3 Dimensional Analytical Geometry
3 Dimensional Analytical Geometry
3 Dimensional Analytical Geometry
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMAICS
1
RECTANGULAR CARTESIAN CO- ORDINATES
Direction cosines of a line – Direction ratios of the join of two points - Projection on a line –
Angle between the lines -Equation of a plane in different forms - Intercept form- normal form
Angle between two planes - Planes bisecting the angle between two planes, bisector planes.
Introduction:
Let X'OX, Y'OY and Z'OZ be three mutually perpendicular lines in space that are concurrent
at 0(origin). These three lines, called respectively as x-axis, y-axis and z-axis (and
collectively as co-ordinate axes), form the frame of reference, using which the co-ordinates of
a point in space are defined.
Z - Axis
3D coordinate plane
Y - Axis
X - Axis
Note:
• The positive parts of the co-ordinate axes, namely OX, OY, OZ should form a right-
hand system. The plane XOY determined by the x-axis and y-axis is called xoy plane
or xy-plane.
• Similarly the yz plane and zx-plane are defined. These three planes called co-ordinate
planes, divide the entire space into 8 parts, called the octants. The octant bounded by
OX, OY, OZ is called the positive or the first octant.
• In face, the x co-ordinate of any point in the yz-plane will be zero, the y co-ordinate
of any point in the zx-plane will be zero and the z co-ordinate of any point in the xy
plane will be zero.
• In other words, the equations of the yz, zx and xy-planes are x = 0, y = 0 and z = 0
respectively. The point A lies on the x-axis and hence in the zx and xy-planes. Hence
the co-ordinates of A will be (x, 0, 0), similarly the co-ordinates of B and C will be
respectively (0, y, 0) and (0, 0, z).
2
The direction cosines of a line parallel to any coordinate axis are equal to the direction
cosines of the corresponding axis. The dc's are associated by the relation l2 + m2 + n2 =1. If
the given line is reversed, then the direction cosines will be cos (π − α), cos (π − β), cos (π −
γ) or − cos α, − cos β, − cos γ.
Note:
Formulae:
1. Direcion Ratios (D.R.’S) of a line joining Two points P(x1,y1,z1) and Q(x2,y2,z2) are
x2 - x1 , y2 - y1 , z2 - z1 .
3
Corollary 1
Corollary 2
If the D.R.’s of the two lines are a1, b1, c and a2, b2, c2 then their D.C.’s are
If a1, b1, c1 and a2, b2,c2 are the direction ratios of the lines L1 and L2, and if they are
perpendicular, then cos θ= a1 a2+ b1 b2+c1,c2=0 or θ=90⁰.
THE PLANE
A plane is a surface which is such that the straight line joining any two points on it lies
completely on it. This characteristic property of a plane is not true for any other surface.
4
Equation of the plane making intercepts a, b, c on the coordinate axes is
Equation of the plane passing through three points A(x1,y1,z1) , B(x2,y2,z2)and C(x3,y3,z3)
is
Equation of a plane in the normal form is x cosα + y cosβ + z cosγ = ρ , where ρ is the
length of the perpendicular from the origin on it and cosα , cosβ , cosγ are the direction
cosines of the perpendicular line.
Length of the perpendicular from the origin ‘O’ to the given plane ax + by +cz + d = 0 is
given by
Length of the perpendicular from the point P(x1,y1,z1) to the plane ax + by +cz + d = 0 is
given by
Distance between two parallel planes P1: ax + by +cz + d1 = 0 and P2: ax + by +cz +
d2= 0 is
Problems
1. Find the equation of the plane passing through the point (2,-1,1) and parallel to the
plane 3x+7y-10z=5
Solution
5
2. Find the equation of the plane passing through the points (1, -2, 2) and (-3, 1, -2) and
Perpendicular to the plane 2x + y- z + 6 = 0
Solution
3. Find the equation of the plane which passes through the points (1, 0, -1) and (2, 1, 1)
and parallel to the line joining the points (-2, 1, 3) and (5, 2, 0).
6
Solution
4. Find the equation of the plane through (1, -1, 2) and perpendicular to the planes
2x + 3y - 2z = 5 and x + 2y - 3z =8
7
Solution
5. Find the equation of the plane passing through the points (2, 5, -3), (-2, -3, 5)
and (5, 3, -3).
Solution
6. Show that the fair points (0, -1, -1), (4, 5, 1), (3, 9, 4) and (-4, 4, 4) lie on a plane.
Solution:
The equation of the plane passing through three points (0, -1, -1), (4, 5, 1), (3, 9, 4) is
8
7. Find the angle between the planes 2x + 4y - 6z = 11 and 3x + 6y + 5z + 4 = 0 .
Solution
8. Find the equation of the plane which bisects perpendicularly the join of (2, 3, 5) and
(5, -2, 7)
Solution
Let C be the midpoint of the line joining two points A(2, 3, 5) and B(5, -2, 7) then C has coordinates
9
9. Find the distance between the planes x - 2y+ 2z - 8 = 0 and -3x + 6y - 6z = 57
Solution
Distance between two parallel planes
P1: ax + by +cz + d1 = 0 and P2: ax + by +cz + d2= 0 is
10. Find the foot N of the perpendicular drawn from P(-2, 7, -1) to the plane 2x - y + z = 0
10
Hence the foot of the perpendicular is (2, 5, 1).
