of water as in normal
Cl–ions.
photosynthesis. So O 2 is not liberated in bacterial
4H2O  4H+ + O2 + 4e– + 2H2O
photosynthesis.
O2 is liberated as by product and H + ions are
used for reduction of NADP
NUTRITION IN ANIMALS
2NADP + 4H+  2NADPH2
Animals are heterotrophic in nature . They are directly
(C) Photophosphorylation :During this process ATP or indirectly dependent on plants to obtain their food
are produced. It takes place in quantasomes.
Inorganic phosphate is required to convert ADP • The mode of nutrition may be parasitic or saprotrophic
to ATP. but usually animals are holozoic.
ADP + iP  ATP • All the basic steps of holozoic nutrition are same in
unicellular to multicellular organism.
(ii) Dark reaction :
• Holozoic nutrition in animals consists of following 5-
• t is also called as thermo chemical reaction. steps
• t was discovered by Melvin Calvin and Andy
Benson therefore it is also called as Calvin- (i) ngestion : The process of intake of food.
Benson cycle. It’s site is stroma of chloroplast. (ii) Digestion : It is the breakdown of large and
• Raw materials :They require CO2 , NADPH2, ATP complex molecules into simpler, smaller and
and Enzymes. soluble forms.

• Regulated by : Light reaction and enzymes. (iii) Absorption : Taking up of the digested food
through intestinal wall to blood or body fluid.
(iv) Assimilation : In this process absorbed food is
taken by body cells.
(v) Egestion : The process by which undigested
matter is expelled out.
(a ) Nutrition in Amoeba :
• It is a unicellular organism living in water.
• Mode of nutrition is holozoic.
• The process of obtaining food is by phagocytosis (cell
eating)
• Steps involved in nutrition in amoeba are :
(i) ngestion : Since it is unicellular so a single cell
is responsible for carrying out all the vital activities.
Food is ingested with the help of pseudopodia.
Animal engulfs the food particle lying near it by
forming pseudopodia around it and forming a
food vacuole which is considered as its
• It involves three basic steps : temporary stomach.
(ii) Digestion : The enzymes from surrounding
cytoplasm enter the food vacuole and break down

PAGE # 42
 the food into smaller & soluble forms. It is (A) Milk teeth : These are temporary , arise at 6 – 11
intracellular in Amoeba. month age, 20 in number
(iii) Absorption :The digested food is now absorbed Half upper jaw 2 0 2
by cytoplasm by simple diffusion. = i, c 1 , pm , m
Half lower jaw 2 0 2
1
(iv) Assimilation : The food absorbed in amoeba is (B) Permanent teeth : In adults
used to obtain energy from respiration, for its
Half upper jaw 2 3
growth and reproduction. = i , c 1 , pm 2 , m
Half lower jaw 2 3
(v) Egestion : Undigested food is thrown out of the 1 2
cell.

Figure : Arrangement of different types of teeth

Fig: Nutrition in amoeba

(b) Nutrition in Human Beings :
• Humans are holozoic and follow same 5- steps of
nutrition.
• Humans have highly evolved and complicated
digestive system consisting of an alimentary canal
and different types of digestive glands.
• Alimentary canal : Long, hollow, tubular structure
consisting of various organs for digestion. Alimentary
canal consists of following organs :
Figure : Location of Taste Buds on tongue
(i) Mouth : t is a small slit through which food is
ingested. 5. Three pairs of major salivary glands are found in
mouth which release their secretions into the buccal
(ii) Buccal cavity : Mouth opens into a chamber called cavity. They secrete salivary amylase for starch
as buccal cavity. It has following components: digestion so digestion of starch starts from here.

1. Hard palate: Roof of buccal cavity is called hard palate. • Note: Mouth continues in a funnel shaped pharynx. It
is the common passage between respiratory and
2. Tongue: At the floor of this cavity thick muscular digestive tract.
structure is present called tongue. It helps in chewing, (iii) Oesophagus : Also called as food pipe . t leads
swallowing, tasting and speaking. Tongue has various the food from mouth to stomach. Oesophagus
types of taste papilla. has highly muscular walls, no digestion occurs
here.
3. Teeth: Jaws present in buccal cavity are provided with
four different types of teeth (Heterodont) : (iv) Stomach : t is a ‘J’ shaped bag present on left
ncisors : For cutting side of abdomen. It contains several branched
and tubular glands present on the inner surface
Canines : For tearing of its wall, which secrete gastric juice.
Premolars : For grinding
(v) Small Intestine : t is a coiled and narrow tube
Molars : For grinding
having 3 regions  duodenum, jejunum , ileum.
• Dental formula of humans : In human beings two set
of teeth appear during their life time (Diphyodont)- • On the inner wall of small intestine numerous finger
like projections are found which are called as villi,
they increase the surface area of absorption.
PAGE # 43
• Duodenum is proximal part of small intestine, (vi) Large intestine : Small intestine opens into large
receives secretion from liver and pancreas. intestine from where the undigested food material
is passed to anus through rectum. It is divided
into three parts : Caecum, Colon and Rectum.

Digestive System of Human

• Digestive glands :They secrete enzymes / hormones (C) Sublingual glands : Smallest glands which lie
which help in digestion. The digestive glands include: beneath the tongue and open at the floor of buc-
(i) Salivary glands : It produces saliva. In rabbit, 4 cal cavity.
pairs of salivary glands are present while in man • There are some minor salivary glands also like on
only three pairs of salivary glands are present. palate.
They help in chemical digestion. They secrete an
(ii) Gastric glands : Present in stomach. They secrete
enzyme called salivary amylase or ptyalin. t
hydrochloric acid, protein digesting enzymes and
helps in digestion of starch.
mucus. Present in the mucosa of the stomach.
(A) Parotid glands : largest glands present just
• These are of 3 types :
below the external ear. In this glands, virus
(A) Cardiac glands : secrete an alkaline mucus.
causes mumps disease.
(B) Pyloric glands : secrete an alkaline mucus.
(B) Submaxillary glands / Submandibular glands : (C) Fundic glands : each gland has 5 types of cells.
These lie beneath the jaw-angles.
1. Peptic/Zymogen cells - secrete pepsinogen,
prorennin

PAGE # 44
2. Oxyntic cells - secrete HCI • Functions of liver :
3. Goblet cells - secrete mucus  Formation of glucose from excess organic acids.
 Storage of vitamins : A, D, E, B 12 Synthesis of
4. Argentaffin cells - produces serotonin vitamin A from carotene.
somatostatin and histamine
 Secretions of blood anticoagulant named
5. G-cells - secrete and store the hormone gastrin.
heparin.
 Ruminant Stomach : Cow or buffalo quickly eat  Synthesis of blood or plasma proteins, fibrinogen
the fodder. Then they relax and chew what they and prothrombin
have eaten. This act of chewing is known as
chewing cud. Animals like sheep and deer also  Secretion of bile, detoxification of harmful
chew cud. All the animals who chew cud are chemicals.
called ruminants. They can digest grass which  Elimination of pathogens and foreign particles
is rich in cellulose. through phagocytic cells called Kupffer’s cells.
 Their stomach shows four chambers (rumen, (iv) Pancreas :t lies parallel and below the stomach.
reticulum, omasum and abomasum). Such a It secretes pancreatic juice into small intestine.
stomach is called a compound stomach. Pancreatic juice contains trypsin and pancreatic
amylase. Besides these two enzymes pancreas
secretes two hormones also i.e. insulin and
glucagon, so it has both exocrine as well as
endocrine functions. Both bile and pancreatic
juice are released into the duodenum by a
common duct.
(v) Intestinal glands : They secrete intestinal juice
and mucus. Process of Nutrition : This system
involves following process :
(i) ngestion :ntake of food is done through mouth,
food is then chewed and masticated and sent to
Figure : Stomach of ruminant (cow) oesophagus through pharynx by swallowing.
(ii) Digestion : Saliva secreted in buccal cavity starts
 The food enters the first chamber (Rumen).This
digestion of starch into maltose. This partially
chamber is the largest. Here the food gets
digested food is then passed to stomach by
partially digested and is called cud. From here
oesophagus through peristaltic movements. Food
the food is transferred into second chamber.
is churned in stomach for about three hours and
(Reticulum). Rumen and Reticulum contain
broken down into smaller pieces. Due to
bacteria and protozoa which break down
presence of hydrochloric acid, medium of stomach
cellulose. When the animal is relaxing, the soft
becomes acidic. In acidic medium protein
pulpy food from the second chamber is brought
digestive enzyme pepsin breaks down proteins
back to the mouth. It is now chewed thoroughly.
into peptones. Gastric lipase is also secreted here
 This is called the chewing of the cud.
which partially break down lipids.
 At this stage, it mixes with saliva and becomes a
semi-liquid paste. • Secretion of gastric juice is stimulated by the sight ,
 From the mouth, the food is pushed directly into smell or thought of food.
the third chamber (Omasum) which absorbs • Now the partially digested food moves to small
water. intestine i.e. in the duodenum. Duodenum receives
 From the third chamber, the food enters the fourth the secretion from liver and pancreas through a
chamber (Abomasum). In the abomasum, common duct which contains bile and pancreatic juice,
digestive juices are mixed with semiliquid food. and alkaline in nature. So the digestion and
Digestion of food starts now. From the fourth emulsification of fats occurs at this place.
chamber, the food enters the small intestine. • Here in the duodenum fats are emulsified by bile,
(iii) Liver : It consists of a large right lobe, a small left remaining proteins are digested by trypsin and starch
lobe and two small lobes called quadrate lobe by pancreatic amylase.
and caudate lobe behind the main lobes. On the • NOTE : Duodenal wall secretes bicarbonate ions
right lobe lies gall bladder, which, temporarily which make the medium alkaline.
stores bile juice, secreted by the liver. t is the
largest gland, secretes bile into the small • This partially digested food now enters into the ileum
intestine.Bile juice contains no enzyme but where intestinal juice i.e. “Succus entericus” is
secreted. At this place digestion is completed.
possesses bile salts and bile pigments
(bilirubin-yellow and biliverdin-green). Bile is Carbohydrates  Glucose
alkaline in nature and helps in digestion of fats, it
Proteins  Amino acids
also helps in absorption of fats.
Fats   Fatty acids and glycerol

PAGE # 45
 Flow Chart : Mechanism of digestion
Mouth (food is chewed & masticated)

saliva Ptyalin or
Bolus starch maltose
Salivary amylase
Oesophagus (Peristaltic movement–rhythmic
contraction and relaxation of muscles)

Stomach Gastric Juice

HCl : Provides Acidic medium, kills germs
Chyme Protein Pepsinpeptones
Rennin : [In infants converts milk casein to Calcium caseinate
Small intestine Liver (Bile juice - Bile salts & bile pigments)
Duodenum Common Emulsification of fats
duct
Pancreas (pancreatic juice Amylase, Trypsin, Lipase)
Duodenum secretes bicarbonates which makes medium alkaline
Jejunum (intestinal juice or succus entericus digest carbohydrates and proteins)

<
Ileum
At this place digestion
is completed
(Nutrient absorption -Villi for max.
surface areafor absorption & fat is
absorbed by lymph capillaries)

Caecum
Large Intestine Colon Water Absorption
Rectum Anus (Egestion)
(iii) Absorption : After digestion molecules are broken of small intestine which contains blood capillaries
down into simpler water soluble forms now they and enters into the blood. Fat is absorbed by
are to be utilized, so they pass through the walls lymph capillaries.

THE SUMMARY OF ABSORPTION IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Mouth Stomach Small Intestine Large Intestine
Cetain drugs coming in Absorption of water, Principal organ for absorption Absorption of water,
contact with the mucosa simple sugars, and of nutrients. The digestion some minerals and
of mouth and lower side alcohol etc. takes place. is completed here and the drugs takes place.
of the tongue are final products of digestion
absorbed into the blood such as glucose, fructose,
capillaries fatty acids, glycerol and
amino acids are absorbed
through the mucosa into
the blood stream and lymph.

• NOTE : Walls of small intestine have tiny finger like (v) Egestion :The undigested food along with water
projections called villi, they increase the surface area (about 75%) and excess of digestive enzymes is
for absorption. then collected in large intestine where water is
(iv) Assimilation : The process of utilization of food absorbed and remaining waste is expelled out
is called assimilation. The nutrients dissolved in or egested through anus. Colon absorbs water
blood are carried to all parts of the body where and transports excess of ions as Ca+2 ,Mg+2 etc.
they are utilized. from blood to large intestine. The faeces are
(A) For building up and replacement of cells. formed of 75% water, 25% solid matter which
contains roughage 30%, fats 20%, inorganic
(B) For obtaining energy. This energy is released
by the process of oxidation during respiration. matter 15%, proteins 2% and bacteria 3% .Brown
colour of faeces is due to stercobilins.

PAGE # 46
 TABLE : DIGESTIVE GLANDS, THEIR SECRETIONS & ACTION.

na m e of site of
gla nd se cre tion e nzym e a ction substra te s products
Salivary Saliva Salivary Buccal Starch Maltos e,
gland am ylas e cavity Is om altos e.

(a) Peps in Stom ach Protein Peptones

(Peps inogen
inactive )
Gas tric
Gas tric
glands (b) R ennin Stom ach Cas ein Paracas ein
Juice
(Prorennin
inactive)
(c) H ydrochloric acid Stom ach Peps inogen Peps in
(a) Pancreatic Sm all Starch, Maltos e,
Am ylas e intes tine Glycogen Is om altos e

Pancreatic (b) Tryps in Sm all Proteins Peptides

Pancreas Juice (Tryps inogen intes tine
inactive)
(c) C hym otryps in Sm all Cas ein Paracas ein
(Chym otryps inogen intes tine (m ilk)
inactive)
(a) Enterokinas e Sm all Tryps inogen Tryps in
(Horm one) intes tine (inactive) (active)
(b) Am inopeptidas e Sm all Peptides Sm aller
intes tine peptides
Am ino acids .
(c) D ipeptidas es Sm all Dipeptides Am ino
Intes tinal intes tine acids .
(d) Is om altas e Sm all Is om altos e 2 Glucos e
gland Intes tinal
(Crypts of Juice intes tine
Lieberkuhn) (e) Maltas e Sm all Maltos e 2 Glucos e
intes tine
(f) Sucras e Sm all Sucros e Glucos e,
intes tine Fructos e
(g) Lactas e Sm all Lactos e Glucos e,
intes tine Galactos e
(h) Lipas e Sm all Triglycerides Monoglycerides ,
intes tine Fatty acids .
Bile
D uodenum
Liver (Bile s alts + N o enzym es Fats Fat droplets
pigm ents )

PAGE # 47
 TABLE : VITAMINS NECESSARY FOR NORMAL CELL FUNCTIONING

S.No. Deficiency Disease Deficient Nutrient S.No. Deficiency Disease Deficient Nutrient

Vitamin A Megaloblastic Folic acid

1 Xerophthalmia 10
(Retinol) anaemia and Vitamin B12

Vitamin A Pernicious Vitam in B12

2 Night-blindness 11
(Retinol) anaemia (Cyanocobalam ine)

Vitamin D Vitam in - C
3 Rickets (in children) 12 Scurvy
(Calciferol) (Ascorbic Acid)

Vitamin D
4 Osteomalacia (adults) 13 Osteomalacia Calcium
(Calciferol)

Vitamin E
5 Sterility 14 Anaemia Iron
(Tocopherol)

Vitamin K
6 Bleeding disease 15 Goitre Iodine
(Phylloquinone)

Vitamin B1 Excess of
7 Beri beri 16 Fluorosis
(Thiamine) fluorine

Vitamin B2
8 Cheilosis 17 Kwashiorkor Proteins
(Riboflavin)

4. Compensation point occurs :

EXERCISE-1 (A) When intensity of light is high
Plant Nutrition (B) During dark
1. Chemosynthetic bacteria obtain energy from : (C) During morning and evening hours
(A) Sun (D) During mid-day
(B) Infra-red rays 5. The chlorophyll absorbs mostly :
(C) Organic substances (A) Blue and green light
(D) Inorganic chemicals mainly (B) Blue and red light
2. In the diagram, which of the following processes are (C) Green and red light
shown in Amoeba ? (D) Violet light
6. CO2 fixation occurs in :
(A) Stroma
(B) Grana
(C) Outer membrane
(D) Inner membrane
(A) Exocytosis (B) Phagocytosis 7. Stroma is the ground matrix of :
(C) Pinocytosis (D) All of these (A) Lysosomes (B) Oxysomes
3. The visible part of electromagnetic spectrum lies in (C) Ribosomes (D) Chloroplast
between : 8. Seedlings grown in dark are :
(A) X - ray and ultra-violet
(A) similar to those grow in light
(B) Ultra violet and infra red
(B) taller than those grow in light
(C) Infra red and microwave
(C) shorter than those grow in light
(D) X-ray and infra red
(D) they don’t grow at all

PAGE # 48
 Animal Nutrition 23. Absorption of glycerol, fatty acids and monoglycerides
takes place by :
9. Partialy digested food that leaves the stomach is called : (A) Lymph capillaries within villi
(A) Chyle (B) Chyme (B) Walls of stomach
(C) Bolus (D) None of these (C) Colon
(D) Capillaries within villi
10. Peristalsis occurs in
24. Rennin acts on :
(A) liver (B) ureter
(A) Proteins in stomach
(C) alimentary canal (D) hypothalamus (B) Milk, changing casein into paracaseinate at 7.2 –
11. Brunner’s glands are found in : 8.2 pH
(A) Stomach (B) Ileum (C) Fat in intestine
(C) Colon (D) Duodenum (D) Milk, changing casein into calcium paracaseinate
at 1–3 pH.
12. Human beings have vestigial vermiform appendix. The
ancestors must have been 25. The human intestine is long because :
(A) insectivorous (B) herbivorous (A) Bacteria in food can be killed gradually
(C) carnivorous (D) sangivorous. (B) It provides more surface for food storage
(C) It increases surface area for absorption of food
13. Which one of the following lacks proteins ? (D) None of these
(A) Pancreatic juice (B) Saliva
(C) Bile (D) Intestinal juice 26. In the lunch, you ate boiled green vegetables, a piece
of cooked meat, one boiled egg and a sugar candy.
14. Liver stores glucose in the form of : Which one of these foods may have been digested
(A) Starch (B) Glycogen first ?
(C) Protein (D) Cholesterol (A) Boiled green vegetables
15. Gastric juice contains : (B) The piece of cooked meat
(A) Pepsin, lipase and rennin (C) Boiled egg
(B) Trypsin, lipase and rennin (D) Sugar candy
(C) Trypsin, pepsin and lipase 27. Glycogenesis refers to
(D) Trypsin, pepsin and rennin (A) conversion of glycogen to glucose
16. Partial removal of liver is not harmful because : (B) breakdown of glucose to form pyruvate
(A) Liver being a large organ can suffice the functions (C) breakdown of pyruvate to form glucose
even if a part is removed (D) conversion of glucose to glycogen
(B) Liver is not a very essential organ of the body 28. Casein is digested in adults by –
(C) Liver has regenerative capacity and will grow (A) Rennin (B) Renin
after partial hepatectomy (C) Chymotrypsin (D) Trypsin
(D) The function of liver can be taken over by kidneys
29. Germs entering the body alongwith food are killed in
17. Insectivorous plants digest insects to get an essential
alimentary canal where pH is
nutrient. Other plants generally get this nutrient from
(A) 10 (B) 7 (C) 3 (D) 11
the soil. What is this nutrient ?
(A) Oxygen (B) Nitrogen 30. Which one of the following association is incorrect ?
(C) Carbon dioxide (D) Phosphates (A) Protein - Trypsin (B) Fat - Lipase
18. Cholecystokinin stimulates the secretion of (C) Maltose - Pepsin (D) Starch - Amylase
(A) bile (B) gastric juice 31. Match the names of the glands listed under column I
(C) pancreatic juice (D) both (A) and (C) with the location given under column II and select the
19. Main function of HCl present in gastric juice is correct option from the codes given below :
(A) digestion of starch Column I Column II
(B) emulsification of fat A. Crypts of lieberkuhn p. Loop of
(C) conversion of pepsinogen to pepsin duodenum
(D) detoxification of harmful constituents of food B. Pancreas q. Stomach
20. What is the substrate for lipase enzyme ? C. Adrenal gland r. Intestine
(A) Protein (B) Carbohydrate D. Gastric gland s. Kidney.
(C) Lipid (D) Nucleic acid (A) A = r, B = p, C = q, D = s
(B) A = r, B = p, C = s, D = q
21. Succus entericus is the other name of
(C) A = q, B = s, C = r, D = P
(A) gastric juice (B) intestinal juice
(D) A=p, B = r, C = s, D = q
(C) bile juice (D) saliva
32. Vitamin B6 is also called
22. During prolong fasting, the sequence of organic
compounds used by body is : (A) thiamine (B) pantothenic acid
(A) Carbohydrates, fats, proteins (C) pyridoxine (D) retinol
(B) Fats, carbohydrates, proteins 33. Which one of the following is not a source of vitamin A ?
(C) Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids (A) Carrot (B) Mango
(D) Proteins, lipids, carbohydrates
(C) Apple (D) Yeast

PAGE # 49
34. Which one of the following is the matching pair of the 7. In an experiment where two potted plants kept in a
deficient nutrient and the resulting disease in which dark room are used to demonstrate that carbondioxide
the patient develops swollen lips, thick pigmented skin is essential for photosynthesis potassium hydroxide
of hands and legs and irritability ? is used because it :
(A) Iodine-goitre (Karnataka /NTSE Stage-1/Nutrition/2013)
(B) Thiamine-beriberi (A) Releases oxygen
(C) Niacin-pellagra (B) Absorbs carbondioxide
(D) Protein-kwashiorkor. (C) Releases carbon dioxide
35. Sometimes urea is fed to ruminates to improve their (D) Absorbs oxygen
health. It works by
8. Organisms capable of synthesizing their own food
(A) Helping growth of gut microbes that break down
cellulose are called :
(B) Killing harmful microorganisms in their gut (Mizoram/NTSE Stage-1/Nutrition/2013)
(C) Increasing salt content in the gut (A) heterotrophs (B) autotrophs
(D) Directly stimulating blood cell proliferation (C) decomposers (D) parasites
9. W hich one of the following enzymes is present in
EXERCISE-2 saliva ?
(Mizoram/NTSE Stage-1/Nutrition/2013)
COMPETITIVE EXAM QUESTIONS (A) Pepsin (B) Chymotrypsin
1. Bile Juice is secreted from – (C) Trypsin (D) Ptyalin
(Raj/NTSE Stage-1/Nutrition/13) 10. Which one of the following compound contains two
(A) Salivary glands (B) Intestinal glands carbon atoms?
(C) Stomach (D) Liver (Orrisa/NTSE Stage-1/Nutrition/2013)
2. W hen acidity in Stomach increases, the medicine (A) Ethanol (B) Pyruvic acid
generally used is – (C) Lactic acid (D) Glucose
(Raj/NTSE Stage-1/Nutrition/13) 11. Read the following two statements and choose the
(A) Sodium bicarbonate correct answer.
(B) Sodium Carbonate (Orrisa/NTSE Stage-1/Nutrition/2013)
(C) Ammonium Carbonate i. Stomata regulates the body temperature in plants.
(D) Ammonium bicarbonate ii.Stomata helps in the absorption of minerals from
3. Substances necessary for autotrophic Nutrition are – the soil.
(Raj/NTSE Stage-1/Nutrition/13) (A) i is true but ii is false
(A) CO2 and H2O (B) Chlorophyll (B) i is false but ii is true
(C) Sun light (D) All of the above (C) Both i and ii are true
(D) Both i and ii are false
4. Consider following chemical reaction
12. Which part of the human alimentary canal, is the site
Light
6CO2+12H 2O C6H 12O6+6O2+6H2O for complete digestion of carbohydrates.
Cholorophyll
(Punjab/NTSE Stage-1/Nutrition/2013)
(Haryana/NTSE Stage-1/Nutrition/2013) (A) Stomach (B) Small Intestine
(a) CO2 is oxidized to glucose (C) Large Intestine (D) Rectum
(b) CO2 is reduced to glucose
(c) H2O is oxidized to O2 13. In which one of the following alternatives·the correct
(d) H2O is reduced to O2 order of processes is given ?
which answer is correct. (Maharashtra/NTSE Stage-1/Nutrition/2013)
(A) a & d (B) b & c (A ) Assimilation  Absorption  Digestion 
(C) b & d (D) a & c Ingestion  Egestion
(B) Absorption  Digestion  Ingestion 
5. Hydrochloric acid facilitates the action of which en-
Assimilation  Egestion
zyme ?
(C) Digestion  Ingestion  Assimilation 
(Chandidarh/NTSE Stage-1/Nutrition/2013)
Absorption  Egestion
(A) salivary amylase (B) pepsin
(D) Ingestion  Digestion  Absorption 
(C) trypsin (D) Lipase
Assimilation  Egestion
6. Concentrated nitric acid is used in a test to detect
14. This part of alimentary canal absorbs maximum
adulteration of :
amount of water and minerals :
(Karnataka /NTSE Stage-1/Nutrition/2013)
(Maharashtra/NTSE Stage-1/Nutrition/2013)
(A) Cooking oil (B) Milk
(A) Small intestine (B) Large intestine
(C) Salt (D) Tea powder
(C) Stomach (D) Oesophagus

PAGE # 50
4-NUTRITION FINAL (PNBP)

15. Food becomes ______ due to bile juice . 25. Which of the following is an example of Insectivorous
(Maharashtra/NTSE Stage-1/Nutrition/2013) plant -
(A) Acidic (M.P./ntsestage I 2015)
(B) Alkaline (A) Cuscuta (B) Rafflesia
(C) Neutral (C) Drosera (D) Tulsi
(D) First neutral and then acidic
26. Photosynthesis is an important mode of autotrophic
16. W hich of the following enzymes is related with
nutrition. The event which does not occur in
digestion of protein ?
photosynthesis is :
(Raj/NTSE Stage-1/Nutrition/2013)
(Delhi/ntsestage I 2015)
(A) Lipase (B) Pepsin
(A) Conversion of light energy to chemical energy
(C) Sucrase (D) Amylase
(B) Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrate
17. What does liver secrete ? (C) Oxidation of carbon to carbondioxide
(Gujarat/NTSE Stage-1/Nutrition/2013)
(D) Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll
(A) Insulin (B) Bile
(C) Gastric juice (D) Mucus 27. A leguminous plant grown in an autoclaved, sterilized
soil fails to produce root nodules because
18. Which of the following plant is a parasite ?
(Nutriton Cell / 2015 NTSE Stage-2)
(Gujarat/NTSE Stage-1/Nutrition/2013)
(A) autoclaved soil is not good for root growth.
(A) Cuscuta (B) Mushroom
(B) autoclaved soil is devoid of bacteria .
(C) Giloe (D) Fern
(C) autoclaving reduces N2 content of soil.
19. W hich two plant species obtain nutrition as (D) plants cannot form root hairs in such a soil.
symbionts in Lichens ?
(M.P./NTSE Stage-1/Nutrition/2013) 28. W hich one of the following statements is true with
(A) Rhizobium and Drocera respect to photosynthesis ?
(B) Fungi and Rose plant (Nutrition / 2015 NTSE Stage-2)
(C) Algae and Virus (A) Oxygen evolved during photosynthesis comes from
(D) Algae and Fungi CO 2
(B) Chlorophyll a is the only photosynthetic pigment in
20. In photosynthesis, the function of stomata is to let :
(Karnataka/NTSEStage-1/Nutrition/2013) plants.
(A) CO2 in to the leaf from atmosphere (C) Photosynthesis occurs in stem of some plants.
(B) O2 in to the leaf from atmosphere (D) Photosynthesis does not occur in red light.
(C) Out CO2 from the leaf to atmosphere 29. Deficiency of vitamin - ‘A’ causes -
(D) Out O2 from the leaf to atmosphere (M.P./ntse/stage I 2015)
21. Assertion : Photosynthesis in minimum in green light (A) Beri-Beri (B) Anaemia
(Hariyanan/NTSE Stage-1/Nutrition/2013) (C) NIght blindness (D) Scurvy
Reason : Chlorophylls are green in colour. 30. If pepsin is lacking in gastric juice, then the event int
Direction :
he stomach will be affected :
(A) both assertion and reason are true and reason is
(Delhi/ntse/stage I 2015)
correct explanation of assertion.
(A) Digestion of starch into sugars
(B) Both assertion and reason are true but reason is
(B) Proteins break down into peptides
not correct explnation of assertion
(C) Breaking of fats into glycerol and fatty acids
(C) Assertion is true but reason is False
(D) Assertion is false but reason is true. (D) Digestion of nucleic acids

22. The substance essential for photosynthesis is 31. Which of the following factors does a plant use for the
(Rajasthan/ntsestage I 2015) process of photosynthesis ?
(A) glucose (B) oxygen (Gujrat/ntse/stage I 2015)
(C) nitrogen (D) water (A) Sunlight (B) Chlorophyll
(C) CO2 and H2O (D) All of them
23. W hich of the following products of light dependent
phase are used during light independent phase of 32. During chemical reaction between acid and base, Salt
photosynthesis ? and water are formed. W hat is the process called?
(W.B./ntsestage I 2015) (Gujrat/ntse/stage I 2015)
(A) RuBP & ATP (B) H2O & O2 (A) Neutralization (B) Corrosion
(C) NADPH2 & ATP (D) ATP & O2 (C) Hydrolysis (D) Ionization
24. Chlorophyll contains............. 33. Which is the longest organ of the digestive system ?
(M.P./ntsestage I 2015) (Gujrat/ntse/stage I 2015)
(A) Potassium (B) Iron (A) Oesophagus (B) Stomach
(C) Manganese (D) Magnesium
(C) Small Intestine (D) Large Intestine

PAGE # 51
34. The simplest amino acid is 38. What is the common product of both photosynthesis
(W.Bangal/ntse/stage I 2015) and respiration ?
(A) Lysine (B) Leucine (Bihar/ntse/stage I 2015)
(C) Glycine (D) Methionine (A) Oxygen (B) ADP
(C) CO2 (D) ATP
35. Gastric juice contains
39. One of the following juices secreted in the body of
(W.Bangal/ntse/stage I 2015)
man does not contain any enzyme :
(A) Pepsin and trypsin (Bihar/ntse/stage I 2015)
(B) Pepsin and HCl (A) Gastric Juice (B) Saliva
(C) Trypsin ahd HCl (C) Bile Juice (D) Pancreatic Juice
(D) Amylase and Pepsin.
40. Which part of the alimentary canal initiates digestion
36. Decrease of vitamin C and Carotene content in veg- of protein :(Utrakhand/ntse/stage I 2015)
etables and fruits is due to ... (A) Mouth (B) Oesophagus
(Andhra Pradesh/ntse/stage I 2015) (C) Stomach (D) Small intestine
(A) Excess Potassium content in soil. 41. If a photosynthsizing plant releases oxygen gas con-
(B) Excess Phosphate content in soil. taining O 15. It is concluded that the plant has been
(C) Less Nitrogen content in soil. supplied with :
(D) Less Potassium content in soil. (Hariyana/ntse/stage I 2015)
(A) C6H12O6 containing O18
37. Match the items in Column – I with Column – II (B) CO2 containing O18
(Andhra Pradesh/ntse/stage I 2015) (C) H2O containing O18
Column-I Column-II (D) Oxygen in the form of ozone
(A) Riboflavin (i) Anemia 42. The tusks of female elephant are :
(B) Folic acid (ii) Scurvy (Hariyana/ntse/stage I 2015)
(C) Retinol (iii) Glossitis (A) Molars (B) Lower incisors
(D) Ascorbic acid (iv) Night blindness (C) Upper incisors (D) Canines
Select the correct matching 43. Which of the following is least effective for photosyn-
(A) A-(iii), B-(i), C-(iv), D-(ii) thesis ?
(B) A-(iv), B-(i), C-(ii), D-(iii) (Hariyana/ntse/stage I 2015)
(C) A-(iii), B-(iv), C-(i), D-(ii) (A) Red light (B) Blue light
(D) A-(ii), B-(i), C-(iv), D-(iii) (C) Green light (D) Violet light



PAGE # 52
 RESPIRATION
RESPIRATION (ii) Internal respiration : Exchange of gases between
tissue cells and extracellular environment.
All physical and chemical reactions in which
atmospheric air oxidises food in the body cells (iii) Cellular respiration : Involves oxidation of food
resulting in production of energy and liberation of CO2 alongwith release of energy, inside cell.
are included in respiration. • Types of Respiration : Respiration is a oxidation
Organisms catabolise the nutrients in the presence process but it does not essentially require presence
of oxygen and obtain energy. of oxygen. On the basis of presence or absence of
Respiration takes place in all body cells. oxygen in respiration it is of two type :
• Requirement of efficient gas exchange (A) Aerobic (B) Anaerobic

(i) The respiratory surface should be thin, large and (a) Aerobic Respiration :
moist. It is oxygen dependent process in which glucose
(ii) It should be permeable to respiratory gases (O2 molecule is completely oxidised into CO 2 and water
along with release of high amount of energy. Glucose
and CO2).
molecule is broken down to pyruvate or pyruvic acid in
(iii) It must be in direct contact with source of O2 (air the cytoplasm without utilising oxygen. Pyruvate enters
or water). into mitochondria and utilises O2. ATP molecules are
produced.
(iv) If the animal has blood, the respiratory surface
must have rich blood supply. (b) Anaerobic Respiration :
During anaerobic respiration O2 is not utilised. In the
• Step of respiration : cytoplasm of the cells, pyruvate gets converted either
(i) External respiration : Exchange of gases into ethyl alcohol as in bacteria and yeast or into lactic
between an organism and its environment. acid, as in the muscles of man.

Respiration

Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration

(O2 is present) (O2 is absent)

Glucose (C6H12O6) Glucose (C6H12O6)

Glycolysis (in the

absence of O2
absence of O2)
Site–cytoplasm site-cytoplasm

Pyruvate
Kreb's cycle (in the Pyruvate
presence of O2)
Site–mitochondria
CO2 + H2O + ATP

Yeast Lactobacillus Muscles

Alcoholic Lactic acid Lactic acid
fermentation fermentation
C2H5OH + 2ATP + CO2 C3H6O3 + energy
ethyl alcohol lactic acid

PAGE # 53
 TABLE : DIFFERENCE BETW EEN ANAEROBIC AND AEROBIC RESPIRATION
ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION AEROBIC RESPIRATION

It does not require oxygen. It takes place in the pres ence of oxygen.

The s ubs trate is incom pletely broken dow n. The s ubs trate is com pletely broken dow n.

One of the end product is organic m olecule

The end products are CO 2 and H 2O.
(alcohol or acid).

It is carried out in the cytoplas m i.e. outs ide Glycolys is is carried out in cytoplas m while Krebs
the m itochondria. cycle takes place in the m itochondria.

C O2 m ay not be evolved. CO 2 is evolved.

Two m olecules of ATP are produced. There is net production of 36 ATP m olecules .

mature regions rate of respiration is slow.Diffusion is

RESPIRATION IN PLANTS
the method by which individual cell of plant can get
All parts of plants perform respiration individually but required amount of oxygen.
it’s rate is slower than that of animal respiration. The diffusion occurs in all the vegetative parts of plant
Cells in growing regions (root tip, stem tip, germinating (root, stem, leaves).
seeds, buds etc.) respires at higher rate while in Leaves  Stomata
Woody parts (stem)  lenticels.

Cell wall
Cell membrane
Nucleus
Spiral
Chloroplast

O2 CO2 Stomata
O2
CO2 TS of leaf

O2
Root hair
CO2
(A) Spirogyra exchanging gases through (B) Exchange of gases
their whole surface through stomata and roots T.S of root

CO2
O2 Lenticels
Lenticels
In the bark Loose cells
of the tree

Dead cells

Living cells

(C) Exchange of gases

through lenticels
Fig : Respiration in Plants
• In phylums Platyhelminthes to Nematodes mostly are
RESPIRATION IN ANIMALS
anaerobic & endoparasites.
• Animals have different types of organs for respiration
• In phylum Annelida cutaneous respiration occurs.
due to which mode of respiration varies according to
the organism but the basic mechanism is same. • From phylum Arthropoda till Mammals various
• From phylum Protozoa to Ctenophora respiration is respiratory organs like trachea, gills and lungs are
by general body surface. developed.

PAGE # 54
 S.No. TYPE OF RESPIRATION ORGANS INVOLVED EXAMPLE
1. Cell s urface res piration General body s urface Am oeba, Param ecium
2. Tracheal res piration Trachea & tracheoles Ins ects
3. Branchial res piration Gills Aquatic anim als (Fis hes )
4. Cutaneous res piration Skin Frog
5. Pulm onary res piration Lungs Am phibians , reptiles , birds
6. Buccal res piration Buccal cavity Frog

• Some important characteristics of respiratory (d) Respiration in Grasshopper :

organs of animals are :
• In insects there occurs a system of tiny holes and air
 They have large surface area to get enough tubes all over the body. These tiny holes or openings
oxygen. are called as spiracles. This whole system facilitates
the exchange of gases and is called as tracheal
 They have thin walls for easy diffusion and
system.
exchange of gases.
• During breathing oxygen of air enters in the spiracle
 They have rich blood supply for transport of
and reaches to each and every part of grasshopper’s
respiratory gases.
body through trachea and tracheoles and carbon
(a) Respiration in Amoeba : dioxide produced during respiration is carried back
by trachea and tracheoles to the spiracles and is
In unicellular organisms like amoeba and in some
expelled out of the body of insect.
lower multicellular animals like sponges and
cnidarians, respiration or exchange of gases occurs • The same mechanism is followed in other insects
through general body surface as these cells are in like houseflies, mosquitoes, bees etc.
direct contact with an aquatic environment so the
oxygen dissolved in water diffuses into the cell and
brings about oxidation of food, at the same time carbon
dioxide released is expelled out of the cell by the same
process.
(b) Respiration in Earthworm :
In organisms like earthworm and leech exchange of
gases occurs through their skin as their skin is very
thin and moist. It is rich in blood supply so the oxygen
is absorbed by moist skin of earthworm and is
transported to all the cells of body through blood. The
carbon dioxide from body cells diffuses into the blood
and expelled out through skin. (e) Respiration in Humans :
(c) Respiration in Fish : • Human respiratory tract :
• In fish exchange of gases occurs through gills so (i) External nostrils : First part of respiratory system.
the respiration is said to be branchial. It opens into nasal cavity and is meant for
• Gills are present on both the sides of its head, they inhalation of air from outside.
are covered by gill covers.
• During breathing fish takes in water through its mouth
and pass it over the gills.The oxygen present in water
is extracted by gills and water is removed out through
gill slits. This oxygen is now absorbed by blood and
carried to all parts of the body and at the same time
carbon dioxide is released from the blood and comes
back to the gills and is expelled out into th e
surrounding water.
• Same type of respiratory pattern is followed in some
other aquatic organisms like prawns.

The structure and functions of respiratory system are

given below in table

PAGE # 55
 ORGAN OR
REGION LOCATION STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Nasal Cavity Above the mouth cavity Two external nostrils help in
intake of oxygen.
Lined by ciliated and sensory
epithelial cells which help in
filtering of air (by hair) &
warming or cooling of the inhaled air.
Mucous secreted by them
prevent dust particles from entry.
Two internal nostrils act as the
end of this cavity from which
the air enters into pharynx.
Pharynx Behind the nasal caity Posteriorly it has two openings;
leading into the trachea dorsal opening or gullet (leading
to oesophagus) & ventral opening
or glottis (aperture of trachea).
A cartilaginous flap (epiglottis)
guards the glottis to prevent the
entry of food into the trachea.
Larynx or voice box Lies at the back of the neck A pair of membranes (called vocal cords)
or Adam's apple stretched in the internal cavity, partially close
the air passage. These membranes can
be relaxed or stretched. When the air
passes over the vocal cords, they
vibrate and produce sounds.
Trachea or Wind pipe Tube running through the Its walls are supported by C-shaped cartilages
neck to prevent it from collapsing. It divides into
in front of oesophagus two bronchi (singular bronchus) which
enter the respective right and the left lung.
Lungs Present in the thoracic cavity Surrounded by two pleural membranes
whose walls are formed by containing a fluid in between to reduce friction.
ribs and muscles, and whose
floor is formed by a muscular
sheet, the diaphragm.

Spongy organ formed by the

sub-divisions of the bronchus called bronchioles.
Each bronchiole ends in a structure
like bunch of grapes or balloon-like
structures called alveoli or air sacs,
alveoli provide the surface for the
exchange of gases.
Each alveolus is surrounded by
a network of blood capillaries.

PAGE # 56
• Diaphragm: It is a sheet of muscles that lies below the lungs and separates thoracic cavity from abdominal cavity.
Respiratory System of man
Nostrils
Vestibular region Contain hair and oil glands

Nasal chamber Respiratory region Lined by pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium, filter air

Olfactory region Region receives smell

Internal nares

Pharynx Oropharynx

Nasopharynx

Laryngopharynx

Larynx (Voice box) Pharynx open into Larynx by glottis which is covered by epiglottis.

Thyroid (Male Adam's apple)

Cartilage of larynx Cricoid
Arytenoid

Vocal cords True and false

Greater tension Higher pitch of sound

Trachea or wind pipe Contain C-shaped

cartilaginous rings

Lungs

Covered by pleural membrane

Space b/w both lungs - mediastenum
Right lung - 3 lobes
Left lung - 2 lobes

Tracheal Tree

Trachea

primary bronchi

lungs
Secondary bronchi

Tertiary bronchi

Bronchioles

Terminal bronchiole

Respiratory bronchiole

Alveolar duct

Air sac

Alveoli

PAGE # 57
 (f) Mechanism of Respiration : From here it diffuses into the red blood cells. About
23% of carbon dioxide entering into the erythrocytes
Mechanism of respiration includes 3 steps :
combines with the globin (protein) part of
1. Mechanism of Breathing haemoglobin to form carbaminohaemoglobin,
2. Transportation of gases and mechanism of Gaseous which is transported to the lungs. About 70% of
exchange carbon-dioxide is transported in the form of
bicarbonates dissolved in water. Only 7% is
3. Cellular respiration transported in dissolved form in plasma.
(A) Mechanism of breathing : It includes • Note: A normal person has about 15 grams of
(i) Inhalation: During breathing in of air the diaphragm haemoglobin per 100 ml of blood. Haemoglobin binds
and muscles attached to the ribs contract due to which about 1.34 ml of O 2. Thus, 100 ml of blood carries
there occurs expansion of chest cavity.It results about 20 ml of oxygen.od. One gram of
increase in volume of chest cavity thus the air pressure Air
decreases and air from outside rushes into the lungs
Lungs (i) Breathing
and alveolar sacs get filled with air containing oxygen. CO2 O2
The oxygen present in air diffuses into the blood and (ii) Diffusion of
CO2 from blood diffuses out into alveolar sac. Gases between
CO2 O2 Lungs and blood
(ii) Exhalation : During breathing out of air the
diaphragm and muscles attached to ribs relax, which
brings about contraction in chest cavity. Its volume (iii) Transport of
Blood vessels
gets reduced and CO2 is pushed out from lungs into Gases in blood
the air through trachea and nostrils.

