CHAPTER 2

Fluid Statics

Objectives

• Introduce the concept of pressure;

• Prove it has a unique value at any particular elevation;
• Show how it varies with depth according to the hydrostatic equation and
• Show how pressure can be expressed in terms of head of fluid.
• Show how pressure in static fluid can be measured (manometers)

This understanding of pressure will then be used to demonstrate methods of

pressure measurement that will be useful later with fluid in motion and also to
analyze the forces on submerges surface/structures.

Pressure

As mentioned above a fluid will exert a normal force on any boundary it is in

contact with. Since these boundaries may be large and the force may differ from
place to place it is convenient to work in terms of pressure, p, which is the force
per unit area.

If the force exerted on each unit area of a boundary is the same, the pressure is
said to be uniform.

Units: Newton's per square meter, , .

(The same unit is also known as a Pascal, Pa, i.e. 1Pa = 1 )

(Also frequently used is the alternative SI unit the bar, where )

Dimensions: .

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Pascal's Law for Pressure at a Point

(Proof that pressure acts equally in all directions.)

By considering a small element of fluid in the form of a triangular prism which

contains a point P, we can establish a relationship between the three pressures p x
in the x direction, py in the y direction and ps in the direction normal to the
sloping face.

Triangular prismatic element of fluid

The fluid is a rest, so we know there are no shearing forces, and we know that
all force are acting at right angles to the surfaces .i.e.

acts perpendicular to surface ABCD,

acts perpendicular to surface ABFE and

acts perpendicular to surface FECD.

And, as the fluid is at rest, in equilibrium, the sum of the forces in any direction
is zero.

Summing forces in the x-direction:

Force due to ,
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Component of force in the x-direction due to ,

( )

Component of force in x-direction due to ,

To be at rest (in equilibrium)

Similarly, summing forces in the y-direction. Force due to ,

Component of force due to ,

( )

Component of force due to ,

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Force due to gravity,

To be at rest (in equilibrium)

The element is small i.e. , and are small, and so is very small and
considered negligible, hence

thus

Considering the prismatic element again, is the pressure on a plane at any

angle , the x, y and z directions could be any orientation. The element is so
small that it can be considered a point so the derived expression .
indicates that pressure at any point is the same in all directions.
(The proof may be extended to include the z axis).

Pressure at any point is the same in all directions.

This is known as Pascal's Law and applies to fluids at rest.

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Variation Of Pressure Vertically In A Fluid Under Gravity

Vertical elemental cylinder of fluid

In the above figure we can see an element of fluid which is a vertical column of
constant cross sectional area, A, surrounded by the same fluid of mass density
. The pressure at the bottom of the cylinder is at level , and at the top is
at level . The fluid is at rest and in equilibrium so all the forces in the
vertical direction sum to zero. i.e. we have

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Taking upward as positive, in equilibrium we have

Thus in a fluid under gravity, pressure decreases with increase in height

.

.Equality Of Pressure At The Same Level In A Static Fluid

Consider the horizontal cylindrical element of fluid in the figure below, with
cross-sectional area A, in a fluid of density , pressure at the left hand end
and pressure at the right hand end.

Horizontal elemental cylinder of fluid

The fluid is at equilibrium so the sum of the forces acting in the x direction is
zero.

Pressure in the horizontal direction is constant.

This result is the same for any continuous fluid. It is still true for two connected
tanks which appear not to have any direct connection, for example consider the
tank in the figure below.

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Two tanks of different cross-section connected by a pipe

We have shown above that and from the equation for a vertical pressure
change we have

and

so

This shows that the pressures at the two equal levels, P and Q are the same.

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General Equation For Variation Of Pressure In A Static Fluid

Here we show how the above observations for vertical and horizontal elements
of fluids can be generalized for an element of any orientation.

A cylindrical element of fluid at an arbitrary orientation.