11. The foot of the perpendicular from the given point A(1, 2, 3) on a plane is B(-3, 6,
Find the plane equation.
Solution
12. Find the image or reflection of the point (5, 3, 2) in the plane x + y - z = 5.
Let A be (5, 3, 2)
Solution
Let the image of A be B(x1 , y1 , z1 )
x1 + y1 - z1 = 4 ____(2)
D.R.’s of AB are x1 - 5, y1 - 3, z1 - 2
11
13. Find the equation of the plane through the line of intersection of x + y + z = 1 and
2x + 3y + 4z = 5 and
(i) Perpendicular to to x - y + z = 0
(ii) passing through (1, 2, 3)
Solution:
The equation of the plane passing through the line of intersection of
x + y + z = 1 ___(1) and 2x + 3y + 4z - 5 = 0 ___(2)
12
14. Find the equation of the plane passing through the line of intersection of the planes
2x + 5y + z =3 and x + y + 4z = 5 and parallel to the plane x + 3y + 6z = 1.
Solution:
The given planes are 2x + 5y + z =3____(1)
x + y + 4z = 5 ____(2)
x + 3y + 6z = 1____(3)
The required plane equation is is of the form
(2x + 5y + z - 3) + k(x + y + 4z - 5) = 0
(2 + k) x + (k + 5) y + (1+ 4k)z - (3 + 5k )=0____(4)
(4) is parallel to (3)
Substituting in (4)
13
2x +3y - z + 4 = 0 ____(2)
Let the required plane equation be
(x + y + z-1) + k(2x +3y - z + 4) = 0 ____(3)
14
SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND HUMANITES
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMAICS
1
PLANE AND STRAIGHT LINE
Introduction
Straight Line
Intersection of the two planes will be a straight line.
Consider the two planes P1: a1x+b1y+c1z+d1=0 (1)
and P2: a2x+b2y+c2z+d2=0 (2)
The following figure shows the intersection of these two planes will form a straight line
2
2. Equation of a straight line passing through (x1, y1, z1) with direction ratios of the line as a, b, c
𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑧 − 𝑧1
= =
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
3. Equation of a straight line passing through two given points (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2) is
𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑧 − 𝑧1
= =
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
Problems:
1. Find the equation of the straight line which passes through the point (2, 3,4) and making angles
60°, 60°, 45° with positive direction of axes.
𝑥−𝑥1 𝑦−𝑦1 𝑧−𝑧1
Solution: Equation of a straight line is = = (1)
𝑙 𝑚 𝑛
2. Find the equation of the straight line passing through (2, -1, 1) and parallel to the line joining
the points (1, 2, 3) and (-1, 1, 2).
Solution:
The direction ratios of the line joining the points (1, 2, 3) and (-1, 1, 2) are -1-1, 1-2, 2-3
i-e., -2, -1, -1
Equation of a straight line passing through the point (x1, y1, z1) with direction ratios a,b,c is
𝑥−𝑥1 𝑦−𝑦1 𝑧−𝑧1
= = --------(1)
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
3
3. Find the equation of the line joining the points (1, -1, 2) and (4, 2, 3).
Solution:
𝑥−𝑥 𝑦−𝑦 𝑧−𝑧
The equation of a straight line is 𝑥 −𝑥1 = 𝑦 −𝑦1 = 𝑧 −𝑧1
2 1 2 1 2 1
4. Prove that the points (3, 2, 4) (4, 5, 2) and (5, 8, 0) are collinear.
Solution:
Equation of a straight line passing through two given points (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2) is
𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑧 − 𝑧1
= =
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
Equation of the line passing through (3, 2, 4) and (4, 5, 2) is
If the above two points are collinear with (5, 8, 0) then the point (5, 8, 0) must satisfy equation (1)
Substituting x = 5, y = 8, z = 0 in (1), we get
4
5. Find the angle between the lines
Solution:
Direction ratios of the first line are 2, 2, -1
Let be the angle between the lines (1) and (2), then
5
Solving these equations, we get
Note:
To find a point on the line, we can also take x = 0 or y = 0.
Method of find the direction ratios.
Let (l, m, n) be the direction ratios of the required line.
The required line is the intersection of the planes a1x + b1y + c1z + d1= 0 = a2x + b2y + c2z + d2 = 0
It is perpendicular to these planes whose direction ratios of the normal are a1, b1, c1 and a2, b2, c2.
By condition of perpendicularity of two lines we get
Therefore, the equation of a straight line passing through a point (x1, y1, z1)with direction ratios
a,b,c is
7. Find the symmetrical form the equations of the line 3x + 2y - z - 4 = 0 and 4x + y - 2z + 3 =0 and
Find its direction cosines.
Solution:
Equation of the given line is
3x + 2y - z - 4 = 0
(1)
4x + y - 2z + 3 =0
Let l, m, n be the D.R.’s of line (1).
6
Since the line is common to both the planes, it is perpendicular to the normals to both the planes.
Hence we have
we have 3x + 2y = 4
4x + y =- 3 (2)
The line meets the plane z = 0 at the point (-2, 5, 0) and has direction ratios -3, 2, -5.
Therefore the equations of the given line in symmetrical form are
7
The Plane and the Straight Line
Angle between a Line and Plane
Hence
8
(iii) Line L lies on the plane U.