• The two types of muscles that help in breathing are: CO2 O2

a. Diaphragm muscles (iv) Exchange of gases
b. Intercostal muscles (Present between ribs) CO2 O2
at tissue level
• Diaphragm becomes flat during inspiration and Tissue cell
becomes convex during expiration. (v) Cellular respiration
3. Cellular Respiration : It refers to the oxidation of food
2. Transportation of gases and Mechanism of Gaseous
taking place inside the cell. As this process is at
Exchange Between Tissues and Blood. cellular level so it is called cellular respiration. It takes
The air enters into the lungs through nostrils, trachea place in three steps :
then bronchi from here it enters into the bronchioles, (i) Glycolysis
and than it moves into thin walled alveolar sacs or (ii) Kreb Cycle
alveoli. Alveoli are rich in blood capillaries. At this place (iii) Electron Transport System
oxygen from air diffuses into the blood and is
Carbohydrates
transported to all the cells and tissues of body. This
oxygen now diffuses into the cells and is utilized for During
the oxidation of food and production of energy in digestion
mitochondria. As a result of this carbon dioxide is
produced in cells, due to this increased concentration Glucose
of CO2 ,it diffuses into the blood and is brought back to
alveoli and expelled out of the lungs through trachea Glycolysis
and nostrils.

• Blood is the medium for the transport of oxygen from Pyruvic acid
the respiratory organ to the different tissues and carbon
in absence of O2 in presence of O2
dioxide from tissues to the respiratory organs.
(i) Transport of oxygen: There are two ways for
Anaerobic respiration Aerobic respiration
oxygen transport. As much as 97 per cent of the
C2H5OH + CO2 + 2ATP Kreb Cycle
oxygen is transported from the lungs to the CO 2 + H 2O + 38ATP
tissues in combination with haemoglobin and
only 3 percent is transported in dissolved (A) Glycolysis : Glycolysis also called EMP (Embden
condition by the plasma. Meyerhof Parnas) pathway.
(ii) Transport of Carbon dioxide: Carbon-dioxide is Site-cytoplasm of cell.
transported from the tissues to the lungs by three (i) In this cycle glucose is converted into pyruvic acid
methods. W hen a respiring tissue releases in presence of many enzymes and co-enzymes.
carbon-dioxide, it is first diffused in the blood.

PAGE # 58
 (ii) Oxygen is not required during glycolysis. (A) 8ATP from glycolysis

(iii) 1 molecule of glucose gives rise to 2 molecules (B) 6 ATP from conversion of pyruvic acid into acetyl
of pyruvic acid. Co.A.
(C) 24 ATP from kreb cycle
(iv) In this process 4 molecules of ATP are formed
among them 2 ATP molecules are utilized thus • Besides this CO2 and H2O are also released.
net gain of two ATP molecules.
Glucose
(v) 2 NAD molecules are reduced to 2 NADH2, which
later produces 6ATP molecules.
Glycolysis
(vi) Net production of ATP in glycolysis is 2ATP + 6ATP 2ATP
= 8 ATP.
Pyruvate
(vii) There is no production of CO2 during this process. Absence CO2
• NOTE : After glycolysis, pyruvic acid is converted into Alcoholic of O2 Presence
Fermentation of O2
acetyl Co-A with the release of CO2 and the process is
called as ‘oxidative decarboxylation’. It occurs in
Lactate Acetyl Group
mitochondria of the cell. Besides this 2 NAD molecules Fermentation
are reduced to 2 NADH2, which later produces 6ATP
molecules.
(B) Kreb Cycle : CO2

Site : Mitochondria of cell 2ATP Kreb's Cycle

(i) Also called aerobic oxidation.
(ii) Discovered by Sir Hans Kreb.
e
(iii) Another name TCA cycle (tricarboxylic acid
Electron
cycle) or Citric acid cycle.
Transport e H2O
(iv) It brings about the conversion of pyruvic acid, fatty System
acids, fats and amino acids into CO2 and water
by oxidation. O2
(v) It is the common path for oxidation of (d) Control of Respira tion :
carbohydrates, fats and proteins. Respiration is controlled by the respiratory centre
(vi) It starts with acetyl Co-A which is then converted situated in medulla oblongata of brain.
into several intermediate compounds with the (i) Breathing occurs involuntarily.
release of ATP, hydrogen atoms (NADH 2 and
(ii) Under normal conditions rate of breathing is 15-
FADH2) and then Acetyl Co-A is regenerated back.
18 times per minute. During vigorous exercise,
(vii) For each glucose molecule the Kreb’s cycle the demand of oxygen increases due to which
occurs twice, so produces 2 ATP, 6 NADH2 and 2 rate of breathing increases by about 20-25 times.
FADH 2. Therefore it accounts for total 24 ATP
(iii) The total area for gas exchange covered through
molecules.
300 million alveoli is about 36-72 m2 in each lung.
(C) Electron Transport System or ETS : The total area for gas exchange provided by our
750 million alveoli in two lungs is 100 Sq.m.
• Site : Mitochondria of cell
(e ) Respiratory quotient :
(i) n this hydrogen atoms produced during oxidation
of various intermediates during Glycolysis, It is defined as the ratio of the volumes of CO2 liberated
Oxidative- decarboxylation and Kreb cycle are first and O2 used during respiration.
broken into protons and electrons. R.Q. (Respiratory quotient.) =
(ii) These protons and electrons after passing Volumeof CO2evolved CO2
through a series of coenzymes and cytochromes Volumeof O2 absorbed = O2
combine with oxygen to form water molecules.
Value of RQ depends upon the type of ‘Fuel
(iii) During these series of events 1 NADH2 releases substance’ being utilized for energy production.
3ATP molecules and 1 FADH 2 gives 2ATP
molecules which were produced during kreb • When carbohydrate are the respiratory
cycle and glycolysis. substrate. R.Q. = 1

• Note : The net gain of ATP molecules during • When fats are respiratory substrate, R.Q. = 0.7
respiration is 38ATP molecules among them: • When proteins are respiratory substrate, R.Q. = (0.5
– 0.9).
• For Anaerobic respiration, RQ=

PAGE # 59
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN RESPIRATION & 4. Bronchitis : Swelling in living membranes of
PHOTOSYNTHESIS respiratory tract due to excessive smoking.

Respiration Photosynthesis 5. Tuberculosis : Bacterial infection in lungs.

It is a catabolic It is an anabolic 6. Pleurisy : Inflammation of lung membrane (pleura) is
process. process.
called as pleurisy.
Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are
are broken down synthesised. • Mountain sickness : t is also known as altitude
(oxidized). sickness. At sea level the concentration of oxygen is
Energy is liberated Light energy is stored in about 21% and the barometric pressure averages 760
in the form of ATP. the form of glucose or mm Hg. As altitude increases, the concentration
chemical energy. remains the same but the number of oxygen
molecules per breath is reduced. At 12,000 feet the
The amount of The amount of CO2 barometric pressure is only 483 mm Hg, so there are
CO2 in the air in the air decreases roughly 40% fewer oxygen molecules per breath. In
increases during during photosynthesis. order to oxygenate the body effectively, breathing rate
respiration. (even while at rest) has to be increased. This extra
ventilation increases the oxygen content in the blood,
It takes place It takes place only in
but not to sea level concentrations. The fall in
in all the living chlorophyllous cells.
oxygenation of blood produces the symptoms of
cells, both green
mountain sickness. These symptoms include
and non-green
breathlessness, headache, dizziness, nausea,
Dry weight of plant Dry weight of plant vomiting, mental fatigue and a bluish tinge on the skin,
decreases. increases.
nails and lips.
Oxidative Photophosphorylation
phosphorylation occurs. • Sudden contraction of diaphragm along with loud
occurs. closure of glottis causes Hiccough.
O2 is utilized CO2 and H2O are used • Sudden and violent expulsion of air through mouth
& CO2 and H2O while O2 is evolved. and nose is called sneezing.
are formed. • Volume and capacity of Lungs:
(i) Tidal volume : It is the volume of air inspired or
C6H12O6 + 6O2 Sunlight
expired in relaxed position. It is around 500 ml
6CO2 + 12H2O
 6CO2 + 6H2O Ch lo ro p h yll per breath.
+ energy. C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O. (ii) Residual volume : It is the volume of air left in the
whole respiratory tract after forceful expiration. It
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN RESPIRATION AND is 1.5 liters.
COMBUSTION (iii) Total lung capacity : Maximum amount of air the
lungs can hold after forceful inspiration. It is called
Respiration Combustion
total lung capacity. It is about 5-6.0 liters.
It is a biological process It is a chemical process.
(iv) Vital capacity : Maximum amount of air which
It takes place at normal It takes place at
can be breathed out through forceful expiration
temperature. high temperature.
after a forceful inspiration. It is called vital capacity.
Respiration is a slow Combustion is fast process
It is 3.4-4.8 liters.
process and completed in in which the energy is
several steps. Thus, the liberated only in one step • Vital Capacity is more in athletes, mountain dewellers,
energy is also resulting in increase in non smokers.
liberated in several steps temperature and production
& remain stored of fire.
• In breathing inhalation and exhalation is repeated 15
in the form of ATP. to 18 times in a minute and about 500 ml of air per
breath is breathed in and out from lungs. n 24 hours,
• Some Respiratory Disorders : we breath in 15000 liters of air.

1. Emphysema : t occurs due to infection, smoking  Carbon monoxide effect: Carbon monoxide binds
etc. It occurs due to obstructions in bronchioles with haemoglobin about 230 times more readily than
caused by breaking of alveolar septa. oxygen. W hen a person inhales carbon monoxide, it
Bronchiodialators and O 2 therapy are used for diffuses from the alveolar air to the blood and binds to
curing this disease. haemoglobin forming carboxyhaemoglobin. The
2. Asthma : Air passages are narrowed and lead to latter is a relatively stable compound and cannot bind
obstruction in breathing. with oxygen molecules. So, the amount of haemoglobin
3. Pneumonia : Lymph and mucus accumulate in available for oxygen transportation is reduced. The
alveoli and bronchioles. It occurs due to bacterial resulting deficiency of oxygen causes headache,
and viral infection. dizziness, nausea and even death.

PAGE # 60
 12. Whales respire through :
EXERCISE-1 (A) Lungs (B) Gills
(C) Moist skin (D) Buccal cavity
Respiration in Plants
13. No respiratory pigment is found in :
1. In respiration pyruvic acid is : (A) Cockroach (B) Earthworm
(A) Broken down into two carbon fragments and carbon (C) Rabbit (D) Frog
dioxide
(B) Formed only when oxygen is available 14. The left lung is smaller than the right lung because
(C) One of the products of Kreb’s cycle (A) it has only one oblique fissure
(D) A result of protein break down (B) it is less active in respiration than right lungs
2. Rate of respiration is directly affected by : (C) right lung accomodate a cavity, mediastinal space
(A) Concentration of CO2 (D) it has a cardiac notch to accomodate the heart.
(B) Oxygen in trachea 15. The shortest part of respiratory system is
(C) Concentration of O2 (A) small inestine (B) pharynx
(D) Diaphragm expansion (C) large intestine (D) oesophagus.
3. Anaerobic respiration is also Known as :
16. Which one of the following has the smallest diameter:
(A) Intramolecular respiration
(A) Right primary bronchus
(B) Intermolecular respiration
(B) Left primary bronchus
(C) Extramolecular respiration
(D) Molecular respiration (C) Secondary bronchiole
(D) Respiratory bronchiole
4. Pneumatophores take part in
(A) excretion (B) feeding 17. Lining of trachea is made of :
(C) respiration (D) reproduction. (A) Simple squamous epithelium
(B) Simple cuboidal epithelium
5. In a plant organ which is covered by periderm and in
(C) Pseudostratified epithelium
which the stomata are absent, some gaseous
exchange still takes place through (D) Stratified cuboidal epithelium
(A) aerenchyma (B) trichomes 18. Vocal cords are made up mostly of :
(C) pneumatophores (D) lenticels. (A) Bone (B) Cartilage
6. Lenticels are found in : (C) Elastin fibres (D) Collagen fibres
(A) The woody stem for gaseous exchange. 19. Cardiac notch is found on :
(B) The root where primary growth has occurred. (A) Right lung (B) Left lung
(C) The roots as well as stem where secondary growth (C) Diaphragm (D) None of the above
has occurred for photosynthesis
20. During inspiration, air passes into lungs due to :
(D) None of the above
(A) Increase in volume of thoracic cavity and fall in
7. Fruits kept in refrigerator maintain their flavour and lung pressure
taste for longer period due to : (B) Fall in pressure inside the lungs
(A) Non - availability of O2 (C) Increased volume of thoracic cavity
(B) Presence of excess CO2 (D) Muscular expansion of lungs
(C) Slowing down of respiration 21. Who receives electron at the end of electron transport
(D) Presence of excess moisture chain :
(A) H2O (B) H2
Respiration in Animals
(C) CO2 (D) Cytochrome a3
8. Anaerobic respiration in human body occurs inside :
22. In mitochondrion, the proton gradient required for ATP
(A) Liver (B) White muscles
synthesis develops across :
(C) Red muscles (D) Kidney
(A) Inner membrane
9. Peripatus breaths by : (B) Inter - membrane space
(A) Skin (B) Book lungs (C) Outer membrane
(C) Trachea (D) Gills
(D) F0 – F1 particles
10. Book lungs are respiratory organs of
23. Higher concentration of CO2 causes :
(A) mollusca (B) arachnida
(A) Low transport of O2 in blood
(C) mammals (D) aves
(B) Low diffusion of O2 in blood
11. The lungs of early bony fishes evolved into swim (C) Quick diffusion of O2
bladders. This change had the primary effect of : (D) All of these
(A) Improving feeding efficiency
24. Lungs ventilation movement are due to the movements of
(B) Supplementing gill respiration
(A) coastal muscles and diaphragm
(C) Aiding reproduction
(B) coastal muscles only
(D) Providing buoyancy
(C) diaphragm only
(D) wall of the lungs.
PAGE # 61
25. The pyruvic acid formed during glycolysis is oxidised 3. Rings of cartilage are present in the following :
to CO2 and H2O in a cycle called (Haryana/ntsestage I 2015)
(A) Calvin cycle (B) nitrogen cycle (A) Oesophagus (B) Trachea
(C) Hill cycle (D) Krebs' cycle (C) Throat (D) Duodenum
4. Grafting is not possible in monocot plant because
26. Breathing is controlled by
they
(A) lungs (B) trachea
(W.B./ntsestage I 2015)
(C) hypothalamus (D) medulla oblongata
(A) have parallel venation
27. R.Q. for glucose is (B) have only one cotyledon
(A) 1 (B) 0.5 (C) 2 (D) 0.05 (C) lack cambium
(D) have scattered vascular bundle.
28. After complete exhalation the lungs of a healthy man
5. The volume of air breathe in and out during normal
contains a litre of gas, this quantity is known as :
respiration is known as :
(A) Residual volume
(Bihar/ntsestage I 2015)
(B) Functional residual capacity (A) Vital capacity (B) Vital volume
(C) Total lung capacity (C) Ideal volume (D) Tidal volume
(D) Dead space
6. Which scientist discovered “Tricarboxylic acid” ?
29. EMP is _______. (M.P./ntsestage I 2015)
(A) Glycolysis (B) Kreb’s cycle (A) Krab (B) Watson and Crick
(C) ETS (D) Fermentation (C) Sanger (D) Edison

30. Accumulation of mucus due to infection is called - 7. During lack of oxygen in tissues of our body, the pyru-
(A) Pleurisy (B) Asthma vate is converted into lactic acid in :
(C) Bronchitis (D) Pneumonia (Delhi/ntsestage I 2015)
(A) Mitochondria (B) Nucleus
(C) Cytoplasm (D) Ribosome
EXERCISE-2
8. The phenomenon of normal breathing in a human being
COMPETITIVE EXAM QUESTIONS comprises
(Respiration/2015 NTSE/Stage-2)
1. Which reaction take place in Mitochondria ? (A) an active inspiratory and a passive expiratory
(West Bengal/NTSE Stage-1/Respiration/2013)
phase
(A) Oxidative phosphorylation
(B) a passive inspiratory and an active expiratory
(B) Photolysis
phase.
(C) Photophosphorylation
(C) both active inspiratory and expiratory phases.
(D) Starch synthesis
(D) both passive inspiratory and expiratory phases.
2. The sequence of process related with respiration is
9. Kreb’s Cycle takes place in :
(M.P./NTSE Stage-1/Respiration/2013)
(M.P./ntse/stage I 2015)
(A) Kreb’s cycle  Glycolysis  Electrontransport
(A) Cytoplasm (B) Mitochondria
system
(C) Nucleus (D) Ribosome
(B) Glycolysis  Kreb’s cycle  Electrontransport
system 10. How many carbon is present in Acetyl COA?
(C) Electrontransport system  Kreb’s cycle (W.Bangal/ntse/stage I 2015)
 Glycolysis (A) Four (B) One
(D) None of above (C) Three (D) Two



PAGE # 62
 TRANSPORTATION
The distribution of food and oxygen to all parts of the • Absorption & Transportation of water and minerals :
body as well as the removal of body wastes is The water and minerals are absorbed by land plants
performed by a transport system within the body of all from the soil where it is present in the form of soil
living organisms.
solution. The water is absorbed actively by water
Transportation potential difference between soil solution and root
hairs. W ater molecules move from higher water
potential to lower water potential and then migrate
In unicellular organism In multicellular from cell to cell passing from epidermis to cortex, from
By simple diffusion organism Beside
& by active process diffusion a transport cortex to endodermis and from endodermis to xylem
endocytosis and system is also vessels and tracheids. The mineral salts move from
exocytosis required higher partial pressure to lower partial pressure along
the concentration gradient by passive absorption or
In Plants In Animals against the concentration gradient by active absorption.
This mechanism of transport of water was explained
TRANSPORTATION IN PLANTS by Dixon and Joly (1894). It is called cohesion-tension
theory or transpiration pull theory.
1. Transportation of water and minerals by xylem.
2. Transportation of food and other substances by
phloem.

T.S. OF ROOT

Diagrammatic representation of path of sap.

• Transport of food : Food materials are being utilisation is called sink. The direction of translocation
translocated from the region of their manufacture or can be downward, upward or both. The channels of
storage to the region of their utilisation. The region of transport are sieve tubes (sieve cells in nonflowering
supply of food is called source while the area of plants). Sieve tubes are specialised for this purpose.

PAGE # 63
 They are devoid to nuclei and internal membranes. nutrients being in high concentration, exert an osmotic
The cytoplasm of one tube cell is continuous with that pressure which causes entry of water into this region.
of adjacent sieve tube cell through sieve plates. The A high turgor pressure develops. It forces the nutrients
force required for translocation is produced by to pass towards the region which has low turgor
companion cells which lie adjacent to sieve tube cells. pressure. The movement is like a mass flow (Munch
With the help of energy food materials pass into the 1930). Low turgor pressure is maintained in the area
phloem from the region of manufacture or storage where soluble food is being withdrawn for
(source end). After entering the sieve tubes the consumption or storage by an active process.

Phloem loading

High Turgor pressure

Phloem channel

Phloem unloading

Transportation of organic solutes as per mass flow hypothesis

TRANSPORTATION IN ANIMALS TYPES OF BLOOD VASCULAR SYSTEM

• Introduction : The heart, blood and blood vessels The blood vascular system is mainly of two types :
(network of arteries, veins and capillaries) are the three (a) Open circulatory system
structural elements that make up the circulatory (b) Closed circulatory system
system or cardiovascular system or transportation
system.
TABLE : DIFFERENCES BETWEEN OPEN AND CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
S.No. Characters Open Circulatory System Closed Circulatory System
1 Occurrence In some annelids, most of In most of annelids, cephalopods,
molluscs and arthropods. some molluscs and all vertebrates.
2 Position of blood Blood does not remain confined Blood remains confined in the
in the blood vessels and comes blood vessels.
in lacunae or sinuses.
3 Blood pressure Blood flows at low pressure Blood flows at high pressure and
and cannot be regulated. can be regulated.
4 Velocity of blood Blood flows at a low velocity. Blood flows at a high velocity.
5 Exchange of Direct exchange between blood Exchange occurs through the
materials and body cells. tissue fluid.
6 Respiratory When present, it is dissolved in Always present and is usually
pigment blood plasma. present in RBCs e.g. vertebrates.
7 Efficiency Less efficient as blood takes More efficient as blood circulation
more time to complete one is completed in short period.
circulation.

PAGE # 64
• Blood composition : It is a mobile fluid connective  Life span of RBCs is 120 days.
tissue of reddish colour. It is made up of :  In embryonic stage RBCs are produced by liver &
1. Plasma : It is pale yellow slightly alkaline (pH 7.4) spleen.
transparent fluid matrix of blood. It constitutes 55%  Produced in bone marrow in adult
of the blood. Plasma consists of 92% water and  Iron, Vit B 12, folic acid stimulate maturation of
8% solutes. The solutes are of five types. (i) RBC’s.
Proteins, (ii) Nutrients, (iii) Excretory Products, (iv)  Deficiency of any of these nutrients can cause
Inorganic salts, (v) Other Substances anaemia.
2. Blood Corpuscles : Blood corpuscles constitute  Total RBC count is more in male than female.
45% of the blood. They are of three types - red  Other respiratory pigments  Prawns, crabs, pila
blood corpuscles, white blood corpuscles and contain a blue copper protein complex pigment
blood platelets. called Haemocyanin.
• Blood Corpuscles :  Some annelids (eg. sabella) contain green iron
protein pigment called chlorocruorin.
(A) Red Blood Corpuscles (Erythrocytes) – In fishes,
amphibians, reptiles & birds RBCs are nucleated,  Worn out RBC’s are phagocytosed & destroy in
oval & biconvex in shape. In mammals RBCs are spleen and macrophages in liver.(Graveyard of
enucleated, biconcave in shape. RBC’s also lack RBC)
cell organelles like mitochondria and E.R. degrade
Heme into
Bilirubin & Biliverdin
(yellow) (green)
 RBCs contain pigment haemoglobin (conjugated
protein contain Fe2+). (B) White Blood Corpuscles (Leucocytes) 
Amoeboid in shape, nucleated,lack haemoglobin
 1 molecule of hemoglobin binds with 4 molecules
so colourless.
of O2.

PAGE # 65
 (C) Platelets / Thrombocytes 5. Retention of fluid in blood  The albumin of blood
plasma can hold water so is responsible for osmotic
• found only in mammals. tension of blood.
• Non - nucleated
6. Anticoagulant  Heparin prevents coagulation of
• irregular in shape blood inside blood vessels.
• When any injury is caused, the blood platelets release
certain chemicals which are platelet factors. eg. 7. Blood clotting  Prothrombin and fibrinogen help in
blood clotting at the site of injury.
thromboplastin.
• Blood = Blood cells + plasma • Blood Clotting : Vit K is essential for blood clotting.
• Plasma = Blood – corpuscles Clotting time - 6-10 min.
• Serum = Blood – ( corpuscles + fibrinogen) Hirudin is also an anticoagulant found in saliva of
• Lymph = Blood – RBC or plasma + WBC. leech. It prevents coagulation of victim’s blood.

• Functions of blood :
• Blood Group And Blood Transfusion :
 Haemophilia is a genetic disease which is
1. Transportation of Nutrients, gases and waste caused due to deficiency of clotting factor VIII & IX
materials, hormones.  Blood groups, A, B & O group was discovered by
2. Homeothermy  maintenance of temperature. Landsteiner in 1900.
Blood transports heat from tissue and organs. Antigens are also known as agglutinogens.
Antigens are present on surface of RBC’s.
3. Maintenance of pH.
Antigens are proteinaceous in nature.
4. Defence compound  Antibodies (gamma Antigens are A and B.
globulins) provide resistance against diseases,  Antibodies are also known as agglutinin or
properdin destroy certain bacteria and neutralize Immunoglobulins present in blood plasma.
viruses.
TABLE : BLOOD TRANSFUSION
Blood group Antigen Present Antibody present in Can donate to Can Receive
on RBC plasma blood type blood type
A A b A and AB A and O
B B a B and AB B and O
AB A and B None AB only All (A, B, AB and O)
O None a and b All (A, B AB and O) O only

• Rh factor  is discovered by Landsteiner & Veiner in • Superior vena cava collect blood from upper body part,
1940 in Rhesus monkey. inferior vena cava collects blood from lower body
• No natural Rh antibodies are found in blood of man regions, coronary sinus collects blood from wall of
but if Rh + blood is mixed with Rh – blood then heart.
antibodies formation starts i.e. antibodies against Rh • Ventricles  left ventricle is longer & narrower than
antigens are produced in Rh– blood. right, left ventricle has thickest wall.
• Marriage of Rh + man & Rh – women is prohibited Ventricles are separated by inter - ventricular septum.
because due to this first birth is safe while second is • Pulmonary trunk arises from right ventricle & divides
fatal. This disease is called erythroblastosis foetalis. into right & left pulmonary arteries that carry
Now a days IgG preparation is given to each Rh – deoxygenated blood to lungs.
women after Ist birth for prevention. • Opening of inferior vena cava is guarded by eustachian
• Structure of Heart : Blood circulatory system  valve.
discovered by W illiam Harvey. • At the base of pulmonary trunk & aorta semi - lunar
valves are present.
• Outer covering pericardium
• In right atrium adjoining to interatrial septum an oval
• External structure
depression, the fossa ovalis is present.
Upper two chambers - auricles.
• At fossa ovalis the two atria are in communication
lower two chambers - ventricles.
with each other during foetal life but in adult it persists
• Auricles and ventricles are separated by atrio
as depression. Bicuspid or mitral valve found between
ventricular sulcus.
L.A and L.V.
• Atria auricles are separated by inter auricular septum.
• Tricuspid valve found between R.A and R.V.
Left atrium is smaller than right atrium.
• Attached to flaps of bicuspid & tricuspid valve are
• Superior vena cava, inferior vena cava, coronary sinus
special chordae tendineae which are joined to other
open into right atrium.
end of ventricular wall because of papillary muscles.

PAGE # 66
• Chordae tendineae prevent valves from collapsing Ventricular systole is of 0.3 sec.
back into atria during powerful ventricular contraction. Complete diastole is of 0.4 sec.
The series of events which occur during one heart
beat is called as cardiac cycle.

• ECG  A graphic record of the spread of the

cardiac impulse through the heart is called
Fig. Internal structure of Human Heart electrocardiogram.

• Blood Pressure : It is the pressure exerted by forceful

WORKING OF HEART
flow of blood on the elastic wall of the arteries. It is
Heart is myogenic that means heart beat is initiated measured in mm of Hg by an instrument called
by a patch of heart muscle. sphygmomanometer.
Systolic pressure = 120 mm Hg
• Path of conduction of impulses : diastolic pressure = 80 mm Hg
S.A node (sinoatrial node / pacemaker)  situated in  120 / 80 mm of Hg
R.A near opening of superior vena cava. • Heart Beat : Rhythmic expansion and contraction of

heart is called heart beat. The expansion is called
A.V node (atrioventricular node or pacesetter) 
diastole while the contraction is known as systole.
situated in R.A. near or base of interartrial septum
The rate of heart beat is 70-72/min in adult human
 males and 80/min in females. Heart beat is listened
Bundle of his  present in ventricles with the help of stethoscope. There is low pitched
 sound of longer duration called lubb and a high pitched
Purkinje fibre  found in wall of heart sound of shorter duration known as dupp.
• Pulse : It is repeated throbs felt in a superficial artery
• Cardiac cycle  cardiac cycle consists of one heart
like radial artery over the wrist below the base of the
beat. Time taken in one cycle is 0.8 sec. Out of which thumb. Pulse can be felt by placing the thumb over the
artrial systole is of 0.1 sec radial artery. Pulse rate is equal to rate of heart beat.

PAGE # 67
 4. A portal system is one in which
DOUBLE CIRCULATION (A) A vein starts from an organ and ends up in heart
(B) A vein starts from an organ and ends up in another
Deoxygenated blood organ
RA R.V (C) A vein starts from heart and ends up in lungs
(D) None of the above
Deoxygenated Deoxygenated blood 5. O blood group can be given to persons with blood
blood
group
Body parts except lungs Lungs (A) AB (B) B
(C) A (D) A, B, AB or O
oxygenated Systemic Pulmonary Oxygenated blood
blood circulation circulation 6. W hich one of the following genotypes have blood
group B ?
L.V L.A
(A) IB I° / IBIB (B) IAIB / IBIB
• Knowledge Booster (C) IAIB/IB I° (D) IBIB / IA I°
• Blood glucose level 80-100 mg. per 7. If husband has blood group O and wife blood group
1000 ml of blood after a normal meal. AB, the blood group of the child cannot be
• Glycosuria appearance of glucose in urine (A) A (B) B
if blood glucose level exceeds 180 mg. per 100ml. (C) AB only (D) O or AB
• Blood cholesterol level 80-180 mg. in
100 ml of blood plasma. 8. Sodium oxalate prevents blood clotting due to
• If haemoglobin percentage falls in (A) Blocking of fibrinogen transformation
blood anaemia arises. (B) Covering RBC
(C) Inhibiting activity of clotting factor of plasma
 Blood = Blood cells + plasma (D) Combining with calcium ions of blood
 Plasma = Blood – corpuscles
9. Which one of the following statements are wrong ?
 Serum = Blood – ( corpuscles + fibrinogen)
(a) Leucocytes disintegrate in spleen and liver
 Lymph = Blood – RBC or plasma + WBC.
(b) RBC, WBC and blood platelets are produced by
• Heart Sounds : bone marrow
(c) Neutrophils bring about destruction and
(i) The first sound “ LUBB” is produced when the detoxification of toxins of protein origin
atrio-ventricular valves get closed sharply at the (d) Important function of lymphocytes is to produce
start of ventricular systole. antibodies
(ii) The second sound “DUPP” is produced when at (A) a and b only (B) a and d only
the beginning of ventricular diastole, the (C) a and c only (D) b and d only
semilunar valves at the roots of aorta and 10. Which is the correct sequence of parts through which
pulmonary artery get closed. cardiac action potentials pass:
• Special points : (A) Purkinje fibres, AV node, SA node, bundle of His,
atrial fibres
(i) Stroke volume - Volume of blood pumped by (B) AV node, atrial fibres, SA node, bundle of His,
heart in single cardiac cycle (70 ml).
purkinje fibres
(ii) Cardiac output - volume of blood pumped by (C) SA node, bundle of His, atrial fibres, AV node,
heart in single minute (5 lt) purkinje fibres
(D) SA node, atrial fibres, AV node, bundle of His,
• Note : Mammals and birds have four chambered heart
purkinje fibres
,Reptiles have incompletely four chambered heart ,
Amphibians have three chambered heart and Fishes
11. Pacemaker of the heart is situated :
have two chambered heart.
(A) In wall of left atrium close to pulmonary veins
(B) In wall of right atrium close to Eustachian valve
EXERCISE-1 (C) On the interauricular septum
(D) On the interventricular septum
Transportation in Animal
1. W hich one of the following animals requires 12. The heartbeat is regulated by a small node of cardiac
comparatively less energy for body maintenance? muscles called :
(A) Mosquito (B) Bird (A) Pericardium (B) Ventricle
(C) Fish (D) Elephant (C) Tricuspid valve (D) Pacemaker
2. Closed circulatory system is found in : 13. In normal blood pressure 120/80 the denominator
(A) Fishes (B) Amphibians indicates _________ pressure in:
(C) Birds (D) All (A) Systole (B) Diastole
(C) Both (A) and (B) (D) None of these
3. Blood does not contain :
(A) Calcium (B) Prothrombin 14. Which one of the following has no muscular walls ?
(C) Fibrinogen (D) Elastin (A) Artery (B) Arteriole
(C) Capillary (D) Vein

PAGE # 68
6-TRANSPORTATION FINAL (PNBP)

15. Typical lubb - dupp sounds in heart beat are due to : 4. In heart pacemaker is situated in
(A) Closing of bicuspid and tricuspid valve. (Raj/NTSE Stage-1/Transportation /07)
(B) Closing of semi-lunar valve. (A) Right Ventricle (B) Left Ventricle
(C) Blood under pressure through aorta. (C) Right Auricle (D) Left Auricle
(D) Closure of bicuspid - tricuspid valve followed by 5. Universal donor blood group is :
semi-lunar valves (Raj/NTSE Stage-1/Transportation/07)
16. Bicuspid and tricuspid valves are open during : (A) O+ve (B) O–Ve
+ve
(A) Ventricular systole (B)Ventricular diastole (C) AB (D) AB–Ve
(C) Atrial systole (D) Late joint diastole 6. When the right ventricle of heart of man contracts ,
17. Heart of man is : then blood is pumped into
(A) Cardiogenic (B) Neurogenic (Raj/NTSE Stage-1/Transportation/05)
(C) Myogenic (D) Digenic (A) superior vena cava (B) Dorsal aorta
(C) Pulmonary artery (D) Pulmonary vein.
18. Sickle cell anaemia is because of
7. In necessity Y donates his blood to X. The blood group
(A) More population of house flies
of both are same. Besides this the agglutination of
(B) Change in sequences of amino acids in
RBCs took place. The possible reason of this would
alpha-chain of haemoglobin
(C) Change in sequences of amino acids in be -
beta-chain of haemoglobin (Raj/NTSE Stage-1/Transportation/05)
(A) blood groups of both Rh– ve
(D) Poor hygienic conditions
(B) blood groups of both Rh+ve
19. Diapedesis is (C) blood group of X is Rh+ve and that of Y is Rh–ve
(A) Bursting of WBC (D) blood group of X is Rh–ve and that of Y is Rh+ve
(B) Production of pus
8. Which part of the heart receives deoxygenated blood ?
(C) Production of WBC
(Chandidarh/NTSE Stage-1/Transportation/2013)
(D) Passage of WBC out of blood capillaries to the
(A) right atrium (B) Right ventricle
site of injury
(C) left atrium (D) Left ventricle
20. Tooth extraction in a haemophilic person may cause
9. The normal systolic and diastolic pressure in human
death due to excessive bleeding because of
beings is :
(A) Absence of plasma factor required to convert
(Karnataka /NTSE Stage-1/Transportation/2013)
prothrombin into thrombin
(A) 80 / 120 mm of Hg (B) 130 / 90 mm of Hg
(B) Presence of plasma factor that causes
(C) 120 / 80 mm of Hg (D) 140 / 80 mm of Hg
haemorrhage
(C) Presence of plasma factor that prevents blood 10. The total volume of blood in an adult body is about :
clotting (Mizoram/NTSE Stage-1/Transportation/2013)
(D) Absence of plasma factor required for (A) 6 to 7 litres (B) 4 to 5 litres
haemorrhage (C) 5 to 6 litres (D) 7 to 8 litre
11. Which part of the human ear converts pressure varia-
tions into electrical signals.
EXERCISE-2
(Punjab/NTSE Stage-1/Transportation/2013)
(A) Eustachian tube (B) Auditory nerve
COMPETITIVE EXAM QUESTIONS
(C) Ear drum (D) Cochlea
1. Blood is a type of connective tissue, which has –
12. Where is the bicuspid value found in human heart ?
(Raj/NTSE Stage-1/Transportation/13)
(Gujrat/NTSE Stage-1/Transportation/2013)
(A) R.B.C. (B) W.B.C.
(A) Between two atria
(C) Platelets (D) All of the above
(B) Between two ventricles
2. Blood Pressure is measured with an instrument called – (C) Between right atrium and right ventricle
(Raj/NTSE Stage-1/Transportation/13) (D) Between left atrium and left ventricle
(A) Thermometer
13. What is lacking in human mature red blood corpuscles ?
(B) Stethoscope
(Gujrat/NTSE Stage-1/Transportation/2013)
(C) Sphygmo manometer
(A) Nucleus
(D) Clinical Thermometer
(B) Golgi bodies
3. Phloem tissues in plants are responsible for – (C) Endoplasmic reticulum
(Raj/NTSE Stage-1/Transportation/13) (D) All the three
(A) Transportation of water
14. What imparts red colour to blood ?
(B) Transportation of food
(C) Transportation of Amino Acids (Gujrat/NTSE Stage-1/Transportation/2013)
(D) Transportation of Oxygen (A) Erythrocytes (B) Blood plasma
(C) Leucoplast (D) Thrombocytes

PAGE # 69
15. Water absorption by roots takes place under the 24. The following blood vessel does not contain
influence of : deoxygenated blood.
(Haryana/ntsestage I 2015) (Delhi/ntsestage I 2015)
(A) Evaporation pull (A) Pulmonary artery(B) vena Cava
(B) Transpiration pull (C) Hepatic Vein (D) Pulmonary Vein
(C) Availability of soil water
(D) Availability of soil air 25. The direction of movement of sap in Phloem of
higher plants can be
16. In plants the cells necessary for exchange of gases (Delhi/ntse/stage I 2015)
from atmosphere are (A) Unidirectional (B) Multidirectional
(Rajasthan/ntsestage I 2015)
(C) Bidirectional (D) Direction less
(A) subsidiary cells
(B) bark cells 26. What is the name of the blood vessels that
(C) guard cells provide nutrition of the heart wall ?
(D) phloem parenchyma cells (Gujrat/ntse/stage I 2015)
(A) Pulmonary Arteries (B) Coronary arteries
17. Sphygmonanometer measures
(C) Pulmonary Veins(D) Descending
(Rajasthan/ntsestage I 2015)
(A) wall pressure 27. Antibodies are complex
(B) blood pressure (W.Bangal/ntse/stage I 2015)
(C) diffusion pressure (A) Lipoproteins (B) Steroids
(D) air pressure (C) Prostaglandi ns (D) Globulin Proteins.
18. Transpiration will be faster when the day is 28. What will happen if diameter of artery is reduced ?
(W.B./ntsestage I 2015) (W.Bangal/ntse/stage I 2015)
(A) hot, humid and windy (A) Blood pressure will fall
(B) hot, dry and windy (B) Blood pressure will increase
(C) Blood pressure will remain same
(C) cold, humid and windy
(D) Blood will coagulate.
(D) hot humid and still wind
19. If the heart rate of a man is less than 60 per minute 29. Function of Lenticels in plant is .
(Andhra Pradesh/ntse/stage I 2015)
then it is called as
(A) Photosynthesis (B) Excretion
(W.B./ntsestage I 2015)
(C) Respiration (D) Coordination
(A) Tachycardia (B) Bradycardia
(C) Ischemia (D) Bradykinin 30. Blood flows from legs to heart through the veins
20. 1 gm of Haemoglobin can hold against the gravity. How is it possible ?
(Andhra Pradesh/ntse/stage I 2015)
(W.B./ntsestage I 2015)
(A) 1.34 ml oxygen (B) 13.4 ml oxygen (A) Thickness of vein’s wall
(C) 2.34 ml oxygen (D) 1.5 ml oxygen (B) Less rigid walls of veins
(C) Valves in the veins
21. WBC and RBCs are found in human blood in the (D) Rigid walls of veins.
ratio of :
(Bihar/ntsestage I 2015) 31. The rate of transpiration in plants will be least.
(Utrakhand/ntse/stage I 2015)
(A) 1 : 60 (B) 1 : 600
(C) 1 : 6000 (D) 1 : 60000 (A) W hen there is a high humidity in the
atmosphere.
22. Haemoglobin is a protein. It is an example of : (B) There is excess of water in the cell.
(Bihar/ntsestage I 2015) (C) Environmental conditions are very dry.
(A) Primary structure of protein (D) High velocity of wind
(B) Secondary structure of protein
(C) Tertiary structure of protein 32. Blood clotting is initiated by :
(D) Quaternary structure of protein (Hariyana/ntse/stage I 2015)
(A) Prothrombin and thromboplatin
23. Bicuspid valve is present in he human heart in (B) Ca++ and thromboplastin
between which of the following ? (C) Fibrinogen and Ca++
(M.P./ntsestage I 2015)
(D) Fibrinogen and thromboplastin
(A) Right auricle and right ventricle.
(B) Left auricle and left ventricle. 33. Normal human blood pressure is
(C) Right and left auricle. (Rajasthan/ntse/stage I/2016)
(D) Left auricle and systemic aorta. (A) 80/120 mm of Hg(B) 120/80 mm of Hg
(C) 100/80 mm of Hg(D) 80/100 mm of Hg.

PAGE # 70
 EXCRETION
excretion. Main aim of excretion is to keep a constant
EXCRETION
internal chemical composition called homeostasis.
The process of removal of non-gaseous nitrogenous In simple words, excretion is the elimination of meta-
wastes like ammonia, urea, uric acid etc. along with bolic wastes from the body.
excess of water, salts & pigments out of body, is called

TABLE : FEATURES OF NITROGENOUS WASTES

Toxicity in Solubility in Characteristic

S.No. Name Examples
Tissues water Features

Aquatic invertebrates,
Needs much water
1 Ammonia High Very good bony fish, tailed
for removal
amphibians.

Formation costs more Land invertebrates,

2 Urea Medium Fair energy. Need less water for cartilaginous fish,
removal amphibians, mammals.

Formation needs a lot

of energy, almost insoluble Land insects, land
3 Uric acid Low Poor
in water so conserves nearly reptiles, birds.
all body water.

difference lies in the fact that the faecal matter is not

EXCRETION, SECRETION & DEFAECATION produced by metabolism. Secretion is the
Defaecation or egestion is the removal of production of useful substances, such as enzymes
indigestible substances from the body, i.e. the and hormones, by metabolism.
passage of faecal matter through the anus. The

Flow Chart : Difference between Defaecation, Secretion and Excretion

Ingested food

Digested food Undigested food

DEFAECATION
Metabolism of digested food Faeces
Secretion (Passed out from anus)

Excretion

Useful Useful
by-products by-products
such as hormones and enzymes (Passed out from lungs and kidneys)

PAGE # 71
 Respiratory waste products are formed as a result of
ORGANS OF EXCRETION IN MAN oxidation of glucose (food) (cellular respiration). These
mainly constitute carbon dioxide and water. The car-
Various organs of excretion are : bon dioxide is eliminated from the body through the
lungs (during expiration), while water becomes a part
1. Skin is one of the accessory excretory organs in man.
It is richly supplied with blood vessels. As the blood of the rest of the water contained in the body .
flows through them, waste products like water, salts Nitrogenous waste products are formed as a result of
etc. diffuse out from the blood into the sweat glands. deamination of unwanted amino acids, body’s own
These waste products then leave out of the body proteins and nucleic acids. The three main
through sweat pores in the skin. Evaporation of sweat nitrogenous waste products excreted by animals are
helps to keep our bodies cool in summers. ammonia, urea and uric acid. Urea is a highly
poisonous waste product and its accumulation
2. Lungs also act as an excretory organ as it helps in
beyond a certain concentration in the body may cause
eliminating carbon dioxide.
death. Urea is eliminated through the kidneys.
3. Liver is the largest gland present in the human body.
In addition, there are other waste materials like salts
It helps in excretion in various ways :
(NaCl), vitamins and water, that we take directly
(A) It converts harmful amino acids into harmless through food, which need to be excreted out of the
urea by deamination and detoxification (by orni- body.
thine cycle).
(B) It forms bilirubin and biliverdin from the EXCRETION IN PLANTS
haemoglobin of dead erythrocytes.
Main waste products of plants are CO 2, O 2, water
(C) It also helps in the excretion of various toxic vapour etc. These substances are excreted by the sto-
substances where they are changed to non-toxic mata of leaf and some times other parts of the plant
ones like cholesterol and certain vitamins like like stem by lenticels. Plants excrete carbon dioxide
vitamin C. produced as waste during respiration. Plants excrete
4. Kidneys are the main excretory organs in man. They oxygen as waste product only during the day time
are located on each side of the vertebral column . when sunlight is there. W ater vapour produced as
waste by respiration is, however, excreted by plants
 On the basis of excretory products formed, organisms all the time (day as well as night). Plants also store
are classifed as : some of the waste products in their body parts. For
example, some of the waste products collect in the
 Ammonotelic organisms are those which ex-
leaves, bark and fruits of the plants (or trees). Plants
crete ammonia e.g. protozoans, sponges, co-
get rid of these wastes by shedding off leaves, peel-
elenterates, aquatic arthropods, few amphibians ing off bark and felling off fruits. So when dead leaves,
and crocodiles. bark and ripe fruits fall off from tree, then waste prod-
 Uricotelic organisms excrete uric acid e.g. most ucts contained in them are get rid off. In some plants
of the insects, land snails, land reptiles, birds. waste get stored in fruits in the form of solid bodies
called raphides. These wastes are removed when
 Ureotelic organisms excrete urea e.g. cartilagi- fruits get detached from the plant. Raphides are solid
nous fish like shark, frogs, man and other mam- waste product of a plant stored in its fruits like, yam
mals. (zamikand). These waste products i.e., raphides are
 Ascaris and Earthworm are both ammonotelic made up of calcium oxalate crystals.
as well as ureotelic. Some of the plant wastes are also very useful to hu-
man beings such as Natural rubber, resins, gums,
and essential oils (e.g., sandalwood oil). Now there
THE NEED FOR EXCRETION
are three forms of wastes produced by the plants:
The excretory processes play an important role in (i) Solid wastes in plants : Raphides and rubber
maintaining homeostasis in the body’s internal etc.
environment. If the excretory processes fail to (ii) Liquid wastes in plants : Sandalwood oil and
eliminate metabolic wastes from the body of an Eucalyptus oil etc.
organism, their accumulation in the body may lead (iii) Gaseous wastes in plants : carbon dioxide and
to disturbances in osmotic relationships between oxygen. Aquatic plants lose most of their meta-
blood, lymph and tissues, the delicate acid-base bolic wastes by diffusion into the water surround-
balance in the body, and several other physiological ing them .
processes which may lead to death of the individual.
EXCRETION IN AMOEBA
NATURE OF EXCRETORY WASTES
Amoeba is an ammonotelic organism since the
The wastes formed as a result of various metabolic principal excretory product is ammonia. Special
excretory organelle in Amoeba is lacking. Like CO 2,
(anabolic and catabolic) activities can be divided ammonia is excreted by diffusion in solution through
into two main groups-respiratory and nitrogenous plasma membrane. The concentration of ammonia
waste products . is always higher in Amoeba than in the surrounding
water.
PAGE # 72
 Figure : Contractile vacuole in Amoeba
The water enters through plasma membrane by close contact with the plasma membrane, the con-
endosmosis. W ater is formed in cytoplasm by tractile vacuole bursts. Thus excess of water (surplus
metabolism. Surplus water enters contractile water) is discharged in the surrounding water. This
vacuole. Thus size of contractile vacuole increases. phenomenon of controlling the amount of water in the
W hen the contractile vacuole is fully expanded with body is called osmoregulation.
water, it moves towards the periphery. As it comes in

TABLE : EXCRETORY ORGANS OF DIFFERENT ANIMAL GROUPS

S.No. Animal Groups Excretory Organs
1 Protozoans (e.g. Amoeba, Paramoecium) Plasma membrane.

