Fluid Statics: Objectives
Fluid Statics: Objectives
Fluid Statics: Objectives
Fluid Statics
Objectives
Pressure
If the force exerted on each unit area of a boundary is the same, the pressure is
said to be uniform.
Dimensions: .
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Pascal's Law for Pressure at a Point
The fluid is a rest, so we know there are no shearing forces, and we know that
all force are acting at right angles to the surfaces .i.e.
And, as the fluid is at rest, in equilibrium, the sum of the forces in any direction
is zero.
Force due to ,
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Component of force in the x-direction due to ,
( )
( )
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Force due to gravity,
The element is small i.e. , and are small, and so is very small and
considered negligible, hence
thus
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Variation Of Pressure Vertically In A Fluid Under Gravity
In the above figure we can see an element of fluid which is a vertical column of
constant cross sectional area, A, surrounded by the same fluid of mass density
. The pressure at the bottom of the cylinder is at level , and at the top is
at level . The fluid is at rest and in equilibrium so all the forces in the
vertical direction sum to zero. i.e. we have
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Taking upward as positive, in equilibrium we have
Consider the horizontal cylindrical element of fluid in the figure below, with
cross-sectional area A, in a fluid of density , pressure at the left hand end
and pressure at the right hand end.
The fluid is at equilibrium so the sum of the forces acting in the x direction is
zero.
This result is the same for any continuous fluid. It is still true for two connected
tanks which appear not to have any direct connection, for example consider the
tank in the figure below.
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Two tanks of different cross-section connected by a pipe
We have shown above that and from the equation for a vertical pressure
change we have
and
so
This shows that the pressures at the two equal levels, P and Q are the same.
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General Equation For Variation Of Pressure In A Static Fluid
Here we show how the above observations for vertical and horizontal elements
of fluids can be generalized for an element of any orientation.
There are also forces from the surrounding fluid acting normal to these sides of
the element.
For equilibrium of the element the resultant of forces in any direction is zero.
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Resolving the forces in the direction along the central axis gives
In a liquid with a free surface the pressure at any depth z measured from the free
surface so that z = -h (see the figure below)
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Fluid head measurement in a tank.
At the surface of fluids we are normally concerned with, the pressure is the
atmospheric pressure, . So
As we live constantly under the pressure of the atmosphere, and everything else
exists under this pressure, it is convenient (and often done) to take atmospheric
pressure as the datum. So we quote pressure as above or below atmospheric.
Gauge pressure is
The lower limit of any pressure is zero - that is the pressure in a perfect vacuum.
Pressure measured above this datum is known as absolute pressure i.e.
Absolute pressure is
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This vertical height is known as head of fluid.
Note: If pressure is quoted in head, the density of the fluid must also be given.
Example:
The relationship between pressure and head is used to measure pressure with a
manometer (also know as a liquid gauge).
Objective:
The simplest manometer is a tube, open at the top, which is attached to the top
of a vessel containing liquid at a pressure (higher than atmospheric) to be
measured. An example can be seen in the figure below. This simple device is
known as a Piezometer tube. As the tube is open to the atmosphere the pressure
measured is relative to atmospheric so is gauge pressure.
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simple piezometer tube manometer
This method can only be used for liquids (i.e. not for gases) and only when the
liquid height is convenient to measure. It must not be too small or too large and
pressure changes must be detectable.
Using a "U"-Tube enables the pressure of both liquids and gases to be measured
with the same instrument. The "U" is connected as in the figure below and filled
with a fluid called the manometric fluid. The fluid whose pressure is being
measured should have a mass density less than that of the manometric fluid and
the two fluids should not be able to mix readily - that is, they must be
immiscible.
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A "U"-Tube manometer
Pressure in a continuous static fluid is the same at any horizontal level so,
If the fluid being measured is a gas, the density will probably be very low in
comparison to the density of the manometric fluid i.e. man >> . In this case
the term can be neglected, and the gauge pressure give by
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3. Measurement Of Pressure Difference Using a "U"-Tube Manometer.
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Again, if the fluid whose pressure difference is being measured is a gas and
, then the terms involving can be neglected, so
4. Choice Of Manometer
Care must be taken when attaching the manometer to vessel, no burrs must be
present around this joint. Burrs would alter the flow causing local pressure
variations to affect the measurement.
• Slow response - only really useful for very slowly varying pressures - no
use at all for fluctuating pressures;
• For the "U" tube manometer two measurements must be taken
simultaneously to get the h value. This may be avoided by using a tube
with a much larger cross-sectional area on one side of the manometer than
the other;
• It is often difficult to measure small variations in pressure - a different
manometric fluid may be required - alternatively a sloping manometer
may be employed; It cannot be used for very large pressures unless
several manometers are connected in series;
• For very accurate work the temperature and relationship between
temperature and must be known;
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1. Example of the pressure and head relationship:
Use p = ρgh,
2. Example of a Piezometer.
And if the liquid had a relative density of 8.5 what would the maximum
measurable gauge pressure?
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gauge pressure p =ρgh
The maximum measurable pressure is when the tube is completely full
(h=1.5m).
Any higher and the tube will overflow.
pB = pC
pB = pA + ρgh1
below atmospheric
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In the figure below two pipes containing the same fluid of density = 990
kg/m3 are connected using a u-tube manometer.
What is the pressure between the two pipes if the manometer contains fluid
of relative density 13.6?
pC = pD
pC = pA + g hA
pD = pB + g (hB - h) + man gh
= -7284 + 61852
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H.w No. 2
1. What will be the (a) the gauge pressure and (b) the absolute pressure of
water at depth 12m below the surface?ρ water = 1000 kg/m3, and p atmosphere
= 101kN/m2.
2. At what depth below the surface of oil, relative density 0.8, will produce
a pressure of 120 kN/m2? What depth of water is this equivalent to?
3. What would the pressure in kN/m2 be if the equivalent head is measured
as 400mm of (a) mercury S=13.6 (b) water ( c) oil specific weight 7.9 kN/m3
(d) a liquid of density 520 kg/m3?
4. A manometer connected to a pipe indicates a negative gauge pressure of
50mm of mercury. What is the absolute pressure in the pipe in Newtons per
square metre if the atmospheric pressure is 1 bar?
5. What height would a water barometer need to be to measure atmospheric
pressure?
6. An inclined manometer is required to measure an air pressure of 3mm of
water to an accuracy of +/- 3%. The inclined arm is 8mm in diameter and the
larger arm has a diameter of 24mm. The manometric fluid has density 740
kg/m3 and the scale may be read to +/- 0.5mm.
What is the angle required to ensure the desired accuracy may be achieved?
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