Problems
𝑥+1 𝑦 𝑧−3
10. Find the angle between the line 2 = 3 = 6 and the plane 3x + y + z = 7
Solution:
The angle between a line and a plane is
9
Also given the required plane is perpendicular to the plane x + 2y + z = 12
Hence their normals are perpendicular
Therefore a + 2b + c = 0---------(3)
Eliminating a, b, c from (1), (2) & (3), we get the required plane equation.
Equation of line PP’, which passes through (1, 3, 4) with direction ratios (2, -1, 1) is given
𝑥−1 𝑦−3 𝑧−4
by 2 = −1 = −1
10
Substituting for k, we get the co-ordinates of M(-1, 4,3)
11
Condition for Co planarity of the lines
Problems
𝑥−7 𝑦−10 𝑧−13 𝑥−3 𝑦−5 𝑧−7
14. Show that the lines L1: 2 = 3 = 4 and L2: 1 = 2 = 3 are coplanar. Find the
equation of the plane of co planarity and the coordinates of the point of intersection of the lines.
Solution:
Consider the lines
12
Therefore the lines are coplanar.
Equation of the plane containing the coplanar lines L1 and L2 is given by
If L1 and L2 intersect, then for some value of r and k, the coordinates A and B are the same.
13
SHORTEST DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO SKEW LINES
Two straight lines which do not lie in the same plane are called non-planar or skew lines. Skew
lines are neither parallel nor intersecting. Such lines have a common perpendicular. The length of
the segment of this common perpendicular line intercepted between the skew lines is called the
shortest distance between them. The common perpendicular line itself is called the shortest
distance line.
Let us now find the shortest distance and the equations of the shortest distance line between the
skew lines.
14
Problems
𝑥−3 𝑦−8 𝑧−3
16. Find the length and equations of the shortest distance between the lines L1: = =
3 −1 1
𝑥+3 𝑦∓7 𝑧−6
L2: = =
−3 2 4
Solution :
Let the S.D. line cut the first line at P and the second line at Q.
PQ is perpendicular to L1
PQ is perpendicular to L2
15
SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
1
UNIT – III – SPHERE
Equation of the sphere - general form – plane section of a sphere- tangent line and tangent
plane – orthogonal spheres
Introduction
Definition
A sphere is the locus of a point in space which moves in such a way that its distance forms a fixed
point is always constant.
The fixed point is called the centre of the sphere and the constant distance the radius of the sphere.
To find the equation of a sphere whose centre and radius are given:
Let r be the radius and (a, b, c) the centre C, and P any point on the sphere whose co-ordinates are
(x, y, z).
Corollary
When the centre of the sphere is at the origin and its radius is a, then the equation of the sphere is
x2 + y2 +z2 = a2
Standard Form of the equation of a Sphere
2
Problems
1. Find the equation of the sphere with centre (-1, 2, -3) and radius 3 units.
Solution:
2. Find the equation of the sphere with centre at (1, 1, 1) and passing through the point (1, 2, 5)
Solution
Let C (1, 1, 1) be the centre and P (1, 2, 5) be the given point
The equation of the sphere with centre (a, b, c) and radius r is given by
3. Find the equation of the sphere described on the line joining the points (2, -1, 4) and (-2, 2, -2)
as diameter.
Solution:
3
4. Find the equation of the sphere through the points (2, 0, 1) (1, -5, -1), (0, -2, 3) and (4, -1, 2)
Solution:
Let the equation of the sphere be
4
The required equation of the sphere is
To find the point of contact if the two given spheres touch internally or externally
5
Case II
Two spheres touch internally
The point of contact is the point which divides the line joining the two points C1 and C2 in the
ratio m: n externally.
Note:
(1) Two spheres S1 and S2 whose radii are r1 and r2 touch externally if the distance between
their centres is equal to the sum of their radii (ie) d = r1 + r2.
(2) (2) Two spheres S1 and S2 whose radii are r1 and r2 touch internally if the distance between
their centres is equal to the difference of the radii.
Problems
5. Prove that the two spheres
touch each other and find the coordinates of the point of contact.
Solution:
6
PLANE SECTION OF A SPHERE
Clearly the curve of intersection of the sphere S and the plane P is a circle. This intersecting portion
of the sphere is called as plane section of the sphere.
Therefore in three dimensional spaces any circle can be represented as a plane section of a sphere
and a plane. i.e intersecting portion of a sphere and a plane. Its equation can be jointly represented
by the equation of the sphere and the plane.
Note
If the intersecting plane passes through the centre of the sphere then such a circle is called a
GREAT CIRCLE of the sphere.
For any sphere there are infinitely many great circles that can be identified on its boundary.
Equation of sphere through a given circle
Equation of a sphere that passes through a given circle represented by
By applying any given additional information about the sphere in the above equation, the value of λ
can be found and hence the equation of the sphere can also be found.
Problems
Solution:
The given circle is
7
Sphere through the above circle is of the form
If circle (1), (2) is a great circle for (3), then centre of (3) should lie on the plane (2)
2. Find the centre and radius of the circle in which the sphere x 2 + y2 + z2 + 2y + 4z - 11 = 0 is cut
by the plane x + 2y + 2z + 15 = 0.