2 Sponges (e.g. Sycon) Plasma membrane of each cell.

3 Cnidaria (e.g. Hydra) Plasma membrane of each cell.

4 Platyhelminthes (e.g. Planaria) Flame cells (Solenocytes).

H-shaped excretory system of canals and renette

5 Nemathelminthes (e.g. Ascaris)
cells.

Nephridia; chloragogen cells (yellow cells) in

6 Annelids (e.g. Neries, Earthworm)
earthworm.

Arthropods
Antennary / Green glands Malpighian tubules.
(a) Prawn
7 Malpighian tubules, coxal glands,
(b) Most insects
hepatopancreas and nephrocytes.
(c) Scorpion and Spiders

Kidney. In Unio, kidneys are called as organ of

8 Molluscs (e.g. Unio, Pila)
Bojanus.

9 Echinoderms (e.g. Starfish) Dermal branchiae and tube feet.

10 Hemichordates (e.g. Balanoglossus) Glomerulus.

adult male and about 135 g in an adult female. Kidneys

EXCRETORY SYSTEM OF MAN lie in the abdominal cavity attached to the dorsal body
wall, one on either side of the backbone. Left kidney
Excretory or urinary system of man consists of a pair
is usually placed a little higher than the right. Kidneys
of kidneys, a pair of ureter, a urinary bladder and a
are convex laterally and concave medially. The
urethra.
concavity of the medial side is called hilus or hilum.
1. Kidneys : There are two kidneys in man. They are Blood vessels, nerves and ureters enter or leave the
dark red, slightly flattened bean shaped organs. They kidney through the hilus. Last two pairs of ribs protect
are about 11 cm long, 6 cm wide, and 4 cm thick. In the kidneys.
human beings each kidney weighs about 150 g in an

PAGE # 73
2. Ureters :These are a pair of narrow tubes with thick
muscular wall. Starting as pelvis within its kidney each
ureter runs behind through the hilus and opens into a
common urinary bladder. They carry urine from kidney
to the urinary bladder.
3. Urinary Bladder: It is a somewhat pear-shaped
muscular sac. It receives urine from kidneys through
ureters and stores it temporarily. The neck of the
bladder is guarded by two rings of muscle fibres called
sphincters, which generally remain contracted to keep
the bladder closed. Both the sphincters must relax to
let urine pass out from the bladder. The inner
sphincter is involuntary. The outer sphincter is
voluntary. Bladder can hold about 700-800 ml of urine. Fig. L.S. of Kidney
4. Urethra : Urethra is a muscular tube which starts from • Structure of Nephron : Each nephron has a cup-
neck of the urinary bladder. It opens to the outside by shaped upper end called Bowman’s capsule
a urinary opening. Urinary opening is guarded by containing a bundle of blood capillaries called
sphincter. Urethra in males opens at the tip of penis glomerulus. Bowman’s capsule and glomerulus are
and carries both urine and sperms. In females, it collectively called Malpighian body or renal corpuscle.
carries only urine and opens by urethral opening in Bowman’s capsule is lined by a single layer of
the vulva. Muscular urethral sphincters keep the squamous epithelial cells. An afferent arteriole which
urethra closed except during the act of passing out brings wastes and excess of water from the body to
urine. kidney enters a Bowman’s capsule. Inside the capsule
it divides into capillaries to form glomerulus. Efferent
arteriole leaves the glomerulus. Efferent arteriole is
narrower than the afferent arteriole. Efferent arteriole
further breaks up into capillaries. Bowman’s capsule
leads into the renal tubule. Renal tubule is highly coiled
and looped and consists of proximal convoluted tubule
(PCT), loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule (DCT)
and collecting tubule. Collecting tubules of many
nephrons join to form the collecting duct. Collecting
ducts of nephrons transport urine into renal pelvis.

Fig : Human Urinary System

• Structure of kidney : A kidney is composed of
numerous microscopic coiled tubules called
nephrons, or uriniferous tubules .The nephrons are
held together by connective tissue, all enveloped by a
firm capsule of white fibrous tissue. The nephrons
are much coiled in the outer region of the kidney and
run almost straight in the inner region.These two
regions, therfore, appear dotted and striated
respectively.The outer region is termed renal cortex
and the inner region is termed renal medulla.The
medulla is subdivided into 15 or 16 conical masses
Fig : Structure of a nephron
,the renal pyramids.

PAGE # 74
 close contact. Thus, the blood is filtered here. Water,
PHYSIOLOGY OF EXCRETION
urea and other salts are filtered out in renal tubules.
Urea is formed in liver during catabolism and then The filtered fluid is called glomerular filtrate. It flows
transported to kidneys by blood circulation for down the nephron by beat of cilia.
excretion. Urine formation takes place in kidney 2. Selective reabsorption : Glomerular filtrate flowing
tubules or nephrons or uriniferous tubules. These are downward in the uriniferous tubules contains certain
functional units of kidneys. Urine formation in kidney useful substances, such as amino acids, sugars
tubules includes three processes : ultrafiltration, (glucose) and salts, like NaCl. These are reabsorbed
selective reabsorption and tubular secretion. selectively by the cells of tubule and enter blood of
1. Ultrafiltration (Glomerular filtration) : The filtration capillaries surrounding the tubule. About 99 percent
under pressure is ultrafiltration .It occurs in Malpighian of filtrate is reabsorbed into blood from the tubule.
corpuscles of uriniferous tubules. The glomerular 3. Tubular secretion : Certain substances which are
capillaries of Malpighian corpuscles receive blood harmful and not needed by the body, like ammonia,
through afferent renal artery under high pressure and potassium, creatinine and hydrogen ions are secreted
leave through efferent renal artery. The diameter of from the capillary blood into the lumen of distal tubule.
afferent renal artery is more than that of efferent renal This is called tubular secretion. The fluid entering the
artery. Thus, the blood in glomerulus is under great collecting tubule is called urine. It flows through pelvis
hydrostatic pressure. The walls of glomerulus and and ureters into urinary bladder, where it is stored
Bowman’s capsule are thin and permeable and in and discharged from time to time.

Fig : Selective reabsorption and tubular secretion in mammalian nephron

• Composition of Human Urine : Micturition is the act of (ii) The Aldosterone hormone is secreted by the
voiding the urine. Human urine contains water (96%), adrenal cortex. It increases the active reabsorption
inorganic ions such as chlorides, sodium, potassium, of sodium ions (Na + ) in the distal convoluted
phosphorus, sulphur, calcium, magnesium, iodine, tubule, collecting tubule and collecting duct.
arsenic, lead and organic constituents like urea, uric
(iii) Parathormone, secreted by parathyroid gland,
acid, ammonia, creatinine, creatine and hippuric acid.
increases calcium reabsorption and decreases
• Hormonal Regulation of Urine Formation : phosphate reabsorption in renal tubules.
(i) The permeability of the distal tubule and the (iv) A deficiency of thyroxine hormone (secreted by
collecting duct is under the control of a hormone the thyroid gland) causes decreased urine output.
called Vasopressin or Antidiuretic hormone
(ADH). Failure of secretion of vasopressin leads
to a disease known as Diabetes insipidus.

PAGE # 75
• Osmoregulation In Terrestrial Animals : These KIDNEY DISORDERS
animals, including human, get water by drinking fluids,
(i) Uremia : It is the presence of an excessive amount
food which they eat also possess water and water is
of urea in the blood.It results from the decreased
also liberated in metabolic activities occurring in cells. secretion of urea in the kidney tubules.
They lose water from the body fluid through excretion
from the kidney. But water balance in the body is also (ii) Kidney Stone : It is formed by precipitation of uric
maintained by absorbing water in the loop of Henle of acid or oxalate. It blocks the kidney tubule.
uriniferous tubules. In human, during summer, more (iii) Kidney failure : It is not common, but sometimes
water is consumed but urine excreted is more kidney infection, injury to kidneys or restricted
concentrated and pale in colour because excess water blood flow to kidneys result in kidney damage
is evaporated as sweat. In rainy season excreted urine and malfunctioning. In order to clean blood of
becomes colourless because intake of water remains metabolic wastes and to maintain normal level
the same but evaporation of sweat is minimized and of water and mineral ions in body fluid, an artificial
therefore more water is excreted by the kidney. Thus, kidney is employed. The process of separating
small solutes from macromolecular colloids with
in human, kidney is excretory and osmoregulatory
the help of a membrane is called Dialysis. The
organ.
procedure used in artificial kidney in place of
normal is called Haemo dialysis. A matching
kidney from another person may also be
transplanted.

• Principle of Haemodialysis : Blood is made to flow in 4. Nitrogenous waste products are eliminated mainly
as :
to the dialysis machine made up of long cellophane
(A) Urea in tadpole and ammonia in adult frog
tubes coiled in a tank having dialysing solution. Waste (B) Ammonia in tadpole and urea in adult frog
substances diffuse out of blood into the tank and (C) Urea in both tadpole and in adult frog
purified blood is pumped back into patient’s body. (D) Urea in tadpole and uric acid in adult frog
5. Frog’s tadpole are
(A) ureotelic (B) ammonotelic
EXERCISE-1 (C) uricotelic (D) none of these

Excretion in Animal 6. Which one of the following glands does not help in
excretion ?
1. Urine is always fluid except in : (A) liver (B) sweat glands
(A) Birds (B) Humans (C) pancreas (D) both (A) and (C)
(C) Amphibians (D) Mammals
7. In Amoeba, osmoregulation is carried out by :
2. Osmoregulation is control over : (A) Food Vacuole
(A) Removal of Nitrogen from the body (B) Plasma membrane
(B) Concentrations of salt and water in the body (C) Contractile vacuole
(D) Both B and C
(C) Osmotic properties of cell membrane
(D) pH of the blood 8. If Henle’s loop is absent from mammalian nephron,
which one of the following is to be expected ?
3. Nitrogenous wastes are formed from the breakdown of : (A) Hardly any change in quality and quantity of urine
(A) NH3 (B) Fat formed
(C) Amino acids (D) Water (B) Urine will be more concentrated
(C) Urine will be more dilute
(D) No urine formation
PAGE # 76
9. Among which one of the following are part of nephron ? 21. The filtrate from glomerulus contains :
(A) Cortex (A) Blood without cells and proteins
(B) Medulla (B) Plasma without sugar
(C) Bowman’s capsule (C) Blood with proteins but without cells
(D) Collecting duct (D) Blood without urea
10. Which blood vessel contains the least amount of urea. 22. Vasopressin released from the neurohypophysis is
(A) Hepatic vein (B) Renal vein mainly responsible for
(C) Hepatic portal vein (D) Renal artery (A) facultative reabsorption of water through Henle's
11. The filterate from the glomerulus contains : loop
(A) Urea and uric acid (B) obligatory reabsorption of water through Bowman's
(B) Urea, uric acid and ammonia capsule
(C) Urea, uric acid, ammonia and water (C) facultative reabsorption of water through DCT
(D) Urea, uric acid, glucose and water. (D) obligatory reabsorption of water through PCT
12. Excretion is a continous process but urine is not 23. Uremia is an excretory disorder in which :
passed out continuously because of : (A) The tubules of kidney reabsorb urea in large
(A) Urinary bladder (B) Cloaca amount.
(C) Rectum (D) Ureter
(B) Concentration of urea goes high in the blood be-
13. Diameter of the renal afferent vessel is cause the tubules are not able to remove it from the
(A) Same as that of efferent blood.
(B) Smaller than that of efferent (C) Urea is produced in excess in the body.
(C) Larger than that of efferent (D) None of these
(D) There is no efferent vessel
24. Excess bile pigments in urine indicate :
14. The part of a nephron which opens into the collecting (A) Anaemia (B) Diabetes insipidus
duct is/are
(C) Jaundice (D) All of these
(A) DCT (B) DCT and PCT
(C) Henle,s loop (D) glomerulus 25. Haemodialysis is a treatment option for patients with
malfunctions of :
15. Functional unit of kidney is
(A) neuron (B) axon (A) Kidney (B) Heart
(C) glomerulus (D) nephron (C) Liver (D) Lungs

16. Substrate which is not filtered through glomerulus : 26. The interior of a cow-dung pile kept for a few days is
(A) Water (B) Glucose quite warm. This is mostly because :
(C) Blood corpuscles (D) Urea (A) Cellulose present in the dung is a good
insulator.
17. Excretion is required for maintaining homeostasis of
body fluids through regulation of their : (B)Bacterial metabolism inside the dung
(A) Volume composition, pH and osmotic potential releases heat.
(B) Volume (C)Undigested material releases heat due to
(C) Composition and pH oxidation by air.
(D) Osmotic potential (D) Dung is dark and absorbs a lot of heat.
18. Which one of the following mechanism would account 27. Antennary glands of crustaceans are meant for
for increased urine production ? (A) respiration (B) neurosecretion
(A) Decreased amount of antidiuretic hormone (C) excretion (D) olfaction
secretion.
(B) Increased aldosterone production EXERCISE-2
(C) Increased blood pressure
(D) The proximal tubules reabsorbing more water
COMPETITIVE EXAM QUESTIONS
19. Difference between glomerular filtrate and plasma is
1. Which one of the following is an example of tap root
of :
system ?
(A) Proteins
(Raj/NTSE Stage-1/Excretion/07)
(B) Potassium
(A) Wheat (B) Mustard
(C) First is white whereas latter is yellow
(C) Millet (D) Maize
(D) First is yellow whereas latter is white
2. Urea synthesis occurs in
20. The urine under normal conditions does not contain
glucose because : (Raj/NTSE Stage-1/Excretion/07)
(A) The normal blood sugar is fructose (A) Kidney (B) Liver
(B) Glucose of blood is not filtered in the glomerulus (C) Brain (D) Muscles
(C) Glucose in glomerular filtrate is reabsorbed in the
3. In birds nitrogenous waste is :
uriniferous tubules
(Raj/NTSE Stage-1/Excretion/07)
(D) Glucose in glomerular filtrate is converted into
(A) urea (B) ammonia
glycogen.
(C) uric acid (D) amino acids

PAGE # 77
4. Contractile vacuole of amoeba is equivalent to which 10. Kidneys do not perform the function of :
organ of human ? (Delhi/ntsestage I 2015)
(Raj/NTSE Stage-1/Excretion /07) (A) Regulation of blood pressure
(A) Spleen (B) Kidney (B) Filtration of blood
(C) Lungs (D) Liver (C) Regulation of lons concentration
5. Kidney's primary function is (D) Secretion of anti bodies
(Haryana/NTSE Stage-1/Excretion/2013) 11. Uric acid is the main excretory product of :
(A) Excretion (Delhi/ntse/stage I 2015)
(B) Osmoregulation (I) Insects (II) Birds
(C) Remove excess of water (III) Terrestrial reptiles(IV) Human being
(D) All of the above
(A) I, II and C are correct
6. Normally in a healthy adult the daily initial filtrate in the (B) I and II are only correct
kidneys is : (C) Only II and IV are correct
(Chandidarh/NTSE Stage-1/Excretion/2013) (D) Only I and III are correct
(A) 18 L (B) 18L
12. Podocyte cell is found in human
(C) 180 L (D) 9L
(W.Bangal/ntse/stage I 2015)
7. If the urine excreted by a person contains glucose the (A) Glomerulus (B) Bowman’s Capsule
condition is called (C) Cerebrum (D) Cerebellum.
(Karnataka /NTSE Stage-1/Excretion/2013)
13. Maximum amount of water from glomerular filtrate is
(A) Galacturia (B) Diabetes mellitus
reabsorbed in
(C) Diabetes insipidus (D) Gluacoma
(W.Bangal/ntse/stage I 2015)
8. In which portions of the following, the Glucose
(a) Proximal Convoluted Tubule
concentration is highest ?
(b) Distal Convoluted Tubule
(W.B./ntsestage I 2015)
(c) Descending limb of Henle’s loop
(A) Glomerulus
(d) Ascending limb of Henle’s loop.
(B) Proximal convoluted tubule
(C) Bowmans capsules 14. The chief excretory substance of vegetarian people.
(D) Collecting tubule (W.Bangal/ntse/stage I 2015)
(A) Ammonia (B) Urea
9. Excretory organs of Earthworm are.................
(C) Uric Acid (D) Lactic Acid.
(M.P./ntsestage I 2015)
(A) Malapighian tubules 15. ‘Uremia’ is related to :
(B) Nephridia (Andhra Pradesh/ntse/stage-I/2015)
(C) Kidneys (A) Uterus (B) Kidney
(D) Flame cells (C) Lungs (D) Umbilical cord



PAGE # 78
 REPRODUCTION
Reproduction is a process by which a living organism
is able to produce more of its own kind. The continuity
TYPES OF REPRODUCTION
of life on earth, from its origin to the present day, has
There are three types of reproduction :
been possible only because of reproduction.
(a) Vegetative reproduction
(B) Asexual reproduction
(C) Sexual reproduction
Reproduction

Vegetative Asexual Sexual

- Present only in Plants - Uniparental / - Biparental
- Any vegetative plant part Somatogenic reproduction
give rise to new plant reproduction in which gamete
in which some formation
special structure fusion take
formed for place.
reproduction
other than
gametes.

VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION
IN PLANTS

• Natural Vegetative Reproduciton :

(a) Vegetative Propagation by root :
In some plants like Dahlia, sweet potato, etc., the adventitious roots become thick, swollen and tuberous due to
storage of food. Adventitious buds are also present on them. When such roots, bearing these buds are planted in the
soil, new plants are produced as a result of vegetative propagation.

Young
Shoots
Young New Plant
Adventitious
Plant Buds

Reproductive
Root
(a) Root tuber of sweet potato (B) Reproductive root of Dalbergia sissoo (shisham)
Fig : Vegetative propagation by Roots

(b) Vegetative prop agation by s tems :

Vegetative propagation by stems is of two types :
(i) By subaerial stems : Subaerial stems develop as lateral branches from the mother plant and give rise to a new
individual after getting detached from the mother plant. Eg.Grasses

PAGE # 79
 (a) Runner of grass (B) Stolon of strawberry
Fig : Subaerial stems
(ii) By underground stems : In some plants the the soil . The bulb of onion is vertical in direction
underground stem gets modified for storage of and its terminal bud gives rise to the aerial shoot.
food. e.g. Potato tuber has a number of eyes Axillary buds may also be produced in the axils of
(buds) on its external surface. The buds develop fleshy scales. These buds grow into aerial shoots
into aerial shoots when such a tuber is planted in under favourable conditions.

Young Plant
Bud Potato Tuber
Node Germinating
Bud
Scaly Leaf
(a) Rhizome of Ginger
(b) Tuber of potato
Fig : Vegetative Propagation by underground stem
(C) Vegetative prop agation by leaves : leaves fall on the ground, the buds develop into small
The fleshy leaves of Bryophyllum bear adventitious plants under favourable conditions. These plantlets
buds in the notches along the leaf margin. When the can be easily separated to grow as independent
plants eg. Begonia, Kalanchoe, streptocarpus
bryophyllum (patharchatta)

Fig : Vegetative Propagation by leaves in Bryophyllum.,Buds formed in the notches along the marging form plantlets

PAGE # 80
• Artificial modes of vegetative propagation : Besides (a) Grafting :
natural methods of vegetative propagation, artificial In this method, which is commonly used in horticultural
modes of propagation are also being used. Farmers, practices, the cutting of a plant (scion) is attached to
gardeners and horticulturists have adopted methods the stem of another rooted plant (stock). After some
like grafting, layering, cutting and tissue culture for time the attached cutting becomes an integrated part
growing plants in gardens and nurseries. of the rooted plant.

Fig : Grafting by stem cutting

(B) Bud grafting : tightly on it with a tape. Pears, peaches, plums, cycads,
roses, etc., are propagated by this method. This
A bud, along with a portion of the bark, is taken from a
method is usually employed during spring.
plant and is used as scion. A T-shaped cut is made
on the plant to be used as stock and the bud is fixed

Fig : Various stages of bud grafting

• Precautions in Grafting : (D) Layering :

1. The stock & scion chosen for grafting should be In some plants, one or more branches are bent close
equal in diameter. to the ground and covered with moist soil. After some
time, the underground portion of these branches
2. Cambium of scion should be in contact with produces new roots and develops into a separate
cambium of stock because cambium layer is plant as in jasmine. The stem or branch that develops
responsible for growth. adventitious roots while still attached to the parent
(C) Cutting : plant is called a layer.
This is a very simple and common method of
propagation in rose, sugar cane, Coleus,
Bougainvillea, etc. In this process, stem cuttings
with some nodes and internodes are placed in
moist soil, and they give rise to adventitious roots
and a new plant subsequently.
• Precautions in cutting :
1. The shoot should be more than one year.
2. The cutting should have few nodes and
internodes.
3. Optimum length & diameter of cutting.
4. Period of growth is suitable time for cutting.
Fig : Layering in jasmine (chameli)

PAGE # 81
 Air layering is another type of layering, is used when 7. Virus free plants are produced by this method
branches of the plants cannot be bent to the ground. from infected plants. (only by meristematic cells
Layering differs from cutting in that the development by using tissue culture)
of adventitious buds are induced before the stem is
8. Genetically identical plants can be produced.
cut to form the new plant.
9. Survival rate of daughter plants is almost 100%
• Advantages of Vegetative Propagation : in vegetative propagation while it is very less in
1. It is quick and cheaper method of multiplying plants propagated by seeds.
plants.
• Disadvantages of Vegetative Propagation :
2. It can overcome seed dormancy so it makes
1. Neither good qualities are introduced nor bad
possible the propagation of plants such as
characters are eliminated in plants which
banana, seedless grapes, orange, rose &
multiplies through vegetative propagation.
Jasmine.
3. It helps us to introduce plants in new areas where 2. Subsequent generations of plants show a general
the seed germination fails to produce mature fall in vigour & vitality due to absence of variations.
plants. 3. Vegetative organs like root, stem, leaves, bulbils
4. Grafting enables the physical and physiological used for propagation cannot be preserved for a
joining of two separate individuals for the best long time. They get attacked by viral, fungal &
quality of plants. bacterial diseases.
5. Most of ornamental plants are propagated by 4. Plants produced by this method lack dispersal
vegetative Reproduction. e.g. carnations, roses, mechanism where as plants reproducing
tulips, hyacinths & chrysanthemum. sexually are dispersed with the help of seeds.
6. Tubers of potato also propagated by vegetative 5. Disease of parent plants generally spreads to all
propagation which are uniform in size. the daughter plants.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SEXUAL & ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

S.No. Asexual reproduction Sexual Reproduction
1. Only one individual is used as parent Two individual are used as parents
i.e.monoparental i.e. biparental
2. Sex organs are not involved Specialised sex organs are involved
3. No gamete formation takes palace Gamete formation occurs
4. All the divisions are mitotic It involves meiosis
5. Fertilisation is absent Fertilisation (fusion of gametes) is present
6. Newly formed individuals are genetically newly formed individuals are genetically
similar to their parents different from their parent
7. This type of reproduction occurs in This type of reproduction occurs in
primitive organisms higher organisms
8. It does not introduce any variation in It introduces variations in population and it is of
population thus it is of no evolutionary importance evolutionary importance
(D) Spore formation (e) Regeneration
METHODS OF ASEXUAL (f) Tissue culture (g) Parthenogenesis
REPRODUCTION
(a) Fission :
In this method certain body cells undergo repeated Fission means division. It occurs when the cell is fully
mitotic divisions and give rise to two or more new matured. In this process nucleus divides first and then
organisms of the same kind. the cytoplasm. It is of two types.
• Different methods are : (i) Binary Fission : Binary fission takes place
routinely in unicellular organisms like bacteria,
(a) Fission (binary and multiple)
amoeba and Paramecium.
(B) Budding (C) Fragmentation

Fig : Binary fission in Amoeba

PAGE # 82
(ii) Multiple Fission : Under unfavourable conditions, multiple fission which results in the formation of many new
organisms from a single parent takes place.

Fig : Multiple fission in Plasmodium

(B) Bud ding :
Budding is commonly observed in yeast and Hydra . In Hydra the bud is formed on the lateral side by the repeated
mitotic divisions in the body cells.

Fig : Budding in Hydra

In yeast, a unicellular fungus, bud appears on the upper part of the adult cell. The bud grows in size. Soon another
bud appears at the tip of the newly formed bud. This process continues and results in the formation of a chain of
yeast cells.

Fig : Budding in yeast

PAGE # 83
(C) Fragmentation : (f) Plant tissue culture or Micropropogation :
The growth and maintenance of plant cells, tissues
and organs on a suitable culture medium in vitro (in a
container, e.g. test tube) is called plant tissue culture.
A plant cell, tissue or organ excised from its original
source and cultured in vitro is called explant.
(g) Parthenogenesis :
Development of an egg in an embryo without
fertilization is called parthenogenesis.
• Significance :
1. In the absence of sexual reproduction, it is a
simple method of reproduction.
2. A large number of offsprings may be produced by
this process.
3. Individuals having undesirable characters can be
Fig : Fragmentation in Spirogyra eliminated from the population.
4. Sometimes, useful characters appear in the
(D) Spore Formation :
offsprings. These can be retained by
In non-flowering plants (the plants which do not parthenogenesis.
produce seeds) like fungi (Mucor, Rhizopus, 5. Parthenogenesis prevents sterility in the
Penicillium), bacteria, ferns or mosses, formation of population.
spores is a common method of reproduction.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
(a) Introduction :
Sexual reproduction is a type of reproduction in which
the two sexes, namely, male and female are involved.
Two major processes, viz., formation of gametes and
fusion of gametes constitute sexual reproduction. Male
organisms produce male gametes, or sperm, and
female organisms produce female gametes, or ova.
(Male parent) (Female parent)

Organism

Produces

B (Sperm) (Ovum)

Fig : Spore formation in Mucor Organism

Spores are very small in size. They have thick walls.

Fertilization
The wall helps the spores to survive in adverse
conditions in the environment, like high temperature,
scarcity of water and lack of food. The spores give rise Which produces
to new organisms under favourable conditions. (Zygote)
C
(e) Regeneration :
Organism Development
The ability of living organisms to repair themselves or
restore their lost parts is called regeneration.Like - A
lizard escapes from its enemies by breaking off its
tail. Later, a new tail grows.
Most organisms can repair themselves in some or and so on (Offspring)
the other way. New cells grow to replace damaged or (a) (b)
lost cells. Plants generally have greater power of
regeneration than animals do. Fig : Schematic representation of (a) asexual (B) sexual
reproduction

PAGE # 84
 A typical angiospermous flower consists of four whorls
of floral appendages attached on the receptacle. The
The period of growth between their birth upto their receptacle is the top of the flower stalk (pedicel). The
reproductive maturity is called the juvenile phase. In four whorls of floral appendages are :
plants, the period of growth between seed germination
1. Calyx 2. Corolla 3. Androecium
upto initiation of flowering is called vegetative phase.
4. Gynoecium (Pistil)
The later part, when the organisms start reproducing
sexually, is called reproductive phase. 1. Calyx : It is the outermost whorl of floral leaves,
Some exceptional plants flower only once in their life called sepals.
time. For example, bamboo species flower only once 2. Corolla : It is the collection of petals.
in their life time and that too nearly after 50-100 years 3. Androecium : It is the collection of stamens, the
of vegetative growth. male reproductive organs of the flower.
4. Gynoecium (or Pistil) : It is the collection of
In flowering plants, all the steps of sexual reproduction
carpels, the female reproductive organs of the
occur within specialised reproductive organs, called
flower.
the flowers.

L.S. Flower
 Pollination : The transfer of pollen grains from the opened anther of the stamen to the receptive stigma of the carpel
is called pollination.

 Types of pollination : Pollination is of two types :

1. Self pollination 2. Cross pollination.

Agents of Pollination

Abiotic agents Biotic agents

Animals - Zoophily
Bats - Chiropterophily
Water Wind Birds - Ornithophily
Hydrophily anemophily
Insect - Entomophily
Snail - Malacophily
Man - Artificial pollination
• Fertilisation in plants : Pollination results in the the tube finally pierces the egg apparatus at the end of
deposition of related pollen grains over the receptive the embryosac. After penetration, the tip of pollen tube
stigma of the carpel. They absorb water, swell and then ruptures releasing two male gametes into the
germinate to produce pollen tubes. One pollen tube embryosac. The mature embryosac consists of an egg
grows into the stigma, passes through the style and apparatus (one haploid egg and two synergids), two
then moves towards the ovarian cavity. Two non-motile polar nuclei and three antipodal cells. After fertilisation,
male gametes are formed inside the tube during its zygote develops into embryo, ovule develops into seed
growth through the style. After reaching the ovary, pollen and the ovary develops into the fruit.
tube enters the ovule through the micropyle. The tip of

PAGE # 85
 Small groups of large, polygonal cells, termed
Interstitial, or Leydig’s cells lie in the connective
tissue present between the seminiferous tubule.
They secrete male sex hormone testosterone.
Tunica vasculosa, & Tunica albuginea are
protective coats of testes.

Structure of human male reproductive system

(ii) Accessory Sex Organ : Accessory sex organs
are those which do not produce gametes and
sex hormones. Male accessory sex organs are
described below :
• Duct system :
(a) Epididymis – Sperms are matured and stored.
(B) Vas deferens – Long tube that joins with urethra.
(C) Urethra Accessory glands : These are three types
of glands.
(a) Seminal vesicle (B) Cowper’s gland
Fertilisation in Plant
(D) Prostate gland  Single : Secretions of these
• Seed Structure and Germination : Seed is covered
glands provides nourishment and mobility to
by one or two seed coats. Internally it contains an
sperms.
embryo or future plant. A separate food laden tissue
or endosperm is present in some seeds. In others, • Copulatory organ : Penis is a copulatory organ for the
the food is stored in the cotyledon part of the embryo. transfer of the sperms to female reproductive tract.
Embryo has an axis called tigellum. One end of embryo Semen = Sperms + Secretion of accessory glands.
axis or tigellum bears radicle or future root. The other
end bears plumule or future shoot.
The node bears two cotyledons (seed leaves) in
dicots and a single cotyledon in monocots. The area
of embryo axis between cotyledonary node and
plumule is called epicotyl while the area between
cotyledonary node and radicle is known as hypocotyl.
Under favourable conditions, the seed absorbs water.
The radicle and plumule resume growth. The seed
coats break. The growing radicle passes into soil. It
forms root system. The growing plumule comes above
the soil. It forms shoot system.

T.S. Testis
(a) Male Reproductive System • Structure of Spermatozoan
(i) Primary Sex Organs. Primary sex organ of male
• Head : It is flat and oval in human sperm. It is
is a pair of testes (singular testis). They are
composed of a large posterior nucleus and a small
present in a small pouch called scrotum and
scrotum is present in extra-abdominal cavity. anterior acrosome. The nucleus consists only of
Testes produce sperms. Majority of cells in condensed DNA and basic proteins. Acrosome is
germinal epithelium of testes are spermatogenic formed from the Golgi complex. It contains hydrolytic
cells, which produce spermatogonia by mitosis, enzymes, and is used to contact and penetrate the
but few are large, pyramidal supporting sertoli or egg in fertilization.
nurse cells.

PAGE # 86
• Neck : The neck is very short and contains two • Middle Piece : The middle piece is cylindrical in the
centrioles lying one behind and at right angles to the human sperm. It contains many mitochondria tightly
other. The proximal centriole plays a role in the first coiled round the axial filament.
cleavage of the zygote.
• Tail : The tail is very long, slender and tapering, and is
formed of cytoplasm.

Structure of spermatozoan

(B) Female Reproductive System (ii) A pair of Fallopian tubes (which are also called
oviducts) Oviduct provide site of fertilisation.
The human female reproductive system consists of
(iii) Unpaired Uterus  Muscular organ, 3- walls –
the following organs.
outer perimetrium, middle myometrium, inner
(i) A pair of Ovaries Produce ova. endometrium.
(iv) Vagina  External opening.

Female reproductive system

 Structure of Ovary : The ovaries are solid organs follicles, at various stages of development. Each
and are composed of connective tissue, the stroma, follicle contains a large ovum surrounded by many
wrapped by a layer of cuboidal cells, the germinal layers of follicle cells. It may also contain a large mass
epithelium, followed by a layer of flattened cells, the of yellow cells, termed corpus luteum, formed in the
visceral peritoneum. Outer ovarian cortex and central antrum (cavity) of an empty Graffian follicle after the
ovarian medulla. The ovarian medulla contains many release of its ovum. The ovarian cortex may have a
rounded or oval bodies, called ovarian, or Graffian white body or corpus albicans representing a
degenerating corpus luteum.

PAGE # 87
 T.S. Ovary

• Gametogenesis :

Spermatogenesis Oogenesis
• Menstrual Cycle : The human female usually
produces one mature egg each month from the onset
of puberty (age 10-12 years) to the beginning of
menopause (age about 50 years). This period from
the onset of puberty to menopause is marked by a
specific events repeated almost every month (more
specifically 28 days) in the form of a menstrual flow.
This monthly cycle lasting 28 days is called the
menstrual cycle. During this cycle, a series of changes
occur in the ovary and uterus. These changes are
termed menstrual changes.
• It comprises 4 phases :
(i) Follicular phase or proliferative phase
(ii) Ovulatory phase Figure : Phases of Menstrual Cycle
(iii) Luteal phase (A) Proliferative phase (10 - 14 days) : This is mainly
(iv) Menstrual phase influenced by FSH and estrogen. During this phase
repairing of endometrium lining takes place.

PAGE # 88
 (B) Ovulatory phase : (14th day of cycle) Ovulation • Colostrum : After birth, the breasts first release not
take place. milk but colostrum for 2 or 3 days. This is a thin,
(C) Secretory phase : (10 days) After ovulation LH yellowish, opalescent fluid, often called foremilk. It
stimulates remaining cells of ovarian follicles to transfers antibodies from the mother to the baby to
develop into corpus luteum and it secretes combat infection.
progesterone. During this phase uterine glands • Twins : Twins arise in two ways.
produce watery mucus.
1. From One Egg : If the early blastomeres separate
(D) Menstrual phase : (4-7 days) Corpus luteum before their fate is fixed, each can develop into a
degenerates and level of LH & progesterone get complete young one. They are always of the same
reduced. The endometerium degenerates. sex, have identical traits and are almost
• Pregnancy Test : During pregnancy, Human Chorionic indistinguishable. They are called identical twins.
gonadotropin hormone may be detected in the urine, 2. From Two Eggs : At times, two eggs, one from
and this forms the basis of pregnancy test. (Gravidex each ovary, may be released simultaneously. Both
Test) are fertilized, each by a separate sperm. They
may be of the same or different sexes. They are
• Events of Human Reproduction : The major events
called nonidentical, or fraternal, twins.
of human reproduction are formation of gametes,
Cyclic changes in the female body in preparation, for 3. Twins are often completely normal in shape and
receiving spermatozoa through coitus, fusion of development. But sometimes the development
gametes, development of the zygote and its gradual of twins may be very abnormal, being fused with
transformation into a tiny baby in the uterus of mother, each other wholly or in part. Such twins are called
production of milk for nourishment of the immature conjoint twins or Siamese twins.
baby and finally, the birth of the baby. All these events
are regulated and coordinated by hormones secreted
from the anterior pituitary gland and the gonads.
EXERCISE-1
Cleavage in the human zygote occurs during its Asexual Reproduction
passage through the fallopian tube to the uterus. 1. Scion is a term in relation to
16-32 celled stage is called morula. (A) layering (B) cutting
Blastula transforms into gastrula with the formation (C) grafting (D) micropropagation
of three primary germ layers. Ectoderm, mesoderm &
2. Which one of the following is propagated by means
endoderm.
of cuttings ?
• Knowledge Boosters : (A) Sugarcane (B) Coffee
(C) Citrus (D) All of these
 Extra - Embryonic Membranes : Four foetal
3. Which is not a method of vegetative propagation
membranes are formed : yolk sac, amnion,
(A) Micropropagation (B) Budding
chorion and allantois.
(C) Sowing (D) Layering
 Yolk sac : It is formed below the embryo. It
Sexual Reproduction in Plants
contains fluid, not yolk.
4. The essential organs in a flower are
 Amnion : It is formed above the embryo. It (A) the sepal and stamen
encloses a fluid-filled space, the amniotic cavity. (B) the petal and pistil
The amnion and the amniotic cavity enlarge and (C) the stamen and pistil
nearly surround the embryo. The embryo is (D) the sepal and petal
suspended in the amniotic cavity by an umbilical
cord. 5. Double fertilization is characteristic of
(A) angiosperms (B) algae
 Allantois : It is a small sac that pushes out from (C) gymnosperms (D) bryophytes
the gut of the embryo near the yolk sac by the third
6. An organism that shows sexual reproduction but lacks
week. The allantois also forms blood cells.
a proper nucleus in its cells. It can obtain nutrition in
 Chorion : It completely surrounds the embryo. It autotrophic as well as heterotrophic mode and
is composed of trophoblast outside and posses a distinct cell wall is
mesoderm inside. It protects the embryo and (A) mycoplasma (B) blue green algae
forms placenta for metabolic exchange between (C) bacteria (D) protozoa
the foetus and the mother. 7. Double fertilization is a fusion of –
 Parturition : Parturition is the act of expelling the (A) Two eggs
(B) Two eggs and polar nuclei
fully form young one from the mother’s uterus at
(C) One male gamete with egg and other with synergid
the end of gestation.
(D) One male gamete with egg and other with
secondary nucleus
PAGE # 89
8. The polar bodies present inside the embryo sac are 18. Which one of the following cells provide nutrition to
(A) Haploid (B) Diploid the sperm ?
(C) Unknown (D) None of these (A) Leydig cells (B) Granulosa cells
9. The embryo sac of a typical dicot at the time of fertiliza- (C) Primary germ cells (D) Sertoli cells
tion is -
19. The main function of the fimbriae of the Fallopian tube
(A) 8 celled (B) 7 celled
in females is to
(C) 6 celled (D) 5 celled
(A) release ovum from the Graafian follicle
10. Geitonogamy is transfer of pollen from anther to the (B) make necessary changes in the endometrium for
stigma of implantation
(A) Same flower
(C) help in the development of corpus luteum
(B) Same or different flower of the same plant
(C) Same or genetically similar flower of the same or (D) help in the collection of the ovum after ovulation
other plant 20. The study of formation, growth and development of a
(D) Different flowers of the same plant new individual from an egg is known as -
11. Emasculation is achieved by (A) cytology (B) embryology
(A) removal of stigma (C) histology (D) genetics
(B) removal of anthers
(C) removal of sepal & petals
(D) removal of gynoecium
EXERCISE-2
12. Parts that show chemotropic movement, fertilization COMPETITIVE EXAM QUESTIONS
& triple fusion are respectively –
1. The plants in which vegetative propagation is found,
are
(Raj/NTSE Stage-1/Reproduction/13)
(A) Bryophyllum (B) Sugarcane
(C) Rose (D) All of the above
2. In Bryophyllum, vegetative reproduction takes place
through
(Raj/NTSE Stage-1/Reproduction/07)
(A) Root (B) Stem
(A) 2, 3, 4 (B) 1, 2, 3 (C) Leaf (D) Rhizome
(C) 3, 4, 5 (D) 2, 4, 3
3. Viviparous germination is found in :
Sexual Reproduction in Animal
(Raj/NTSE Stage-1/Reproduction/07)
13. Implantation of the zygote takes place at which of the (A) Hydrophytes (B) Xerophytes
following embryonic stage ?
(C) Halophytes (D) Mesophytes
(A) Gastrula (B) Morula
(C) Blastula (D) Single-celled 4. If the migration of testes does not take place in man,
14. The mammalian corpus luteum produces from abdominal cavity to scrotal sac, then
(A) luteotropic hormone (Raj/NTSE Stage-1/Reproduction/05)
(B) luteinizing hormone (A) man will die
(C) estrogen (B) the development of male secondary sex character
(D) progesterone. will not take place
15. After ovulation Graffian follicle regresses into (C) the development of male reproductive system will
(A) corpus atresia (B) corpus callosum not take place
(C) corpus luteum (D) corpus albicans (D) the formation of sperms will not take place

16. Which one of the following hormones stimulates the 5. Vegetative propagation refers to formation of new
corpus luteum to secrete a hormone? plants from
(A) FSH (B) LH (Delhi/NTSE Stage-1/Reproduction/2013)
(C) Oestrogen (D) Progesterone (A) Stem, roots and leaves
17. The correct sequence of spermatogenetic stages (B) Leaves flowers and seeds
leading to the formation of sperms in a mature human (C) Stem, roots and seeds
testes is (D) Fruits seeds and spores
(A) spermatogonia-spermatocyte-spermatid -sperms
6. The twins which are fused with each other wholly or in
(B) spermatid- spermatocyte - spermatogonia -
sperms part called as.
(C) spermatogonia - spermatid - spermatocyte - (A) Siamese twins
sperms (B) fraternal twins
(D) spermatocyte - spermatogonia - spermatid - (C) identical twins
sperms (D) None of these