Consider the cylindrical element of fluid in the figure above, inclined at an

angle to the vertical, length , cross-sectional area A in a static fluid of mass
density . The pressure at the end with height is and at the end of height
is .

The forces acting on the element are

There are also forces from the surrounding fluid acting normal to these sides of
the element.

For equilibrium of the element the resultant of forces in any direction is zero.
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Resolving the forces in the direction along the central axis gives

Or in the differential form

If then s is in the x or y directions, (i.e. horizontal),so

Confirming that pressure on any horizontal plane is zero.

If then s is in the z direction (vertical) so

Confirming the result

.Pressure And Head

In a static fluid of constant density we have the relationship , as shown

above. This can be integrated to give

In a liquid with a free surface the pressure at any depth z measured from the free
surface so that z = -h (see the figure below)
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Fluid head measurement in a tank.

This gives the pressure

At the surface of fluids we are normally concerned with, the pressure is the
atmospheric pressure, . So

As we live constantly under the pressure of the atmosphere, and everything else
exists under this pressure, it is convenient (and often done) to take atmospheric
pressure as the datum. So we quote pressure as above or below atmospheric.

Pressure quoted in this way is known as gauge pressure i.e.

Gauge pressure is

The lower limit of any pressure is zero - that is the pressure in a perfect vacuum.
Pressure measured above this datum is known as absolute pressure i.e.

Absolute pressure is

As g is (approximately) constant, the gauge pressure can be given by stating the

vertical height of any fluid of density which is equal to this pressure.

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This vertical height is known as head of fluid.

Note: If pressure is quoted in head, the density of the fluid must also be given.

Example:

We can quote a pressure of in terms of the height of a column of

water of density, . Using ,

And in terms of Mercury with density, .

.Pressure Measurement By Manometer

The relationship between pressure and head is used to measure pressure with a
manometer (also know as a liquid gauge).

Objective:

• To demonstrate the analysis and use of various types of manometers for

pressure measurement.

1. The Piezometer Tube Manometer

The simplest manometer is a tube, open at the top, which is attached to the top
of a vessel containing liquid at a pressure (higher than atmospheric) to be
measured. An example can be seen in the figure below. This simple device is
known as a Piezometer tube. As the tube is open to the atmosphere the pressure
measured is relative to atmospheric so is gauge pressure.

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simple piezometer tube manometer

This method can only be used for liquids (i.e. not for gases) and only when the
liquid height is convenient to measure. It must not be too small or too large and
pressure changes must be detectable.

2. The "U"-Tube Manometer

Using a "U"-Tube enables the pressure of both liquids and gases to be measured
with the same instrument. The "U" is connected as in the figure below and filled
with a fluid called the manometric fluid. The fluid whose pressure is being
measured should have a mass density less than that of the manometric fluid and
the two fluids should not be able to mix readily - that is, they must be
immiscible.

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A "U"-Tube manometer

Pressure in a continuous static fluid is the same at any horizontal level so,

For the left hand arm

For the right hand arm

As we are measuring gauge pressure we can subtract giving

If the fluid being measured is a gas, the density will probably be very low in
comparison to the density of the manometric fluid i.e. man >> . In this case
the term can be neglected, and the gauge pressure give by

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3. Measurement Of Pressure Difference Using a "U"-Tube Manometer.

If the "U"-tube manometer is connected to a pressurised vessel at two points the

pressure difference between these two points can be measured.

Pressure difference measurement by the "U"-Tube manometer

If the manometer is arranged as in the figure above, then

Giving the pressure difference

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Again, if the fluid whose pressure difference is being measured is a gas and
, then the terms involving can be neglected, so

4. Choice Of Manometer

Care must be taken when attaching the manometer to vessel, no burrs must be
present around this joint. Burrs would alter the flow causing local pressure
variations to affect the measurement.