Solution:
Any point on this line is (r, 2r - 1, 2r - 2). If this point is N, it satisfies plane (2).
8
3. A sphere touches the plane x - 2y - 2z - 7 = 0 in the point (3, -1, -1) and passes through the point
(1,1,-3). Find its equation.
Solution:
The equation of the point sphere with centre at (3, -1,-1) is
Therefore It contains the point circle of intersection of sphere (1) and plane (2).
Hence the equation of the required sphere is of the form.
Equation of the tangent plane to (1) at the point (x1 ,y1 ,z1 ) is
9
Orthogonal spheres
Two spheres are said to cut each other orthogonally if the tangent planes at a point of intersection
are at right angles.
If two spheres cut orthogonally at P, their radii through P, being perpendicular to the tangent planes
at P, will also be at right angles.
4. Find the equation of the sphere that passes through the circle x 2 + y2 + z2 + x - 3y + 2z - 1 = 0,
2x + 5y – z + 7 = 0 and cuts orthogonally the sphere whose equation
x2 + y2 + z2 - 3x + 5y - 7z -6 = 0.
Solution:
10
5. Write the equation of the tangent plane at (1, 5, 7) to the sphere (x-2)2+ (y-3)2+ (z-4)2=14
Solution:
7. Find the equation of the sphere which has its centre at (-1, 2, 3) and touches the plane
2x-y+2z = 6
Solution:
Let the equation of the sphere be
To find d: Since the plane 2x-y+2z = 6 touches the sphere whose centre is (-1, 2, 3). The radius
of the sphere is equal to the length of the perpendicular drawn from the centre (1, 2, 3) to the
plane 2x-y+2z = 6
Length of the perpendicular
11
8. Find the equation of the sphere with centre at (2, 3, 5), which touches the XOY plane.
12
SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
1
UNIT – IV- VECTOR DIFFERENTIATION
Limit of a vector function – Continuity of vector functions – Derivative of a vector function ––
Scalar and vector point functions – Gradient of a scalar point function – Directional derivative of
a scalar point function – Divergence and curl of a vector point function – Solenoidal vector –
Irrotational vector – Vector identities
Definitions:
Scalars
The quantities which have only magnitude and are not related to any direction in space are called
scalars. Examples of scalars are (i) mass of a particle (ii) pressure in the atmosphere (iii)
temperature of a heated body (iv) speed of a train.
Vectors
The quantities which have both magnitude and direction are called vectors.
Examples of vectors are (i) the gravitational force on a particle in space (ii) the velocity at any
point in a moving fluid.
If to each point p(x, y, z) of a region R in space there corresponds a unique scalar f(p) then f is
called a scalar point function.
Example
Temperature distribution of a heated body, density of a body and potential due to gravity.
Example
When a point function is defined at every point of space or a portion of space, then we say that a
field is defined. The field is termed as a scalar field or vector field as the point function is a
scalar point function or a vector point function respectively.
2
Vector Differential Operator ( )
=i + j +k
x y z
Let ( x, y, z ) be a scalar point function defined in a region R of space. Then the vector point
function given by = (i + j + k )
x y z
=i + j +k is defined as the gradient of and denoted by
x y z
grad
= ( i + j + k )( xy − y 2 z )
x y z
=i ( xy − y 2 z ) + j ( xy − y 2 z ) + k ( xy − y 2 z )
x y z
3
= yi + ( x − 2 yz ) j − y 2 k = yi + ( x − 2 yz ) j − y 2 k .
At (1, 1, 1), = i (1) + j (1 − (2)(1)(1)) − k (1) 2 = i − j − k
= ( i + j + k )( x 2 y + 2 xz 2 − 8)
x y z
2 2
=i ( x y + 2 xz 2 − 8) + j ( x y + 2 xz 2 − 8) + k ( x 2 y + 2 xz 2 − 8)
x y z
= (2 xy + 2 z 2 )i + ( x 2 ) j + 4 xzk
At (1, 0, 1), = i (2(1)(0) + 2(12 )) + j (12 ) + k 4(1)(1)
= 2 i + j + 4k
3. Find the unit normal vector to the surface ( x, y, z ) = x 2 yz 3 at the point (1,1,1)
Solution:
= (i + j + k )
x y z
2 3 2 3 2 3
= ( i + j + k )( x 2 yz 3 ) = i ( x yz ) + j ( x yz ) + k ( x yz )
x y z x y z
= 2 xyz 3 i + x 2 z 3 j + 3x 2 yz 2 k
At (1,1,1), = i 2(1)(1)(1) + j (12 )(13 ) + k 3(12 )(1)(12 )
= 2 i + j + 3k
= 2 2 + 12 + 32 = 14
Unit normal to the surface is n̂ =
2i + j + 3k
nˆ =
14
4