PAGE # 90
7. Very long length of small intestine is co-related with 17. A sexual reproduction in plants which produces seed
following food habit. without fertilization is known as :
(Haryana/NTSE Stage-1/Reproduction/2013) (Bihar/ntsestage I 2015)
(A) Herbivory (A) Parthenogenesis
(B) Carnivory (B) Sporulation
(C) Apomixis
(C) Omnivory
(D) Vegetative reproduction
(D) No correlation indicated
18. Double fertilization is a unique feature of :
8. Asexual reproduction takes place through budding in : (Delhi/ntsestage I 2015)
(Chandidarh/NTSE Stage-1/Reproduction/2013) (A) Bryophytes (B) Angiosperm
(A) amoeba (B) yeast (C) Algae (D) Gymnosperm
(C) plasmodium (D) Leishmania
19. In human female, immature eggs are for the first
9. Sperm formation requires______ temperature as in time seen in ovary
the normal body temperature. (Reproduction / 2015 / NTSE /Stage-2)
(Chandidarh/NTSE Stage-1/Reproduction/2013) (A) at puberty
(A) same (B) high (B) before birth, at the fetus stage
(C) low (D) Not sure (C) during the first menstrual cycle
10. The anther contains : (D) after the first year birth.
(Mizoram/NTSE Stage-1/Reproduction/2013)
20. Period of complete development of foetus starting with
(A) sepals (B) ovules
implantation till the birth of young one called as
(C) carpel (D) pollen grains
(Delhi/ntse/stage I 2015)
11. W hich one of the following first receives the pollen (A) Gestation period (B) Parturition
during fertilization ? (C) Pregnancy (D) both (1) and (3)
(Orrisa/NTSE Stage-1/Reproduction/2013)
21. In seed plants, the non-motile gametes are carried to
(A) Stigma (B) Style
female gamete by :
(C) Pollen tube (D) Female gamete
(Delhi/ntse/stage I 2015)
12. State the order in which various parts of flower are (A) Air (B) Pollen tube
arranged from outer side to inner side : (C) Water (D) Insects
(Maharashtra/NTSE Stage-1/Reproduction/2013) 22. Menopause is the stage in female when
(A) Carpel  Stamen  Petals  Sepals (Delhi/ntse/stage I 2015)
(B) Sepals  Petals  Stamen  Carpel (A) Menstruation starts
(C) Petals  Sepals  Stamen  Carpel (B) Puberty
(D) Sepals  Petals  Carpel  Stamen (C) Reproduction capacity arrested
(D) Ovaries enlarges
13. W hich of the following organism is reproduced by
23. Which plants has trap, which looks and smells like a
spore formation ?
flower to insects ?
(Gujrat/NTSE Stage-1/Reproduction/2013) (Maharastra/ntse/stage I 2015)
(A) Mucor (B) Planaria (A*) Drosera (B) Balsam
(C) Spirogyra (D) Potato (C) Lotus (D) Venus Fly trap
14. The embryo gets nutrition fom the mother’s blood with 24. The vegetative reproduction in Bryophyllum takes
the help of special tissue called - place through which organ ?
(M.P./NTSE Stage-1/Reproduction/2013) (Maharastra/ntse/stage I 2015)
(A) Placenta (B) Zygote (A) Root (B) Stem
(C) Ovum (D) Sperm (C*) Leaf (D) Seed
25. A pollen tube, produced from the pollen grain, con-
15. In which plant a piece of leaf can regenerate the whole
tains .. male gametes
plant ?
(Maharastra/ntse/stage I 2015)
(Haryana/ntsestage I 2015) (A) One (B*) Two
(A) Banana (B) Bryophyllum (C) Seven (D) Eight
(C) Rose (D) Bougainvillea
26. W hich are the methods of artificial reproduction is
16. The method of mechanical barrier to avoid pregnancy is plants ?
(Rajasthan/ntsestage I 2015) (Gujrat/ntse/stage I 2015)
(A) condoms (B) contraceptive pills (A) Cutting (B) Layering
(C) surgical methods (D) abortion (C) Grafting (D) All of them

PAGE # 91
27. Which one of the following is a character of self-polli- 33. Human egg and sperm are similar in that :
nated flower ? (Utrakhand/ntse/stage I 2015)
(W.Bangal/ntse/stage I 2015)
1. About the same number are produced per month.
(A) Flowers are large and showy.
(B) Petals remain closed and do not open 2. Both have the same degree of motility.
(C) Stigma and another mature at different time. 3. The have the same number of chromosomes.
(D) Poilens are produced in a very large quantities. 4. They are about the same size.
28. Growth of pollen tubes towards ovule for ‘fertilization Choose the right option
is due to .... (A) 1 and 2 (B) 3 and 4
(Andhra Pradesh/ntse/stage I 2015) (C) Only 3 (D) All the above
(A) Thigmotropism (B) Phototropism 34. Select the correct statement in the following and
(C) Chemotropism (D) Hydrotropism choose the correct option :
(Utrakhand/ntse/stage I 2015)
29. If you want to produce plants like orange, grape, rose
i. Double fertilization occurs in flowering plants.
for commercial purpose, which method do
ii. After maturation ovary change into seed
(Andhra Pradesh/ntse/stage I 2015)
iii. Zygote develops into embryo
you choose.?
iv. Pollen grains form in stigma
(A) Cutting (B) Grafting
(A) i and iv (B) i, ii, and iii
(C) Tissue culture (D) Layering
(C) i and iii (D) All of the above
30. In asexual reproduction, fertilization takes place
35. The production of plants through tissue culture is
(Bihar/ntse/stage I 2015)
known as :
(A) inside ovary (B) outside ovary
(Utrakhand/ntse/stage I 2015)
(C) both 1 & 2 (D) none
(A) Parthenocarpy (B) Polyembryony
31. The following figure shows which process (C) Fragmentation (D) Micropropagation
36. In the following diagram, ABC are :
(Hariyana/ntse/stage I 2015)

A B C
(A) Cotyledon, Plumule, Radicle
(B) Plumule, Redicle, Cotyledon
(Utrakhand/ntse/stage I 2015) (C) Radicle, Cotyledon, Plumule
(A) Vegetative reproduction (D) Plumule, Cotyledon, Radicle
(B) Multiple fission 37. Seed is modification of
(C) Regeneration (Rajasthan/stage I 2015)
(D) Budding (A) ovary (B) ovule
(C) thalamus (D) all of these.
32. The production of plants through tissue culture is
known as : 38. The undifferentiated mass of cells in tissue culture is
called
(Utrakhand/ntse/stage I 2015)
(Rajasthan/stage I 2016)
(A) Parthenocarpy (B) Polyembryony (A) Tissue (B) Embryo
(C) Fragmentation (D) Micropropagation (C) Callus (D) Spore



PAGE # 92
 CONTROL & CO-ORDINATION
INTRODUCTION according to the changes in their surroundings. Still
the plants show the positive or negative responses
Control and co-ordination also help to maintain a to light, water, gravity, touch etc. The movements of
steady state within an organism in constantly changing plants due to stimuli are called the tropic or curvature
environment. The mechanism of maintaining internal movements. The response of a part of the plant to
steady state is called homeostasis. A mountaineer light is called phototropism. The stem is positively
feels lack of oxygen at high altitudes. In order to cope phototropic (grows towards light) while the root is
with this condition, more number of RBCs are negatively phototropic. The growth response of a part
produced. It is the internal environment of plant to gravity (attraction force of the earth) is called
(physiologically) that adjusts to the external stress i.e.
geotropism. The shoot is negatively geotropic while
lack of oxygen. Similarly mammals are capable of
the root is positively geotropic. Chemotropism is due
maintaining a constant body temperature. The vital
to the chemical stimulus e.g. growth of pollen tube.
activities of an organism are controlled by endocrine
system and nervous system. There are two types of The response to a stimulus, independent of direction,
co ordinations i.e., nervous and hormonal is called nastic movement. The leaves of Mimosa
co-ordination.  n animals both hormones and pudica (Touch-me-not) drop down (bend) on touching.
neurons (structural and functional unit of nervous Flowering and seed germination are regulated by the
system) are involved in regulating and co-ordinating duration of light, This phenomenon called
the various vital activities. In plants only chemical photoperiodism. Plants respond to this stimulus (light
(phytohormones) co-ordination is present. duration) with the help of phytochrome pigment. These
are proteinaceous pigment which regulate the
CHEMICAL CO-ORDINATION IN PLANTS phenomenon of flowering in plants.

(a) Movements in Plants : On the basis of photoperiod there are three classes
of plants.
The plants are fixed in the soil so they cannot avoid
(i) Short day plants
various stimuli by moving away. There is no
(ii) Long day plants
‘brain-like’ structure in plants to adapt themselves
(iii) Day neutral plants
Table : Difference between phototropism and photoperiodism

Phototropism Photoperiodism
It is a tropic movement It is physiological response to
relative lengths of day and night
The stimmulus is perceived by apical meristem The stimulus is perceived by the leaves
It is due to differential growth in It is due to the replacement of
elongation zone vegetative buds by reproductive buds.

(b) Growth Regulators : (E) Parthenocarpy : Application of synthetic as well

as natural auxins to unpollinated pistils produces
The biochemical substances which affects the growth parthenocarpic fruits (seedless fruits).
of a plant are called growth hormones (phytohormones). Parthenocarpy is the phenomenon of
The growth regulators consist of auxins, gibberellins, development of seedless fruits without pollination
cytokinins, ethylene and abscisic acid. Except abscisic and fertilization. E.g., grape, banana, papaya,
acid & ethylene the three are called growth promoter tomato etc.
hormones and ethylene, abscisic acid are growth
inhibitor. (F) Abscission
(i) Auxins : Auxins are produced in the apical (G) Leaf and fruit fall : 2, 4–D (2, 4 – dichlorophenoxy
meristem (tips of root and stem), young leaves, acetic acid) is applied to avoid pre-harvest fruit
flower buds and fruits. The first discovered plant drop in oranges and apples.
hormone was identified as indole acetic acid (H) Flowering : Auxins generally inhibit flowering but
(I.A.A.). in pineapple it causes flowering.
• Functions of auxins : (I) Weedicides : The auxins play important role in
(A) Cell enlargement and elongation weeds control.
(B) Tissue culture (J) Storage : Applied for potato storage.
(C) Root formation : Auxins can induce adventitious (ii) Gibberellins : The gibberellins were first
roots in stem cuttings. discovered in Japan by Yabuta and Sumuki. E.
Kurosawa obtained extracts from rice plants
(D) Cell division
which were infected with fungus Gibberella
fujikuroi. These rice plants were taller and sterile.

PAGE # 93
• Functions of gibberellins : The physiological effects (iv) Ethylene : This is a gaseous plant hormone which
is produced by almost all the fleshy fruits during
of gibberellins on plant growth are as follows.
ripening.
(A) Cell elongation : Gibberellins cause stem • Functions of ethylene : The important functions of
elongation and expansion of leaves in intact plants. ethylene are as follows :
(B) Stem elongation : These induce stem elongation (A) Fruit ripening : t is used for artificial ripening of
in genetically dwarf varieties (pea, maize & fleshy fruits in the shops.
cabbage) It is called bolting.
(B) Abscission layer : Ethylene accelerates the
(C) Seed germination abscission of leaves, flowers and fruits.
(D) Flowering (C) Senescence : Ethylene induces yellowing of
(E) Parthenocarpy leaves and downward bending. This results in
the senescence in the plants.
(iii) Cytokinins : The cytokinins are chemically basic
(D) Growth : It promotes transverse expansion but it
growth hormones which promote cell division in
inhibits longitudinal growth.
plants.
(E) Flowering : It induces flowering in pineapple.
• Functions of cytokinins : The important physiological
effects of these cytokinins on plant growth are as (F) Dormancy : t breaks the dormancy of several
organs of plants except lateral buds.
follows :
(v) Abscisic Acid (A.B.A.) : Stress hormone of plants
(A) Cell division: One of the main function of cytokinins is called as abscisic acid. It is a growth inhibitor.
is in cell division and more particular cytokinesis. • Functions of abscisic acid :
(B) Secondary growth: Cytokinins in conjunction with (A) Growth : A.B.A. has antagonistic property to growth
auxin can promote cell division in permanent promoting hormones (auxins, gibberellins and
tissues which results in the formation of cytokinins). Thus it keeps the growth under check.
secondary xylem during secondary growth
(B) Dormancy : A.B.A. induces dormancy in buds
(increase in thickness).
towards the approach of unfavorable conditions.
(C) Apical dominancy : Cytokinins overcome apical It causes natural dormancy in seeds and tubers.
dominance and promote the growth of lateral
(C) Abscission : t promotes abscission in leaves,
buds.
flowers and fruits and causes ageing in plants.
(D) Senescence: Disapparance of chlorophyll and
degradation of proteins are two important CONTROL AND CO-ORDINATION IN ANIMALS
symptoms of senescence. Cytokinins delay these
processes & thus the senescence is also Animals have chemical and nervous control and
delayed. This effect of cytokinins is known as co-ordinations. The difference between them are
RICHMOND - LANG EFFECT. following :–

PROPERTY HORMONAL CONTROL NERVOUS CONTROL

Nature of signal All hormones are chemical signal. Nerve impulses are
electrical
signals. Chemical signalling
takes place at synapses.

Speed of signal Slow. Rapid, Between 0.7 metres

per second and 120
metres per second.

Effect in the body General effect. The hormones Localized effect – affects
can influence cells in many different parts only the particular muscle
of the body. or the gland.

Effect on growth Can affect growth. Cannot affect growth.

Capacity for modification Cannot be modified Can be modified by
by learning from previous learning from the previous
experience. experiences.
Duration of effect Short term or long lasting. Only short - lived.

PAGE # 94
 TABLE :- ENDOCRINE GLAND ,HORMONES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
Endocrine glands & their location Hormone secreted Principle functions
HEAD REGION
Hypothalamus. Releasing factors eg TRH, Function
It lies below thalamus. GRH, PRH, ARH, MRH. Stimulates the activity of target gland or
Inhibitory factors eg GIH, Inhibit the activity of target gland.
PIH, MIH.

Pituitary Gland:
It has three lobes. It is attached to the lower – –
surface of the brain.
Anterior Lobe Growth Hormone Controls the overall growth
(GH) or Somatotrophic of the body, muscles and bones.
Hormone (STH) Lack of this hormone (hypoactivity)
causes dwarfness (Dwarfism).
Its excessive secretion from
childhood (hyperactivity) causes
excessive growth of long bones
making the person very tall

Adrenocorticotrophic Controls the growth

Hormone (ACTH) and function of adrenal
cortex. Stimulates the
adrenal cortex to
secrete steroid hormones
called glucocorticoids.

Thyroid Stimulating Controls the growth

Hormone (TSH) and functioning of the
thyroid gland. Stimulate
the thyroid gland to
produce thyroxine.

Follicle Stimulating In males, it stimulates

Hormone (FSH) the process of
spermatogenesis.
In females, it stimulates
the follicle cells in the
ovaries to develop into
mature eggs and also
stimulates them to
produce Estrogen.

Luteinizing In males, it stimulates the secretion of

Hormone (LH) male hormone, testosterone, which in
In males this is turn influences the appearance of
called as interstitial secondary sexual characteristics. In
cell stimulating females, it stimulates the secretion of
hormone (ICSH) estrogen and progesterone, which in turn
influence the process of reproduction and
menstrual cycle.
Pituitary Gland

PAGE # 95
 TABLE : - ENDOCRINE GLAND, HORMONES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
Endocrine glands and
Hormone secreted Principle functions
their location
Prolactin Hormone (PRL) It enhances mammary gland development and
milk production in females after child birth.

Middle Lobe Melanocyte Stimulating Controls the production of melanin pigment in

Hormone (MSH) the skin which is responsible for skin colour.

Posterior Lobe Oxytocin Controls the vigorous contraction of uterine

muscles at the time of child birth. It also helps
in milk ejection from the mammary glands to
provide nourishment for the newborn during
feeding.

Vasopressin or Controls reabsorption of water in kidney

Antidiuretic tubules. Disorder : Diabetes insipidus
Hormone (ADH)

Pineal Gland Melatonin It has antigonadal function. It may delay the

It is attached to ventral side of the brain. It lies development of sexual organs in the body.
near the pituitary.

Thyroid Thyroxine Regulate BMR. Excess secretion causes

Situated at the back side of trachea & Infront of exophthalmic goiter.
Larynx
Calcitonin Regulates calcium phosphorus balance in
blood. Excess secretion weakens bones.

Parathyroid Parathormone Regulates calcium phosphorus balance in

Four in number and present in the back of blood.
thyroid.
Thymus Thymosin Regulates growth. Stimulates proliferation of
Situated near heart lymphocytes, Also hastens sexual maturity.

ABDOMINAL REGION
Adrenal Gland
In human beings, a pair
of adrenal glands are
present, one on top
of each kidney, hence,
they are also called
supra-renal glands. Each
adrenal gland has an
outer part called the
cortex and an inner part
medulla.

PAGE # 96
 TABLE : - ENDOCRINE GLAND, HORMONES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
Adrenal Cortex Glucocorticoids Regulate the metabolism of protein, fats
It is vitally important for (cortisone, and carbohydrates in the body and the
life. Secretes steroid hormone called as cortisol) level of blood sugar.
corticoids

Mineralocorticoid It controls re-absorption of sodium in urinary

+ +
(aldosterone) tubules and maintains Na and K ratio in the
extracellular and intracellular fluids.

Adrenal Medulla Adrenaline (Epinephrine) Both these hormones together control

It helps the body to combat against stress or and Nor-adrenaline emotions, fear, anger, blood pressure,
emergency conditions. (Nor-epinephrine) heartbeat, respiration and relaxation of smooth
muscles. Comprises the sympathetico -
adrenal system.

Pancreas Insulin — secreted by It regulates the conversion of glucose to

It is a compound gland in the abdominal region Beta- cells glycogen. Hyposecretion of insulin causes
located posterior to the stomach. It has an diabetes mellitus in which glucose is present in
exocrine part which produces digestive juices. excess in blood and is also excreted out along
Its endocrine part, Islets of Langerhans, with the urine.
secretes hormones insulin & glucagon.
Glucagon secreted by It regulates the conversion of glycogen and
alpha -cells some non-carbohydrates back to glucose.
Disorder : Raises the blood sugar level &
cause elimination of sugar in urine.

Ovaries Secrete estrogen, Oestrogen : develops the females secondary

These are a pair of organs progesterone, relaxin sexual characters; Progesterone: prepares
present in the lower uterus for receiving the fertilized egg and also
abdominal region in for menstruation in the absence of pregnancy;
females. relaxin secreted by ovary and placenta, helps
in child birth.

Testis Testosterone It controls the development of secondary

These are extra abdominal in position. The sexual characteristics in males, such as
interstitial or Leydig cells present in testis enlargement of penis and scrotum, growth
produce the male hormone. of facial and pubic hair, and enlargement
of larynx that causes deepening of voice.

PAGE # 97
 Endocrine glands and
Hormone secreted Principle functions
their location
Adrenal Cortex Glucocorticoids (cortisone, Regulate the metabolism of protein, fats
It is vitally important for cortisol) and carbohydrates in the body and the
life. Secretes steroid hormone called as level of blood sugar.
corticoids
Mineralocorticoid It controls re-absorption of sodium in urinary
+ +
(aldosterone) tubules and maintains Na and K ratio in the
extracellular and intracellular fluids.

Adrenal Medulla Adrenaline (Epinephrine) Both these hormones together control

It helps the body to combat against stress or and Nor-adrenaline emotions, fear, anger, blood pressure,
emergency conditions. (Nor-epinephrine) heartbeat, respiration and relaxation of smooth
muscles. Comprises the sympathetico -
adrenal system.

Pancreas Insulin — secreted by It regulates the conversion of glucose to

It is a compound gland in the abdominal region Beta- cells glycogen. Hyposecretion of insulin causes
located posterior to the stomach. It has an diabetes mellitus in which glucose is present in
exocrine part which produces digestive juices. excess in blood and is also excreted out along
Its endocrine part, Islets of Langerhans, with the urine.
secretes hormones insulin & glucagon.

Glucagon secreted by It regulates the conversion of glycogen and

alpha -cells some non-carbohydrates back to glucose.
Disorder : Raises the blood sugar level &
cause elimination of sugar in urine.
Ovaries Secrete estrogen, progesterone, relaxin Estrogen : develops the females secondary
These are a pair of organs sexual characters; Progesterone: prepares
present in the lower uterus for receiving the fertilized egg and also
abdominal region in for menstruation in the absence of pregnancy;
females. relaxin secreted by ovary and placenta, helps
in child birth.

Testis Testosterone It controls the development of secondary

These are extra abdominal in position. The sexual characteristics in males, such as
interstitial or Leydig cells present in testis enlargement of penis and scrotum, growth
produce the male hormone. of facial and pubic hair, and enlargement
of larynx that causes deepening of voice.

Alimentary canal 1. Gastrin Stimulates the secretion of gastric juice.

(a) Stomach
2. Secretin Stimulates release of sodium bicarbonate
solution from pancreas and liver.
3. Chloecystokinin Stimulates gall bladder to release bile and
pancreas to release enzyme mixture.
4. Enterogastrone Slows gastric contractions and stops secretion
of gastric juice.
1. Human chorionic Stimulates secretion of progesterone by
Placenta (Uterine wall) gonadotrophin (hCG) ovaries during pregnancy.
2. Estrogen Supplements ovarian estrogen.
3. Progesterone Supplements ovarian progesterone.

PAGE # 98
NERVOUS CO-ORDINATION IN ANIMALS NERVOUS SYSTEM IN HUMAN
 n animals two kinds of control & co-ordination The nervous system of human beings consists of
(nervous & chemical) are present. The nervous central & peripheral nervous systems. Neuron is the
co-ordination is brought about by the nervous system structural & functional unit of nervous system. It is the
and the chemical co-ordination by hormones. Both longest cell found in the body. They unite the receptor
the systems work an integrated system. Infact such a and effector organs with each other. The nervous
control and coordination requires system is composed of neurons. These are
(i) Gathering information about changes in the surrounded by a connective tissue called neuroglia.
external environment. Impulses from receptors run through neurons. The
number of neurons are almost fixed for a particular
(ii) Transmitting this information to the internal cells species.
located away from the body surface and.
(iii) Exchange of information between the cells
situated away from each other.

(a) Structure : (b) Types of Neurons or Nerve Fibres :

Each neuron consists of a cell body called cyton and (i) Motor : t carries impulses from brain and spinal
a number of branches (nerve fibres) arising from the cord to effector organs.
cyton. Neuron does not divide. Cyton contains a
nucleus within the cytoplasm & Nissl’s granules (ii) Sensory :   t transmits impulse from sensory
(formed of RER with ribosomes) and fine thread like organs to central nervous system.
fibres, called neurofibrils. (c) Types of Nervous System :
(i) Dendrites : These are short, several, much
(i) Central nervous system : It lies along the main
branched & contain granules. They carry impulse
(longitudinal) axis of the body.t consists of the
towards the cyton.
brain and the spinal cord. The brain is covered
(ii) Axon :  t is a large, single and unbranched by cranium & spinal cord is covered by vertebral
structure. It has no nissl’s granules. t carries column, both are also surrounded by three
impulses from cyton to the effector organs like membranes of the connective tissues called
glands, muscles etc. Synapse is a very fine gap meninges.
between these two neurons. Thus, in the entire
nervous system neurons are linked together.

PAGE # 99
 Outer most membrane duramater (C) Hind brain :
 Middle membrane arachnoid • Posterior part of the brain.
 Inner most membrane piamater.
• Cerebellum :  t controls coordination and
 The space between the membranes is filled with
adjustment of movements (equilibrium) and
a fluid called cerebrospinal fluid that protects the posture.
brain from mechanical shocks. The brain can be
differentiated into three main regions fore brain, • Pons varolii : It controls some aspects of
mid brain & hind brain. respiration.

(A) Fore brain : t consists of olfactory lobes, cerebrum • Medulla oblongata : t is the posterior most part
and diencephalon. of the brain and continues into the spinal cord. t
controls involuntary functions of the body such as
 Olfactory lobes : They receive impulse for smell. heart beat, rate of breathing, secretion of saliva,
 Cerebrum : t is the largest part of the brain. t swallowing, coughing, sneezing & vomiting etc.
consists of two cerebral hemispheres. Fissures • Spinal cord : It lies in the vertebral column. t
divide each cerebral hemisphere into four lobes. starts from medulla oblongata and extends
(i) Occipital lobe : Region for visual perception downward. t is also protected by three meninges
and cerebrospinal fluid. It also acts as a centre
(ii) Frontal lobe : For muscular activities
for spinal reflexes.
(iii) Parietal lobe : For touch, smell, temperature (ii) Peripheral nervous system : It consists of nerves,
and conscious association which extend between the central nervous system
(iv) Temporal lobe: For auditory reception and the sense organs or body’s effectors
(muscles, glands, etc.) or both. It carries
Cerebrum has sensory areas where impulses are information to and from the CNS. It mainly controls
received from sense organs (receptors). Similarly it the voluntary activities of the body.It includes
has a general motor area from where impulses are cranial nerves (They arise from or join the brain)
sent to effector organs (Muscles & glands). and spinal nerves (They arise from spinal cord).
 Diencephalon : t encloses a cavity called third There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves in man and
ventricle. It consists of thalamus and 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from spinal cord.
hypothalamus. Thalamus serves as a relay (iii) Autonomic nervous system : It consists of nerves
centre for sensory and motor impulses from which connect the visceral receptors and effectors
spinal cord and medulla oblongata to cerebrum. with the CNS through the cranial and spinal
It recognizes sensory impulses of heat, cold, pain, nerves. t controls involuntary activities of internal
light & pressure. Floor of third ventricle is called organs such as heart, blood vessels, glands &
hypothalamus. It possesses control centres for smooth muscles of alimentary canal & uterus. It
hunger, thirst, thermoregulation, sleep, sex, is subdivided into
stress etc.  Sympathetic
(B) Mid Brain : These are the centres for control of  Parasympathetic system Organs receive nerves
eye movement and hearing responses. from both sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve
fibres. They have opposite effects on the organs
if one is stimulatory, the other is inhibitory.

PAGE # 100
 (d) Reflex Action :

Reflex action is the name given to the response which • Unconditioned reflexes. Even when the body has no
is at the level of spinal cord itself.t is a rapid automatic past experience of a stimulus it still responds
response to a stimulus by an organ or a system of spontaneously and such responses or actions are
organs, which does not involve the brain for its initiation. called unconditioned reflexes. These are responses
A reflex action is an unconscious (without will) and to a natural unconditioned stimulus. The examples of
involuntary response of effectors (muscles or glands) unconditioned reflexes are the blinking of an eye when
to a stimulus. Mammals show a wide range of reflexes a particle of dust touches the eyelids, excitement of
which can be broadly classified into two types : the salivary glands after seeing the food, etc. Other
unconditioned and conditoned reflexes. reflex actions are shown in the Table.
TABLE SHOWING DIFFERENT UNCONDTIONED REFLEX ACTIONS
Reflex Stimulus Response
Blinking Foreign body on surface of eye. Eyelids close and eye "waters".
Swallowing Food touches sensitive spot at back of pharynx. Peristaltic waves pass down oesophagus.
Sneezing Foreign particle irritating lining of nose or larynx. Chest muscles and diaphragm contract &
& coughing relax violently to produce a gust of air.
Knee-jerk Sharp tap of tendon below knee-cap of crossed leg. Leg 'kicks' up.

• Conditioned reflexes : When a reflex which does not (e) Electro Encephalogram (EEG) :
naturally exist had becomes a part of the animal
behaviour. Such a reflex is said to be conditioned. The activity of brain is recorded as electrical potentials
Conditioned reflex were first demonstrated by the such a record is called Electro Encephalogram (EEG).
Russian phyisiologist, Pavlov. The cerebrum controls An instrument called electro encephalograph.
the conditioned reflexes.
EXERCISE-1
Endocrine system
1. Intercellular communication in multicellular organisms
occur through
(A) digestive system only
(B) nervous system only
(C) both nervous and endocrine system
(D) respiratory system only
2. What are parthenocarpic fruits?
(A) Fruits enclosed in pods such as pea
(B) Fruits formed without fertilization
(C) Very hard fruits
(D) Fruits with more than one seed at their centre
3. Hormones influence body parts for bringing about
Pavlov’s Experiment on Dog to Show Conditional Reflex. (A) proper growth
Differences between Unconditioned and Conditioned (B) co – ordination
Reflexes (C) stimulation of body parts
(D) proper functioning of body parts

PAGE # 101
9-CONTROL AND CO-ORDINATION

4. Leuteinising hormone in female 18. Which part of the brain is affected first in a drunk person ?
(A) helps in the appearance of secondary sexual (A) Cerebrum (B) Medulla oblongata
characters (C) Cerebellum (D) Olfactory lobe
(B) stimulates ovary to secrete esterogen
(C) helps in release of the ovum from the ovary 19. Cerebral hemisphere are the centres for
(D) control of blood pressure (A) thinking (B) taste
5. Which one is not secreted by pituitary ? (C) smell (D) all the above
(A) Thyroxine (B) FSH
(C) GH (D) ACTH EXERCISE-2
6. The hormone that promotes reabsorption of water
from glomerular filtrate COMPETITIVE EXAM QUESTIONS
(A) oxytocin (B) relaxin
1. Which of the following is not a plant harmone
(C) vasopressin (D) calcitonin
(Raj/NTSE Stage-1/Control Coordination/13)
7. Temperature in human beings is controlled by (A) Auxin (B) Gibberellins
(A) hypothalamus gland (B) thyroid gland (C) Cytokinin (D) Adrenaline
(C) pituitary gland (D) adrenal gland
2. Lack of Melanin synthesis may cause the genetic
8. Chemically hormones are
(A) biogenetic amines only disorder.
(B) proteins, steroids and biogenetic amines (Raj/NTSE Stage-1/Control and Coordination/07)
(C) proteins only (A) Colour blindness (B) Haemophilia
(D) steroids only (C) Albinism (D) Hypertrichosis
9. Hormone concerned primarily with cell division is 3. The essential hormome for ripening of fruits is :
(A) GA3 (B) IAA (Raj/NTSE Stage-1/Control Coordination/06)
(C) NAA (D) Cytokinins
(A) Auxin (B) Cytokinin
10. W hat will happen, if the thyroid is removed from a (C) Ethylene (D) Gibberellin
tadpole ?
(A) The tadpole will grow into a dwarf frog 4. Cut leaves remain green for longer time if dipped in :
(B) The larva will produce giant frog (Delhi/NTSE Stage-1/Control Coordination/2013)
(C) It will continue indefinitely in larva stage (A) Auxins (B) Cytokinins
(D) The larva will die (C) Ethylene (D) Gibberellins
Nervous system 5. Neurons have a unique property that makes them to
11. One of the fundamental character of chordates is communicate with other cells via :
(A) presence of limbs (Delhi/NTSE Stage-1/Control Coordination/2013)
(B) presence of dorsal and hollow nervous system (A) Nerve cords (B) Glial cells
(C) presence of Haemoglobin
(C) Synapses (D) Schwann cells
(D) presence of heart
6. Hormone which stimulate initiation of flowering
12. Which part of brain is more developed in man ?
(A) Medulla (B) Cerebellum process is :
(C) Cerebrum (D) Optic lobes (MP/NTSE Stage-1/Conrol Coordination/2013)
(A) Gibberellin (B) Ethylene
13. Which cell organelle is absent in neuron ?
(C) Vernalin (D) Florigen
(A) mitochondria (B) ribosomes
(C) centrioles (D) nucleus 7. Choose the right from the following.
14. Myelin sheath is a covering of (Chandidarh/NTSE/Stage-1/Control Coordination/
(A) muscle cell (B) axon 2013)
(C) blood vessels (D) osteocyte i. In light, hormone auxin, helps the cells to grow
15. Which part of the brain act as Relay centre longer in plants.
(A) hypothalamus (B) cerebrum ii. Plant hormone gibberellins helps in growth of a
(C) cerebellum (D) thalamus stem.
16. Two halves of the cerebrum are connected through iii. Cytokininis inhibits cell division.
(A) cerebral hemispheres iv. Abscisic acid promote growth in plants.
(B) medulla oblongata (A) i and iii are correct (B) ii and iv are correct
(C) corpus callosum (C) i and ii are correct (D) i and iv are correct
(D) pons varolii
8. One of the basic characteristics of living organisms
17. Tick the right statement -
which is well developed in nervous system is :
(A) Spinal cord is a part of central nervous system.
(Karnataka /NTSE Stage-1/Control coordination/
(B) Nerves are continuous fibres
(C) Reflexes are not controlled by nerves 2013)
(D) None of the above (A) Movement (B) Growth
(C) Irritability (D) Nutrition

PAGE # 102
9. If a person cannot walk in a straight line or cannot 17. W hich two of the following are growth promoting
balance a ride on bicycle, probably which part of his hormones in plant ?
brain is not working properly ? (Orrisa/NTSE Stage-1/Control Coordination/2013)
(Karnataka /NTSE Stage-1/Control coordination/ (A) Auxin and Cytokinin
2013) (B) Gibberelin and Ethylene
(A) Cerebrum (B) Cranium (C) Abscisic acid and Auxin
(C) Cerebellum (D) Hypothalamus (D) Cytokinin and Ethylene

10. Choose the corret alternate in which the type of 18. Which part of the brain controls co-ordinated move-
tropism exhibited by plants is correctly matched with ments of our body, such as riding a bicycle ?
the stimulus to which they respond (Punjab/NTSE Stage-1/Control coordination/2013)
(Karnataka /NTSE Stage-1/Control coordination/ (A) Cerebrum (B) Cerebellum
2013) (C) Medulla (D) Pons
Tropsin Stimulus 19. The correct order of the parts of a nerve cell through
1) Hydrotropsin i) Earth which a nerve impulse is transmitted is.
2) Geotropism ii) Light (Punjab/NTSE Stage-1/Control coordination/2013)
3) Chemotropism iii) Water (A) Nerve endings-dendrites-axon-cell body
4) Phototropism iv) Chemical (B) Cell body-axon-dendrites -nerve endings
(A) 1 – ii, 2 – i, 3 – iv, 4 – iii (B) 1 – iii, 2 – i, 3 – iv, 4 – ii (C) Dendrites-nerve endings-cell body axon
(C) 1 – iv, 2 – iii, 3 – i , 4 – ii (D) 1 – iii, 2 – i , 3 – ii, 4 – iv (D) Dendrites - cell body-axon-nerve endings
11. The two hormones secreted by adrenal glands which 20. W hich is the largest endocrine gland in human be-
regulates the rate of metabolism and the concentra- ings.
tion of salts in blood and prepares the body to face the (Punjab/NTSE Stage-1/Control Coordination/2013)
emergency are .................and .................. (A) Pituitary (B) Adrenal
(Karnataka /NTSE Stage-1/Control coordination/ (C) Thyroid Parathyroid (D) Parathyroid
2013) 21. Show the pathway of electric impulse :
(A) Insulin and Glucagon (Maharashtra/NTSE Stage-1/Control coordination/2013)
(B) Testosterone and Estrogen (A) Dendrite  Cell body  Axon  to its end
(C) Cortisone and Dopamine (B) Cell body  Dendrite  Axon  to its end
(D) Cortitisone and Adrenaline (C) Axon  Cell body  Dendrite  to. its end
12. Which one is anti transpirant hormones ? (D) Dendrite  Axon  Cell body  to its end
(West Bengal/NTSE Stage-1/Control coordination/ 22. The systematic regulation of various activities means :
2013) (Maharashtra/NTSEStage-1/Control coordination /
(A) Auxin (B) Cytokinin 2013)
(C) Abscisic Acid (D) Gibberellin (A) Control (B) Co-ordiantion
13. The functional junction between two neurons is called (C) Taming (D) Randomness
(Mizoram/NTSE Stage-1/Control & coordination/ 23. Which is the hormone that brings about changes in
2013) girls during puberty :
(A) synapse (B) axon (Maharashtra/NTSE Stage-1/Control coordination/
(C) dendrites (D) none of these 2013)
(A) Estrogen (B) Progesterone
14. W hich of the following ion is needed for nerve
(C) Testosterrone (D) Thyroxine
conduction?
(A) Ca (B) Zn (C) Mg (D) Na 24. If the apical parts of the negative geotropic roots of
mangrove plant are pasted with wax, which function
15. When we smell a flower, which one of the following
of these roots will be affected ?
first receives the scent?
(Raj/NTSE Stage-1/Control Coordination/05)
(Orrisa/NTSE Stage-1/Control coordination/2013) (A) Exchange of O2 and CO2 (B) W ater absorption
(A) Dendrite of motor neuron (C) Fixation of plant (D) Photosynthesis
(B) Dendrite of sensory neuron
(C) Axon of motor neuron 25. In plants abscisic acid controls
(D) Axon of sensory neuron (Raj/NTSE Stage-1/Control Coordination/05)
(A) growth in shoot (B) flower formation
16. W hich one of the following is secreted by pituitary (C) cell division (D) fall of leaf
gland?
26. How many nerves arise from spinal cord ?
(Orrisa/NTSE Stage-1/Control coordination/2013)
(Gujrat/NTSE Stage-1/Control Coordination/05)
(A) Insulin (B) Estrogen
(A) 21 (B) 31
(C) Adrenaline (D) Growth hormone
(C) 41 (D) 51

PAGE # 103
27. What is the weight of an adult person's brain 36. W hich part of the human brain is more developed
(Gujrat/NTSE Stage-1/Control Coordination/05) than other mammals :
(A) 900 (B) 1350 (Bihar/ntsestage I 2015)
(C) 1500 (D) 2350
(A) Cerebellum (B) Cerebrum
28. What is called of movement occurred in a plant due to (C) Sensory lobes (D) none of the above
light ?
(Gujrat/NTSE Stage-1/Control Coordination/05) 37. In plants “Auxin” is used for ..................
(A) Thermonestry (B) Thigmonesty (M.P./ntsestage I 2015)
(C) Yearmonesty (D) Photonesty (A) Division of cell.

29. Insulin hormone is secreted by .... gland - (B) Ripening of fruits.

(M.P/NTSE Stage-1/Control Coordination/05) (C) Root growth inhibition.
(A) lymphatic gland (B) Salivary gland (D) Elongation and division of cell
(C) Pancreas (D) Pitutary gland
38. Which hormone is not found in plants ?
30. An enzyme secreted by an endocrine gland which is (M.P./ntsestage I 2015)
present in an exocrine gland :
(A) Gibberellin (B) Auxin
(Karnataka/NTSE Stage-1/Control Coordination/05)
(C) Cytokinin (D) Glucagon
(A) Paratharmone (B) Thyroxin
(C) Glucagon (D) Adrinalin 39. Phototropic and geotropic response of a plant is under
31. Which of the following activity is controlled by medulla control of following harmone :
oblongata ? (Delhi/ntsestage I 2015)
(Karnataka/NTSE Stage-1/Control Coordination/05) (A) Auxin (B) Gibberlin
(A) Maintain balance of the body
(C) Cytokinin (D) Ethylene
(B) Peristalitc movement alimentary canal
(C) Controlling body temperature 40. Spinal cord originates from :
(D) Facial expression (Delhi/ntsestage I 2015)
32. Match each item in Column A with suitable one in (A) Cerebrum (B) Cerebellum
column B : (C) Medulla (D) Pons
(Karnataka/NTSE Stage-1/Control Coordination/05)
Column A Column B 41. Which one of the following represents the correct
A. CO2 (i) Regulation of body sequence of reflex action ?
temperature (Control Co-ordination / 2015 NTSE Stage-2)
B. Hypothalamus (ii) Green House effect
(A) Receptor sensory nerve motor nerve 
C. Corpus luteum (iii) Balancing the body
(iv) Secretion of dopamin spinal cord muscle
(v) Required to plants for (B) Receptor motor nerve spinal cord 
respiration
sensory nerve muscle
(vi) Secretion of proges-
terone (C) Receptor sensory nerve spinal cord 
(A) A = (v) , B = (iii),C = (iv) (B) A = (ii), B = (i), C = (iv) muscle motor nerve
(C) A = (ii), B = (i), C = (vi) (D) A = (v), B = (ii), C = (vi) (D) Receptor  sensory nerve spinal cord 
33. Which of the following is a plant hormone ? motor nerve muscle
(Rajasthan/ntsestage I 2015)
(A) Insulin (B) Thyroxin 42. W hich of the following cannot be considered as a
(C) Cytokinin (D) Oestrogen receptor ?