Some disadvantages of manometers:

• Slow response - only really useful for very slowly varying pressures - no
use at all for fluctuating pressures;
• For the "U" tube manometer two measurements must be taken
simultaneously to get the h value. This may be avoided by using a tube
with a much larger cross-sectional area on one side of the manometer than
the other;
• It is often difficult to measure small variations in pressure - a different
manometric fluid may be required - alternatively a sloping manometer
may be employed; It cannot be used for very large pressures unless
several manometers are connected in series;
• For very accurate work the temperature and relationship between
temperature and must be known;

Some advantages of manometers:

• They are very simple.

• No calibration is required - the pressure can be calculated from first
principles.

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1. Example of the pressure and head relationship:

What is a pressure of 500 kNm-2

A) In head of water of density, ρ = 1000 kgm-3

Use p = ρgh,

B) In head of Mercury density ρ = 13.6 x 103 kgm-3.

C) In head of a fluid with relative density S = 8.7.

2. Example of a Piezometer.

What is the maximum gauge pressure of water that can be measured by a

Piezometer of height 1.5m?

And if the liquid had a relative density of 8.5 what would the maximum
measurable gauge pressure?

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gauge pressure p =ρgh
The maximum measurable pressure is when the tube is completely full
(h=1.5m).
Any higher and the tube will overflow.

p = (0.85 x 103) x 9.81 x 1.5

p = 12 508 N/m2 (or Pa)

p = 12.5 kN/m2 (or kPa)

3. An example of the U-Tube manometer.

Using a u-tube manometer to measure gauge pressure of fluid density =

700 kg/m3, and the manometric fluid is mercury, with a relative density of
13.6.

What is the gauge pressure if:

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 1. h1 = 0.4m and h2 = 0.9m?

1. h1 stayed the same but h2 = -0.1m?

pB = pC

pB = pA + ρgh1

pB = pAtmospheric + ρman gh2

We are measuring gauge pressure so patmospheric = 0

pA =ρman gh2 - ρgh1

a) pA = 13.6 x 103 x 9.81 x 0.9 - 700 x 9.81 x 0.4

= 117 327 N, 117.3 kN (1.17 bar)

b) pA = 13.6 x 103 x 9.81 x (-0.1) - 700 x 9.81 x 0.4

= -16 088.4 N, -16 kN (-0.16 bar)

The negative sign indicates that the pressure is

below atmospheric

4. Example of the u-tube for pressure difference measurement

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In the figure below two pipes containing the same fluid of density = 990
kg/m3 are connected using a u-tube manometer.

What is the pressure between the two pipes if the manometer contains fluid
of relative density 13.6?

pC = pD

pC = pA + g hA

pD = pB + g (hB - h) + man gh

pA - pB = g (hB - hA) + hg( man - )

= 990 x9.81x(0.75-1.5) + 0.5x9.81 x(13.6-0.99) x 103

= -7284 + 61852

= 54 568 N/m2 (or Pa or 0.55 bar)

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H.w No. 2

1. What will be the (a) the gauge pressure and (b) the absolute pressure of
water at depth 12m below the surface?ρ water = 1000 kg/m3, and p atmosphere
= 101kN/m2.
2. At what depth below the surface of oil, relative density 0.8, will produce
a pressure of 120 kN/m2? What depth of water is this equivalent to?
3. What would the pressure in kN/m2 be if the equivalent head is measured
as 400mm of (a) mercury S=13.6 (b) water ( c) oil specific weight 7.9 kN/m3
(d) a liquid of density 520 kg/m3?
4. A manometer connected to a pipe indicates a negative gauge pressure of
50mm of mercury. What is the absolute pressure in the pipe in Newtons per
square metre if the atmospheric pressure is 1 bar?
5. What height would a water barometer need to be to measure atmospheric
pressure?
6. An inclined manometer is required to measure an air pressure of 3mm of
water to an accuracy of +/- 3%. The inclined arm is 8mm in diameter and the
larger arm has a diameter of 24mm. The manometric fluid has density 740
kg/m3 and the scale may be read to +/- 0.5mm.
What is the angle required to ensure the desired accuracy may be achieved?

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