4. Find the unit normal vector to the surface ( x, y, z ) = x 2 + y 2 − z at the point (1,-1,-2)
Solution:
= (i + j + k )
x y z
= ( i + j + k )( x 2 + y 2 − z )
x y z
2 2
=i ( x + y 2 − z) + j ( x + y 2 − z) + k ( x 2 + y 2 − z)
x y z
= 2 xi + 2 yj − k
At (1,-1,-2), = i 2(1) + j 2(−1) − k
= 2i − 2 j − k
= 2 2 + (− 2) + (− 1) = 3
2 2
Unit normal to the surface is n̂ =
2i − 2 j − k
nˆ =
3
5. Find the angle between the surfaces xyz and x 3 yz at the point (1,1,-2)
Solution:
1 = (i + j + k )1
x y z
1 = (i + j + k )( xyz)
x y z
=i ( xyz) + j ( xyz) + k ( xyz)
x y z
= yzi + xzj + xyk
At(1,1,-2), 1 = i (1)( −2) + j (1)( −2) + (1)(1)k
= −2i − 2 j + k
5
1 = (− 2)2 + (− 2)2 + 12 =3
Given the surface 2 ( x, y, z ) = x 3 yz
2 = ( i + j + k ) 2
x y z
2 = ( i + j + k )( x 3 yz )
x y z
3 3
=i ( x yz ) + j ( x yz ) + k ( x 3 yz )
= 3x 2 yzi + x 3 zj + x 3 yk x y z
At (1,1,-2), 2 = i 3(1 )(1)( −2) + j (1 )( −2) + (1 )(1)k = −6i − 2 j + k
2 3 3
2 = (− 6)2 + (− 2)2 + 12 = 41
1 . 2
Angle between the surfaces is given by cos =
1 2
(−2i − 2 j + k ).( −6i − 2 j + k )
=
3 41
12 + 4 + 1 17
= =
3 41 3 41
17
= cos −1
3 41
6. Find the angle between the normal to the surface xy - z2 at the point (1,4,-2) and (1,2,3)
Solution:
= (i + j + k )
x y z
= ( i + j + k )( xy − z 2 ) = i ( xy − z 2 ) + j ( xy − z 2 ) + k ( xy − z 2 )
x y z x y z
= yi + xj − 2 zk
At (1,4,-2), 1= i ( 4) + j (1) − 2(−2)k = 4i + j + 4k
6
= 4 2 + 12 + 4 2 = 33
At (1,2,3), 2= i (2) + j (1) − 2(3)k = 2i + j − 6k
= 2 2 + 12 + (− 6)
2
= 41
1 . 2
Angle between the surfaces is given by cos =
1 2
(4i + j + 4k ).( 2i + j − 6k )
=
33 41
8 + 1 − 24 − 15
= =
33 41 33 41
− 15
= cos −1
33 41
= ( i + j + k )( xy 2 + yz 3 ) = i ( xy 2 + yz 3 ) + j ( xy 2 + yz 3 ) + k ( xy 2 + yz 3 )
x y z x y z
= y 2 i + (2 xy + z 3 ) j + 3 yz 2 k
At (2,-1,1), = i (−12 ) + j (2(2)( −1) + 13 ) + 3(−1)(12 )k = i − 3 j − 3k
To find the directional derivative of in the direction of the vector i + 2 j + 2k
7
(i + 2 j + 2 k )
= (i − 3 j − 3k ).
3
1 − 6 − 6 − 11
=
= 3 3 units.
8. Find the directional derivative of ( x, y, z ) = xyz + yz 2 at the point (1, 1, 1) in the direction
of i + j + k
Solution:
= (i + j + k )
x y z
= (i + j + k )( xyz + yz 2 ) = i ( xyz + yz 2 ) + j ( xyz + yz 2 ) + k ( xyz + yz 2 )
x y z x y z
= yzi + ( xz + z 2 ) j + ( xy + 2 yz )k
At (1, 1, 1) = i (1)(1) + j ((1)(1) + 1 ) + ((1)(1) + 2(1)(1)) k = i + 2 j + 3k
2
To find the directional derivative of in the direction of the vector i + j + k
find the unit vector along the direction
a = i + j + k a = 12 + 12 + 12 = 3
a
Directional derivative of in the direction a at the point (1,1,1) = .
a
(i + j + k ) 1+ 2 + 3 6
= (i + 2 j + 3k ). = =
3 3 3 units.
Divergence of a differentiable vector point function F
The divergence of a differentiable vector point function F is denoted by div F and is defined by
Div F = F = (i + j + k )F
x y z
= (i + j + k ) ( F1i + F2 j + F3 k )
x y z
8
Curl of a vector point function
The curl of a differentiable vector point function F is denoted by curl F and is defined by
Curl F = F = (i + j + k ) F
x y z
i j k
If F = F1i + F2 j + F3 k , then Curl F =
x y z
F1 F2 F3
Vector Identities
Let be a scalar point function and U and V be vector point functions. Then
(1) (U V ) = U V
(2) (U V ) = U V
(3) (U ) = U + U
(4) (U ) = U + U
(5) (U V ) = V ( U ) − U ( V )
(6) (U V ) = ( V )U − ( U )V + U (V ) − V (U )
(7) (U V ) = ( V )U + ( U )V + U ( V ) − ( U ) V
Note:
If F is irrotational, then there exists a scalar function called Scalar Potential such that F =
Problems
9. Find div r and curl r if r = xi + yj + zk
Solution:
div r = r = (i + j + k )r
x y z
= (i + j + k ) ( xi + yj + zk )
x y z
9
x y z
= + + = 3.
x y z
i j k
Curl r = = i (0 − 0) − j (0 − 0) + k (0 − 0) = 0 .
x y z
x y z
10. Find the divergence and curl of the vector V = xyzi + 3xy 2 j + ( xz 2 − y 2 z )k at the
point (1,-1, 1)
Solution:
Given V = xyzi + 3xy 2 j + ( xz 2 − y 2 z )k
Div V = V = (i + j + k ) V
x y z
+ j + k ) ( xyzi + 3xy j + ( xz − y z )k )
2 2 2
= (i
x y z
( xyz) (3xy 2 ) ( xz 2 − y 2 z )
= + + = yz+6xy+2xz-y2
x y z
At (1,-1, 1), V = (−1).1 + 6(1)( −1) + 2(1)(1) − (−1) 2
= -1-6+2-1 = -6.