34. The hormone present in higher concentration in fruits (M.P./ntse/stage I 2015)

and seeds is (A) Muscle (B) Ear
(Haryana/ntsestage I 2015) (C) Eye (D) Nose
(A) Auxin (B) Gibberellin
43. The part of brain which controls the balance and pos-
(C) Cytokinin (D) Ethylene
ture of the body is
35. The outermost layers of meninges is
(Delhi/ntse/stage I 2015)
(W.B./ntsestage I 2015)
(A) Myelin membrane (B) Arachnoid mater (A) Cerebellum (B) Cerebrum
(C) Dura mater (D) Pia mater (C) Pons (D) Medulla

PAGE # 104
44. Growth of plants is not promoted by 50. An injury in accident has disturbed regulation of
(Delhi/ntse/stage I 2015) body temperature, water balance and hunger. The
(A) Cytokinins (B) Auxins
part of brain effected is :
(Hariyana/ntse/stage I 2015)
(C) Gibberellins (D) Abscisic acid
(A) Cerebellum
45. Which one of the following pairs is not correct? (B) Cerebrum
(Gujrat/ntse/stage I 2015) (C) Medulla oblongata
(D) Hypothalamus
(A) The pituitary gland – Adrenalin
(B) Pancreas – Insulin 51. If a rat is given an injection of sodium iodide with
radioactive iodine, then in which of the following
(C) Ovary – Estrogen
most of iodine would be incorporated ?
(D) Testis – Testosterone (Hariyana/ntse/stage I 2015)
46. Find the odd man out (A) Cartilage (B) Thyroid
(C) Parathyroid (D) Lymph nodes
(W.Bangal/ntse/stage I 2015)
52. Which among the following hormones is associ-
(A) Gonadotrophins (B) Thyrotrophins
ated with wilting of leaves ?
(C) Corticotrophins (D) Vasopressin. (Rajasthan/stage I 2015)
47. Involuntary actions like blood pressure salivation (A) Abscisic acid (B) Gibberellin
and vomiting are controlled by this part of hind brain- (C) Cytokinin (D) Auxin.
(Bihar/ntse/stage I 2015) 53. Synapse is
(A) Medals (B) Cerebellum (Rajasthan/stage I 2015)
(A) gap between two muscle cells
(C) Medulla (D) Cerebrum
(B) gap between two bones
48. The endocrine gland in which both exocrine and (C) gap between two neurons
endocrine parts are present : (D) gap between muscle and bone
(Utrakhand/ntse/stage I 2015) 54. Which of the following plant hormones induces cell
(A) Pancreas (B) Adrenal gold division ?
(Rajasthan/stage I 2015)
(C) Thyroid (D) Pitutary gland
(A) Auxin (B) Gibberelin
49. Iodine is necessary for the synthesis of which of (C) Ethylene (D) Cytokinin.
the following hormones : 55. Central Nervous system consists of brain and
(Utrakhand/ntse/stage I 2015) (Rajasthan/stage I 2016)
(A) Insulin (B) Adrenaline (A) Spinal cord (B) Spinal nerves
(C) Thyroxine (D) Auxin (C) Cranial nerves (D) All the above



PAGE # 105
 HEREDITY & VARIATION
 It enables the organisms to face the struggle for
HEREDITY existence in a better way.
 t includes those traits or characters which are  It helps men in improving the races of useful
animals and plants.
transmitted from generation to generation and are
therefore fixed for a particular individual.  It is the basis of heredity.
 It also leads to the existence of new traits.
• Genetics : Study of Heredity and variations is said to
be known as genetics. The term genetics was first of
all used by W. Bateson in 1905. An Austrian monk MENDEL’S CONTRIBUTION
namely Gregor Johann Mendel was the first person to
study genetics. He was therefore regarded as the • Gregor Johann Mendel (1822- 1884) in silisian
‘Father of Genetics’. (Austria) now a part of Czechoslovakia. He is known
as the Father of genetics.
VARIATIONS • He conducted his experiments on garden pea (Pisum
sativum).
Variation is concerned with the difference between
• Mendel presented his experiments data conclusions
the individuals of same species and also between
before Brunn Natural Society in 1865 and was
the offsprings of the same parents.
published in Annual Proceedings of the Natural History
• Variations could be of two types : Society in 1866
(i) Somatic variation (ii) Germinal variation • His work was recognized in 1900 after his death
(i) Somatic variation : Somatic variation affects the (1884). Mendel’s conclusions (laws) were
somatic cells of an organism. It is neither rediscovered simultaneously by Hugo de vries a Dutch
inherited from parents nor transmitted to next biologist, Carl Correns a German botanist and Erich
generation. It is acquired by individual during it’s von Tschermak an Austrian botanist.
own life and is lost with it’s death. It is therefore
• Some general terms (Terminology) :
also called as acquired variation
 Somatic variations are due to : • Dominant trait : The trait which appears in F 1
generation is called as dominant trait. It is denoted
(A) Environment : This includes the factors that affect by capital letter. e.g. TT (tall).
the organisms such as food, air, pressure,
humidity, water etc. • Recessive trait : The traits which does not appear in
F1 generation is called as recessive trait. It is denoted
 Light : Strong sunlight affects the human skin by by small letter. e.g. tt (dwarf)
increasing the dark pigment melanin in the
epidermal cells. Melanin protects the underlying • Monohybrid cross : It involves the study of inheritance
cells by absorbing the ultra violet rays of the sun. of one pair of contrasting characters. e.g. nheritance
 Habitat: It also affects the genetic make – up of of tall and dwarf characters.
an individual and leads to variations. • Dihybrid Cross : It is the inheritance of two pairs of
 Nutrition : It is also one of the various factors that contrasting characters.
cause variations. • Trihybrid cross: It is the inheritance of three pairs of
(B) Use and disuse of organs : Continuous use of contrasting characters.
an organ makes it better developed whereas • Back cross : The cross between F1 generation with
constant disuse makes it reduced. any of the parents is known as back cross.
(C) Conscious efforts : Conscious efforts by man • Test cross : The cross between F1 generation and
produce somatic variations in humans the recessive parent is called as test cross.
themselves, in domestic animals and plants.
• Genotype : It is the genetic representation of a trait.
(ii) Germinal variation : This variation affects the germ e.g. TT or Tt for a tall plant.
cells of an organism and is consequently
inheritable. It is received by the individual from • Phenotype : It is the expression( physical appearance)
the parents and is transmitted to the next of a trait e.g. Tall pea plant. It can be noted by direct
generation. observation of an individual.

• Significance of Variation : • Allele : Term allele refers to each of the members of a

genetic pair.
 Variation enables the organisms to adapt
themselves to the changing environment. • Homozygous traits : They have similar alleles for
specific trait (TT or tt). They produce only one type of
 It forms raw material for evolution.
gametes.

PAGE # 106
• Heterozygous traits : They have dissimilar alleles for
a specific trait (Tt). They produce two types of gametes. T t
• Emasculation : The removal of anther from a flower
for the cross pollination T TT Tt

t Tt tt
MENDEL’S EXPERIMENT
(a ) Tr ai ts c hose n by M ende l for hi s In F2 we will get 3 : 1 ratio.
experi ment :
S.No. Characters Dominant Recessive
1. Stem height Tall D warf
2. Flower colour Violet White
3. Flow er pos ition Axial Term inal
4. Pod s hape Inflated C ons tricted Homozygous tall : Heterozygous tall : Homozygous dwarf
5. Pod colour Green Yellow 1 : 2 : 1
6. Seed s hape Round Wrinkled (C) Mendel further found that the phenotypic ratio of 3
7. Seed colour Yellow Green : 1 of dominant to recessive form of a trait was
(b) Reasons for Mendel’s success : actually a genotypic ratio of 1 : 2 : 1 of pure dominant,
hybrid and pure recessive forms.
(A) He selected true breeding [pure] pea plant for his
experiment. • The traits which remain hidden in F1 generation got
(B) He studied single trait at a time. expressed in F2 generation. This was later on proved
in F3 generation.
(C) He kept an accurate mathematical record of his
breeding experiments and noted down the number
of each type of offspring produced in each cross. DIHYBRID CROSS
(D) He was lucky enough to select the seven traits , as • n dihybrid cross Mendel crossed genetically pure
the gene for these traits are located on four different yellow round seeded (YYRR) pea plant with green
chromosomes.
wrinkled (yyrr) pea plant.
• All the plants of F1 were all yellow and round seeded
MONOHYBRID CROSS
(YyRr) .
(A) When the F1 generation was obtained, it was found • In F2 generation four types of plants appeared as :
that the resultant generation would express only one • Yellow rounded - 9 • Yellow wrinkled - 3
of the trait and not the other.
• Green round - 3 • Green wrinkled - 1
• The trait which is being expressed is called as
dominant, whereas the one which is not expressed is
called as recessive trait.
(B) The F2 generation is obtained by self pollination,
the dominant and the recessive traits obtained were
in the ratio of 3 : 1 i.e. 75% of the offsprings which
appeared in F2 generation had dominant trait, while
25% had recessive trait. This ratio of 3 : 1 is also said
to be known as Mendelian monohybrid ratio.
All F1 plants are yellow and round seeded

In F1 all are tall

(F1 × F1)

So here phenotypic ratio is 9 : 3 : 3 : 1

PAGE # 107
 (c) Any one nitrogenous base (Any one of the four
MENDEL’S LAWS OF INHERITANCE
types of bases - Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine and
(a) The Principle of Paired Factors : Thymine).

Each character in an individual is governed by two Purine Nitrogenous bases are:Adenine(A) and
factors called as gene. The alternative form of gene is Guanine(G
called as alleles or allelomorphs. If an individual Pyrimidine Nitrogenous bases are: Cytosine
consists of similar types of alleles, they are called as (C),Thymine (T) and Uracil (U)
homozygous e.g. TT, tt while those having different So depending upon the nitrogenous bases, the
types of alleles are called as heterozygous e.g. Tt etc. nucleotides in DNA can be of four types. A,G,C,T
(b ) T he Pr inc ipl e of Dom ina nce or Law of • Nucleotide = nucleoside + phosphate
Dominance : • Nucleoside = nitrogen base + deoxyribose sugar
When two homozygous individuals with one or more
sets of contrasting characters are crossed the
characters that appear in the F1 hybrids are dominant
characters and those which do not appear in F1 are
recessive characters .
(c) The Principle of Segregation or Law of
Segrega tion :
[Law of purity of gametes] The law of segregation
states that when a pair of contrasting factors or genes
or alleles are brought together in a heterozygous
condition, the two remains together without being
contaminated but when gametes are formed from
them the two separate out from each other. This is
also known as Mendel’s first law of heredity.

(d) The Principle of Independent Assortment

or Law of Independent Assortment :
If the inheritance of more than one pair of characters
is studied simultaneously, the factors or genes for
each pair of characters assort out independently. It is
called as Mendel’s second law of heredity.

GENES
• The term ‘gene’ was introduced by Johanssen for
Mendelian factor. Gene determines the physical as
well as physiological characteristics. Mendel’s called
them Factors. Fig : Double Helical Structure of DNA Molecule
• They are transmitted from parents to their offsprings • Double Helical Structure of DNA Molecule
generation after generation. Genes are located on
chromosomes where they occupy specific position (iii) The deoxyribo-nucleotides are joined together by
called as locus. Chromosomal theory of inheritance phosphodiester bonds and form a polynucleotide
was given by T. Boveri and W.S. Sutton in 1902. chain. These chains have two ends. One end is
called 5’ end, while other is called 3’ end.
(iv) A DNA molecule has two such polynucleotide
STRUCTURE OF DNA chains, which run in opposite or antiparallel
direction.
DNA was first isolated by Friedrich Miescher (1869)
from the pus cells. He named it as nuclein. The (v) One chain runs in 3’ to 5’ direction while other in 5’
structure of DNA was proposed by Watson, Crick to 3’ direction. So each strand in the DNA
and Wilkins in 1953. The model, proposed by these molecule possesses a polarity with 3’and 5’
scientists is called ‘Double Helical model’. It is the ends.
best accepted model of DNA. (vi) Two chains are held together by weak Hydrogen
(i) According to this model, DNA is a large polymer. bonds, which are established between the
Its units are called deoxyribo-nucleotides. opposite complementary bases (A and T, C and
G) of the two chains. There are 2 – H bonds
(ii) A deoxyribo-nucleotide consists of three between A and T while 3 – H bonds between C
components : and G.
(a) Deoxyribose sugar (C5 H10 O4), (vii) Two strands, to acquire maximum stability get
(b) Phosphate group and coiled or twisted to form the characteristic DNA
structure. They twist around a central axis.

PAGE # 108
 (viii)Normal distance between the two base pairs is
0.34 nm.
• Methods of study of Human genetics :

(ix) The distance between each turn of coil is 3.4 nm. • Pedigree Analysis : A family tree or pedigree is drawn
Each turn contains 10 base pairs. for families having genetically transmitted diseases
or traits. Its construction is based on information
(x) The diameter of the DNA molecule is 2 nm.
gathered about all members of the family over many
• Note: RNA has uracil in place of thymine and consists generations. This pedigree is represented with certain
of single polynucleotide chain. standard symbols. Some of these symbols are given
in Fig.
MULTIPLE ALLELES For carrying out simple Mendelian analysis involving
recessive or dominant allele, certain clues or simple
1. Blood group (ABO) is regulated by multiple alleles in rules are sought from the pedigree. In the case of
Human beings recessive allele, for example, characteristic condition
2. Multiple alleles are multiple alternative or alleles of can appear in the progeny of apparently unaffected
the same gene which occur in the population of same parents Moreover, two affected individuals cannot have
species. unaffected child. Quite often, such recessive alleles
are revealed by close marriages, such as cousin
A haploid individual has only one allele and diploid
marriages.
individuals have two alleles
Simple pedigree analyses have extensively used not
TYPES OF BLOOD GROUPS only in medical research but also in the day-to-day
Blood Group Genotype Antigen Antibody counselling of prospective parents who would like to
A A A o
be guided about the possibilities of transmitting a
A I I ,I I A b diseased condition to their children, Very often a single
B B B O
B I I ,I I B a pedigree analysis does not offer the conclusions that
A B can be drawn from a designed cross producing large
AB II A&B Nil
number of offspring. In such case, several
O
O O
I I Nil a, b independent pedigrees involving the same trait are
analysed so as to draw consistent conclusions
CO-DOMINANCE
In co-dominance, both the genes of an allelomorphic
pair express themselves equally in F 1 hybrids. It
means a heterozygote for codominant genes exhibits
both the characters side by side.
• e.g. Codominance of blood group alleles in man.

INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE
It was discovered by Correns, 1903. It is a post
Mendelian discovery. Incomplete dominance is the
phenomenon of neither of the two alleles being
dominant so that expression in the hybrid is a fine
mixture or some what intermediate between the
expressions of two alleles in their homozygous states
Incomplete dominance is not blending inheritance
because parental characters reappear in F 2
generation. In Snapdragon (Dog Flower, Antirrhinum
majus) and Four O’Clock (Mirabilis jalapa ; Correns,
1903) there are two types of pure breeding plants, red
flowered and white flowered. On crossing the two, F1
, plants or hybrids possess pink flowers. On selfing
them F2 generation has 1 red : 2 pink : 1 white flowered
plants with phenotypic ratio beings similar to genotypic Fig. Symbols for Pedigree analysis
ratio. Pink flower colour is due to incomplete
dominance of red flower trait over white flower trait. EXERCISE-1
• Linkage : Linkage is the phenomenon of certain genes
Heredity and Variation
(present on the same chromosome) to remain
together and get inherited in block (as a single unit) 1. Branch of biology which deals with heredity and
through generations. It was discovered by Morgan variation is called
(1910). Linkage is an exception to the principle of (A) Paleontology (B) Evolution
independent assortment. The genes which remain (C) Genetics (D) Ecology
together on the same chromosome are called linked 2. The botanical name of pea is -
genes. (A) PISUMSATIVUM (B) Pisum sativum
(C) Pisum Sativum (D) Pisum sitavum
PAGE # 109
3. Mendel conducted his hybridization experiments on 15. Which one of the following statements explained by
(A) chick pea (B) garden pea Mendel’s law of dominance ?
(C) pigeon pea (D) wild pea (A) In a pair of factors, one is recessive and other is
dominant
4. Two allelic genes are located on
(B) Factors are in pairs
(A) the same chromosome
(C) The contrasting character is controlled by
(B) two homologous chromosomes
separate unit called as factors.
(C) two non – homologous chromosomes
(D) There is no blending of characters & both
(D) any two chromosomes
characters appears as it is in F2 gen.
5. Allele is the
16. Mendel formulated the law of purity of gametes on the
(A) alternate trait of a gene pair
basis of
(B) total number of genes for a trait
(A) Dihybrid cross (B) Monohybrid cross
(C) total number of chromosomes of a haploid set
(C) Back cross (D) None of these
(D) total number of genes present on a chromosome
17. Back cross is a cross between
6. When a red flowered homozygous pea plant is crossed (A) F1 × F1 (B) F1 × Recessive
with a white flowered plant what colour is produced in (C) F1 × Dominant (D) F1 × any parent
F1 generation ?
(A) Red (B) White 18. Incomplete dominance discovered in
(C) Pink (D) Red and white (A) Antirrhinum majus (B) Mirabilis jalapa
(C) Both (A) & (B) (D) Pisum sativum
7. In monohybrid cross, what is the ratio of homozygous
dominant and homozygous recessive individuals in 19. Purine & Pyrimidine nitrogen bases respectively are -
F2 – generation ? (A) A,T and G,C,U (B) A,C,T & G,U
(A) 1 : 2 : 1 (B) 2 : 1 / 1 : 2 (C) A,G & C,T,U (D) A,G,T & C,U
(C) 3 : 1 / 1 : 3 (D) 1 : 1 20. Which one of following symbol & information is correct ?
8. The factors which represent the contrasting pairs of (A) O ® unaffected male
characters are called (B) = unaffected female
(A) Dominant (B) Recessive (C)  affected male
(C) Determinants (D) Alleles
(D) = contagious mating
9. Heterozygous tall plants were crossed with dwarf
plants, what will be the ratio of dwarf plants in the EXERCISE-2
progeny
(A) 50% (B) 25% COMPETITIVE EXAM QUESTIONS
(C) 75% (D) 100%
1. The author of the book 'Systema Naturae' is
10. Which one of the following is not one of Mendel’s laws ? (Raj/NTSE Stage-1/13)
(A) Law of dominance (A) Lamarck (B) Darwin
(B) Law of segregation (C) Theophrastus (D) Carolus Linnaeus
(C) Law of incomplete dominance
(D) Law of independent assortment 2. In which of the following animals joined legs are not
found ?
11. Linkage is an exception of which mendel’s law ?
(Raj/NTSE Stage-1/13)
(A) Law of segregation
(A) Palaemon (B) Scorpion
(B) Law of independent assortment
(C) Housefly (D) Leech.
(C) Law of domanance
(D) None 3. Arrange following in the sequence.
12. A cross between AaBB X aa BB yields a genotypic (Haryana/NTSE Stage-1/13)
ratio of (a) mutation
(A) 1 AaBB: 1 aaBB (B) 1 AaBB : 3 aaBB (b) reproductive isolation
(C) 3 Aa BB : 1 aa BB (D) All AaBb (c) natural selection
13. The ratio of phenotype in F2 generation of a dihybrid (d) evolution
cross is (A) a, b, c, d (B) d, c, b, a
(A) 3 : 1 (B) 1 : 2 : 1 (C) a, c, b, d (D) c, b, a, d
(C) 2 : 1 (D) 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 4. A mother who gave birth to a child in hospital
14. In snapdragon, when red flowers crossed with white complains that her child in interchanged with other
flowers then ratio of pink flowers and white flowers in child. The technique used to find her child is
the F2 progeny is - (Karnataka/NTSE Stage-1/13)
(A) 10% Red (A) Germplasm Hybridisation Technology
(B) Red & white in 3 : 1 ratio (B) Finger print technology
(C) Pink and white in 1:1 ratio (C) Recombinant DNA technology
(D) Pink & white in 2:1 ratio
(D) Genetic engineering

PAGE # 110
 11. If, in a plant, red colour of the flower is dominant over
white. A cross was made between a plant containing
5. red flower and other with white flower. The cross
rryy yielded 50% white flowered plant and 50% red
RRYY
Step I flowered plant. The genolype of the parent with red
Round yellow wrinkled
seed green seed flower is :
(Delhi/ntsestage I 2015)
Gamets RY (A) Homozygous
Step II
RrYy (B) Heterozygous
(Round yellow_)
seed (C) Cannot be determined
F1 F1 (D) can be homozygous or heterozygous

RrYy RrYy 12. A segment of DNA contains 1200 nucleotides, of

which 200 have adenine base. How many cytosine
Gamets bases are present inthis segment of DNA ?
RY Ry rY rY
(NTSE / Stage - 2 / 2015)
(A) 100 (B) 200
315 108 101 32
(C) 400 (D) 800
Round Round Wrinkled Wrinkled 13. The gene for hemophilia is present on X chromo-
Yellow Green Yellow Green
some. If a hemophilic male marries a normal fe-
male, the probability of their son being hemophilic
Which law is specifically depicted by the above cross ? is
(Haryana/NTSE Stage-1/13) (A) nil (B) 25%
(A) Law of dominance (C) 50% (D) 100%
(B) Law of segregation
14. The visible characteristics in an organism are known
(C) Law of independent assortment
(D) all the three as :
(M.P./ntse/stage I 2015)
6. One of the following represents a monohybrid cross :
(A) Phenotype (B) Genotype
(Haryana/ntsestage I 2015)
(C) Stereotype (D) Prototype
(A) 9 : 7 (B) 3 : 1
(C) 1 : 1 : 1 : 1 (D) 9 : 3 : 3 15. In Mandelian monohybrid cross how many offsprings
of recessive character will appear in F2 generation
7. Adenine is a kind of (W.B./ntsestage I 2015)
out ot total progeny ?
(A) Purine base (B) Pyrimidine base
(W.Bangal/ntse/stage I 2015)
(C) Protein (D) Fat
(A) 1 (B) 4
8. Haemophilia disease is linked with (C) 3 (D) 2
(W.B./ntsestage I 2015)
16. If a round and green pea plant (RRyy) is crossed
(A) Sex chromosome (B) Autosome
with wrinkled and yellow seeded plant (rrYY) the
(C) Bacteria (D) Virus
seeds produced in F1 generation will be :(Utrakhand/
9. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (Ribonucleic ntse/stage I 2015)
acid) are found in cells of all living beings. It amount in (A) Round and Yellow
the cells are : (Bihar/ntsestage I 2015) (B) Round and green
(A) RNA is more than DNA (C) Wrinkled and green
(B) DNA is more than RNA (D) Wrinkled and Yellow
(C) RNA and DNA is equal in amount
17. A short length of DNA molecule contains 120
(D) None of the above adenine and 120 cytosine bases. The total no. of
10. Which nitrogen base is absent in D.N.A. ? nucleotides in this DNA segment is :
(M.P./ntsestage I 2015) (Hariyana/ntse/stage I 2015)
(A) Adenine (B) Guanine (A) 120 (B) 60
(C) Uracil (D) Cytosine (C) 240 (D) 480


PAGE # 111
 ORIGIN & EVOLUTION
ORIGIN OF LIFE

Several theories have been put forward to explain the origin of life. Several theories have been put forward to explain
the origin of life on earth.

S. No. Theory of Evolution Proposed by Special points related to theory

1. Spontaneous Aris totle (384 – 322 B.C .) life com es from living organis m s
Generation/Abiogenes i as w ell as from non-living / organic
s Theory m atter s pontaneous ly.
Eg. Mice from H um an s weat, Frog
from Mud etc.
2. Special creation Father Suarez (1600) Life is created by God w ith in 6
3. C atas trophis m C uvier (1800) days ly created
life is continuous
&des troyed and recreated in
different form s .
4. C os m ozoic R ichter life reached on earth by cos m ic
dus t from other planet.
5. Panas perm ia Arrhenius life trans ferred on earth in the form
of s pores from other planet.

• Modern theory or Abiotic theory or Chemical • As a result of Miller and Urey’s experiment, red liquid
evolution : This theory states that life originated upon is formed by interaction of (above mixture)
earth by a long series of physiochemical changes compounds. Few amino acids also detected in red
which brought about a gradual evolution of first liquid.
inorganic and then organic compounds (chemical
evolution). It results in the formation of protoplasm. • According to Oparin, first living being was a protein
molecule, known as coacervates.
• It was given by A.I. Oparin (1923) and J.B.S. Haldane
(1928). • Coacervates were certain complex inorganic and
organic compound in the hot sea water aggregated in
• In 1936, a book “Origin of life” was published by A.I. different combinations.
Oparin.
• Sydney Fox Called them ‘microsphere’. These
• Primitive atmosphere was chemically reducing spheres had properties like metabolism, growth and
(without free oxygen) which consisted chiefly of budding.
methane (CH 4 ), ammonia (NH 3 ), water vapour,
Hydrogen gas (H2), Nitrogen gas (N2). • Amino acids, sugars, glycerol and fatty acids gave
rise to polymers, which may had assembled into
• Life is believed to be originated in water. spherical structures called protobionts.
• An energy source such as solar radiation, lightning, • The coacervates started absorbing organic substances
and hot volcanic ash would have reacted with gases of the ocean & become anaerobic chemoheterotrophs
to form organic monomers. (prokaryote).
• The first simplest organic compounds to arise were • The prokaryotes evolved before the eukaryotes.
hydrocarbons such as methane, ethylene, acetylene
etc. • The first organisms were virus like with simple
structure.
• Simple organic compounds accumulated in the ocean
as a warm ‘dilute soup’.
• The oldest fossil belong to blue-green algae.

• After formation of simple organic compounds, complex

• The first organism to give off oxygen were probably
cyanobacteria.
compounds like amino acids, fatty acids and sugars
were formed by oxido-reduction reactions, • Organisms that can grow with or without oxygen gas
condensation and polymerization reaction. are called facultative anaerobes (or facultative
• S.L. Miller and Harold C. Urey (1953) proved that aerobes).
amino acids can be synthesized by the compounds • Organisms that are poisoned by oxygen gas are
present in the prehistoric atmosphere experimentally. obligate anaerobes e.g., Clostridium.
• In Miller and Urey’s experiment H2, H2O, CH4 and NH3 • Organisms that cannot grow without O2 gas are called
mixture is used. obligate aerobes. e.g., all animals and plants.

PAGE # 112
• The oldest eukaryotic fossil is 1.5 billion years old.  e.g.
Free atoms (i) Vermiform appendix in man.
(ii) External ear muscles in man.
Inorganic molecules (iii) Nictitating membrane.
(iv) Wisdom tooth.

Simple organic molecules (D) Common Ancestry and Inter-relationship

 Various organisms are interconnected.
First cells  Their resemblance suggest a common ancestry.
(Protobionts)  e.g.
(i) Heart of fish is 2 chambered .
Monera Protista (ii) Heart of amphibians is 3 chambered .
(iii) Heart of birds and mammals is 4 chambered .
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
• Connecting Links : As we know that animals are
sharply differentiated and classified into phyla and
Plant cells Animal cells classes but there are some existing animals which
represent an intermediate position between the two
groups. Such organisms are called as connecting
Metaphyta Metazoa links.
 e.g.
Summary of 'Origin of Life' According to (i) Lung fish shows connection between fishes and
Biochemical Origin of Life amphibians.
(ii) Amphibians are the connecting links between
ORGANIC EVOLUTION fishes and reptiles.
(iii) Viruses are connecting links between living and
(A) Homologous organs are those organs which are non–living.
similar in origin but functionally they are dissimilar. (iv) Euglena is connecting link between plants and
e.g., forelimbs in mammals. animals.
(v) Proterospongia is connecting link between
Divergent evolution (adaptive radiation) is the protozoa and porifera.
development of different functional structures from (vi) Peripatus is connecting link between Annelida
a common ancestral form. and Arthopoda.
Homologous organs support organic evolution (vii) Archaeopteryx (fossil) is connecting link between
reptiles and Birds.
(B) Analogous organs are those organs which are
not similar in their origin but perform the same • Embryological Evidences :
functions. e.g., Flippers in whale and flippers in
 Embryology can be defined as a branch of science
fish, wings in butterfly and in pigeon.
that deals with study of development of an
Convergent evolution is the development of organism from zygote to an adult form, inside the
similar adaptive functional structures in unrelated egg or mother’s womb.
groups of organisms. Analogous organs  The study of embryos from various organisms
disapprove organic evolution. reveals similarity in the early stages of embryo
development and this theory suggests that these
(C) Vestigial Organs : Those organs which no longer organisms have evolved from common
remain functional are known as vestigial organs. ancestors.
These organs are reduced structurally as well as
functionally.
 e.g.
(i) Embryos of fish, salamander, tortoise, chick, calf
• t appears that these organs were well developed in and human shows the similarity during embryo
ancestors but due to their reduced or less use they development.
became functionless.

TABLE : DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FEATURES OF CHEMICAL AND ORGANIC EVOLUTION

S. No. Features Chemical evolution Organic evolution
1. Definition It is the formation of the complex organic It is the formation of complex
compounds from simple compounds or form of life from simple form
elements. of life.
2. Time of occurrence It occurred at the time of origin of life. It is still occurring.
3. Reversibility Irreversible. Reversible.

PAGE # 113
 TABLE : DIFFERENCES BETW EEN FEATURES OF CHEMICAL AND ORGANIC EVOLUTION
S. No. Features Chem ical evolution Organic evolution
1. Definition It is the form ation of the com plex organic It is the form ation of com plex
com pounds from s im ple com pounds or elem ents . form of life from s im ple form
of life.
2. Tim e of occurrence It occurred at the tim e of origin of life. It is s till occurring.

LAMARCKISM Family -- Hominidae

Genus -- Homo
Lamarck, a French biologist (in 1809) postulated the Species -- Sapiens
theory of ‘Inheritance of acquired characters’. Basic
points are:
• Human ancestory : The arrangement of fossils in
evolutionary sequence includes :
(i) Internal Vital Forces Tree shrews  Prosomians (early anthropoids) 
(ii) Effect of environment and new needs Dryopithecus  Ramapithecus  Australopithecus
(iii) Use and disuse of organs.  Homo Habilis Homo erectus  Homo
(iv) Inheritance of acquired characters. neanderthalensis  Cro-magnon  Homo sapiens.
According to Neo-Lamarckism, the body character is
not a single attribute, but the result of interaction of EXERCISE-1
heritable and environmental conditions.

1. How many years ago and in which environment life

DARWINISM OR THEORY OF originate on the earth ?
NATURAL SELECTION (A) 3.5 million years and reducing
Darwin (1859) gave the ‘Theory of natural selection’. (B) 3.5 billion years and reducing
Darwin’s theory is based upon five fundamental facts: (C) 4.5 million years and reducing
(a) Enormous fertility (D) 4.5 billion years and reducing
(b) Struggle for existence 2. Origin of life is due to
(c) Survival of the fittest or natural selection (A) spontaneous generation
(d) Variation and heredity (B) God’s will
(e) Origin of new species (C) effect of sun rays on mud
• Neo-Darwinism or synthetic theory of evolution is (D) chemical evolution
based upon : 3. The forelimbs of man, cat, bat and whale are
(a) Genetic variation by (A) Analogous organs
Gene mutations (B) Homologous organs
(C) Missing link
Chromosomal mutations (D) Fossil
Genetic recombination 4. The process of formation of new species is -
(A) Evolution (B) Speciation
Sexual reproduction
(C) Both (D) None
(b) Natural selection
(c) Genetic drift 5. An experiment to prove that organic compounds were
(d) Reproductive isolation the basis of life, was performed by
(A) Oparin (B) Miller
(C) Melvin (D) Fox
HUMAN EVOLUTION
6. Nucleoprotein gave most probably the first sign of
The study of Human evolution and culture is known
(A) life (B) amino acid
as Anthropology, which deals with fossils, prehistoric
(C) soil (D) sugar
and living man.
The sequential arrangement of stages in evolution is 7. According to one of the most accepted theory the earth
known as Geneology. atmosphere before any life had originated consisted
Man belongs to - of water vapour, hydrogen, NH3 and
Phylum -- Chordata (A) methane (B) nitrogen
Sub-phylum -- Vertebrata (C) oxygen (D) carbondioxide
Class -- Mammalia 8. Theory of “inheritance of acquired characters” was
Order -- Primates
written by -
Sub order -- Anthropoidea
(A) Darwin (B) Lamarck
Super family -- Hominoidea
(C) W eismann (D) Aristotle

PAGE # 114
9. When an organ is used it will develop and if it is not 17. The correct sequence of human evolution is -
used, it weakens to become vestigial. Who could have (A) Australopithecus  Homo-Habilis 
said this theory ? Ho moerectu sHo mo -Nean der th alensis
(A) Darwin (B) De–Vries Cro-magnonHomosapiens
(C) Lamarck (D) Mendel (B) Australopithecus  Homo-Habilis  Homo-
NeanderthalensisHomoerectus
10. On which island and name of ship by which Darwin Cro-magnonHomosapiens
made an extensive study of the flora and fauna in (C) Australopithecus  Homo-Neanderthalensis 
South America ? Homo-Habilis  HomoerectusCro-magnon 
(A) Galapagos & H.M.S. Beagle Homosapiens
(B) Galapagos & M.H.S. Beagle (D) Homo-Habilis  Homo-Neanderthalensis 
(C) Both Australopithecus  Homoerectus  Cro-magnon 
(D) None Homosapiens

11. Book “origin of species” written by - 18. In pea plant, yellow seeds is dominant over green
(A) Lamarck (B) Darwin seeds. If heterozygous plant having yellow seeds
crossed with plant having green seeds then what is
(C) W eismann (D) Miller
the ratio of yellow & green plant in F1 gen ?
12. Finch birds of Galapagos island represent its (A) 50:50 (B) 9:1 (C) 1:3 (D) 3:1
development due to -
(A) Mutation
(B) Bio-geographical area EXERCISE-2
(C) Reproductive Isolation
1. Choose the incorrect statement about Darwinism.
(D) None
(Andhra Pradesh/ntse/stage I 2015)
13. The “Theory of Natural selection” of Darwin to explain (A) Nature only selects which organism should. sur-
organic evolution was based on vive.
(A) modification in organs through use and disuse (B) Survival of the fittest.
(B) probability of reproduction, struggle for existence (C) Inheritance of acquired characters.
(D) Variations are passed from parent to off-springs
and survival of the fittest through heredity.
(C) Inheritance of acquired characters
2. The forelimbs of frog, lizard, bird and man have same
(D) appearance of sudden large variations, then evolutionary relationship. They are :
inheritance and survival of those having these (Bihar/ntse/stage I 2015)
variations (A) Missing Links
(B) Arms relationship
14. According to the Neo–Darwinian theory which of the (C) Analogous organs
following is responsible for the origin of new species ? (D) Homologous organs
(A) Mutations 3. Vermiform appendix in human is a
(Bihar/ntse/stage I 2015)
(B) Useful variations
(A) analogous organ
(C) Mutations together with natural selection (B) homologous organ
(D) Hybridization (C) vestigial organ
(D) excretory organ
15. Homo sapiens (modern man) evolved from -
4. What is the seientific name of 'Man' ?
(A) Peking man (B) Java man (Bihar/ntse/stage I 2015)
(C) Cro-magnon man (D) Neanderthal man (A) Adam Adam (B) Canis familiaris
(C) Adam domesticus (D) Homosapiens
16. The sequential arrangement of stages in evolution is
5. Raja saurus is a fossil of
known as - (Rajasthan/ntse/stage I 2016)
(A) Palaeontology (B) Phylogeny (A) Tree trunk (B) Invertebrate
(C) Atavism (D) Ecology (C) Fish (D) Dinosaur



PAGE # 115
 DIVERSITY OF LIVING ORGANISMS
(i) Binomial nomenclature : t is a system of
naming the organisms in such a way that each of
their names contain two components first is
There are more than 1.7 to 1.8 million species genus and the second one is species. e.g.
described and several more yet to be known during Scientific name of human is Homo sapiens.
the 3.5 billion years of life on earth . This large diversity Scientific name of crow is Corvus splendens
noticed in living organisms is due to organic evolution. .Homo and Corvus are the genus while sapiens
• Taxonomy : It is the functional science which deals and splendens are the names of species. This
system was introduced by Carolus Linnaeus in
with identification, nomenclature and classification of
his book Systema Naturae, who is also called
different kinds of organisms all over the world.
Father of Taxonomy.
• Classification : It is the placing of an organism or a (ii) Certain convections are followed while writing the
group of organisms in categories according to a scientific names The name of the genus begins
particular system and in conformity with a with a capital letter. The name of the species
nomenclature system. begins with a small letter. W hen printed, the
Classification is the theory and practice of classifying scientific name is given in italics. When written
organisms. It is the systematic arrangement of by hand , the genus name and the species name
organisms on the basis of their relatedness. have to be underlined separately.
Classification is the arrangement of organisms into
sets or groups according to the similarities and
dissimilarities present between them.
Diversity means variety. Different places on the earth (i) Artificial system : t was based on some
have their own typical kinds of living beings. This superficial similarities. i.e. only one or few
gives rise to the need of classification. So, “Diversity characters were taken. E.g. On the basis of habitat
is the need of classification”. and ability to fly.

• Identification : Means determination of correct place (ii) Natural system : t was based on natural affinity
i.e. more than one natural characters were used.
of an organisms in previously established plan of
classification. (iii) Phylogenetic system : t was based on
evolutionary sequence as well as genetic
relationship amongst the organisms.

It establishes hierarchy of groups of organisms on

the basis of their common features.
It makes the systematic study easier. (i) Two kingdom system : t was given by Carolus
It is essential to understand the interrelationship Linnaeus in 1758. Organisms were divided into
amongst different groups of organisms. Plant Kingdom and Animal Kingdom. Fungi,
It serves as a base for the development of other Bacteria and Euglena could not find an
biological sciences as well as different fields of appropriate position.
applied biology like public health, environment etc.
(ii) Three kingdom system : t was given by Earnst
Haeckel. In this Kingdom Protista was also
included along with plant kingdom and animal
It is the framework by which taxonomic groups are kingdom.
arranged in definite order from higher to lower (iii) Four kingdom system:t was given by Copeland.
categories. The hierarchial order of classifying Kingdom Monera was also included in this
organisms is : system of classification.
Kingdom  Phylum  Class  Order 
(iv) Five kingdom system: t was given by Robert
Family  Genus  Species
Whittaker. According to him organisms were
(i) Taxon : t refers to any rank or category in the divided into five kingdoms, on the following basis
hierarchial order of classification. e.g. Kingdom, of :
phylum etc. They produce their own kind. It is the Complexity of structure
basic unit of classification. Mode of nutrition
Level of organization
(A) Kingdom Monera : Unicellular, prokaryotic,
It is the system of naming an individual. Nomenclature microscopic, most ancient, can live in deep
is done on the basis of a set of rules stated in the oceans, hot springs, deserts, high salt
ICBN / ICZN i.e. International Code of Botanical / concentrations etc. They include bacteria,
Zoological Nomenclature. filamentous and photosynthetic blue green algae
etc.
PAGE # 116
  Archaebacteria : They are found in extreme salty
areas, hot springs, marshy areas.
(Cryptos = hidden ; gamous = marriage)
 Bacteria : They were discovered by Anton Von
These are also called as lower plants, flowerless or
Leeuwenhoek. They are prokaryotic ,unicellular seedless plants.
and heterotrophic in mode of nutrition. The cell Their reproductive organs are hidden till they
wall of bacteria is made up of peptidoglycan or reproduce.
mucopeptide. They are classified in following
types on the basis of their shapes. (i) Division Thallophyta :
(a) Coccus (b) Bacillus  Thallus : Undifferentiated plant body i.e. absence
(c) Spirillium (d) Vibrio of root, stem & leaves.
 Cyanobacteria or blue green algae :They are Their is no vascular system.
photosynthetic bacteria. They occur in the ocean, Reproductive organs are single–celled and there
soil and fresh water. They have capacity to fix is no embryo formation after fertilization.
atmospheric nitrogen into nitrogenous Dominant gametophyte.
compounds with the help of heterocysts. E.g., Three classes of Thallophyta are :
Nostoc, Oscillatoria, Anabaena & Spirulina. (A) Class Algae :
(B) Kingdom Protista : Unicellular, colonial,
 Characters : These are aquatic or terrestrial, fresh
eukaryotic. They include photosynthetic algae,
water or marine. Autotrophic, photosynthetic
decomposers (slime moulds) and protozoa
containing various pigments like chlorophyll,
(predators) etc. Chrysophytes of algae are also
carotenoids, xanthophylls etc. Unicellular,
known as golden algae or Diatoms.
colonial, filamentous, algal thallus is composed
Dianoflagellates are also known as Pyrrophyta.
of true parenchyma. The unit of algal thallus
(C) Kingdom Fungi : Unicellular or multicellular structure is a cell. Reserve food is starch. Cell
eukaryotic organisms, they are heterotrophic, wall of cellulose. Algae grow in water or damp
parasitic or saprotrophic. soil or as epiphytes. E.g., Green algae (Ulothrix,
(D) Kingdom Plantae : They are multicellular, Spirogyra), Brown algae (Sargassum,
eukaryotic, autotrophic (photosynthetic), some are Ectocarpus), Red algae (Polysiphonia, Gelidium
heterotrophic & parasitic. They include & Gracillaria) etc.
photosynthetic algae, green plants etc.
(B) Class Fungi :
(E) Kingdom Animalia : Multicellular, eukaryotic,
heterotrophic.  Characters : These are heterotrophic. They lack
chlorophyll but have cell wall of chitin (fungus
cellulose). They can be parasitic or saprotrophic
Their body is filamentous called as mycelium.
• Plant kingdom was divided in two sub kingdoms by Mycelium or thallus is composed of
Eichler pseudoparenchyma and unit of mycelium is a
Division of Plants hyphae not a cell. Reserve food material consists
of glycogen. They grow in wide habitats as
parasites & as saprophytes. E.g. Moulds
(Rhizopus), Yeasts (Saccharomyces), Mushroom,
(Agaricus).

(A) Yeast (B) Rhizopus (C) Mushroom

PAGE # 117
(C) Lichen :

 Characters : It is a symbiotic relationship

between algae and fungi. Algal part is phycobiont
and fungal part is mycobiont. They grow on rocks,
tree trunks, grounds etc. e.g. Parmellia, Alectoria
etc.
(D) Mycorrhiza : The mutual relationship between
fungus and roots of higher plant. Plant provides
shelter & food, fungus is essential for proper
growth of plant.
Resemblance between Algae and Fungi
Presence of unicellular sex organs. Figure : Equisetum (Horsetail)
Presence of thalloid plant body. Gametophytes are small, exosporic or endosporic.
Lack of tissue differentiation of any kind. Sex organs are jacketed & multicellular. e.g. Ferns
No embryo formation after gametic union. (Dryopteris, Pteris), Club moss (Lycopodium),
(ii) Division Bryophyta : Horsetail (Equisetum).

 Characters : Bryophytes are called terrestrial

amphibians (amphibians of plant kingdom)
because they require moist soil surface for (Phaneros = visible : gamous = marriage.)
swimming of their sperm & supply of water to all These are higher plants having flowers and seeds
parts. They are the first amongst land plants which both.Body differentiated into true stem, leaves and root.
occur in damp & shady habitat Vascular system is well developed. Sex organs are
multicellular. Embryo develops from fertilized egg. It
is divided into two divisions :

Liverwort
 Plant body is of primitive form i.e. differentiated
only in stem & leaves.
 Plant body is thalloid
 Vascular tissues & mechanical tissues are
absent in them.
 Male gamete is flagellated.
 Sex organs are jacketed & multicellular. Male
reproductive organs are Antheridia and female
reproductive organs are Archegonia.
 Sporophyte is dependent on gametophyte
gametophytic phase is dominant.
 Fertilization produces embryo.
 They show heteromorphic type of alternation in
generation. E.g. Liverworts (Riccia, Marchantia),
Figure : Cycas
hornworts (Anthoceros) and mosses (Funaria).
(i) Division Gymnospermae :
(iii) Division Pteridophyta :
 Characters : They are seedless vascular plants, • Characters :
primitive tracheophytes or vascular cryptogams. (i) Plant are Heterosporous : Seeds are not
Plant body is differentiated into true stem, leaves enclosed in fruits. These are naked seeded. They
and roots. Vascular tissues are present. Sperms have well developed vascular system but xylem
are flagellated. Sporophytic phase is dominant lacks vessels and phloem lacks companion cells.
and independent and autotrophic Embryo stage Secondary growth is present.
is present.

PAGE # 118
 They occupy an intermediate position between  It is divided into two classes on the basis of
the pteridophytes and the angiosperms. Plants number of cotyledons.
are commonly tall trees or shrubs. The flowers (A) Class : Dicotyledonae : Their seeds have two
are represented by unisexual cones, often both cotyledons in the embryo. Leaves are dorsiventral
being present on the same plant. E.g. Cycas, and show reticulate venation. Tap root is present.
Pinus (commonly known as pine). E.g. Neem, Peepal, Mango, Pea, Mustard.
(ii) Division : Angiosperm : (B) Class : Monocotyledonae : Their seeds have one
cotyledon in embryo. Leaves are isobilateral, with
 Characters : These are seed bearing. These are parallel venation. Fibrous root system is present.
represented by trees, herbs, shrubs. Body well E.g. Wheat, Maize, Onion.
differentiated into root, stem and leaves. They have
highly developed vascular system. Seeds remain
 Table : Differences between gymnosperms &
angiosperms
enclosed in ovary.

Characters Gymnosperms Angiosperms

1. Nature of seeds Naked as no fruit formation. Enclosed inside the fruit.

2. Reproductive organs Sporophylls form cones. Flowers.

3. Xylem Only tracheids but no vessel. Vessels present.

4. Phloem No companion cell. Companion cell present.

5. Ovules Not enclosed in ovary. Enclosed in ovary.

6.Examples Cycas and Pinus. Monocots and Dicots.