Curl V = V = (i + j + k ) V
x y z
i j k
=
x y z
xyz 3xy 2 xz − y 2 z
2
= i ( ( xz 2 − y 2 z ) − (3xy 2 )) − j ( ( xz 2 − y 2 z ) − ( xyz)) + k ( (3xy 2 ) − ( xyz)) .
y z x z x y
= i (−2 yz ) − j ( z 2 − yx) + k (3 y 2 − xz) .
At (1,-1, 1), V = i (−2(−1)(1)) − j (12 − (−1)(1)) + k ((3(−1) 2 − 1(1)) = 2 i − 2 j + 2k
10
11. Find the constants a, b, c so that given vector field is irrotational, where
F = ( x + 2 y + ax)i + (bx − 3 y − z ) j + (4 x + cy + 2 z )k
Solution:
Given F = 0
i j k
=0
x y z
( x + 2 y + az ) (bx − 3 y − z ) (4 x + cy + 2 z )
i
y( ( 4 x + cy + 2 z ) − (bx − 3 y − z )) − j ( (4 x + cy + 2 z ) − ( x + 2 y + az ) +
z x z
= 0.
k ( x (bx − 3 y − z ) − y ( x + 2 y + az )
i (c + 1) − j (4 − a) + k (b − 2) = 0 .
Hence c = -1, a = 4, b = 2.
12. Prove that F = (2 x + yz )i + (4 y + zx ) j − (6 z − xy)k is both solenoidal and irrotational.
Solution:
F = (i + j + k ) V
x y z
= (i + j + k ) (( 2 x + yz )i + (4 y + zx ) j − (6 z − xy)k )
x y z
(2 x + yz ) (4 y + zx ) (6 z − xy)
= + − = 2+4-6 = 0 for all points (x,y,z)
x y z
F is solenoidal vector.
i j k
Now, F =
x y z
2 x + yz 4 y + zx − (6 z − xy)
11
i
y( ( − ( 6 z − xy)) − ( 4 y + zx )) − j ( (−(6 z − xy)) − (2 x + yz ) +
z x z
=
k ( x (4 y + zx ) − y (2 x + yz )
i ( x − x) − j ( y − y ) + k ( z − z ) = 0 for all points (x, y, z)
F is irrotational vector.
13. Prove that F = ( y 2 − z 2 + 3 yz − 2 x)i + (3xz + 2 xy) j + (3xy − 2 xz + 2 z )k is both solenoidal and
irrotational and find its scalar potential.
Solution:
F = (i + j + k )F
x y z
+ j + k ) (( y − z + 3 yz − 2 x)i + (3xz + 2 xy) j + (3xy − 2 xz + 2 z )k )
2 2
= (i
x y z
i
y( (3 xy − 2 xz + 2 z ) − (3 xz + 2 xy)) − j ( (3 xy − 2 xz + 2 z ) − ( y 2 − z 2 + 3 yz − 2 x) +
z x z
=
2
k ( x (3 xz + 2 xy) − y ( y − z + 3 yz − 2 x)
2
i (3x − 3x) − j (3 y − 2 z + 2 z − 3 y ) + k (3z + 2 y − 2 y − 3z ) = 0 for all points (x,y,z)
F is irrotational vector.
Since F is irrotational, F =
12
( y 2 − z 2 + 3 yz − 2 x)i + (3xz + 2 xy) j + (3xy − 2 xz + 2 z )k = i + j +k
x y z
Equating the coefficients of i , j , k , we get
= y 2 − z 2 + 3 yz − 2 x …………………………………………………………..…..…(1)
x
= 3 xz + 2 xy ……………………………………………………………………..……...(2)
y
= 3 xy − 2 xz + 2 z …………………………………………………………………..……(3)
z
Integrating (1) with respect to ‘x’ treating ‘y’ and ‘z’ as constants, we get
x2 ……………………………………………………(4)
= xy 2 − xz 2 + 3xyz − 2 + f ( y, z )
2
Integrating (2) with respect to ‘y’ treating ‘x’ and ‘z’ as
constants, we get
xy2 ………………………………………………………….………(5)
= 3xyz + 2 + f ( x, z )
2
Integrating (3) with respect to ‘z’ treating ‘x’ and ‘y’ as constants, we get
z2 z2 …………………………………………………………..(6)
= 3xyz − 2 x + 2 + f ( x, y )
2 2
14. Prove that F = 3 x 2 2
y i + ( 2 x 3
y + cos z ) j − y sin zk is irrotational and find its scalar potential.
Solution:
i j k
F =
x y z
3x 2 y 2 2 x y + cos z −
3
y sin z
13
i
y( ( − y sin z ) − ( 2 x 3
y + cos z )) − j ( (− y sin z ) − (3 x 2 y 2 ))
z x z
=
k ( x (2 x y + cos z ) − y (3 x y ))
3 2 2
i (− sin z − (− sin z )) − j (0 − 0) + k (6 x 2 y − 6 x 2 y ) = 0 for all points (x,y,z)
F is irrotational vector.
Since F is irrotational, F =
3x 2 y 2 i + (2 x 3 y + cos z ) j − y sin zk = i + j +k
x y z
Equating the coefficients of i , j , k , we get
= 3 x 2 y 2 …………………………………………………………..…..…(1)
x
= 2 x 3 y + cos z ……………………………………………………………………..……...(2)
y
= − y sin z …………………………………………………………………..……(3)
z
Integrating (1) with respect to ‘x’ treating ‘y’ and ‘z’ as constants, we get
x3 y 2 ……………………………………………………(4)
=3 + f ( y, z )
3
Integrating (2) with respect to ‘y’ treating ‘x’ and ‘z’ as constants, we get
x3 y 2 ………………………………………………………….…(5)
=2 + y cos z + f ( x, z )
2
Integrating (3) with respect to ‘z’ treating ‘x’ and ‘y’ as constants, we get
= y cos z + f ( x, y ) …………………………………………………………..(6)
14
= x 3 y 2 + y cos z + c
Solution:
Solution
15
17. If 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗ are irrotational show that 𝐴⃗ x 𝐵
⃗⃗ is solenoidal.
Solution:
18. If r= |𝑟⃗|, where 𝑟⃗ is the position vector of the point P(x, y, z),then prove that
Solution:
Now
16
17
SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
1
UNIT – V – VECTOR INTEGRATION
Vector integration – Line integral – Application of line integral. Surface and Volume integrals –
Applications - Gauss Divergence theorem. Stoke’s theorem – Green’s theorem.
Introduction:
Line Integrals
A line integral (sometimes called a path integral) is the integral of some function along a curve.
(i.e) an integral which is to be evaluated along a curve is called a line integral. One can integrate
a scalar-valued function along a curve, obtaining for example, the mass of a wire from its density.
One can also integrate a certain type of vector-valued functions along a curve.
Let F (x, y, z) be a vector point function defined at all points in some region of space and let C be a
curve in that region. The integral ∫ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ is defined as the line integral of 𝐹⃗ along the curve C.
𝐶
Note:
Problems:
1. If 𝐹⃗ = 3𝑥𝑦𝑖⃗ − 𝑦 2 𝑗⃗ , evaluate ∫𝐶 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ , where C is the arc of the parabola y=2x2 from
(0, 0) to (1, 2).
Solution:
2
2. If 𝐹⃗ = 𝑥 2 𝑖⃗ + 𝑦 2 𝑗⃗ , evaluate ∫𝐶 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ , along the straight liine y=x from (0, 0) to (1, 1).
Solution:
3. Find ∫𝐶 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ for 𝐹⃗ = (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )𝑖⃗ − 2𝑥𝑦𝑗⃗ where C is the rectangle in the xoy plane bounded
by x=0,y=0, x=a, y=b.
Solution:
3
OA (y = 0)
AB (x = a)
BC (y = b)
CO (x = 0)
4
⃗⃗ from
5. Find the work done in moving a particle in the force field 𝐹⃗ = (3𝑥 2 𝑖⃗ + (2𝑥𝑧 − 𝑦)𝑗⃗ − 𝑧𝑘
t = 0 to t = 1 along the curve x=2t2, y=t, z= 4t3
Solution:
⃗⃗ ;
Given 𝐹⃗ = (3𝑥 2 𝑖⃗ + (2𝑥𝑧 − 𝑦)𝑗⃗ − 𝑧𝑘
⃗⃗
𝑑𝑟 = 𝑑𝑥𝑖⃗⃗ + 𝑑𝑦𝑗⃗⃗ + 𝑑𝑧𝑘
⃗⃗ when it moves
6. Find the work done by the force 𝐹⃗ = 𝑦(3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑧 2 )𝑖⃗ + 𝑥(2𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑧 2 )𝑗⃗ − 2𝑥𝑦𝑧𝑘
a particle around a closed curve C.
Solution:
To evaluate the work done by a force, the equation of the path C and the terminal points must be
given.
Since C is a closed curve and the particle moves around this curve completely, any point
(x0, y0, z0) can be taken as the initial as well as the final point.
But the equation of C is not given. Hence we verify when the given force 𝐹⃗ is conservative,
i.e. irrotational.
=0
5
SURFACE INTEGRAL
Introduction A surface integral is a definite integral taken over a surface. It can be thought of as the
double integral analogue of the line integrand. Given the surface, one may integrate over its scalar
field (i.e., functions which return scalars as value) and vector field ((i.e.) functions which return
vectors as value). Surface integrals have applications in physics, particularly with the classical
theory of electromagnetism. Various useful results for surface integrals can be derived using
differential geometry and vector calculus, such as the divergence theorem and its generalization
stokes theorem.