• Basis of Classification :
(i) Organization and differentiation of cells to form
tissues and organs.
(ii) Body symmetry : On the basis of symmetry
animals are of two types :
(A) Asymmetrical : When body cannot be divided in
two similar parts from any direction e.g., Amoeba
snails, certain sponges.
(B) Symmetrical : When body can be divided in two
similar parts which are mirror images of each
other by one or more planes. On the basis of
planes of division, symmetry in animals is of three
types. Types of symmetry. A. Asymmetry - Amoeba, B.
Spherical - Volvox. C. Radial - Aurelia. D. Bilateral - Fish
• Spherical or Universal symmetry : When body can (iii) Circulatory system : Formation of body cavities
be divided into two similar parts by any plane passing and blood vascular system.
through the centre of body e.g., Volvox.
• It transports the materials inside the body. It is of two
• Radial symmetry : Body can be divided in two similar types :
parts by any plane along oral-aboral axis of body e.g., (a) Open circulatory system : In this types, blood
sponges, coelenterates, ctenophores and echino- comes out of blood vessels in spaces called
derms. sinuses. It found in arthropods, most of molluscs
and leeches.
• Bilateral symmetry : Body can be divided in similar
(b) Closed circulatory system : In this type, blood
parts by only one plane along longitudinal axis ,of remains inside the blood vessels (arteries). It is
body e.g., all the vertebrates. found in most of annelids and all vertebrates.

PAGE # 119
(iv) Germ layers : The layers of gastrula from which (B) Triploblastic animals : From flatworms to
all the body-organs are formed, are called mammals, gastrula larva is with three germ
germ-layers. Based on germ layers animals are layers, outer ectoderm, middle mesoderm and
of two types. inner endoderm. So these are called triploblastic
(A) Diploblastic animals : In sponges & coelenterates, animals.
gastrula is with two layers, outer ectoderm and
inner endoderm, so are called diploblastic
animals.

Germ Layers
(v) Coelom (Body cavity) : It is the space between (c) Eucoelomates : From annelids to mammals,
body wall and gut wall. It helps in classification of body cavity is lined by mesodermal peritoneal
animals. On the basis of nature of coelom animals layers. It is called true - coelom, so these are
are divided into the following categories : called true coelomates or eucoelomates.
(a) Acoelomates : Among invertebrates upto (d) Haemocoelomates : In Arthropods and molluscs,
flatworms, there is no coelom and they are called true coelom is reduced & body cavity is a
acoelomates. pseudocoel with blood and is called haemocoel
(b) Pseudocoelomates : In Aschelminthes (round and animals are called haemocoelomates.
worms e.g., Ascaris), coelom is present but is not
lined by mesoderm layer and is called
pseudocoel or false-coelom, so the roundworms
are pseudocoelomates

A. Acoelomate, B. Pseudocoelomate, C. Eucoelomate.

PAGE # 120
  These are sessile & sedentary (attached to
substratum).
(a ) Phylum Protozoa :  Occur in different shapes i.e. vase–like, rounded,
 Characters : sac like etc.
 Body perforated by numerous pores called ostia
 They are unicellular, eukaryotes. which opens into a canal system having canals
 These are the simplest & the most primitive and chambers lined with choanocytes or collar
animals. cells (flagellated) and have a large sized water
 Their body organization is of “Protoplasmic outlet called oscula.
Level”. They are of different shapes i.e. irregular,  Their cavity is called spongocoel.
elongated or rounded.
 Endoskeleton is made of needle like spicules
 They have different types of locomotory organs
made of calcium carbonate and silica or spongin.
like
cilia, flagella, pseudopodia (false feet) etc.
 Hermaphrodite (bisexual), asexual reproduction
by budding. E.g. Sycpha (Sycon), Spongilla (fresh
 Nutrition is of different types like holozoic,
water sponge), Euplectella (Venus flower
holophytic, mixotrophic.
basket), Euspongia (bath sponge), cliona (boring
 Digestion is intracellular & it takes place in food
sponge), leucosolenia, hylonema (glass rope
vacuole.
sponge), chalina (dead man’s finger)
 Excretion & respiration occurs through general
body surface by the process of simple diffusion. (c) Phylum - Coelenterata or Cnidaria :
Reproduction may be sexual or asexual.
Alternation of generation is found.
• Characters :
 These are sac like structures. They have a body
cavity called gastrovascular cavity or
coelenteron.
 It has single opening for ingestion and egestion
both.
 Aquatic, mostly marine.
 Presence of cnidoblast.
 Multicellular, diploblastic, radially symmetrical.
 They have special organs called tentacles,
cnidoblast or nematocyst cells. They are
specialized for stinging.
 They paralyse the prey by releasing poison.
Amoeba Euglena  These are polymorphic i.e. they occur in two
forms.
Plasmodium vivax is a malarial parasite. It is digenetic
(i) Polyp is asexual , cylindrical, sedentary and
sporozoan found as endoparasite in the liver cells,
diploid.
RBCs of man (primary host) and in the stomach and
(ii) Medusa is sexual, umbrella shaped, free
salivary glands of female Anopheles mosquito
swimming and diploid. They show alterna-
(secondary or intermediate host). It is triphasic :
tion of generation or metagenesis
Schizogony, gamogony & sporozoites. Sporozoites is
infective stage of plasmodium. E.g. Amoeba,
 Asexual reproduction by budding and sexual
Entamoeba, Plasmodium, Euglena, Paramecium. reproduction by gametes.
 Some of them have exoskeleton of CaCO3 . They
( b ) Phylum Porifera : are called Corals, they live in colonies and when
• Characters : they die they form coral reefs, or islands.

 These are pore bearing organisms i.e. with

porous body.
 Presence of canal system. Also called as
sponges. Aquatic, mostly marine.

PAGE # 121
 e.g., Hydra, Aurelia (Jelly fish), Pennatula (Sea helminth = worm)
pen), Gorgonia (sea fan), Meandrina (brain coral),
• Characters :
Physalia (portuguese man of war), Metridium
 Generally called as flatworms.
(sea-anemone), corals.
 Bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic,
(d) Phylum Ctenophora : dorsoventrally flattened.
• Characters :  Acoelomates.
 Body is transparent with radial symmetry.  Their digestive cavity has a single opening with
They possess comb plates that are ciliated and mouth only and anus is absent.
eight in no. These help in locomotion. They also
possess tentacles.
 Marine, solitary and free swimming. e.g. Cestum
(venus’s girdle), Pleurobrachia (seagooseberry).
(e) Phylum Platyhelminthes : (Platys = Flat;

Suckers
Eye Spot

 They possess hooks and suckers.  These are hermaphrodite. E.g. Planaria
 They have flame cells or protonephridia for (dugesia), Fasciola (liver fluke) & Taenia solium
excretion. Mode of nutrition is parasitic. (tapeworm), schistosoma (Blood fluke)
 Reproduction is of both types i.e. asexual and
(f) Phylum – Nematoda (Aschelminthes) :
sexual
• Characters :
 Also called as roundworms.

A. Male Ascaris B. Female Ascaris C-D Wuchereria

PAGE # 122
 Bilaterally symmetrical, unsegmented triploblastic.  e.g Ascaris (round worm), Wuchereria (Filarial
 These are pseudocoelomic. worm), Entrobius (pin worm), Dracunculus
 Their alimentary canal is tubular having both (guinea worm)
mouth and anus. (g) Phylum : Annelida (Annulus = ring ; segments)
 Most are free living, some live in moist soil, some • Characters : Their body is triploblastic, bilaterally
are fresh water while some are marine. symmetrical, soft, elongated, vermiform, cylindrical &
 Some are parasites on plants & animals. dorsoventrally flattened. Body is metamerically
 They lack circulatory system. segmented. Head is formed by j oining of some
 Reproduction is sexual and sexes are separated. anterior body segments.

A Nereis B. Pheretima C. Hirudinaria

• Exoskeleton is absent, body is covered by thin • Respiration occurs through general body surface,
cuticle. gills, trachea and book lungs.
• Eucoelomata i.e. they have true body cavity which • They have open circulatory system with dorsal
first appeared in this phylum. heart & arteries.
• Well developed alimentary canal is present. • Body cavity is called haemocoel.
• They have closed circulatory system. • Excretion by coelom ducts, malphigian tubules,
• Locomotion is with the help of chitinous green glands, coxal glands. Sexes are separate.
projections called chaetae (setae). • Each segment has paired lateral and jointed
• Excretion by nephridia. appendages. E.g. Palaemon (prawn), Cancer
• Nervous system has dorsal brain. (crab), Periplanata (cockroach), Anopheles
• Most are aquatic, marine or fresh water. Some (mosquito) , Aranea (spider) Apis (honey bee),
are terrestrial. Leech has a special botryridal Charaxes (butterfly), Palamnaeus (scorpion),
tissue or connective tissue Lepisma (silver fish) & Microtreme (termite),
• They reproduce sexually e.g. Pheretima centipede, millipede etc.
(Earthworm), Hirudinaria (Leech) & Aphrodite
(i) Phylum Mollusca :
(Sea mouse), Nereis (clam worm or sand worm)
(h) Phylum : Arthropoda (Arthros = jointed , poda = • Characters :
legs)  It is second largest group of animals, body soft
• These are the organisms with jointed unsegmented, bilaterally symmetrical and without
appendages. appendages.
• This is the largest phylum in animal kingdom.
• Body triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical and
metamerically segmented.
• They have an exoskeleton made up of protein
and chitin (Moulting  Periodic shedding off of
the exoskeleton to induce the growth).
• They have a complete alimentary canal with mouth
& anus.
Figure : Snail Figure : Octopus

PAGE # 123
 Body divided into a head, foot and visceral mass.
A thin skin covering the body is called as mantle,
which secretes a calcareous shell.
 Body cavity is haemocoel.
 Respiration by gills (Ctenidial) in aquatic forms
but in terrestrial forms space between mantle and
body wall called as mantle cavity act as lungs. Starfish
 For ingestion they have tongue like structure
 Head is absent, oral and aboral surfaces have
“radula” they also possess a digestive gland five radial ambulacra.
called hepatopancreas.  Excretory organs are absent.
 Open circulatory system.  A complex system of water containing tubes and
 Excretion by metanephridia present near heart. bladders passing through pores of skin called
 Reproduction is sexual and sexes are separate. water vascular system is present. From this
E.g. Chiton (8 Calcareous pieces), Pila, Melix tube like structure arise, these tubes look like
(torsion univalve), Dentalium (tusk like shell), feet and are called as tube feet that helps in
Unio, Mytilus (Bivalve), Octopus. (Devil fish) & locomotion.
Pinctada (Pearl Oyster), Cypraea (cowrie), Aplysia  Reproduction can be asexual, sexual or by
(sea hare) regeneration. E.g. Asterias (star fish), Echinus
(sea urchin), Holothuria (sea cucumber), Antedon
( j) Phylum Echinodermata :
(feather star).
• Characters : These are marine animals, their (k) Phylum Hemichordata
body is triploblastic, eucoelomata, unsegmented.
Their body has spines arising from exoskeleton • Characters : They are placed in between
of calcium. Adults are radially symmetrical while invertebrates and chordates as they possess
larvae are bilaterally symmetrical. some characters of both.

Balanoglossus
 They include worm like, unsegmented, bilaterally  They possess nerve cord in collar region but it is
symmetrical animals which are exclusively not a true dorsal nerve cord. E.g. Balanoglossus
marine. (tongue worm).
 Their body is divided into three regions proboscis,
collar & trunk.
 They do not possess notochord, which is a
flexible, rod like structure running through the • Characters : This is the most advanced group of
length of the body, above alimentary canal. animals. Notochord is present at some stages of life,
 They possess gill slit or gill cleft which is meant supported by a tubular hollow dorsal nerve cord.
for respiration.

PAGE # 124
 Basic Chordate Features
• Notochord : It is solid unjointed rod like structure (i) Subphylum : Urochordata
present on dorsal side between alimentary canal and
nervous system in same animal. It is derived from
• Characters :
mesoderm and act as primary axial skeleton.  They are exclusively marine animals where
In higher chordates i.e. vertebrates, the notochord is pharynx possess several gill slits.
replaced by vertebral column.  They are commonly known as tunicates.
A set of gill slits is also present at certain stage of life,  The notochord is present in the tail of the larva
also called as pharyngeal gill clefts. and disappears in the adult.
Tail is also present behind the anal aperture that is  The dorsal hollow nerve cord is present in the
post anal tail. They also possess a proper circulatory larva only. It is replaced by a dorsal ganglion in
system. the adult.
Flow Chart : Classification of Chordata  The pharynx has gill slits.

Protochordata Vertebrata
[These are called as [These are called as
lower Chordates] higher chordates]

Urochordata Cephalochordata

Agnatha Gnathostomata

Cyclostomata

Chondrichthyes OsteichthyesAmphibia Reptilia Aves Mammalia

Herdmania
The larva (tadpole) undergoes retrogressive
• Characters : metamorphosis, i.e., changes from a better
developed larva to a less developed adult. E.g.
 They are termed as lower chordates. They do not
Herdmania (sea squirt), Doliolum, Pyrosoma.
possess brain, cranium, vertebral column, jaw
and paired appendages. (ii) Subphylum : Cephalochordata
 Notochord is present at least in some stages  Characters : Animals are fish like without a head.
along with other diagnostic chordate characters Animals possess all the characters of chordates
(dorsal hollow nerve cord, gill slits, post anal tail). i.e., A notochord which extends upto the entire
length of the body and persists throughout the
 They are triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical,
life. A nerve cord (without a distinct brain).
enterocoelomic, organ system level organization.
Numerous well developed gill slits. A post anal
 They are marine animals. tail throughout life. E.g.. Branchiostoma
 Protochordates are further divided into two groups : (Amphioxus or Lancelet.)

PAGE # 125
• Majority of chordates are included in this phylum.

• Characters : They are advanced animals, having a

cranium (brain box) around the brain. Nervous system
is well developed.
 Notochord is replaced by a vertebral column
(backbone) in the adults. Endoskeleton is highly
developed.
 There are two pairs of limbs or appendages.
 Head is well differentiated. Petromyzon
 The heart is situated ventrally. The circulatory  Gonad is single and fertilization is external. E.g.
Petromyzon (lamprey), Myxine (hag fish).
system is closed consisting of blood vascular
system and lymphatic system. Red coloured (ii) Class Chondrichthyes : (Gr. Chondros = cartilage
pigment haemoglobin is present in red blood ; ichthys = fish, the cartilagenous fish).
corpuscles.
• Characters :
 Respiratory organs may be gills (in aquatic
animals), skin, buccopharyngeal cavity (in  Skeleton is cartilagenous, hence the name
amphibians) or lungs (in land animals). Chondrichthyes is given.
 Excretion occurs through kidneys.   The body is either laterally compressed and
 Sexes are separate. spindle shaped, or dorso ventrally flattened and
disc shaped.
 Flow Chart : Classification of Vertebrata
 Mouth is ventral in position on the head.
Subphylum Vertebrata 7 classes
 Jaws are well–developed.

Agnatha Gnathostomata  Respiration occurs through gills.

(Jawless vertebrates) (Vertebrates with well
developed jaws)
1. Cyclostomata

2.Chondrichthyes
3.Osteichthyes
4.Amphibians
Shark
5.Reptiles
 The skin is covered with placoid scales
6.Aves
(exoskeleton).
7.Mammals
 Heart is two chambered, consisting of an auricle
(i) Class Cyclostomata : (Gr. Cyclos = circular, Stome and a ventricle.
= mouth ; the circular mouthed fishes) These are
 Lung or air bladder is absent.
the most primitive vertebrates.
 They reproduce by laying eggs (oviparous) or pro-
• Characters :
duce eggs which hatch inside the mother’s body
 Animals are j awless and possess a circular (ovoviviparous).
mouth.
 Fertilization is internal.
 They are ectoparasites on fish and use mouth to
stick to fish ; the mouth is therefore suctorial.  Mostly marine and large in size (upto 10 – 20
 Notochord is present in the form of a cylindrical meters long). E.g. Sharks, rays and skates.
Scoliodon (Indian shark, dog fish), Torpedo
rod.
(electric ray), Trygon (sting ray), Rhinobatus
 Head and brain are poorly developed. (guitar fish), chimarea (rabbit fish)
 Cartilagenous endoskeleton is present.
(iii) Class Osteichthyes :
 Respiration occurs through gills contained in
pouches. • Characters :
 Heart is two–chambered consisting of one auricle  Skeleton is cartilagenous in the embryonic stage,
and one ventricle. but is replaced by bones in adult form (bony
endoskeleton), hence the name osteichthyes is
given.
PAGE # 126
  Body is generally spindle shaped.  Brain is not much developed, cranial nerves are
10 pairs.
 Sexes are separate, i.e., dioecious, male without
copulatory organ.
 Eggs with gelatinous covering, usually laid in
water. Fertilization is external.
Eel
 Development is indirect with a tadpole larva which
 The exoskeleton, if present, consists of cycloid or undergoes metamorphosis to become adult.
ctenoid scales.
E.g. Salamanders, newts, frogs and toads.
 The mouth is terminal (anterior) on the head. Salamandra (Salamander), Necturus (mud
 Gills are covered by bony flap called as the puppy), Triturus (newt), Rana (frog), Bufo (toad).
operculum (v) Class Reptilia : (L. reptare = to creep ; creeping
vertebrates). These are first truly terrestrial
animals living in warmer regions.

• Characters :
 Body is divisible into head, neck and trunk. Tail is
well developed in some , while it is reduced in
others.
Flying Fish
 Two pairs of pentadactyl limbs are present ; but
 A swim bladder (or air bladder) is usually present. insnakes limbs are reduced or absent.
It helps in floating.
 Body is covered with epidermal horny scales.
 Heart is two chambered.
 Skin is dry, impermeable and devoid of glands.
 Fertilization is mostly external.
 Respiration takes place by lungs only. Gills are
 They live both in fresh and sea water. absent.
 In size, they vary from 10 mm to 4 meters. E.g.  Heart is incompletely four – chambered, having
Labeo, Hippocampus (sea horse), Anabas two auricles and incompletely divided ventricle.
(climbing perch), Muraena (eel), Protopterus In crocodile, heart is completely four chambered.
(lung fish), catla, exocetus (flying fish) Sexes are separate.

(iv) Class Amphibia : (Gr. amphi = both, bios = life,  Fertilization is internal (characteristics of land
the vertebrates leading two lives / dual life) The animals).
amphibians are the first land vertebrates,  The embryo always lies in a fluid filled sac called
Amphibious partly terrestrial and partly aquatic. amnion.
• Characters :  There is no larval stage in development. E.g.
Testudo (tortoise), Chelone (turtle) Draco (flying
 They are amphibious in nature ; found in fresh
lizard), Chameleon, Hemidactylus (wall lizard),
water and moist places.
Naja (cobra) etc.
 Skin is smooth or rough, rich in glands which keep
(vi) Class Aves : (L.Aves = birds ) : The birds are
it moist ; skin with pigmented cells, i.e.,
described as ‘feathered reptiles’ that have
chromatophores. Body is without scales.
developed the power of flight.
 Endoskeleton is mostly bony, notochord does not
• Characters :
persist in adults.
 The body is covered with soft feathers (feathery
 Head and trunk are distinct ; neck and tail may or
exoskeleton).
may not be present.
 The body is divisible into head, neck, trunk and
 Limbs tetrapods (four – limbed), pentadactyl type tail.
(five – fingered). Respiration occurs by lungs, skin
or buccal lining, gills are present at least during
 There are two pairs of limbs. The fore limbs are
larval stage for respiration. modified to form wings (in flying birds) or are
reduced (as in non–flying birds). Hind limbs are
 Heart three chambered with two auricles and a
strongly developed for perching, walking.
ventricle, red blood corpuscles are large, biconvex,
 Endoskeleton is light. The bones have got air
oval and nucleated.
cavities. This makes the bird light.

PAGE # 127
 Jaws are modified to form a strong beak.  Ears have fleshy external ears or pinnae.
 Teeth are absent.  Teeth are embedded in sockets (thecodont). Two
sets of teeth develop in the life time of a mammals
 Respiration is by lungs only. Lungs have
Milk teeth and permanent teeth (diphyodont). Teeth
additional bag like membranous extensions
are of different types (heterodont).
called as air sacs.
 Respiration occurs by lungs.
 Heart is completely four chambered.
 Heart is four chambered. R.B.Cs are non
 Sexes are separate. nucleated and usually circular.
 Birds are oviparous, i.e. egg laying.  Sexes are separate. Gonads are paired. Testes
 Fertilization is internal. Fertilized eggs are laid lie commonly in the scrotal sacs outside the
abdomen. Fertilization is internal. Eggs are small
with a yolk (stored food ) and with a hard
, microscopic without shells and are retained in
calcareous shell. Like reptiles and mammals,
uterus of female for development. Embryonic
they have the embryonic membranes namely the
membranes (amnion, chorion, yolk sac and
amnion, chorion, yolk – sac and allantois.
allantois ) present.
 High degree of parental care is exhibited.
 They give birth to living young ones and are called
 There is no larval stage in development. E.g.
as viviparous. The young ones are feed on milk
Columba (pigeon), Pavo (peacock), Corvus
from mammary glands.
(crow), Passer (sparrow). Struthio (ostrich), Kiwi
and Penguin are flightless birds. (c) Important Groups of Mammals : Mammals are
divided into three main groups.
(vii) Class Mammalia : (L.mamma = breast ; the
mammals) Mammalia is the most evolved group (i) Egg-laying mammals (monotremes) : These
of organisms and are found in diverse habitats mammals show characters of both reptiles and
ranging from deserts, polar ice caps, oceans, mammals. They lay hard shelled eggs (oviparous)
mountains, forests and grasslands. They are e.g. Spiny ant eater, Duck – billed platypus
named mammals as all of them possess (ii) Marsupial mammals (pouched mammals) :
mammary glands (milk producing glands). Pouched or marsupial mammals (Latin
Mammals are the only animals which feed their marsupium = pouch) They are viviparous. The
young ones with milk. young ones, when born, are only three cm. long.
• Characters : Hence they are cared in pouch called marsupium
present on the mother’s abdomen. In the pouch,
 Skin is covered with an exoskeleton of hair. Hair
they feed on the mother milk e.g. Kangaroo
are provided with sweat glands which help in the
(Macropus), Kola bear.
regulation of body temperature. In aquatic
mammals, hair being negligible, the (iii) Placental mammals (true mammals) : These
subcutaneous layer of fats provides insulation. mammals with true placenta. The embryo is
retained in the uterus. These are the very
 Mammals have two pairs of pentadactyl limbs.
successful group of land animals, occurring in
 The body cavity is unequally divided into two parts diverse climatic conditions. E.g.,. Mole, bat, lion,
by a muscular partition called as diaphragm. tiger, camel, giraffe, whale, dolphin, monkey,
humans etc.
 Eyes are provided with movable lids.

PAGE # 128
PAGE # 129
 15. Gymnosperms are characterized by :
EXERCISE-1 (A) Winged seeds (B) Naked seeds
(C) Multiple sperms (D) Mature sperms
Plant Diversity
16. Angiosperms have dominated the land flora
1. The science of diversity of organisms is : primarily because of their :
(A) Taxonomy (B) Systematics (A) Domestication by man
(C) Evolution (D) Paleontology (B) Nature of self pollination
(C) Power of adaptability in diverse habitat
2. The taxonomy includes :
(D) Property of producing large number of seeds
(A) Classification (B) Nomenclature
(C) Identification (D) All of these 17. Vessels are found in :
3. In binomial nomenclature, the first name refers to : (A) All pteridophytes (B) All angiosperms
(A) Order (B) Class (C) Some gymnosperms (D) Both B and C
(C) Genus (D) Species
Animal Diversity
4. Six kingdom classification was suggested by :
(A) C. Woese (B) J. Huxley 18. Which one of the following is not the locomotory
(C) E. Haeckel (D) R. Whittaker organs of protozoa ?
(A) Cilia (B) Flagella
5. Bacteria are included in which of the following kingdom ? (C) Parapodia (D) Pseudopodia
(A) Protista (B) Plantae
(C) Monera (D) Animals 19. Canal system is characteristic of :
(A) Hydra (B) Sea anemone
6. BGA (blue-green algae) are included in which one of
(C) Sponges (D) Sea urchin
the following groups ?
(A) Protista (B) Fungi 20. Which one of the following cells in sponges catch
(C) Bryophytes (D) Prokaryotes food ?
(A) Pinacocytes (B) Choanocytes
7. How many sub groups are divided in plant kingdom
(C) Thesocytes (D) Archaeocytes
by Eichler ?
(A) Two (B) Four 21. Canal system in porifera is not associated with :
(C) Three (D) Five (A) Respiration (B) Nutrition
(C) Sexual reproduction (D) None of these
8. Laminaria (kelp) and Fucus (rock weed) are the
examples of : 22. Choanocytes are seen in :
(A) Red algae (B) Brown algae (A) Coelenterata (B) Porifera
(C) Bryophytes (D) Golden algae (C) Mollusca (D) Echinodermata
9. Which one causes water bloom ? 23. Flame cells are :
(A) Fern (B) Fungi (A) Excretory cells (B) Digestive cells
(C) Algae (D) Virus (C) Absorptive cells (D) All of these
10. Female sex organ of bryophytes is called as : 24. Sexual dimorphism is found in :
(A) Ovary (B) Oogonia (A) Pheretima (B) Amoeba
(C) Antheridium (D) Archegonium (C) Ascaris (D) All of these
11. Pteridophytes differ from bryophytes in possessing : 25. Pseudocoelomic organism belong to :
(A) Seed (B) Spores (A) Annelids (B) Aschelminthes
(C) Archegonia (D) Vascular tissue (C) Echinodermata (D) Amphibian
12. The bryophytes lack true : 26. One of the following is not a characteristic of Annelida :
(A) Roots (B) Stems (A) Nephridia (B) Segmentation
(C) Leaves (D) All of these (C) Pseudocoelom (D) Clitellum
13. An alga, very rich in protein, is : 27. Hirudinaria and Pheretima are the representatives
(A) Nostoc (B) Ulothrix of the phylum :
(C) Chlorella (D) Spirogyra (A) Cnidaria (B) Platyhelminthes
(C) Annelida (D) Aschelminthes
14. Algae are useful because they :
(A) Are large in number 28. Peripatus is a connecting link between :
(B) Purify the atmosphere (A) Protozoa and porifera
(C) Are easily available for the study of transpiration (B) Annelida and mollusca
(D) Are used as the packing material in bridge (C) Annelida and arthropoda
construction (D) Mollusca and echinodermata

PAGE # 130
29. Green glands present in some arthropods help in : 3. Dissimilarity found in Aves and Mammalia is –
(A) Respiration (B) Digestion
(Raj/NTSE Stage-1/Diversity/13)
(C) Excretion (D) None of these
(A) Warm Blooded Animal
30. W hich one of the following classes has largest (B) Lay eggs
number of animals ? (C) Breathe through Lungs
(A) Pisces (B) Reptilia (D) Four chambered Heart
(C) Mammalia (D) Insecta
4. Which one of the following plant belong to
31. An open circulatory system occurs in the : division Pteridophyta ?
(A) Reptiles (B) Birds (Raj/NTSE Stage-1/Diversity/07)
(C) Insects (D) Annelids (A) Funaria (B) Cycas
32. Insects can be identified by : (C) Riccia (D) Fern
(A) Three pairs of legs 5. Locomotion by tube feet is found in phylum
(B) Chitinous exoskeleton (Raj/NTSE Stage-1/Diversity/07)
(C) Segmented body (A) Mollusca (B) Coelenterata
(D) Compound eyes (C) Echinodermata (D) Annelida
33. Commercially silk is obtained from : 6. Example of coprophagy is
(A) Pupa (Raj/NTSE Stage-1/Diversity/07)
(B) Adult moth
(A) horse (B) man
(C) Both larva and adult moth
(C) cow (D) rabbit
(D) Cocoon of the larvae
7. Which group of animals are found only in sea?
34. Lac producing insect is :
(Raj/NTSE Stage-1/Diversity/07)
(A) Lytta (B) Tachardia
(A) Mollusca (B) Echinodermata
(C) Bombyx (D) Bombus
(C) Porifera (D) Protozoa
35. Spider web is formed by a fluid secreted by its :
8. Match the name of phylym given under columnI, with
(A) Abdominal gland (B) Salivary gland
the name of animal given under column II and state
(C) Cephalothorax (D) None of these
the correct sequence alphabetically.
36. The animals with bilateral symmetry in larva stage, (Raj/NTSE Stage-1/Diversity/05)
and radial pentamerous symmetry in the adult stage, Column I Column II
belong to the phylum : (i) Protozoa (a) Sponge
(A) Cnidaria (B) Echinodermata (ii) Porifera (b) Apis
(C) Annelida (D) Mollusca (iii) Coelenterata (c) Amoeba
37. Fish which eradicates mosquito larvae is : (iv) Arthropoda (d) Hydra
(A) Rohu (B) Anabas (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(C) Clarius (D) Gambusia (A) a b c d
(B) d c b a
38. Labeo, Cirrhinus and Mystus are (C) c a d b
(A) Marine fishes (D) b d a c
(B) Brackish water fishes
9. If a particular animal has shelled egg, hair and teats
(C) Fresh water fishes
on the body and has cloaca, then it may be a
(D) None of these
connecting link between -
39. Ichthyophis belongs to class : (Raj/NTSE Stage-1/Diversity/05)
(A) Amphibia (B) Reptilia (A) Reptile and aves
(C) Aves (D) None of these (B) Aves and mammal
(C) Reptile and mammal
EXERCISE-2 (D) Mammal and aves
10. In national parks, conservation is provided to
COMPETITIVE EXAM QUESTIONS
(Raj/NTSE Stage-1/Diversity/05)
1. Planaria is kept in which group – (A) only plant species
(Raj/NTSE Stage-1/Diversity/13) (B) only animal species
(A) Coelentrata (B) Platyhelminthes (C) both plants and animals
(C) Nematoda (D) Annelida (D) complete ecosystem
2. Which of the following is a example of Bryophyte – 11. Botanical name of amla is :
(Raj/NTSE Stage-1/Diversity/13) (MP/NTSE Stage-1/Diversity/2013)
(A) Moss (B) Fern (A) Medicago sativa
(C) Pinus (D) Algae (B) Phyllanthus emblica
(C) Zinblica officinate
(D) Ocimum sanctum
PAGE # 131
12. Binomial nomenclature was introduced by : 21. ...............................................this animal lays eggs as
(MP/NTSE Stage-1/Diversity/2013) reptiles but has mammary glands and hair on the
(A) John Ray skin like mammals.
(B) Aristotle (Maharashtra/NTSE Stage-1/Diversity/2013)
(C) A.P De Candolle (A) Duckbill (B) Peripatus
(D) Carolus Linnaeus (C) Bear (D) Lungfish
13. Which one of the following class of animals has co- 22. A fragment of DNA· that provides complete information
elomic cavity filled with blood ? about one protein is referred to as for that protein.
(Chandidarh/NTSE Stage-1/Diversity/2013) (Maharashtra/NTSE Stage-1/Diversity/2013)
(A) Nematoda (B) Annelida (A) Nucleotide (B) Enzyme
(C) Arthropoda (D) Protozoa (C) Nucleoside (D) Gene
14. W hich two of the following animals belong to the
23. The endosperm of angiosperms is
same Phylum?
(Raj/NTSE Stage-1/05)
(Orrisa/NTSE Stage-1/Diversity/2013)
(A) haploid (B) diploid
(A) Starfish and Nereis
(C) triploid (D) polyploid
(B) Antedon and Starfish
(C) Antedon and Chiton 24. Match the following
(D) Nereis and Chiton Column I Column II
(1) collar cells (a) coelentrate
15. W hich one of the following is having conducting
(2) diploblast (b) porifera
tissue ? (Orrisa/NTSE Stage-1/Diversity/2013)
(3) closed (c) echinodermata
(A) Fern (B) Funaria
(C) Riccia (D) Marchantia circulatory system
(4) water (d) Annelida vascular system
16. Which of the following two are only applicable for birds ? (A) 1-a, 2-b, 3-c, 4-d (B) 1-a, 2-b, 3-c, 4-d
(Orrisa/NTSE Stage-1/Diversity/2013) (C) 1-b, 2-a, 3-d, 4-c (D) 1-a, 2-b, 3-d, 4-c
(A) Warm blooded and four chambered heart
(B) Feather and breathing by lungs 25. Botanical name of Tulsi is
(C) Warm blooded and egg laying (M.P/NTSE Stage-1/05)
(D) Egg laying and with Feather (A) Ocimum sanctum
(B) Saraca indica
17. W hich of the following statement is true about
(C) Ficus benghalensis
dicotyledons.
(D) Eagle marmelos
(Punjab/NTSE Stage-1/Diversity /2013)
(A) Their root system consists of similar fibrous roots 26. The group of amphibian plants is
(B) Their leaves have paralled venation (Rajasthan/ntsestage I 2015)
(C) Their vascular bundles are arranged in a ring (A) Funaria, Marchantia
(D) Their flowers are trimerous (B) Marsilia, Horse-tail
(C) Pinus, Cycas
18. A plant has body differentiated into root, stem & leaves.
(D) Typha, Hydrilla.
It also has tissue for conduction of water and other
substances, but has naked embryo. Under which type 27. The example of an egg laying mammal is
will such plants be classified ? (Rajasthan/ntsestage I 2015)
(Punjab/NTSE Stage-1/Diversity /2013) (A) Bat (B) Whale
(A) Gymnosperms (B) Angiosperms (C) Echidna (D) Kangaroo
(C) Bryophyta (D) Pteridophyta
28. Preen gland is present in
19. Choose the correct hierarchy in classification group. (W.B./ntsestage I 2015)
(Punjab/NTSE Stage-1/Diversity/2013) (A) the body of pigeon (B) the body of prawn
(A) Phylum - class - order - family - species (C) the body of rohu fish(D) in cactus plant
(B) Phylum - order - class - family - species
29. Botanical name of Amla is.................
(C) Phylum - class - family - order - species
(D) Phylum - order - family - class - species (M.P./ntsestage I 2015)
(A) Ocimum sanctum
20. All the cats in the world belong to same species.
(B) Phyllanthus emblica
(Maharashtra/NTSE Stage-1/Diversity/2013)
(A) Panthera leo (B) Panthera tigris (C) Saraca indica
(C) Panthera pardus (D) Phelis domestics (D) Ficus bengalensis

PAGE # 132
30. You are observing a nonchlorophyllous, eukaryotic 40. According to paleontological evidences, identify the
organism with chitinous cell wall under a correct sequence of animal devolvement
microscope. You shall describe the organism as a (Maharastra/ntse/stage I 2015)
(A) Fish . Reptiles .Amphilibians .Birds . Mammals
(Diversity/2015/NTSE/Stage-2)
(B) Fish. Reptiles . Birds.Amphilibians.Mammals
(A) fungus. (B) alga
(C) Fish. Amphilibians . Birds. Reptiles .Mammals
(C) protozoas (D) bacterium (D) Fish. Amphilibians . Reptiles . Birds .Mammals
31. Match the items given in Column A and Column B, 41. W hich one of the following is the correct set of ex-
and identify the correct alternative listed below. amples of a particular group?
(W.Bangal/ntse/stage I 2015)
(A) Mushroom, Yeast, Riccia- Fungi
(B) Starfish, Catfish, Dogfish- Pisces
(C) Paramoceium, Euglia, Obellia- Protista
(D) Whale, Frog, Bat- Craniata.
42. The carbohydrate present in blood groups is
(Bihar/ntse/stage I 2015)
(A) (a)-(i), (b)(iii), (c)-(ii), (d) - (iv) (A) sucrose (B) galactose
(B) (a) - (iii), (b) - (i), (c) -(ii), (d) - (iv) (C) fucose (D) arbinose
(C) (a) - (iii), (b) -(i), (c)-(iv) (d) -(ii)
43. Which of the following is a group of hermaphrodites ?
(D) (a) -(i), (b)-(iii), (c) -(iv), (d)-(ii)
(Hariyana/ntse/stage I 2015)
32. Obelia belongs to - (A) Earthworm, hydra, leech
(M.P./ntse/stage I 2015)
(A) Coelenterata (B) Porifera (B) Cockroach, earthworm, hydra
(C) Annelida (D) Arthropoda (C) Earthworm, flatworm
(D) Ascaris, cockroach, hydra
33. In binomial nomenclature first word indicates
(M.P./ntse/stage I 2015) 44. Which among the following is an example of fungi ?
(A) Species (B) Genus (Rajasthan/stage I 2015)
(C) Sub species (D) None of these
(A) Anabaena (B) Euglena
34. Whale belongs to : (C) Mycoplasma (D) Agaricus
(M.P./ntse/stage I 2015)
(A) Mammalia (B) Amphibia 45. Which characters are present in a vertebrate ?
(C) Annelida (D) Reptilia (Rajasthan/stage I 2015)
(A) Notochord, triploblastic, coelomate and bilat-
35. Botanical name of Margosa (Neem) is :
(M.P./ntse/stage I 2015) eral symmetry
(A) Azadirachta Indica (B) Notochord, diploblastic, coelomate and radial
(B) Pisum Sativum symmetry
(C) Cassia fistula
(C) Notochord, triploblastic, acoelomate and bilat-
(D) Brassica Compestris
eral symmetry
36. Which of the following is an Italian variety of Honey (D) Notochord, triploblastic, acoelomate and radial
bee ?
symmetry.
(Delhi/ntse/stage I 2015)
(A) Apis florae (B) Apis cerana indica 46. Regeneration is found in
(C) Apis mellifera (D) Apis dorsata (Rajasthan/stage I 2015)
37. The group of plants that bears naked seeds (A) tapeworm (B) leech
(Delhi/ntse/stage I 2015) (C) hydra (D) ascaris.
(A) Gymnosperms (B) Angiosperms
(C) Bryophyta (D) Pteridophyta 47. Which plant group is called amphibious plants ?
(Rajasthan/stage I 2016)
38. Which of the following have the nervous system is at a
very primitive stage of development ? (A) Algae (B) Fungi
(Maharastra/ntse/stage I 2015) (C) Bryophyta (D) Pteridophyta
(A) Amoeba (B) Hydra 48. Which is the odd one ?
(C) Earthworm (D) Paramoecium
(Rajasthan/stage I 2016)
39. In Mendel.s dihybrid cross how many groups of (A) Planaria (B) Liver-fluke
phenotypic characters are found in F2 generation (C) Ascaris (D) Tap worm
(second filial generation)
(Maharastra/ntse/stage I 2015) 49. An egg laying mammal is
(A) Four (B) Two (Rajasthan/stage I 2016)
(C) One (D) Sixteen (A) Kangaroo (B) Bat
(C) Whale (D) Echidna

PAGE # 133
 IMPROVEMENT OF FOOD RESOURCES
 The various practices that are followed at various
stages of production are as follows :
 Preparation of soil
Food is the combination of various organic and
inorganic substances which is capable of providing
 Sowing
 Application of manures and fertilizers
(i) energy for the various metabolic activities.
 Irrigation
(ii) materials for repair / replacement of worn-out  Weed control
tissues in the body.
 Crop protection
(iii) materials for growth & reproduction.  Harvesting, threshing and winnowing
(iv) regulatory substances, body secretions and  Storage
metabolic activities etc.  Crop improvement
(a) Branches of Botany :  Rotation of crops, mixed and multiple cropping.
(i) Agriculture : (Ager means field ; cultura means
cultivation). It is the applied biological science
which deals with the production of plants and
raising of animals useful to man, involving soil • Genetic Manipulation :
cultivation, breeding and management of crops (i) Aims of crop improvement are :
and livestock.
(A) Developing high yielding varieties
(ii) Horticulture : (Hortus-garden ; cultura-cultivation).
It is the branch of agriculture and the science of (B) Improved quality
growing vegetables, fruits and ornamental plants. (C) Early and uniform maturity
(iii) Silviculture : (Sylvan- wood and trees) Cultivation
(D) Insensitivity to light and temperature
of wood and trees e.g., Pine, teak wood, sesame
etc. (E) W ider adaptability
(b) Crop Seasons : Different types of crops require (F) Lodging - resistant varieties
different climatic conditions like :
(G) Desirable agronomic characters
(i) Temperature
(ii) Plant breeding : The technique of producing
(ii) Photoperiod (duration of light)
(iii) Completion of life cycle improved varieties of crop plants by the
introduction of several desired characters
• Depending upon the growing season, there are two into them is called as plant breeding. Scientists
groups of crops : concerned with the
improvement of crop varieties are called as plant
Kharif crop / Rabi crop / W inter breeders.
Rainy season crop season crop (iii) Aims of plant breeding : New varieties of crop
plants having :
(i) They are grown (i) They are grown
during m ons oon during winter s eas on (A) Higher yield.
/ rainy s eas on (B) Resistance to heat, frost, drought etc.
(ii) They require warm (ii) They require cold (C) Pest resistance
and wet weather and dry weather (D) Early maturing varieties
(iii) They are s own in (iii) They are s own in (iv) Methods for the genetic improvement of crop
June/July and harves ted October / Novem ber plants :
in Septem ber/October & harves ted in March / April
(A) Introduction : It refers to the taking of superior
varieties of crop plants from the place of their
(iv) E.g., Rice, Jow ar, (iv) E.g., W heat, Barley, natural cultivation to the place where they were
Bajra, Cotton, Pea, Gram, Mustard, Potato never grown earlier.
Groundnut, etc. • Green Revolution :- Dr. M.S. Swaminathan is known
Urad, Moong etc. as the father of green revolution. He stressed the need
of breeding programme and in 1967, he developed a
high yield dwarf variety of wheat Sharbati Sonara.
(B) Selection : t is the process in which economic
(i) Varietal improvement of crop through genetic plants having best desired characters are
manipulation. picked up from the given population and seeds of
(ii) Crop production management. such plants are used for future cultivation. e.g.
(iii) Crop protection management. Maize & Cabbage are represented by their
cultivated varieties only.

PAGE # 134
 Natural - Survival essential nutrients for plants, out of 40 elements
of the fittest present in plant ash. They are : Carbon, Iron,
Selection can be
Hydrogen, Manganese, Oxygen, Boron, Nitrogen,
Artificial - Based on Zinc, Phosphorus, Copper ,Potassium,
the human needs & Molybdenum, Magnesium, Chlorine, Sulphur &
interests Calcium.
(C) Hybridization : t means the process of (A) Sources of plant nutrients : The plants obtain
crossbreeding of two genetically dissimilar their nutrients mainly from the soil. Out of the total
varieties of crop plants (each having a specific 16 nutrients, as many as 13 are absorbed from
and better characteristics) to obtain a new crop the soil.
plant having both the desired characteristics is (B) Characteristics of an essential plant nutrients :
called as hybridization. In the absence of such element, the plant is not
able to complete its life cycle. Such element must
Parent 2 have a direct influence on the plant nutrition and
Parent 1
(with a (with a desired metabolism.The requirement of such element
desired character, character, must be specific and cannot be replaced by
like disease another element. Deficiency of such element can
like high-yield)
- resistance)
be corrected or prevented only by supplying that
nutrient.
(C) Classification of plant nutrients :
Hybrid variety
Macronutrients Carbon, Hydrogen,
(High-yielding and disease-resistant)
Oxygen, Nitrogen,
Phosphorus, Potassium,
Crop plants produced in this way are called as hybrid Calcium, Magnesium,
varieties or high yielding varieties. Sulphur.
Inter varietal - Micronutrients Iron, Manganese, Copper,
Between two Zinc, Boron, Molybdenum,
different varieties Chlorine.
Hybridization Besides these, carbon, oxygen & hydrogen are
may be called framework elements.
(D) Manure : A manure is a mixture of various
Inter generic - Between decomposed organic substances like dead
plants belonging to different leaves, city garbage, agricultural wastes, animal
genera. dung, crop residue etc. through the action of
microbes. Manure increases the fertility and
productivity of crops. As they contain plenty of
organic compounds and almost all the essential
• In order to improve and manage our crop production elements required by the plants.
system, we have to focus on cheaper and farmer friendly • Types of Manure :
approaches. As there is direct co-relationship between
1. Farm yard :- Partially decomposed mixture of cattle
the higher yields and input applications.
excreta (dung & urine) along with litter (bedding
(i) Successful crop production depends upon : material) and left over organic matter.
Understanding how crops develop and grow. How 2. Compost :- It is prepared by a biological
various factors affect the growth and development decomposition of farm and town refuse (vegetable
of crops and How each factor can be modified and animal refuse.
and managed. 3. Green manure :- It is prepared by growing
(ii) Approaches for crop production includes : ploughing and mixing of young & green crops of
(A) Nutrient management leguminous & non-leguminous plants.
(B) Irrigation (E) Fertilizers : These are commercially
(C) Cropping patterns (Mixed cropping; Inter cropping manufactured inorganic salts or an organic
and Crop rotation) compound containing one or more essential plant
(iii) Nutrient management : Plant nutrients are the nutrients like Nitrogen, Phosphorus or Potassium
mineral elements needed by the plants for their which are used for increasing soil fertility.
growth, development and maintenance. Plants Fertilizers usually contain higher amount of
absorb a large number of elements from soil, nutrients than manures hence required in small
besides water and air, only 16 elements are quantities.

PAGE # 135
 (B) They can cause water pollution and eutrophication
in near by water bodies.Hazards of using
fertilizers : Though use of fertilizers has brought
about significant increase in crop yields, however,
the continued use affects soil quality and brings
about pollution of water bodies.

• Application of fertilizers : Fertilizers are applied before

sowing, during irrigation or sprayed on standing crops.
But fertilizers are never applied directly to soil if the
crop is standing .It would bring about wilting of crop
• Disadvantages of fertilizers : due to exosmosis because of increase in the osmotic
pressure around the roots of the plants. Only urea is
(A) Fertilizers can change the chemical composition
of soil and thus detiriorate the soil quality. an organic compound.

TABLE : DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MANURES & FERTILIZERS

S.No. Fertilisers
1. Manures are organic natural substances Fertilisers are inorganic
derived from the decomposition of biological or organic substances.
materials (Plants and animal residues).
2. Manures contain organic matter in large Organic matter is not present.
quantities.
3. Manures contain nutrients in small quantities, & Fertilisers contain much higher amount of nutrients, &
are needed in large quantities. are required in very small quantities.
4. They are not nutrient - specific. These are nutrient - specific.
5. They are prepared in fields & villages. These are manufactured in factories.
6. Manures are bulky substances. So, these are These are available in concentrated form.
inconvenient to store, use & transport. So these are easy to store, use & transport.
7. Manures do not cause pollution. They cause water pollution.

(F) Vermicomposting : Composting with the help of • Advantages of organic farming :

earthworms is called vermicomposting.
Earthworms help in breakdown of wastes. This (1) Natural ecosystem is not disturbed, as organic
activity along with the excreta of the worms makes farming is in harmony with the natural ecosystem.
the compost rich in nutrients. (2) Soil fertility is preserved.
(3) Harmful effects of chemicals on the living
(G) Biofertilizers : Biofertilizers are micro-organisms
organisms are avoided.
(like bacteria, algae and fungi used singly or in
(4) Pollution of air, water and soil does not take place.
combination) or biologically active products which
are used to enrich soil fertility. Some of the The basic objective of cropping is to achieve
biofertilizers are given : insurance against total crop failure under poor
Legume – Rhizobium symbiosis rainfall conditions and there by minimizing risk
Azolla – Anabaena symbiosis and monetary loses.
Free - living bacteria (Azotobacter) (iv) Irrigation : Process of supplying water to crop
Cyanobacteria (Anabaena, Nostoc) plants growing in the fields by means of canals,
Mycorrhiza (symbiotic association of fungi with
reservoir, wells, tube-wells etc. is known as
roots of higher plants.)
irrigation. Water requirements or irrigation of crop
(H) Organic Farming : Cultivation of land without plants depends on two factors :-
conserving soil fertility and soil structure would
lead ultimately to the development of deserts. • Crop-based irrigation : Water requirement of different
Excessive and indiscriminate use of pesticides, crop plants varies at different stages of their growth &
fungicides and herbicides as is done in present maturation e.g. paddy crop is transplanted in standing
day agriculture could lead to changes in biological water and also requires continuous water supply
balance ; population of soil organisms will be whereas this is not so for wheat, gram, cotton, maize
affected, increase in the occurrence of cancer and crops etc.
other diseases. Ecological farming or organic
farming is a farming system in which chemical • Soil-based irrigation : Irrigation also depends on the
fertilisers, herbicides or pesticides are minimally nature of soil in which crop is grown, e.g. if two wheat
used or not used at all. Instead of ,manures crops are grown together one in sandy and another in
recycled farm wastes and biofertilisers are used clay soil, then in sandy more frequent irrigation is
in place of chemical fertilisers. Neem leaves or needed than clay soil.
turmeric are used as biopesticides specifically in
(v) Irrigation systems : Recently used irrigation
case of stored food grains.
systems in our country are as follows :

PAGE # 136
 (A) Sprinkler irrigation system : t is water efficient • Pathogens : These are disease causing organisms
system and is being introduced in the canal and include bacteria, fungi, virus etc.
irrigated areas of Haryana, Rajasthan and Madhya
• Weeds : These are unwanted plants that grow and live
Pradesh. A device having perforated ring or small
at the expense of main crop.
stand with a revolving nozzle to which a base is
attached is used for watering crop plants. This (i) Effective methods to control pests :
system spreads water uniformly over crop plants
(A) Pesticides or biopesticides : Chemicals
and fields, required quantity of water is supplied. (poisons) used to kill pests of plants such as
(B) Drip-irrigation system : Modern system being insects, fungi, weeds, mites, rats etc. are known
encouraged in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra as pesticides. They are of following types :
Pradesh, Orissa and Tamil Nadu for fruit crops. Fungicide : To kill fungi
Fertigation is an innovative method for applying W eedicide : To kill weeds
fertilizers through drip irrigation to maximize farm Rodenticide : To kill rodents like rats, moles
productivity with available water. Nematicide : To kill nematodes

(vi) Cropping patterns : (ii) Insect - pest control : Some insects are serious
pests of crop plants such as :
(A) Mixed cropping : t is the practice of growing two
or more types of crops simultaneously on the (A) Chewing insects : Locust, grasshopper, caterpillar
larva destroy all sorts of crop plants. Control : By
same piece of land. Different crops to be grown
mixing chlorophyriphos in the soil.
are selected in such a way that products & wastes
from one crop can stimulate the growth of other (B) Sucking insects - Aphids (Aphis), leaf hoppers
crop. (Pyrilla) suck cell sap from various plant parts.
Control : By Malathion, lindane & Thiodan.
(B) Intercropping : mproved version of traditional
mixed cropping in which two or more crops are (C) Borer insects : Sugarcane borer, pod borer, grain
weevil, cotton boll worm. Internal feeders, live
grown simultaneously in the same field but in a
inside the parts of crop plants. Control : By
definite row pattern is called intercropping.
metasystox.
• Advantages : Productivity is increased. It economises (iii) Weeds : The small -sized unwanted plants which
spaces and time of cultivating two or more crops. It grow along with a cultivated crop in a field are
helps to maintain soil fertility. called weeds. They also affect the crop yield due
to following ill effects.
(C) Crop rotation : Practice of growing different crops
on a piece of land in a preplanned succession The ill effect of weeds is that they harbour pests
depending upon the duration. and spread crop pests and crop diseases, since
they act as alternate host to insects and
• Crop rotation confers following benefits : microorganism.
(A) All crops do not require the plant nutrients in the Some types of weeds produce toxic substances
same proportion. By growing crops in rotation, the which may interfere with crop growth or which may
fertility of the soil is utilised more evenly. The soil poison the crop produce.
is not depleted in a particular nutrients. (A) Types of weeds : Infestation of weeds is more
(B) W hen different crops are grown, the operations during kharif season than in ‘rabi’ season. Based
concerned with the preparation of soil, manuring, on the morphology of plants, weeds can be
sowing, harvesting and other operations are classified into narrow-leaf weeds and broad-leaf
spread throughout the year, thereby reducing the weeds.
work pressure at any particular time. • Some of the important weeds of kharif season are
(C) When different crops are grown on the field one the following :
after another, the yields of product obtained are
greater than when the same crops are grown year • Narrow leaf weeds : Nutgrass or Motha, Wild sorghum
after year. or Jangli jowar.
(D) The incidence of weeds, pests and diseases is • Broad leaf weeds : Chauli (Amaranthus viridis). Saathi,
reduced. Some of the important weeds of ‘rabi’ season which
infest wheat crop are the following :
• Broad leaf weeds : Bathua (chenopodium), Hirankhuri
It includes eradication of pests, pathogens, weeds and (Convolvulus pluricaulis).
other organisms that causes harm to the crop plants. (B) Weeds control : It can be controlled by following
• Pests : These are the organisms like insects, rats, ways:
mites, weeds, fungi etc. which damage or destroy 1. Mechanical methods - By weeding, removing weeds
cultivated plants or plant products and can even make from crop fields by harrow, interculture ploughing,
them unfit for human consumption. burning & flooding

PAGE # 137
 2. Chemical method - Using chemicals called • There are four main practices involved in keeping of
herbicides or weedicides e.g. 2, 4-D, Nitrofen, animals or animal husbandry.
Atrazine
• Breeding : It is done to obtain animals with desired
3. Biological method - Employ living organisms to characters. Through breeding, we can develop high
destroy weeds e.g. : cassia plant prevents milk - yielding and high meat- yielding cattle.
the growth of parthenium weed, herbivorous fish
feed on aquatic weeds and can be used to control • Feeding : It deals with the study of proper food (called
growth of weeds. feed), mode and time or feeding of different animals.

• Advantages of biological method : It does not cause • Weeding : This concerns with the elimination of
pollution. Organisms are harmless to the main crop. uneconomical animals.
• Heeding : It means the proper care and management
of animals.

Food grains in our country are lost due to inadequate • Various types of animal farming are :
& improper storage. Factors responsible for such a
(i) Cattle farming - (Milk producing or milch animals)
great loss during storage are as follows :
(ii) Poultry farming ( Egg yielding animals)
(i) Biotic (living): nsects, rodents, birds, mites etc.
Insect - pests Common insect-pests include (iii) Fish farming - (Meat providing fishes)
weevils, beetles, locusts, mites, aphids, (iv) Bee keeping - (Honey providing bees)
grasshoppers, bugs and termites. Insect-pests
damage/ harm the plants in following ways : They
cut root, stem and leaves. They suck the cell sap
from various plant parts. They bore into stems and
Farming of cattle for milk and labour is called cattle
fruits.
farming . It is done for two purposes :
• They eat stored grains. (A) Milk producing breeds : Milk providing animals
(ii) Abiotic (non-living) : Temperature, Moisture, are - cows, buffaloes, goats, camels.
Humidity, Material of container in which grains are (B) Draught breeds : For labour. e.g. ox, camel etc.
stored Cows & buffaloes are main milk providing animals
(A) Preventive Measures : in India.
• They are also used for bullock labour. Cow’s milk is
(i) Drying before storage, highly nutritious, contains large amount of proteins and
(ii) Maintenance of hygiene, vitamin A which is best for infants.
(iii) Plant - product treatment, • Buffalo’s milk is rich in fats, proteins, vitamin E, calcium,
(iv) Improved storage structures phosphorous, contains low Na , K and cholesterol.
(B) Control Measures : Pests are controlled by the • Most notable effort for dairy development & milk
use of chemicals called pesticides. Fumigation production in India is being carried out by NDDB
is the most convenient and effective method of (National Dairy Development Board) and is called
pest control in stored grains inside godowns. “operation flood” to increase milk production.
Fumigants are volatile (gaseous) chemicals that • It has resulted in White revolution in India.
quickly vaporize and the resultant fumes kill the • Breeds of Cows (Bos indicus) :
insects without affecting the grains. Utmost care
has to be observed in handling of pesticides as (i) High milk - yielding indigenous (desi) breeds.
these are equally harmful to humans and (A) Gir (B) Sahiwal (C) Red Sindhi
domestic animals.
(ii) Dual purpose indigenous breeds (cows for milk
and bullocks for draught work)
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
(A) Haryana (B) Tharparkar (C) Deoni
Science which deals with the scientific management
(iii) The exotic (foreign) breeds of cows that have been
of farm animals including their feeding, breeding,
used for crossbreeding are :
weeding and heeding (disease control) is called as
Animal husbandry. (A) Jersey from USA
• Animal food mainly comes from : (B) Brown Swiss from Switzerland
(C) Holstein - Friesian from Holland.
(i) Milk : From cattle such as cow, buffaloes, goat,
camel. • Many high milk-yielding breeds of cows have been
developed in India through crossbreeding of desi
(ii) Egg : From birds (poultry).
breeds with exotic breeds in recent years .These
(iii) Meat : Animals like pigs, fishes, poultry etc. include Karan Swiss Friesian -Sahiwal or Frieswal
(iv) Honey : From honey bees. Karan - Fries

PAGE # 138
• Breeds of buffaloes (Bos bubalis) : High milk - • Prevention and Control :
yielding indigenous(desi) breeds.  Providing proper shelter.
(A) Murrah from Punjab and Haryana  Ensuring animal hygiene (frequent bathing and
(B) Mehsana from Gujarat grooming) and proper disposal of dead
(C) Surti from Gujarat animals and animal wastes.
(D) Nili from Punjab  Periodic screening of animals for diseases and
(E) Jaffarabadi from Gujarat
immediate isolation of diseased animals.
Types of breeds of cattle  Providing proper diet and suitable medicines
under the advice of a veterinary doctor.
Draught breeds Strong & sturdy chiefly for labour  Hygienic handling of all animal products and by
products.
Dairy or milk  Compulsory vaccinations.
Specialized in milk production
breeds

Dual purpose Both for milk production & labour

Practice of raising chickens, ducks, geese & turkey for

• Cattle food is of two types :
egg & meat.
• Roughage : Rich in fibre content. It includes green
fodder, silage, hay. • It provides best source of animal protein and fats.
• Concentrate : Rich in all types of nutrients, lacks fibre. • Egg laying poultry is called egger or layer and poultry
It includes maize, oat, barley, jowar etc. raised for meat is called broiler. Silver revolution refers
• Diseases of Cattle : to the tremendous increase in egg production.
• A healthy animal is recognized by
• Its regular feeding, (A) Indigenous (desi) breeds of hen
• Normal posture,  Aseel (Indian game)
• A definite body temperature  Ghagus (kadaknath)
• Normal pulse and respiration rates.  Basara (Burrsa)
• A sick animal shows following symptoms.
 Chittagong (Chattisgarh)
• The animal stops eating and becomes lethargic, looks
 Brahma
tired and remains isolated.
• The animal shivers with high body temperature.  Cochin
• The animal shows excessive formation of saliva which (B) Exotic breeds used in India
sometimes hangs from the mouth.  White Leghorn
• Blisters appear on skin surface, eyes turn red, and the  Rhode Island Red
animal may have a running nose.
 Black Minorcha
• The animal passes loose dung and coloured urine.
• The lips and ears of the animal droop.
 Plymouth
• Milk - yield, egg-laying capacity or working capacity of  Light Sussex
the animal is reduced. (C) Improvement of poultry breeds: It involves :
• Diseases : Diseases caused are broadly of three types :  Developing of new varieties. They have following
• Parasitic advantages.
• Infectious  Number & quality of chicks are increased.
• Non - infectious
 Summer adaptation capacity.
TABLE : DISEASES OF DAIRY ANIMALS  Low maintenance requirements.
& THEIR CAUSAL ORGANISM  Dwarf broilers present for commercial chick
Causal Disease production.
S.No.
Organism
(D) Poultry diseases : These birds suffer from many
1. Virus Foot and mouth disease, Pox
diseases caused by bacteria, fungi, viruses and
2. Bacteria Anthrax parasites along with nutritional deficiencies.
3. Fungi Ringworm, Dermatitis

PAGE # 139
 Diseases of poultry birds

• These can be prevented by proper cleaning sanitation • Composite Fish Culture : The combination of six
and spraying of disinfectants. species is used in this culture system. Out of the six
• Poultry farming offers other advantages like : species, three are of Indian origin (Catla, Rohu, Mrigal)
• Investment involved is small, and three are exotic (from China). The exotic species
• Area required is small, are silver carp, grass carp and common carp. This
• Maintenance is easy, and combination is highly advantageous because :
• Returns are quick.
1. These fishes do not compete for food because
• The egg-laying poultry bird is called hen (egg layer),
they have different types of food habits.
while the one groomed for obtaining meat is called
2. The food available in all the zones (parts) of the
chicken or broiler.
pond is utilized due to their food habits. For
example, catla is surface feeder, rohu feeds in
PISCICULTURE
middle zone of the pond (column feeder) and
Cheap source of animal protein for human food. mrigal and common carp feed at the bottom. Grass
Various ways to obtain fishes :– carp feeds on aquatic weeds.

• Capture fishing - From natural resources. • Blue revolution refers to increase in the fish production.

• Culture fishing - Fish farming in Marine fisheries and

Inland fisheries .
• Our fresh water edible fish include cat fishes such as • Definition : Apiculture is the process of rearing of honey
Wallago, mystus etc. bees in the artificial hives, called apiaries, for the
• Indian major carps include Catla, Rohu, Mrigal production of honey at commercial level.
(Cirrhina).
• Species of Honey bees : Honey bees belong to phylum
• Exotic varieties include Silver carp and Grass carp. Arthropoda and class Insecta. There are several
• Catla is the fastest growing carp of great economic species of honey bees some of which are indigenous
significance. while some of them are exotic which have been
introduced to increase the yield of honey.
• Marine fisheries : India’s marine fishery resources
include 7500 km of coastline and the deep (a) Indigenous Species :
seas beyond it.
(i) Apis dorsata : It is commonly called rock bee or
• Popular marine fish varieties are pomphret, mackerel,
giant bee (being largest sized). Though it
tuna, sardines and Bomby duck. produces maximum amount of honey but is
• Yield are increased by locating large schools of fish in ferocious and migratory bee so it is difficult to
the open sea using satellites and echo-sounders. domesticate this variety.
• Some marine fish of high economic value are also
(ii) Apis indica : It is commonly called Indian bee. It
farmed in seawater.
can be domesticated easily as it is very gentle in
• This includes finned fishes like mullets, bhetki , and nature but is less producing species.
pearl spots, shellfish such as prawns mussels and
oysters as well as seaweed . (iii) Apis florae : It is commonly called little bee (being
smallest sized). It is also very docile but yield is
• Marine fish culture is called mariculture.
less.
• Inland fisheries : Fresh water resources include (b) Exotic Species :
canals, ponds, reservoirs and rivers.
• Catlas are surface feeders. • Apis mellifera : It is commonly called Italian bee. It is
• Rohus feed in middle zone of the pond. preferred over the indigenous species for the
commercial production of honey because of its docile
• Mrigals and common Carps feed on the weeds. nature, high yield of honey, prolific egg production, less
swarming and with good defence mechanism.

PAGE # 140
• Honey Bee Colony and Social Organisation : Honey (v) Honey bees are chief cross-pollinating agents.
bees are social and polymorphic insects. These live
(vi) Apiculture provides additional income generating
in large colonies, called hives or combs, of about
activity to the farmers.
40,000 to 100,000 individuals. In a colony, there are
three castes of bees which are structurally and
functionally different from one another so MANAGEMENT FOR HIGH YIELDS OF HONEY
polymorphism is associated with division of labour.
These three castes are : • Management : involves all those steps which are
required to be undertaken to obtain good quality and
(i) Queen : Every healthy colony has only one fertile higher yield of honey from the honey bees. It involves
female called queen. It is the mother of the colony following considerations :
and has well developed ovaries. It has long
tapering abdomen, short legs and wings. Its sole (a ) Bee Forage or Pasturage :
function is to lay the eggs at the rate of 1500 to It includes all those flowering plants which provide
2000 in a day, while during its life span of about 3 pollens and nectar to the honey bees e.g. Mango,
years, a queen lays about 1.5 to 2.0 million eggs. coconut, almond, tamarind, ber, berseem, litchi, cotton,
A queen lays two types of eggs : fertilized and shisham, apple, mahua, coriander, cashew, coffee,
unfertilized eggs. Queen and workers develop from
rubber plant, guava, sunflower, etc. Their pollens form
fertilized eggs while drones develop from
the protein-rich food for honey bees while their nectar
unfertilized eggs.
acts as raw material of honey. The pasturage is different
(ii) Workers : These are largest in number (about from region to region and depends upon the
50,000 to 60,000) but smallest sized members. geographical location. The quality and taste of honey
These are most active and perform variety of jobs depend, upon the nature of flora from which the nectar
like : attend the queen and nursery, clean the hives, is collected. For increased yield, the pasturage should
form a new hive and produce wax, repair the comb, be easily available near the apiary.
keep the comb cool, defend the members etc.
( b ) Apiary or Bee Hive :
So the workers have strong wings, long mouth
parts, wax glands on abdomen, pollen collecting An artificial and movable bee hive, commonly called
apparatus on the legs and a sting at the end of apiary, is about 46 × 23 cm in size and is a wooden
abdomen. box formed of following parts :
(iii) Drones : These are male members of the colony (i) Stand : It is the base on which the whole hive is
and are of intermediate size. These have reduced placed.
mouth parts and are sluggish. Their sole function
is to copulate with the queen. (ii) Bottom Board : It forms the base of the hive and
has two apertures which act as entrance and exit
for the workers and drones.
(iii) Brood chamber : It contains 5 to 10 wooden
frames, each of which has a wax-sheet of the
hexagonal frames, called comb foundation, on
which the honey form the combs.
(iv) Super : It provides extra space for the expansion
of the hive.
(v) Inner cover : It is a hole-bearing wooden cover.
(vi) Top cover : It is a plain zinc sheet for the protection
of hive.
Figure : Different castes of honey bees
• Importance of Apiculture :
• Products of honey bees include honey, bees wax, bee
venom and royal jelly.
(i) Honey : It is produced by the workers from the
collected nectar and cane sugar. It is formed of
levulose, dextrose (23%), maltose (40%),
enzymes and pigment (25%), minerals, vitamins
and water.
(ii) Bees wax : It is used in cosmetics, paints,
ointments, polishes, microtomy, etc.
(iii) Bee venom : It is used to cure certain diseases
like gout and arthritis.
(iv) Royal jelly : It is used as tonic to heart patients An artificial bee hive (Apiary)
and growing children.

PAGE # 141
 (c ) Location of Apiary :
To get maximum yield of honey, a number of bee hives
EXERCISE-1
should be placed in that area where abundance of
bee-flora is available within 1 or 2 kms radius for honey Crop improvement
collection. 1. Green revolution in India was possible due to :
( d ) Honey Flow Season : (A) Better irrigation, fertilizers and pesticide facilities
(B) Exploitation of high yielding varieties
The yield of honey upon the total period for which large
(C) Intensive cultivation
number of nectar and pollen-yielding plants are
(D) All of the above
available in the vicinity of the apiary is called honey
flow period. So honey yield will be more if the bee 2. Triticale is a man-made cereal which has been devel-
hives are established in an area having abundance of oped through hybridisation between :
bee flora for longer period. While the period when no (A) Wheat and oat (B) Wheat and Rice
nectar and pollen is available is called dearth period. (C) Wheat and Gram (D) Wheat and Rye
(e) Swarming : 3. Compost manure is produced from :
It is the process of leaving off the colony by the old (A) Farmyard manure and green manure
queen with some workers and drones to establish a (B) Farm refuse and household refuse
new colony at a new place and to provide the existing (C) Organic remains of biogas plants
hive for the progeny. It normally occurs by the end of (D) Rotted vegetables and animal refuse
spring or early summer. But the frequent swarming
4. The main problem caused by the use of pesticides is:
decreases the yield of honey and increases the
(A) Their residues persist in water and other compo-
maintenance cost of the bee hives. So to get higher
yield of honey, less swarming variety of honey bees nents of the environment
(e.g. Apis mellifera) should be reared. (B) Mosquitoes have become resistant to DDT
(C) They kill silk worm
(f) Bee Pest and their Control : (D) They deform the gills of some fishes
• Important pests of bees and their control : 5. Biopesticides include :
(A) Bio herbicides & Urea
S.No. Bee pest Control
(B) Bio insecticides & Fertilizers
1. Platybolium (C) Bio herbicides and bio insecticides
(wax beetle). (D) Bio herbicides, bio insecticides and fertilizers
2. Polistes hebareus Controlled 6. Which one of the following is organochlorine :
(yellow wasp). manually. (A) Malathion (B) Parathion
3. Componotum (C) Aldicarb (D) DDT
(black ant). 7. Gene banks comprise :
4. Galleria mellonella By exposing (A) Seed banks, orchards, tissue culture and
(giant wax moth). bees in bee cryopreservation
hive to sun or (B) Seed banks, tissue culture and cryopreservation
to increased (C) Seed banks and cryopreservation
temperature. (D) Tissue culture and cryopreservation

5. Dicurus macrocercus 8. The first organic pesticide to be used commercially

(king crow). Scared away was :
by some (A) Bordeaux mixture (B) Burgandy mixture
6. Merops orientalis device. (C) DDT (D) 2, 4-D
(green bee eater).
9. The pesticides having very low biodegradation and
strong affinity for fatty tissues are :
(g) Bee Diseases : (A) Organochlorine
(i) Septicemia : A bacterial disease caused by (B) Organophosphates
Bacillus aspisepticus. (C) Triazines
(D) Pyrethroids
(ii) Nosema disease : A protozoan disease caused
by Nosema apis. 10. Pulses are rich in protein because of :
(A) Insectivorous habit
(iii) Acarine disease : Caused by a parasite mite
(B) Requiring high dose of nitrogen fertilisers
Acarapis.
(C) Rhizobium
(iv) Fungal disease : Caused by Aspergillus species. (D) Green manuring

PAGE # 142
 3. Which of the following is not an intention of producing
EXERCISE-2 plants using a portion of a plant tissue or cells in a
suitables nutrient medium based on the principle ‘plant
COMPETITIVE EXAM QUESTIONS cells have the capacity to produce plants of their own
kind’ ? (Karnataka/NTSE Stage-1/05)
1. Three crops that contribute maximum to global food
(A) To obtain disease resistant and high yielding
grain production are (Raj/NTSE Stage-1/05) variety of plants
(A) Wheat, Rice and Maize (B) To reduce the period of life span of plants
(B) Wheat, Rice and Barley (C) To develop large number of plants in a limited space
(C) Wheat, Maize and Sorghum
and time
(D) Rice, Maize and Sorghum
(D) To obtain plants which produce more fertile seeds
2. Which of the following plant disease can be controlled
by chemical control ? (Haryana/NTSE Stage-1/05) 4. Which one of the following is not a cereal crop?
(A) Viral disease (Haryana/ntsestage I 2015)
(B) Diseases caused by nematodes (A) Wheat (B) Rice
(C) Fungal disease (C) Sorghum (D) Mustard
(D) All of these



PAGE # 143
 NATURAL RESOURCES & ITS MANAGEMENT
NATURAL RESOURCES • Types of Natural Resources :
(i) Based on availability : The natural resources are
• It indicates the potential wealth of a country. The variety categorized into two types i.e.
of substances that man gets from earth and nature to
meet his basic needs are called natural resources. (a) nexhaustible natural resources

• Natural resources are both living and non – living. (b) Exhaustible natural resources

Inexhaustible(i) Resources that are

in unlimited quantity.
(ii) Resources that are
Natural not likely to be exhausted
Resources by human activity
or their use.
Examples : Air, Water &
Solar Radiations.

Exhaustible (i) Resources that

are in limited quantity.
(ii) Resources that
are likely to be
exhausted
by human
activities.

Non–Renewable
(i) Cannot replenish
themselves by recycling
& replacement.
(ii) These may
be exhausted.
(iii) Example : Minerals,
Fossil fuels

Renewable
(i) Can replenish
themselves by quick
recycling and replacement
within a reasonable time.
(ii) Not likely to be
exhausted.
(iii) Examples : Soil,
Forests and Wild life.
(ii) Based on origin : On the basis of their origin
AIR OR ATMOSPHERE
resources may be biotic (organic) or abiotic
(inorganic). Biotic resources are obtained from • The multilayered, transparent and protective envelope
the biosphere. Forest and forest products, crops, of gases surrounding the planet earth is called
birds, animal, fish and other marine life forms atmosphere. About 95% of total air is present up to
are examples of biotic resources. Coal and the height of 20 km above earth's surface, remaining
mineral oil also belong to this category since they 5% is up to the height of 280 km.
originate from organic matter. Some biotic • Composition of Air :
resources like forest and livestock are renewable, Gas Relative percentage / volume
whereas coal and oil are Nitrogen 78.08 %
non–renewable. Resources composed of non– Oxygen 20.94 %
Argon 0.9 %
living inorganic matter are called abiotic
Carbon dioxide 0.03 %
resources. Land, water and minerals like iron,
He, Ne, Kr, Xe, in trace amounts.
copper, lead and gold are abiotic resources.
• Besides these gaseous components air also
(iii) Based on utility : Every resource has some utility. possesses water vapour, industrial gases, dust,
For example, some are used as food, some as smoke particles, microorganisms, pollen grains,
raw materials and others as sources of energy. fungal spores etc.

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 DIFFERENT REGIONS OF ATMOSPHERE
S.No. Region Range of distance Density of air Importance
1. Troposphere 11 kms from the Highest Most of the atmospheric air is
surface of earth present here. It is a medium for
locomotion of flying animals,
helps in dispersal of seeds and
fruits; region of cloud formation.
2. Stratosphere 50 kms from the surface of earth Less than troposphere Contains ozone layer that traps
most of UV rays and cosmic rays
of the Sun.
3. Mesosphere 80 kms from the surface of earth Low --
4. Thermosphere 100 kms upwards Extremely low Reflect radio waves back to
earth, artificial satellites are
present here.

(c) Role of Air or Atmosphere : • Wet zone : with very high rainfall
• ntermediate zone : with heavy rainfall
• It acts as medium for movement of insects, birds etc.
• Semi arid zone : with moderate rainfall
• It protects the life on earth from harmful ultra violet rays. • Arid zone : with low rainfall.

• It is a source of oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen (B) Surface water :

required for various metabolic activities of living beings.  There are major river systems with plenty of lakes
• It helps in dispersal of spores, pollen grains etc. & ponds etc.
• t maintains temperature on earth required for life. (C) Ground water :
• It transmits sound for communication.
 t is the water which percolate into the ground.
• Ionosphere reflects the radio waves back to earth for There is a certain level below the soil surface
long distance communication due to presence of ions where the rocks are saturated with water and this
and free electrons. level is known as the zone of saturation.
• Burning (combustion) takes place in presence of
 The upper level of the zone of saturation is called
oxygen and produces carbon dioxide. the water table. However, the vertical distance
• Specific climatic conditions and water cycle is from the surface of a region to the water table is
maintained due to circulation of air. called the water level.
• Eukaryotic cells and many prokaryotic cells require O2 (ii) Salt water resource : t consists of oceans, seas
for break down of glucose to get energy through etc. It cannot be used by living beings for drinking.
respiration. They release CO2.
(b) Role of Water or Hydrosphere :

WATER (HYDROSPHERE) • Water is the main constituent of protoplasm.

• It is the universal solvent. Through which mineral salts
• It is a renewable resource which is essential for
are transported from one part of the plant to the other.
sustainance of life.
• Various metabolic reactions take place in the medium
• It covers 3/4th of the earth’s surface.
containing water.
• Of the total water present in hydrosphere 97% is
present in oceans which is not utilizable by living
• It acts as a reactant in numerous metabolic reactions.
beings. • During photosynthesis, water releases oxygen.
• Only 3% water is fresh water. Among this 3%, 02.0% • Turgidity of the growing cells is maintained with water.
in Ice caps, 0.68% in Ground W ater, 0.009% in • Various movements of plant organs like movements in
Freshwater lakes, 0.009% in Salt lakes and 0.0019% sensitive plant (touch-me-not) are controlled by water.
in Atmosphere is present. • The growth of the cells during elongation phase mainly
(a) Types of Water Resources : depends upon absorption of water.
• Metabolic end product of respiration is water.
(i) Fresh water resource : t consists of ponds,
lakes, large rivers. t can be recycled. It is essential
• It acts as a temperature buffer as its specific heat is
for life on earth as well as for survival. It can be highest (only exception - liquid ammonia).
obtained by three different types of natural • It shows the properties of cohesion and adhesion
resources. which account for the capillary action of water.
(A) Rain water : ndia receives 3 trillion m3 of water
from rainfall or precipitation. Its intensity is different LITHOSPHERE
in different zones, on this basis zones are
Lithosphere is the main life supporting system. Top
classified as : layer of earth is called soil. It is the main natural
resource essential for survival and development.

PAGE # 145
 (a) Structure and Formation of Soil : (iii) Red soil : which is sandy to loam.
Soil is formed due to interaction between weathering (iv) Mountain soil — which is a stony and sandy soil.
of rocks, rain, wind, temperature (physical
components) and plants, animals and microbes (v) Desert soil – which is sandy.
(biological components). (vi) Laterite soil — which has porous clay.
• It is formed by combined action of climatic factors such • Outer most layer of earth is called crust. Many types of
as temperature, rainfall, light etc. and biotic factors minerals are found in crust. They provide many types
such as plants and microbes on earth crust. of nutrients to living beings.
(b) Constituents of Soil :
• Soil contains :
(a) Inorganic constituents of parent rocks • These are the cyclic pathways through which chemical
(b) Organic products of living organisms elements move from environment to organisms and
back to the environment. Such cycling is essential as
(c) Living organisms including microorganisms
the earth and its environment, with reference to these
(d) Air in the pores. elements, is considered as a closed system and there
• There are four important components of soil. They is no inflow of such elements from outside the earth
are and their amount is limited.
(i) Mineral matter 50–60% • Two types of biogeochemical cycles are
(ii) Organic matter 10% (I) Gaseous cycles e.g. water, Nitrogen, Carbon,
(A) Living organisms oxygen cycles.
(B) Decomposed matter (II) Sedimentary cycles e.g. Phosphorus, Sulphur
(iii) Soil water 25 – 35 % cycles.
(iv) Soil air 15–25 % (a) Water Cycle :
(c) Types of Soil : Water is the most abundant (60–90%) component of
On the basis of its nature and composition, soil is protoplasm. It acts as a habitat for hydrophytes and
mainly of six types — many aquatic animals, a good ionizer, good solvent,
temperature buffer and perform transportation of
(i) Alluvial soil : rich in loam and clay. materials. It also helps in digestion of organic
(ii) Black soil – which has clay. compounds and in photosynthesis of plants.

PAGE # 146
(b) Nitrogen Cycle : Nitrogen is an essential • Steps of nitrogen cycle are :
component of amino acids, proteins, enzymes
(A) Nitrogen fixation : It involves the conversion of
& nucleic acids of the protoplasm. Reservoir
free diatomic nitrogen (N2) into nitrites and nitrates.
pool of nitrogen is atmosphere which contains It occurs in following ways :
about 78.08% of nitrogen in gaseous state. But Atmospheric nitrogen fixation in the presence of
it cannot be used directly and is changed into photochemical and electrochemical reactions
nitrites and nitrates and then utilized. induced by thundering and lightning.

Industrial nitrogen fixation in the industries at high (D) Denitrification : t involves reduction of ammonium
temperature and high pressure. compounds, nitrites and nitrates to molecular
Biological nitrogen fixation in the presence of certain nitrogen in the presence of denitrifying bacteria
living organisms as
like Thiobacillus denitrificans and pseudomonas.
Rhizobium bacterium in the root nodules of legumes.
Azotobacter bacterium in the soil. (c ) Carbon Cycle :
Anabaena (blue green algae) in water in the paddy
Carbon is the basic component of all the organic
fields.
compounds like carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, enzymes
Azospirillum bacterium in loose association with the
roots of maize, sorghum, etc. and nucleic acids of the protoplasm. In atmosphere, it is
present as carbon dioxide. It involves two types of
(B) Ammonification : t involves the decomposition processes, one involving CO 2 utilization and another
of proteins of dead plants and animals to
involving CO2 production. They are expressed as follows :
ammonia in the presence of ammonifying
bacteria like Bacillus ramosus. (i) CO2 utilization : Carbon dioxide is utilized by the
(C) Nitrification : It involves the oxidation of ammonia photosynthetic organisms like green plants,
to nitrites (NO 2– ) and nitrates (NO 3– ) in the photosynthetic bacteria, diatoms and blue green
presence of nitrifying bacteria like Nitrosomonas algae in photosynthesis,t occurs in the presence
(Ammonia to nitrite), Nitrobacter (Nitrite to of chlorophyll and radiant energy of sunlight.
nitrate), etc. Plants absorb the nitrites and Glucose synthesized in photosynthesis is used
nitrates from the soil through their roots and to synthesize other organic compounds.
convert them into organic compounds (e.g.
proteins) of protoplasm by the process called
nitrogen assimilation.

PAGE # 147
 MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES
• We often hear or read about environmental problems.
These are often global-level problems and we feel
helpless to make any changes.
• There are international laws and regulations, and then
there are our own national laws and acts for
environmental protection.
• There are national and international organizations
also working towards protecting our environment.
• The multi crore project of Ganga Action Plan came
about in 1985 because the quality of water in the
ganga was so poor.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
• It is the development which can be maintained for a
long time without undue damage to the environment.
• The objective of sustainable development is to provide
the economic well being of the present and the future
generations and to maintain a healthy environment
and life support system.
• It encourages forms of growth that meet current basic
human needs, thus sustainable development implies
a change in all aspects of life.
(ii) CO 2 production : CO 2 is released during • It depends upon the willingness of the people to
respiration of both producers and consumers. change their perceptions of the socio economic
During decomposition of organic compounds of environmental conditions and use of natural
dead bodies. During burning of fossil fuels like resources.
wood, coal, petroleum ,etc.Volcanic eruptions and  Three R’s to save the environment :
hot springs. During weathering of rocks by acids
produced by microorganisms and roots of higher (i) Reduce : This means ‘to use less’. We can save
plants. electricity by switching off unnecessary lights
and fans. We can save water by repairing leaky
(d) Oxygen Cycle : taps.
Oxygen is present in water and forms 20% of air in (ii) Recycle : This means that we can collect plastic,
atmosphere. All living beings need it for respiration. paper, glass and metal items and recycle these
Oxygen content of atmosphere has remained constant materials to make required things instead of
for the last several million years. Most of O 2 lost is synthesizing or extracting fresh plastic, paper,
replenished by photosynthesis. During photosynthesis glass or metal.
CO2 is used by plants to form food along with release
of oxygen. The oxides can be reduced both chemically  In order to recycle, we first need to segregate our
and biologically to produce oxygen. waste so that the material that can be recycled is
not dumped along with other waste.
(iii) Reuse : This is actually even better than recycling
because the process of recycling uses some
energy. In the 'reuse' strategy, we can simply use
things again and again.
• Need to Manage Our Resources : Our natural
resources are limited with the rapid increase in human
population.
 Due to improvement in health care, the demand
for all resources is also increasing. Management
of natural resources requires long term
perspective to meet the needs and aspirations of
future generations.
 Natural resources should be managed in such a
way that every one in the society is benefitted from
its development.
Microbial oxidation can also occur. Due to burning of
materials oxygen form carbon dioxide. When oxygen  The waste generated from exploration of natural
combines with nitrogen, it forms oxides of nitrogen, resources should be disposed off safely. For
amino acids, proteins etc. instance, mining causes pollution due to discard
of large amount of slag during metal extraction.

PAGE # 148
 • Rags :
FORESTS AND WILD LIFE
 A huge variety of waste pieces of cloth, torn towels,
• t is the existence of a wide variety of species of plants, handkerchiefs, etc. Old bed sheets, blankets,
animals and microorganisms in a natural habitat cushions.
within a particular environment.
 Discarded worn out clothing and footwear,
• Biodiversity of an area is the number of species or
curtains.
range of different life forms found there.
• Forests are ‘biodiversity hotspots’. • Paper : The daily newspapers and magazines are a
• One of the main aims of conservation is to try and very common waste (which are generally sold off to
preserve the biodiversity we have inherited . "raddiwalas" who pass them on for a variety of use).
Such waste paper is even recycled for their reuse in
• The loss of biodiversity may lead to a loss of ecological
some way in paper industry.
stability.
(B) Industrial Waste : There is a huge variety of
industries producing different types of materials
INTRODUCTION
and articles. All of these use raw materials and
W aste is any substance which is discarded as give out a lot of waste. Some of these are as
worthless, defective or of no use. Ever since the follows:
human society has been evolving with huge population
• Mining operations : There are hundreds of mines in
growth, there has been ever-increasing demand for
India alone and thousands in the world, which extract
the primary needs of food, shelter and clothing, etc.
copper, silver, gold, zinc, iron, coal, etc. Huge quantities
This has led to the rapidly increasing size and number
of towns, cities, large agricultural fields, storage of waste are produced while processing them. Such
godowns, factories, interconnecting roads, railways waste is usually called mine tailing (the leftover). The
and so on. With these, there has also been increasing mine tailing mixed with other materials can be used
use of electricity, firewood, petroleum and even for making tiles, masonry cement, etc.
nuclear energy. All this is leading to more and more • Cement industries : The wastes given out may be
human body wastes, livestock wastes, discarded
solid, liquid and gaseous.
equipments, agricultural wastes, etc. Efficient methods
of their disposal are being continuously improved.  The solid wastes are used in construction
activities or dumped in land-fill.
CATEGORIES OF WASTES  The liquid wastes including wash-offs are treated
to remove harmful substances and then released
• Broadly there are five major categories of waste : into the rivers, ponds, lakes, or sea.
(i) Domestic wastes given out from homes  The gaseous wastes include the flyash which
(ii) Industrial wastes given out from factories, thermal consists of fine solid particles of non-combustible
plants, etc. ash carried out of a bed of solid fuel by a draft. It
can be used for making a variety of building
(iii) Agricultural wastes that are left behind after materials like bricks, concrete, roofing sheets.
obtaining the consumable parts,
• Oil refineries : W hile refining crude oil a lot of
(iv) Municipal wastes which include the overall
wastes given out from the township, and poisonous gaseous and liquid wastes are produced.