Note:
Problems:
6
⃗⃗ and S is the rectangle parallelepiped bounded x = 0, y = 0, z = 0,
8. If 𝐹⃗ = 2𝑥𝑦𝑖⃗ + 𝑦𝑧 2 𝑗⃗ + 𝑥𝑧𝑘
x = 1, y = 2, z = 3 calculate ∬ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑛̂𝑑𝑆⃗
𝑆
7
Solution:
There are six faces of the parallelepiped and we calculate the integral over each of these
faces. We denote the values of 𝐹⃗ on these faces by𝐹⃗1 ,𝐹⃗2 ,…, 𝐹⃗6
Consider
=2y
On the surface ABEF, z varies from 0 to 3 and y varies from 0 to 2
8
On the surface COGD, z varies from 0 to 3 and y varies from 0 to 2.
9
On the surface EDGE, y varies from 0 to 2, x varies from 0 to 1.
Volume Integral
In multivariable calculus, a volume integral refers to an integral over a 3-dimensional domain. Let
V denote the volume enclosed by some closed surfaces and 𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ , a vector function defined
throughout V. Then∭ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑉
𝑉
⃗⃗ where d𝑉⃗⃗ denotes an element of the volume V, is called
10
Remark
A volume integral is a triple integral of the constant function 1 which gives the volume of the
region D (ie) the integral 𝑉𝑜𝑙(𝐷) = ∭𝑉 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧A triple integral within a region D in R3 of a
function f(x ,y , z) is usually written as∭𝐷 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
Problems
Solution:
11
Gauss Divergence Theorem
Problems
⃗⃗
1. Verify divergence theorem for 𝐹⃗ = (𝑥 2 − 𝑦𝑧)𝑖⃗ − (𝑦 2 − 𝑥𝑧)𝑗⃗ + (𝑧 2 − 𝑥𝑦)𝑘 taken
over the rectangular parallelepiped 0 ≤ x ≤ a, 0 ≤ y ≤ b, 0 ≤ z ≤ c.
12
Solution:
For verification of divergence theorem, we shall evaluate the volume and surface separately and
show that they are equal.
⃗⃗
Given 𝐹⃗ = (𝑥 2 − 𝑦𝑧)𝑖⃗ − (𝑦 2 − 𝑥𝑧)𝑗⃗ + (𝑧 2 − 𝑥𝑦)𝑘
= 2x + 2y + 2z =2(x + y + z)
dV = dxdydz or dV = dzdydx
x varies from 0 to a, y varies from 0 to b, z varies from 0 to c
To evaluate the surface integral, divide the closed surface S of the rectangular parallopiped into
6 parts.
S1 = face OAMB; S2 = face CLPN; S3 = face OBNC;
S4 = face AMPL; S5 = face OALC; S6 = face BNPM
13
⃗⃗
Face S1 : z = 0; ds = dxdy; 𝑛̂ = −𝑘
14
15
Hence Gauss divergence theorem is verified.
2. Using divergence theorem evaluate ∬𝑆 ∇𝑟 2 . 𝑛̂𝑑𝑠 where S in a closed surface.
Solution:
⃗⃗
Let 𝐹⃗ = ∇𝑟 2, where 𝑟⃗ = x𝑖⃗ + y𝑗⃗ + z𝑘
By Gauss Divergence Theorem,
Stoke’s Theorem
If S be an open surface bounded by a closed curve C and 𝐹⃗ be a continuous and differentiable
vector function then∫ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ∬ 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ . 𝑛̂𝑑𝑠 , where 𝑛̂ is the unit outward normal at any
𝐶 𝑆
point of the surfaces.
Problems:
3. Verify stoke’s theorem for the vector field 𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 )𝑖⃗ + 2𝑥𝑦𝑗⃗ , in the rectangular
region in the xy plane bounded by the lines x=0, x=a, y=0, y=b.
Solution:
By stoke’s theorem, ∫ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ∬ 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐹⃗ . 𝑛̂𝑑𝑠
𝐶 𝑆
To find ∫𝐶 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗
Along AB: y = 0, d y= 0;
16
Along BC: x = a, dx = 0;
17
Hence stoke’s theorem is verified.
4. Verify Stoke’s theorem for F𝐹⃗ = (𝑦 − 𝑧)𝑖⃗ + 𝑦𝑧𝑗⃗ − 𝑥𝑧𝑘⃗⃗ , where S is the surface bounded by the
planes and 1 x=0, x = 1, y = 0, y = 1, z = 0, z = 1 above the XOY plane.
Solution:
18
19
Therefore L.HS = R.HS. Hence Stoke’s theorem is verified.
20
Green’s Theorem
If C is a regular closed curve in the xy-plane and R be the region bounded by C, then
Where F1(x, y) and F2( x, y) are continuously differentiable functions inside and on C.
Problems
6. Verify Green’s Theorem in a plane for∫𝐶 (𝑥 2 (1 + 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + (𝑦 3 + 𝑥 3 )𝑑𝑦) where C is the square
bounded by 𝑥 = ±𝑎, 𝑦 = ±𝑎
Solution:
21
22
From (1) and (2),
Solution:
By Green’s theorem in planes,
23
Where A is the required area.
8. Verify Green’s theorem in the plane for ∫𝐶 ((3𝑥 2 − 8𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 + (4𝑦 − 6𝑥𝑦)𝑑𝑦), where C is the
boundary of the region defined by 𝑦 = √𝑥 , 𝑦 = 𝑥 2
Solution: The Green’s theorem is
24
Given
25
26
From (2) and (3), we see that
27