(v) e-waste (electronic waste) from electrical and  Gaseous waste is cleaned by passing through
electronic equipment. cleaners, and purified part is released into the
(A) Domestic Waste : An average home produces atmosphere.
the following types of wastes :  The liquid wastes are processed and suitably
dumped.
• Kitchen waste : Several items such as :
• Construction units: These produce huge quantities
 Peelings of vegetables and fruits,
of waste stones, pebbles, broken bricks, wood waste,
 Shells taken off from ground nuts and other dry
etc. Mostly these are dumped in landfills. This is
fruits,
particularly a huge waste in large towns, and one sees
 Washing of pulses, rice, etc. before cooking,
heaps of landfills in the suburbs.
 Any stale or rotten non-usable food items,
 Any left overs in the food dishes. (C) Agricultural Waste : Agriculture is the art of
cultivating the soil, producing crops and raising
• Plastics :
livestock (from animals). The agricultural waste
 Plastic packings and wrappings mainly includes :
 Discarded used and broken plastic obj ects
including toys, etc.  Agricultural residues: The plant parts left after
obtaining the usuable portions. Much of this is
• Glass : used as animal feed.
 Broken glass utensils, mirrors, containers,  Bagasse is the plant residue (as of sugar cane
window panes, electric bulbs. after extracting the sugarcane juice). These are
used as fire wood or in paper industry.
PAGE # 149
  Pesticides and fertilizers collect into the soil and reported in Delhi when the radioactive cobalt-60 was
are washed off with the irrigation and rain water found to have been passed on to waste dealers who
leading to river and pond pollution. Strict had dumped it in the open in a well-inhabited colony.
precautions have to be taken in their use. Some affected humans badly suffered from it.
 Animal wastes include cow dung and other faecal
matter which is used in making manure. METHODS OF SAFE DISPOSAL OF WASTES
(D) Municipal Waste : Municipal waste includes the
The wastes are of so many types. Their disposal also
following :
requires different suitable methods. These methods
 Household discharge of excreta (faecal matter mainly include : segregation, dumping, composting,
from toilets), and kitchen washings. drainage, treatment of effluents, incineration,
 Discharge from public toilets, hospitals, hotels, scrubbers, electrostatic precipitors, etc.
restaurants, offices, etc. All this sewage is • Segregation : Segregation means separating the
separated into : refuse mainly into three categories : reusable,
(i) the degradable (capable of being broken down degradable and non-degradable parts.
chemically into non-toxic parts) and  Reusable waste includes items such as Paper
(ii) the non-degradable portions.
(newspaper, old books, discarded exercise
 Septic tanks are used to degrade the degradable books, etc.). Can you imagine the bulk of
parts. The non-degradable part is dumped or examination answer books piling up into tons and
buried at safe places. tons of weight. All such paper can be recycled.
The metallic components also can be separated
(E) e-WASTE: e-waste is the abbreviation of electronic
and resued.
waste. It consists of the discarded appliances
 Degradable such as organic wastes (vegetable
using electricity, such as old computers, TV s,
and fruit peelump, etc.) can be decomposed into
refrigerators, radios, cell (mobile) phones,
useful manure.
fluorescent tubes, toys, medical instruments, acid
batteries, etc. e-waste may contain harmful  Non-degradable parts such as certain plastics
substances as well as some valuable reusable can be dumped.
material : • Dumping :
 Harmful substances: Lead, Cadmium, Mercury, • The non degradable waste can be put at certain
etc. places in specially dug up pits away from human
 Valuable materials: Gold. Silver. Copper etc.. habitations.
• Generation of e-waste : The e-waste is mostly • Composting :
generated in large cities, but as the living standards
are fast improving, even the smaller cities and towns  Composting means putting the waste organic
are getting flooded with electronic gadgets and thus matter to decay so that it can be used for fertilizing
contributing to e-waste. the agricultural land.

• Disposal of e-waste : The rag pickers and waste • Method of preparing compost :
dealers (kabadis) obtain the discarded electronic  A trench of about 5 m long, 1.5 m wide and 1.5 m
gadgets. They remove the usable components or deep is dug .
extract the secondary raw materials. But these  A layer of well mixed refuse and waste is spread
recycling processes are harmful causing health " in it for about 30 cm thickness
problems including cancers. Burning of printed wiring
 This layer is fully wetted with watery mixture of
boards give out harmful fumes if inhaled and certain
cowdung & some mud.
residues which may unknowingly enter food chains
via the crops cause body ailments.
 A second layer of mixed reuse is spread over the
first layer till the heap rises to project above the
• Recycling : Most electronic devices contain a variety ground level by about half a meter.
of materials. including metals which can be recovered  The set up is left as such for about 3 months.Then
for future use, but it needs to be done very carefully the trench is opened, its material is taken out and
under skilled supervision. rearranged in conical heaps and covered by earth.
About 50-60 days later the mass called compost
SCIENCE TEACHING & RESEARCH is ready for application in the cultivation fields or
LABORATORIES WASTES in garden flower beds, etc. Such town refuse
compost is becoming quite popular. For example,
As the country is progressing, more and more teaching in Delhi what is known as “Okhla Khad” is mainly
institutes and research laboratories are coming up. from garbage (food waste) and human sewage
Their waste material is of varied nature - broken or (night-soil).
discarded glass apparatus, condemned machines, • Drainage : A proper system of drains is required to
waste chemicals, animal and plant wastes from carry away all kinds of fluid wastes other than sewage.
biology laboratories, and from their culture rooms. All If not so done, the watery fluids would accumulate in
such waste needs to be properly disposed off either pits and puddles and will become the breeding places
in deeply dug out pits or burnt in special enclosures. for mosquitoes and other harmful insects.
Disposal of discarded radioactive material needs
special care. Any carelessness in it can be threat to • Treatment of Effluents :The industrial and municipal
human health. A well-known case was recently waste waters are treated in Effluent Treatment Plants
before disposing them off into water bodies. This is
done in three parts :
PAGE # 150
 1. Primary treatment : Separation of large debris • Electrostatic Precipitators : The dirty air containing
by sedimentation in tanks. particulates is passed through a chamber containing
2. Secondary treatment: The waste water is electrically charged plates. The particles may be
pumped into oxidation ponds where naturally electrically charged and as they pass through
microorganisms (bacteria, algae, etc.) oxidise the the charged plates of the precipitators they get
organic matter releasing CO 2, and a solid collected on the plates carrying opposite charge and
precipitated material sludge is produced that can the clean gas passes out. The electrostatic
be used as manure. precipitators can remove upto 90% of particulate
3. Tertiary treatment involves removal of dissolved matter from thermal plants.
chemicals, metals or even pathogens and then
the waste water is discharged into natural waters
or is used for irrigation. EXERCISE-1
• Incineration : is the disposal of waste by burning. Natural resources
Incineration serves three main purposes : 1. The life sustaining zone of the earth, where lithosphere,
 It reduces the volume of wastes hydrosphere and atmosphere interact is called
 Reduces weight of the waste (A) ecosystem (B) stratosphere
 Renders toxic wastes into less toxic or even non- (C) biosphere (D) ozonosphere
toxic wastes.
2. Which one of the following is an inexhaustible natural
• Impact of incineration : resource ?
 Releases fumes and harmful substances. (A) Air (B) Coal
(C) Petroleum (D) None of these
• Precautions :
 Incineration should be carried out at very high 3. Total organic matter present in an ecosystem is called
temperatures (A) Biomass (B) Biome
 Should be equipped with pollution control (C) Litter (D) Food
devices. 4. Which one of the following is a degradable pollutant ?
 Incinerators should be installed away from (A) DDT (B) Sewage
residential areas. The left over after incineration (C) Plastics (D) Heavy metals
contains about 25 % of waste residue as an ash.
The ash should be deposited in landfills. 5. The world Environmental Day is celebrated on
(A) 5th June (B) 6th June
• Advantages of incineration : th
(C) 15 june (D) 6th August
 The ash left over occupies much less landfill
space. Waste Management
 The residual bottom ash can be used for the
6. Scrubber used in Devices used to
recovery of some metals in it.
(A) remove gaseous & particulate air pollutants
 Electricity can be generated from the heat
(B)Water purification
released during burning.
(C) Soil filteration
• Scrubbers : The scrubbers are devices to remove (D) All of the above
gaseous and particulate air pollutants. In these, the
air is passed though a dry or wet packing material.The 7. Which one of the following can recycle ?
air passing out of the scrubber is dust-free clean, as (A) Hospital waste (B) Paper
well as free of certain gaseous pollutants which get (C) Plastic (D) All of these
dissolved in the wet packing. 8. Which one of the following pair is correctly matched ?
(A) Municipal waste – bagasse
(B) Industrial waste – Oil refineries
(C) Laboratories waste – Rags
(D) Domestic waste – Refrigerators
9. The most rapidly increasing and much harmful waste,
today is
(A) Household waste (B) Paper
(C) municipal sewage (D) electronic waste
10. Incineration is the disposal of waste by ;
(A) sedimentation (B) burning
(C) Scrubers (D) none of these
11. e-waste is
(A) emergeney waste (B) energy waste
(C) electronic waste (D) None of these
PAGE # 151
12. Which one of these are non degradable waste ? 4. The function of Nitrosomonas bacteria in nitrogen
(A) Vegetable waste (B) Fruit peel cycle is to :
(C) Plastics (D) none of these (Karnataka/NTSE Stage-1/05)
(A) oxidises ammonium salts into nitrites
13. Which one of these is a plant residue ? (B) oxidise nitries into nitrates
(A) Pesticides (B) Fertilizers (C) oxidise nitrities into ammonium salts
(C) Bagasse (D) Dung (D) oxidise nitrates into nitries
14. Methods of safe disposal of wastes, includes 5. Which of the following constitute a food chain -
(A) Dumping (B) Composting (Karnataka/NTSE Stage-1/05)
(C) Drainage (D) All of these (A) Grass, wheat, Mango (B) Grass, Cow, Human
(C) Cow, Goat, Elephant (D) Grass, Fish, Goat
Biogeo chemical cycle
15. Biological O 2 demand measures 6. Which of the follwing is not a biodegradable material
(A) industrial pollution ? (M.P./ntse/stage I 2015)
(B) dissolved oxygen needed by microbes (A) Aluminium foil (B) Animal bone
(C) polluting capacity of effluents (C) Wood (D) Cotton
(D) air pollution 7. Which one of the following is a renewable resource ?
(M.P./ntse/stage I 2015)
16. Biogeochemical cycling means cycling of
(A) Coal (B) Oil
(A) water
(C) Forest (D) Petrol
(B) energy in an ecosystem
(C) nutrients in an ecosystem 8. According to origin, identify the secondary air
pollutant(Maharastra/ntse/stage I 2015)
(D) gases between plants and atmosphere
(A) SO3
17. Which one of the following is sedimentary cycle. (B) Ash
(A) oxygen cycle (C) Smoke
(B) nitrogen cycle (D) Radioactive compound
(C) hydrogen cycle 9. In residential area at nights, the standard limit of sound
(D) phosphorus cycle intensity is ... Decibel ?
(Maharastra/ntse/stage I 2015)
18. The bulk of nitrogen in nature is not fixed by
(A) 55 (B) 70
(A) Lightening (C) 45 (D) 40
(B) Chemical industries
10. Which of the following gases mainly increases global
(C) nitrifying bacteria
warming ?
(D) Symbiotic bacteria
(Gujrat/ntse/stage I 2015)
(A) Carbon monoxide (B) Nitrous oxide
EXERCISE-2 (C) Carbon dioxide (D) Sulphur dioxide

COMPETITIVE EXAM QUESTIONS 11. W hich of the following is the example of the waste
bio-decomposition of living beings?
1. The use of disposable paper-cups is more beneficial (Gujrat/ntse/stage I 2015)
over disposable plastic-cups, because (A) Vegetable (B) Glass
(Raj/NTSE Stage-1/05) (C) Plastic (D) Metal
(A) it is cheaper
12. The three R’s, which can, help us to conserve natu-
(B) it is easily available
(C) it can be reused
ral resources for future generation are
(Andhra Pradesh/ntse/stage I 2015)
(D) its recycling process has no harmful impact on
environment (A) Reduce, Regenerate, Redistribute.
(B) Reduce, Recycle, Regenerate.
2. Population size is controlled by -
(C) Reduce, Reuse, Recycle.
(Haryana/NTSE Stage-1/05)
(D) Redistribute, Regenerate, Recycle.
(A) death rate
(B) birth rate 13. Select the group which contains only non
(C) demographic transition biodegradable items ?
(D) carrying capacity of environment (Hariyana/ntse/stage I 2015)
3. Depletion of ozone layer is mainly due to - (A) Wood, paper, leather
(M.P/NTSE Stage-1/05) (B) Polythene, glass, PVC
(A) Methane (B) Carbon monooxide (C) Plastic, glass, grass
(C) Chlorofloro Carbon (D) Nitrogen (D) Plastic, nylon, cardboard

PAGE # 152
 OUR ENVIRONMENT

1. Fresh Water - It may be lentic (standing water) or lotic

• Term ecosystem was first given by A.G Tansley (1935). ( running water) ecosystem.
• System arising out of interactions between living and (a) Lentic - Pond, pool and ditch ecosystem.
non-living components of environment is called
Ecosystem. (b) Lotic - River, stream and spring ecosystem.

• Ecosystem is of two types : 2. Marine - Ocean and sea.

(A) Natural Ecosystem : It is governed by natural (B) Artificial Ecosystem : It is governed by man. It is
conditions. These are of two types : also known as man made ecosystem, e.g., Crop
land ecosystem and aquarium.
(i) Terrestrial : e.g., Forest, grassland and desert
ecosystem.
COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM
(ii) Aquatic : It is further of two types :
Ecosystem

Biotic component Abiotic component

(living organism are included)

Chemical factor Physical / Climatic factor Edaphic factor

Producers Consumers Decomposers

(Trophic level 1) (Heterotrophic organism are included)
(autotrophic organism Primary consumer (Trophic level 2) Saprotrophic organism can
are included) Eg. Herbivore act on every trophic level
Eg. bacteria, fungi like
Photoautotrophic microorganism
Eg. Green plants Secondary consumer (Trophic level 3)
Eg. Small Carnivore
Chemoautotrophic
Eg. N2-Bacteria, Hydrogen Tertiary consumer (Trophic level 4)
oxidising-Bacteria(Knallgas) Eg. Large Carnivore
Top consumer (Highest trophic level)
Eg. Largest Carnivore & Omnivore

• Scavengers : Vulture never kills any animal so the

vulture is a scavenger, but not a decomposer. The
process of decomposition takes place outside the
body/cell of decomposer. The break down of the food
materials takes place inside the body of vulture and
minerals are released into the soil in the form faecal
materials.
• They are also called as reducers because they eat up
and remove the dead bodies of the organism.

PAGE # 153
• Abiotic component : These include the non living are different in plains, on hills, mountains, deserts
physico-chemical factors of environment . etc.Even ponds, rivers, lakes, etc. have some kind
of soil in their bottom, which is required by the
1. Inorganic materials : They are involved in the
organisms living there.
material cycles e.g. Carbon, Nitrogen CO2 & H2O.
2. Organic compounds : These are present in dead FOOD CHAIN
organic matter and include carbohydrates.
3. Climatic and edaphic factor : Climatic factors • The chain of organisms which involves transfer of
energy from one trophic level to next trophic level is
include physical factors of environment e.g., light,
called as food chain.
temperature etc. The edaphic factor is soil.
• The flow of food or energy in an ecosystem is called
(A) Sunlight : For the production of food by food chain. Those organisms which join with the food
photosynthesis. chain are termed as Trophic level.
(B) Air : To provide oxygen to animals for respiration, • Usually, there are four trophic levels present in the
and carbon dioxide to plants for photosynthesis . ecosystem because level of energy decreases during
• To serve as a medium for flight for birds, insects, etc. the flow of energy from one trophic level to the another
trophic level.
• To serve as an agency for the dispersal of seeds,
fruits and pollen, by the blowing winds. First trophic level [T1] : Producers
Second trophic level [T2] : Primary consumers
(C) Water: Received as rainfall and absorbed as soil
Third trophic level [T3] : Secondary consumers
water, and then taken by the plants or consumed
Fourth trophic level [T4] : Top consumers
by the animals in drinking from drains, puddles
or rivers. • Types of Food Chain : There are three types of food
chains which are found in nature.
(D) Temperature: Hot, mild or cold temperature,
influences the kind of body functions of the plants (i) Predator food chain : Predator food chain
and animals living in such areas. extends from producers through herbivores to
carnivores.
(E) Soil : Soil in a way is the foremost component of
all ecosystems. The trees, grass, bushes grow (ii) Parasitic food chain : Parasitic food chain starts
in soil. Soil contains water and mineral nutrients from producers but ends with parasites .

(sodium, potassium, etc.) required by the plants.

(iii) Saprophytic (detritus) food chain : Saprophytic
Soil also contains microorganisms (bacteria,
food chain starts with dead and decaying organic
etc.). It also provides dwelling place for burrowing
material.
animals like rats, snakes as well as for
earthworms which even swallow the mud • Some common predator food chains are given below
containing dead organic matter. The soil types Predator food chain :

PAGE # 154
• Vegetation  Grasshoppers  Shrew  Hawk • Any attack or cutting of plants can causes the
• Vegetation  Rabbit  Wolf  Tiger destruction of whole ecosystem, e.g. Gondwana forest
• Vegetation  Frog  Snake  Peacock is converted into the desert by the activity of men.
• Plant  Rat  Snake  Hawk. • This is the example of desertification by men.
• Aquatic food chains : DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FOOD CHAIN
• Phytoplanktons  Zooplanktons  Small AND FOOD WEB
crustacians  Predator insect  Small fish 
Large fish  Crocodile Food chain Food web
Food chain is the It consists of a number
• Phytoplanktons Zooplanktons Small Large
fish straight single of inter connected food
fish
path of transfer of chains through which
Shark food energy food energy is passed
• Phytoplanktons  Zooplanktons  Fish  in the ecosystem. in the ecosystem.
Crane  Hawk.
Members of higher Members of higher
trophic level feed trophic level can feed
FOOD WEB
upon a single type of on a number of
• In nature, the food chains are not isolated sequences organisms of lower alternative organism of
but are rather interconnected with one another. trophic level. the lower trophic level.
• " A network of food chains which are interconnected at – Presence of food web
various trophic levels, so as to form a number of increases the stability
feeding connections amongst different organisms of of the ecosystem.
a biotic community is called as food web".
• The food web opens several alternate pathways for • Ecological Pyramids :
the flow of energy.
 Trophic structure of ecosystem is a type of
• The food web increases the stability of an ecosystem
producer-consumer arrangement and the
by providing alternate source of the food and allowing
graphical representation of trophic structure of
endangered population to grow in size.
ecosystem constitutes ecological pyramids.
• Many food chains are interlinked together to form a
food web in a big ecosystem in which flow of food  The concept of ecological pyramid was given by
takes place through many directions such as forest. Elton in 1927.
 Each food level is also called trophic level.
Ecological pyramids are of three types :
(A) Pyramid of number

 Number of individuals at each trophic level is

shown in pyramid.
 Its pyramid may be upright in grassland and pond
ecosystem, intermediate in forest ecosystem,
inverted in parasitic food chain.

 n a tree ecosystem the pyramid of number is

inverted. This is called as parasitic ecosystem
because birds depend upon tree and parasites
• As much as food web complexes are there as much depend upon birds. Therefore with the increase
ecosystem is permanent or stable, such type of in the number of trophic levels, the number of the
ecosystem does not degenerate naturally and organisms increases sequentially.
continues for longer time period.

PAGE # 155
 NEED TO RESTORE & CONSERVE
THE ECOSYSTEMS

Restoring an ecosystem by establishing the finer

balance between organism and environment is the
best way that, being a responsible human we can do.
There is an absolute need today to assist nature by
 Pyramid of number shows biotic potential of an not disturbing its integrity, and help it gaining its lost
ecosystem. delicacy. By protecting our native natural resources like
wildlife, rivers, forests, etc., one can contribute greatly
 The number of members of any particular
in preservation of our ecosystem.
species in a favorable condition is called as their
biotic potential.
POLLUTION
 When the number of the members of any species
• Pollution is one of the major environmental problems
increases then it is called as population of these days.
explosion. • The term ‘pollution’ means an undesirable change in
(B) Pyramid of biomass the physical, chemical or biological characteristics of
our air, land and water that will harmfully affect the
 Total dry weight of an organism is called as human life.
biomass. • ‘Pollutant’ is anything including a chemical,
geochemical substance or a biological product that
 W here biomass of each trophic level is shown
deteriorates our natural environment.
in pyramid. • In normal way there are two basic types of pollutants:
(A) Non-Biodegradable pollutants
(B) Biodegradable pollutants
• Nondegradable pollutants such as aluminium cans,
mercury salts, DDT etc. that either do not degrade or
degrade extremely slowly in the natural environment.
• Biodegradable pollutants such as the domestic
sewage rapidly decomposed by the natural process
Pyramid of biomass
or some artificial system that enhance nature’s great
 Its pyramid may be upright in grassland and capacity to decompose and recycle. The pollution has
forest ecosystem whereas inverted in pond also been classified on the following basis:
ecosystem. (a) On the basis of pollutants : There are number of
(C) Pyramid of energy : pollutants in environment and the pollution caused by
them may be of following types :
 Where energy content or productivity of different (i) Sewage pollution
trophic levels is shown in pyramid. Its pyramid is
(ii) Pesticides pollution
always upright in all ecosystems.
(iii) Heavy metal pollution
T4 (iv) Smoke pollution
(v) Gaseous pollution
T3
(vi) Chemical pollution
T2 (vii) Radioactive pollution

T1 (viii) Oil and petrochemical pollution etc.

(b) On the basis of environment : When different types
Pyramid of energy
of environment are affected by pollution, they are :
Zooplanktons are the first consumers and
phytoplanktons are producers of aquatic ecosystem. (i) Air pollution (ii) Water pollution
The total amount of energy fixed [food] in an (iii) Soil pollution (iv) Marine pollution
ecosystem [producers] is called as gross primary
(v) Thermal pollution (vi) Noise pollution etc.
productivity while the remaining storage of organic
matter [after respiration] not used by producers is
called as net primary productivity.
Availability of the nutrients from the soil is related Release or occurrence of any foreign materials or
with the pH of soil. gases in the atmosphere which may be harmful to
man, animals and vegetation etc. is known as air
pollution.
PAGE # 156
• There are two main categories of air pollutants : • Photochemical smog: Hydrocarbons and nitrogen
(i) Gaseous : The gaseous pollutants include oxides when mixed in the atmosphere formed ozone
various gases and vapours of volatile substances and complex organic gases in the presence of UV
or the compounds. radiation in sun light. This in turn causes
photochemical smog.
(ii) Particulate matter: The particulate pollutants
include the particles of solids and liquids e.g. • Smog : It is a mixture of smoke and fog arises from
aerosols, smoke, fumes etc. many sources including factories, oil refineries etc.
• Major Air pollutant : • Photochemical smog was first observed in Los
(i) Carbon monoxide (CO) : This is the main air Angeles (USA).
pollutant. Carbon monoxide is a highly toxic gas • Photochemical smog is highly oxidizing polluted
which is colourless and odourless in nature. It atmosphere comprising largely of O3, H2O2, PAN etc.
combines with haemoglobin of the blood and
• Photochemical smog is responsible for causing eye
blocks the transportation of oxygen. Thus, it
impairs respiration and causes death. watering and respiratory distress in human beings.
• Cigarette smoke, motor vehicles, industrial plants are
(ii) Unburnt hydrocarbons : 3, 4 – benzpyrene is the
main pollutant. This causes cancer in lungs. the common sources of carbon monoxide (CO).
• Carbon monoxide is the most poisonous gas causes
(iii) Ethylene : The falling of leaves without particular
reason, falling of buds etc. effects are seen in suffocation, because haemoglobin combines with CO.
plants due to ethylene. • Hb + CO  Carboxyhaemoglobin
(iv) Oxides of nitrogen : The oxides of nitrogen form • Large amount of carbon monoxide, when inhaled lead
photochemical smog in the atmosphere and to symptoms as laziness, exhaustion of body,
release ozone. Ozone causes harm to headache etc.
mucilagenous membrane. The oxide pollutants • Burning of fossil fuels is the main cause of sulphur
of nitrogen are nitric oxide (NO), and nitrogen di
dioxide pollution.
oxide (NO2). These oxides and ozone are very
harmful for the plants. The entry of these • Sulphur dioxide causes different respiratory distress
pollutants causes various diseases in animals in animals.
like-respiratory trouble such as emphysema, • Photochemical smog : It is formed due to peroxy
bronchitis, swelling of lungs and lung cancer etc. acetyl nitrate (PAN) and ozone. These pollutants are
(v) Smoke : Many constituents are present in smoke formed due to photochemical reactions of nitrogen
such as sulphur dioxide (SO 2), sulphur trioxide oxide and hydrocarbons present in the atmosphere.
(SO3), sulphuric acid (H2SO4), ozone (O3), carbon
(Smog = Smoke + Fog)
dioxide (CO2), PAN (peroxyacetyl nitrate), arsenic
and fluoride etc. The lichens and mosses are • Acid rain :
the indicators of SO 2 pollution because lichens
and mosses cannot grow in the industrial regions  Oxidation of sulphur in fossil fuels mainly
or the regions containing SO 2 pollutants. The produces SO2 and SO3 which are harmful. These
higher concentration of ozone produces harmful gases react with water to form sulphuric acid.
effects. But normally, ozone layer absorbs U.V. The acids, when precipitated as rain or snow,
rays which are harmful for the living things.
create acid rain.
(vi) Aerosol : The aerosol like C.F.C. (Chloro fluoro  SO2 (oxidized) SO3 + H2O  H2SO4
carbon) release into the atmosphere from the
refrigerators, air conditioners and jet planes  NO (oxidized)  NO2 + H2O  HNO3
deplete or reduce the ozone layer. This thin layer  Acid rain damages buildings and statues of
of ozone is also known as ozone hole results in limestone.
the increase in temperature of the earth.
 Acid rain also harmful for some aquatic forms.
• Important sources of air pollution are power and heat
generating system, producing large quantity of waste • Green House Effect :
gases, use of insecticides and fungicides etc.  If there is an increase in CO2 concentration, then
• Motor vehicles alone contribute about 60% of air
the thick layer of this gas prevents the heat from
pollution in major cities like Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata
being re-radiated out. This thick CO2 layer thus
and Chennai.
functions like the glass panels of a green house
• Particulate air pollution are any materials suspended
allowing the sunlight to filter through but
in the atmosphere. They consist of fine solids or liquid
droplets suspended in the air. preventing the heat from being re-radiated in outer
• Smoke causes about 10-15% of atmospheric space. This is so called Green-house effect.
pollution. Smoke is produced by burning coal, cooking  Carbon dioxide is chiefly produced by burning of
fuel etc. fossil fuels like coal, petroleum and natural gas.
• One of the most harmful effect of smoke is the smog  Carbon dioxide contributes maximum to the
formation which makes fog heavier and darker.
green-house effect on earth.

PAGE # 157
  Green-house effect is related to ‘Global warming’.  Lead is also a pollutant from automobile exhausts
 Both methane (CH 4 ) and chlorofluorocarbons which affects health adversely and causes mental
illness.
(CFCs) are potent green-house gases.
 Chlorofluorocarbons and chlorofluoro- methanes
 Pollen grains of Amaranthus plant causes air
pollution.
(CFMs) released into stratosphere, where they
dissociate to release free chlorine that causes  NEERI : National Environmental Engineering
depletion of ozone. Research Institute, Nagpur.
(a ) Global Warming :
Global warming is the increase in average global
temperature due to increase in amount of GHGs in
•
[ The presence of some inorganic, organic, biological,
earth’s atmosphere. radiological or physical foreign substances or
• Consequences of global warming : particles, in the water that tends to degrade its quality.
•
[ Most of our water bodies as ponds, lakes, streams,
(i) Increase in the sea level : Global warming will rivers, sea, oceans have become polluted due to
melt polar ice caps. If all the ice on the earth will industrial growth, urbanisation and other man made
melt, about 200 feet of water would be added to problems.
surface of all oceans. Thus low lying coastal cities
like Shanghai, Kolkata, Bangkok, Dhaka, Venice, • The chief sources of water pollution are :
etc. will be inundated. (i) Sewage and other wastes
(ii) Increase in global temperature : f present input (ii) Industrial effluents
of GHGs will be continued, the earth’s global
temperature will rise. (iii) Agricultural discharges

(iii) Effect on agriculture : Grain production will be (iv) Industrial wastes from chemical industries, fossil
reduced. India’s annual monsoon rains may even fuels, plants and nuclear power plants.
cease together. One third of global forest might • Sewage :
be swept away. Deserts are likely to increase
 It consists of excreta of animals.
(iv) Chances of hurricanes, cyclones and floods will
be more.
 A major source of water pollution is raw or partially
discharged sewage thrown into natural resources
(v) Increased temperature and humidity caused by of water (e.g., rivers, lakes, streams etc.).
global warming will lead to spread of diseases
like malaria, filariasis etc. due to spread of • Industrial wastes :
vectors. Incidences of respiratory and skin  The industries that cause pollution are printing,
diseases are likely to increase. electroplating, soap manufacture, rubber, plastics
• Ozone layer depletion : etc.

 Layer of atmosphere (about 30-50 km above earth  Caustic soda and chlorine· factories release
surface) which provides a thermal blanket and heavy metals, such as mercury, cadmium,
radiation shield to the earth by absorbing much chromium, copper, lead etc.
of the incoming short wave radiation which are  Mercury poisoning occurred in Minamata city,
very harmful to living organism, especially in
Japan in 1953, where more than 100 persons
causing skin cancer.
died or suffered serious nervous damage from
 In 1975, atmospheric scientists first discovered eating fish taken from Minamata Bay.
the formation of ozone hole, maximum over  Cadmium poisoning causes itai-itai(ouch-ouch)
Antarctica.
disease.

EFFECT OF HEAVY METAL OF W ATER POLLUTION ON MAN

S.No. Metal Toxic effect
1. Cadm ium Diarrhoea, bone deform ation, kidney dam age, retarded growth, CNS injury etc.

2. Copper Hypertens ion, urem ia, com a etc.

3. Mercury Abdom inal pain, headache, haem olys is , diarrhoea etc.

4. Lead Anaem ia, vom itting, brain dam age etc.

5. Chrom ium Cancer, nephritis , gas trointes tinal ulcer etc.

6. Zinc Vom itting, renal dam age, cram ps etc.

PAGE # 158
  Adding large amount of inorganic fertilizers to crop • One of the major soil pollution problem in large cities
fields results in fertilizer pollution. is the disposal of plastics.
 Nitrite poisoning or methaemoglobinemia occurs • Plastics articles are non-biodegradable.
in infants and farm animals by poisoning of nitrite.
• Eutrophication : It means enrichment of nutrients by
human activity.
• An unstable atomic nucleus may undergo
• Eutrophic : Refers to lakes that are highly productive
spontaneous disintegration or decay. This process
in terms of organic matter formed and well supplied produces radiation and the atoms that undergo
with nutrients. disintegration are said to be radioactive.
• Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is the amount of • Radiation is energy which travels in waves or particles.
oxygen required for biological oxidation by microbes
• Radiation can be measured in Curies.
in any unit volume of water.
• Atmospheric radiation (natural and man made
 The greater the amount of organic matter in water, sources), background radiation (cosmic rays,
higher the BOD radioisotopes such as Radium 223, Uranium 238,
 BOD is higher in polluted sewage water and is Carbon 14) and man made radiation (X-rays, nuclear
connected with both microbes and organic matter. weapon testing) etc. are some of the major sources
 The excessive use of pesticides causes water of ionizing radiations.
pollution by penetrating through soil and getting
• Exposure of man to radiation may cause cancer,
dissolved in soil water. genetic damage and infant mortality.
• The most outstanding danger at present for survival
 Pesticide means any substance that is used for
of living beings on earth is radiation hazard.
control pests.
• Chernobyl disaster occurred in Ukraine, USSR on
 Spraying of DDT on crops produces pollution of 26th April 1986. It was an explosion at the nuclear
air, soil and water. power station releasing huge amount of radioactive
• Biological amplification (Magnification) : Increase in substances into the atmosphere.
the concentration of a persistent chemical by the • Strontium-90, a radioactive pollutant causes bone
organisms at successive trophical levels in a food cancer and degeneration of tissues in human beings.
chain. • Iodine-131 , a radioactive isotopes is used in the
• Biological monitoring : Direct measurement of detection of thyroid cancer.
changes in the biological component of a habitat • Mothers who received abnormal doses of X-rays for
based on evaluation of the number and/or distribution diagnostic purposes during their pregnancy tend to
of organisms or species. produce an above average number of mongoloid
children.
SOIL POLLUTION • Due to radioactive pollution, radiation stress leads to
reduction in species diversity at the ecosystem level.
• Soil is the most important component of earth. All the
• Disposal of waste heat produced in nuclear energy
plants grow over earth’s crust (soil).
production causes thermal pollution.
• These plants serve as food for herbivore animals,
• Thermal pollution raises the temperature of water,
thus supports the animal life on earth.
thereby increasing the metabolic rate and oxygen
• Like air and water, soil is subjected to pollution.
consumption of micro-organisms.
• Any foreign substance (organic pollutants) that enters
the soil will adversely affect the soil productivity.
• Three types of soil pollution may be found in nature:
(i) Pollutants that are washed out of atmosphere • Means the unwanted sound dumped into the
when came in contact with it, may pollute the soil. atmosphere.
• The main sources of noise pollution are factories and
(ii) Pesticides, insecticides and weedicides, sprayed industries, transportation (air, rail and road),
over the crops may find their way along with water community and religious activities.
to the soil. • There are two basic properties of sound :
(iii) Nitrogenous fertilizers, mixed with soil to increase
• Loudness : It is the strength of sensation of sound
its productivity may sometimes have negative
perceived by the individual. It is measured in decibel.
effects on the soil.

PAGE # 159
 SOURCES SOUND LEVEL IN (DB) TOXIC EFFECT
Audible s ound 10 dB. Very quite
A whisper 30 dB. Very quite
Library place 30 dB. Very quite
Normal convers ation 35-60 dB. Moderately loud
Heavy street traffic 60-80 dB. Very loud
Boiler factories 120 dB. Uncomfortable s ound
Jet planes (take off) About 150 dB. Painful
Rocket engine About 180 dB. Painful

• Sounds beyond 80 dB can be safely regarded as 8. The enrichment of nutrients by human activity is called
pollutant as it harms hearing system. as-
• The WHO has fixed 45 dB as the safe noise level for a city. (A) Biological oxygen demand
• Loudness is also expressed in sones. (B) Biological magnification
• 1 sone = loudness of 40 dB sound pressure at 1000 Hz. (C) Eutrophication
• Frequency : Number of vibrations per second. Its unit (D) None
is hertz (Hz). 9. Common indicator organisms of water pollution is :
• The noise has adverse effect on man reducing hearing (A) Lemna pastosis
capacity, flushing the skin and constricting stomach (B) Eichhornia crassipes
muscles. (C) Escherichia coli
• Deafness can be caused due to continuous noise (D) Entamoeba histolytica
exposure.
• Noise also produces ulcers, headache, heart 10. W hich one of the following chemicals is related to
diseases, high blood pressure, nervousness etc. biological magnification :
(A) Chlorinated hydrocarbons
(B) Heavy metal
EXERCISE-1 (C) DDT
(D) All of the above
Ecosystem
11. Major factor for water pollution is
1. Trophic level in a food chain which cycles the various (A) organic matter (B) smoke
materials between environment and living organisms (C) temperature (D) mathura refinery
is constituted by :
(A) Producers (B) consumers 12. Minamata diseases is caused due to -
(C) Decomposers (D) All the above (A) Cadmium (B) Mercury
(C) Lead (D) Cobalt
2. Ascending trophic level in grazing food chain pyramid
represent : 13. Hydrophonics is :
(A) gradual decrease in biomass from apex to base (A) Growing of aquatic plants
(B) Gradual decrease in biomass from producers to (B) Growing of floating aquatic plants
the consumers (C) Soil less cultivation of plants
(C) Gradual increase of the biomass from producers (D) Growing of plants inside water
to the tertiary consumers
14. I-131 labelled radioisotope is used in detecting-
(D) No change in biomass
(A) Thyroid cancer (B) Blood cancer
3. The pyramid of number in tree ecosystem- (C) Skin cancer (D) Brain tumour
(A) Inverted (B) Upright 15. The safe sound level in (dB) fixed by WHO-
(C) Both (D) None (A) 45 dB (B) 80 dB
4. Which one of the following pyramid is upright always ? (C) 30 dB (D) 60 dB
(A) Pyramid of number (B) Pyramid of energy 16. Match the terms in column-I with suitable terms in
(C) Pyramid of biomass (D) All of the above column-II :
Pollution
5. Smog is produced due to :
(A) Air and metal dust
(B) Water and nitrogen oxide
(C) Smoke and fog
(D) None of the above
6. Photochemical smog was observed in -
(A) Los Angeles (B) London Codes :
(C) Both (D) None A B C D E
7. The indicators of SO2 pollution is / are (A) 1 2 3 4 5
(A) Lichen (B) Mosses (B) 5 3 4 1 2
(C) Both (A) and (B) (D) Nitrogen (C) 1 3 4 5 2
(D) 3 1 5 2 4

PAGE # 160
 10. In the given figure, various trophic levels are shown
EXERCISE-2 in the form of pyramid. At which trophic level
the minimum energy is available ?
COMPETITIVE EXAM QUESTIONS
(Andhra Pradesh/ntse/stage I 2015)
1. Which one of the following constitutes a food chain ?
(Haryana/ntsestage I 2015)
(A) grass, goat and human
(B) grass, fish and goat
(C) goat, cow and elephant
(D) grass, wheat and mango
(A) Phytoplanktons (B) Man
2. The human made synthetic chemical used in (C) Fish (D) Zooplankton
refrigerator is
11. Accumulation of non-biodegradable pesticides in
(Rajasthan/ntsestage I 2015)
different trophic levels is known as :
(A) LPG (B) CFC
(Bihar/ntse/stage I 2015)
(C) CH4 (D) PVC
(A) Biomagnification
3. Example of omnivorous animals is - (B) Bio-depostion
(M.P./ntsestage I 2015) (C) Biological impaction
(A) Sheep (B) Deer (D) Biological impaction
(C) Lion (D) Cockroach
12. Which of the following is true with respect to con-
4. The accumulation of non-biodegradable substances cept of Biodiversity ?
in a food chain in increasing amount at each higher (Hariyana/ntse/stage I 2015)
trophic level is known as :
(a) Biodiversity refers to different species of floara
(Delhi/ntsestage I 2015)
& fauna present in an area
(A) Accumulation (B) Eutrophication
(b) Biodiversity refers to only the flora of given area.
(C) Pollution (D) Biomagnification
(c) Biodiversity is greater in forests.
5. Abundance of coliform bacteria in a water body is (d) Biodiversity is total no. of individuals of a spe-
indicative of pollution from cies in given area.
(Environment Quesion 2015 NTSE Stage-2) (A) (a) & (b) (B) (b) & (c)
(A) petroleum refinery. (C) (a) & (c) (D) (b) & (c)
(B) metal smelter 13. At which trophic level, maximum energy will be
(C) fertilizer factory available ?
(D) domestic sewage. (Hariyana/ntse/stage I 2015)
6. Prolonged exposure to the fumes released by
incomplete combustion of coal may cause death
of a human because of
(A) inhalation of unburnt carbon particles.
(B) continuous exposure to high temperature.
(A) T2 (B) T3
(C) increased level of carbon monoxide. (C) T1 (D) T4
(D) increased level of carbon dioxide.
14. Which of the fallowing groups constitutes a cor-
7. Acid Rain is caused by : rect food chain ? (Rajasthan/stage I 2015)
(M.P./ntse/stage I 2015)
(A) Grass Rabbit Snake Eagle
(A) CO (B) SO2
(B) Grass Goat Fox Lion
(C) O2 (D) All of the above
(C) Goat Grass Elephant Snake
8. Chipko andolan is associated with : (D) Grass  Wheat  Frog  Goat
(M.P./ntse/stage I 2015)
15. Amrita Devi Visnoi of Rajasthan is related with
(A) Tomatoes (B) Turtles
(Rajasthan/stage I 2016)
(C) Trees (D) Lions
(A) Plant conservation (B) Education
9. The decomposers in an ecosystem convert
(C) Sports (D) Politics.
(Delhi/ntse/stage I 2015)
(A) Inorganic substance into organic substance 16. Which radiation harms ozone layer in the atmo-
(B) Simpler substance into complex substance sphere ?
(C) Solar energy into chemical energy (Rajasthan/stage I 2016)
(D) Organic substance into inorganic substance (A) Ultraviolet radiation (B) Infrared radiation
(C) Radio radiation (D) Red radiation
PAGE # 161
 ANSWER KEY
1-CELL
EXERCISE#1
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A. D C D D D A B C B D D D B D B C C A C C

EXERCISE#2
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A. B C B D C C C D A B D B A A B B C B C C
Q. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
A. D C C B A D A C C C B B B D B A C A D C

2-TISSUE
EXERCISE#1
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A. A D A A B C A D C B A B D B D D A C A B
Q. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
A. B B C B A C B A C C C B C A B C D A C B

EXERCISE#2
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
A. D C A A B C A C A A A B C C B C D B B A B D D B
3-DISEASES AND MICRO-ORGANISMS
EXERCISE#1
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
A. D B D D A C C C C B C B B B C D C C D C A
EXERCISE#2
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
A. B C A D D A B B C B C B D C D
4-NUTRITION
EXERCISE#1
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A. D D B C B A D A B C D C C B A C B D C C
Q. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
A. B A C D C D D C C C A C D D A
EXERCISE#2
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A. D A D B B B B B D A A B D B B B B A D A
Q. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
A. A D C D C C B C C B D A C C B A A D C C
Q. 41 42 43
A. C C C
5-RESPIRATION
EXERCISE#1
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A. A A A C D A C B C B D A A D B D C C B A
Q. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
A. D A C A D D A A A D
EXERCISE#2
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A. A B B C D A C A B D

PAGE # 162
 6-TRANSPORTATION
EXERCISE#1
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A. A D D B D A D D C D B D B C D C C C D A

EXERCISE#2
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A. D B B C B C D A C C D D D A B C B B B A
Q. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33
A. B D B D C B D B C C A B B

7-EXCRETION
EXERCISE#1
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A. A B C B B C D C C B D A C A D C A A A C
Q. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
A. A C B C A B C
EXERCISE#2
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
A. B B C B D C B A B D D B A B B

8-REPRODUCTION
EXERCISE#1
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A. C A C C A C D A B D B D B D C B A D D B

EXERCISE#2
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A. D C C D A A A B C D A B A A B A C B B D
Q. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
A. B C A C B D B C C D C D C C D D B C

9-CONTROL AND CO-ORDINATION

EXERCISE#1
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
A. C B B C A C A B D C B C C B D C A A D

EXERCISE#2
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A. D C C B C D C C C B D C A D B D A B D C
Q. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
A. A B A A D B B D C C B C C C C B D D A C
Q. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55
A. D A A D A D C A C D B A C D A

10-HEREDITY & VARIATION

EXERCISE#1
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A. C B B B A A D D A C B A D D D D D C C C

EXERCISE#2
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
A. D D C B C B A A A C B C A A A A D

PAGE # 163
 11-ORIGIN & EVOLUTION
EXERCISE#1
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
A. B D B C B A A B C A B B B C C B A A
EXERCISE#2
Q. 1 2 3 4 5
A. C C C D D

12-DIVERSITY OF LIVING ORGANISMS

EXERCISE#1
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A. B D C A C D A B C D D D D B B C D C C B
Q. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39
A. C B A C B C C C C D C A D B A B D C A

EXERCISE#2
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A. B A B D C D B C C D B D C B A B C A A B
Q. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
A. A D C C A A C A B A B A B A A C A B A D
Q. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49
A. D B C D A C C C D

13-IMPROVEMENT OF FOOD RESOURCES

EXERCISE#1
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A. D D B A C C A A A C

EXERCISE#2
Q. 1 2 3 4
A. A D B C

14-NATURAL RESOURCES & ITS MANAGEMENT

EXERCISE#1
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
A. C A A B A A B C D B C C C D B C D B

EXERCISE#2
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
A. D D C A B A C A C C A C B

15-OUR ENVIRONMENT
EXERCISE#1
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
A. C B A B C A C C B D A B C A A D
EXERCISE#2
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
A. A B D D D C B C D B A C C B A B

PAGE # 164